Learning Disabilities
Dawn-Marie Keaveny
Brandon
Brandon is an intelligent grade 4 student but he is still struggling to
learn to read. He also has difficulty writing and spelling words
correctly.
Brandon’s inconsistency concerns his teacher. If he learns to spell a
word correctly today; he is likely to forget it tomorrow. He may read
a passage, but fail to understand what he has just read.
Brandon does well in Math and Science.
However, his teacher says his problem in reading are increasingly
affecting his academic achievements.
Danielle
Danielle is in 7 grade and has just started high school.
She likes her new teachers but is having difficulty
remembering where all her classrooms are. She is also
having difficulty remembering which books to take home
and which assignments are due when. Her organization
skills are poor and she tends to lose her things.
Danielle likes Literature, History and Art but she
struggles to understand mathematics. She still can’t
remember her times tables, and some simple math facts
and rules. She also has difficulty with sequencing and
finds math procedures that involve multiple steps very
frustrating.
Definition
- What is a learning disability [LD]?
According to the Federal definition for LD used by IDEA:
LD is a disorder that affects one or more of the basic
psychological processes involved in understanding, or in
using language; spoken or written, which may be
manifested in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak,
read, write, spell or do mathematical calculations.
The term LD does not include learning problems that are
the result of visual impairment, hearing impairment,
physical disability, intellectual disability or emotional
disorders; or are the result of environmental, cultural or
economic disadvantage.
LD
In other words; we could say an LD is likely to cause
problems in learning BUT the term LD is not
synonymous with the term learning problem since many
other factors can cause learning problems and these
other factors are not LD.
For example, children may experience learning problems
if they have a visual impairment, hearing impairment,
are frequently absent from school, are emotionally
disturbed, have health issues, have intellectual
challenges [ID], are mal-nourished, are victims of abuse,
live in dangerous communities etc.
LD
A Learning Disability (LD) is an umbrella term that is
used to describe a group of disorders that affect the way
an individual’s brain perceives and uses language. It is
manifested in problems with reading, writing, spelling,
listening, speaking, and mathematical abilities.
Individuals with LD have normal intelligence [IQ is
normal 85-115]; some may even fall in the gifted range.
Individuals with LD demonstrate a discrepancy between
their potential and their performance.
Individuals with LD learn differently because of the way
their brain receives, understands, remembers and uses
information. In other words, their brain has problems with
the input, processing, storage and output of information.
LD and intelligence
Individuals with LD fall within the normal [or above] range
of intelligence.
LD
LD is a processing problem.
The brain may have problems with the way it deals with the input,
processing, storage and output of information
If there is a problem with input; processing with be affected. If the
problem is with processing; then storage will be affected. If the
problem is with storage; then output is affected. The problem can
occur in one or more areas of processing.
processing
storage retrieval
Input
stimuli [auditory & visual perception]
LD and perception-
Here is another
Facts about LD
LD is a hidden handicap – not immediately evident and
for this reason may be misunderstood or undetected.
Persons with LD have average or above average
intelligence – it is often the discrepancy between
intelligence (potential), and performance that leads to the
diagnosis of LD.
LD is a lifelong disorder – it cannot be outgrown.
LD is a neurological disorder that affects the way the
brain receives, process, store, express, and respond to
information.
LD can range from mild to severe
There are different types of LD and someone can have
more than one type.
LD is not!
LD is not an intellectual disorder and therefore does not
signify low intelligence [Individual with ID must have an
IQ of 70 or below along with sub-average adaptive
skills].
Persons with LD are not “DUMB”, “STUPID” or “LAZY”
LD is not autism, or having a physical, hearing, visual,
emotional or mental disorder.
LD is not due to being economic disadvantaged
Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder is NOT the same
thing as LD – although it is possible to have both LD and
ADHD [26% of children with LDHA also have LD]
LD is not a disease and cannot be cured.
Who is LD child? [defined by
exclusion]
The child who:
Does not have emotional problems
Does not have sensory problems
Is not intellectually disabled
Has the opportunity to experience good
educational opportunities.
YET IS NOT FUNCTIONING IN SCHOOL
Characteristics
There are different types of LD hence the characteristics vary and
include:
Trouble with learning the alphabet, rhyming, connecting letters to
their sounds
Difficulty learning to read- often does not read for pleasure
When reading, the focus may be overly on word recognition at the
expense of comprehension.
Problems with spelling
Problems with speaking
Problems with writing – both composing and penmanship. Tend to
have an awkward pencil grip
Difficulty understanding jokes, idioms, metaphors, sarcasm
Characteristics
Difficulty following directions
Difficulty processing large amounts of spoken language
Difficulty organizing their thoughts – finding the words they want to
say or use
May have difficulty with following social rules
Confuses math symbols [+ or x]; misreads numbers [25 or 52];
difficulty retrieving math facts [doubles, times tables, principles and
rules]
May reverse letters, number, & words (d of b, p for q or 17 for 71,
write p or q for 9, read or write no for on, was for saw, yes for yet,
who for how, many for any, now for own or won, dog for god, shop
for stop).
Difficulty with solving word problems or problems with multiple steps
Difficulty with abstract concepts
Characteristics
Poorly self-motivated – may experience learned helplessness.
Poor motor abilities – difficulty with gross and fine motor skills. Are
awkward or clumsy and have spatial problems,
Problems processing auditory or visual information. Some may be
slow to recognize sounds in words (phonological awareness) but
quickly recognize words (visual perception) or visa versa.
Problems with short term memory
Poor organizational skills
Poor meta-cognitive skills (do not use effective strategies for
learning, studying, problem solving)
Problems with social skills – difficulty learning (remembering) social
rules – how to act and speak in social situations making it difficult to
make friends.
Prevalence
LD makes up the largest single category of special
education.
50% of all children who receive special education have
LD
5% -10% of all school children (6-21 years) have some
sort of LD.
In JA 7% of school age children have some sort of LD
[Dixon & Matalon, 2009]
Research shows that boys out number girls 4:1
Cause
There is no single known cause for LD. Possible causes
include:
Neurological factors – damage to the neurological
system (brain) perhaps at birth (anoxia). Damaged may
also occur through infections or physical injury (child
abuse/accidents). It is important to note that not all
children with LD show evidence of brain damage and not
all children with brain damage have LD.
Maturation delays – delay in maturation of the
neurological system causing slower development in
language skills, visual-motor skills. Maturational delays is
more a contributing factor rather than a cause for LD.
Cause
Genetic factors – a strong genetic component as some
LD tends to run in families (dyslexia)
Environmental factors – food additives, vitamin
deficiencies, radiation, family stress, lead poisoning,
fluorescent lights, alcohol and drug abuse, and
inappropriate school instruction have all been
investigated as possible contributory causes for LD but
to date the findings have been inconclusive. However,
lead poisoning, and alcohol and drug abuse during
pregnancy show strong associations.
Types of LD
Dyslexia- problems with reading
Dysgraphia – problems with writing
Dyspraxia – problems with gross and fine motor skills
Dyscalculia – problems with mathematics
Dysorthographia – problems with spelling
The term dysnomia refers to a difficulty remembering
words and may be experienced as part of dysgraphia.
Dyslexia
Dyslexia is the most common LD approximately 80% of
students with LD have dyslexia.
Dyslexia is a language disorder characterized by
problems in understanding, recognizing and reading
written words.
In order to read we must be able to mentally juggle
several skills simultaneously. This requires a rich intact
network of nerve cells that connect the brain’s centers of
vision, language and memory.
Visual perception can affect the input of information;
language affects processing and memory affects storage
Dyslexia
Reading requires the simultaneous acts of:
Focusing attention on the printed marks
Controlling eye movement across the page left to right.
Recognizing the sounds associated with the letters
Understanding words and grammar
Building ideas and images; and comparing new ideas
with previous knowledge.
Storing ideas in memory.
Dyslexia
40 Variations for the word
“CAT”
By K. Campbell (2010)
Dyslexia
By K. Campbell (2010)
Dyslexia
Dyslexia
Dysgraphia
A learning disability that affect writing both composition and
penmanship. Resulting from a problem processing information.
Characterized by poor spelling (also called dysorthographia), poor
handwriting, and trouble organizing and putting thoughts on paper.
Awkward pencil grip and body position
Illegible handwriting
Unwillingness to engage in writing activities
Tires quickly while writing
Words often unfinished or omitted from sentences
May say out words while writing
Gaps between written ideas and understanding as expressed
through speech.
Dysgraphia
The act of writing involves:
Hand-eye coordination & visual fine motor coordination
Awareness of movement & location of fingers in space
Pencil grip
Speed & accuracy
Visual memory for symbols & spelling
Whole word memory
Visual attention to details
Dysgraphia
Dysgraphia
Dyspraxia
Dyspraxia affects motor skills/ movement. Individuals
may be clumsy or seem uncoordinated. Activities that
require fine motor control (brushing teeth, tying laces,
writing) or gross motor control (kicking or catching a ball,
riding a bike) are difficult. Sometimes speech may be
affected.
As babies tend to ‘bottom shuffle’ rather than crawl.
Poor performance in sports or athletic activities
Slow and laborious writing; dislikes colouring
Difficulty using scissors for cutting
Difficulty learning how to tie laces, do up buttons.
Dyscalculia
Dyscalculia affects the ability to acquire mathematical
skills. Characterized by difficulty in understanding
numbers and mathematical concepts - these students
have difficulty with arithmetic calculation and
mathematical reasoning.
Difficulty understanding and using math symbols
Difficulty learning facts and procedures
Poor sense of time and difficulty estimating time
Poor sense of direction – may get lost easily
Dyscalculia
The student has difficulty understanding spatial
information demonstrated in difficulty in sequencing
information, and processing numerical data.
A child with dyscalculia may have difficulty with the
simplest numerical task such as selecting the larger of
two numbers, counting the number of objects, or
activating the meaning of numerals. Even if they get the
correct answer or use the correct procedure it is done
mechanically and without real understanding or
confidence.
Students with dyscalculia may have problems with (1)
information-processing (2) language and reading (3)
math anxiety
Dyscalculia
Information -processing Language and reading Math anxiety
ability
Problems include challenges Some students with dyscalculia This is an emotional response to
with: are excellent readers. Others mathematics. Individuals fear
may have challenges with failure and loss of self-esteem.
language. These students are Students with math anxiety
likely to: benefit when:
Motor skills - writing numbers Misunderstand terms such as: 1. They compete with
legibly, or in small spaces or plus, take away, minus, carrying, themselves rather than with
accurately. borrowing and place value. peers.
Attention - poor attention during 2. They have abundant
instruction These students are particularly practice to gain confidence
Memory & retrieval - difficulty challenged by word problems as and be successful.
remembering facts and the language confuses them. 3. Instructions are clear and
procedures Resulting in challenges in teachers ensure students
Visual-spatial - loses place; planning and performing the understand what they are to
perception of numbers and required tasks needed to solve do.
symbols the problem. 4. There is no time pressure
Auditory processing - difficulty 5. Test taking is less stressful
remembering auditory facts and [give practice tests].
“counting-on”
Dyscalculia- has 3 sub-types
Each sub-type relates to memory
Problems with semantic memory : difficulty in
understanding and remembering mathematical facts.
Problems with procedural memory: difficulty in
understanding and remembering procedures.
Problems with visuospatial memory: difficulty in
perceiving spatial representation of numerical
information; remembering visual information, e.g. being
able to draw two or three dimensional objects, or copying
visual information]
[Wadlington & Wadlington, 2008]
Dyscalculia
Difficulty understanding
time and its passage.
Confuses right and left.
Difficulty in reading
analogue clocks.
Difficulty keeping scores
Difficulty counting
backwards.
May transpose numbers
12 to 21, 43 to 34
Dysorthographia
Dysorthographia is a specific learning disability related to
spelling. It is not widely researched. May not have
problems in reading but have problems remembering
how the words are spelt.
May have problems with morphological rules: the
organization & structure of words/language
May have problems with phonological rules: sound
system of language/ individual speech sounds
Slow writing and poor written expression
Dysorthographia
Linguistic errors related to grammar, configuration and
spelling
Spelling errors due to omissions, substitutions, reversals,
and additions of letters and or syllables.
Phonemic spelling of non-phonemic words e.g. wuz
(was) tho (though) hav (have) bcuz (because)
Difficulty understanding the connection between sounds
and letters
Dysorthography
Dysorthographia
bok
stop
bloc
scool
fith
bik
tebl
char
hors
maek
( words from a spelling list of a child with dysorthographia)
Strategies
They differ depending on the type of LD
Use a multi-sensory approach – use all modalities to
ensure the student can understand and process the
information correctly.
Use graphic organizers – visually display & organize
information
Use direct instruction – directly lead students to the
desired learning outcomes through demonstration,
corrective feedback and guided and independent
practice.
Use repetition – repeat important information
Highlight important information
Strategies
Present tasks in small, sequential steps. [Do a task
analysis]
Give instructions clearly and use short precise
sentences. Have students repeat instructions to ensure
they understand.
Use assistive technology – computers, word processing,
tape recorders etc.
Teach strategies – self questioning, imagery, self talk,
mnemonics
Capitalize on student interest
Teach story sequence
Strategies
For Mathematics – provide many examples and practice
in discriminating various types of problem.
Use jingles, songs and stories to help memory of facts
Separate confusing elements
Use hands-on materials
Use spread sheets – the columns and rows help
students place numbers in correct place
Strategies
Move from concrete to semi-concrete to abstract
Provide an outline of notes, schedules and goals
Praise effort
Modify assignments and tests
Teach logical thinking rather than memorization
Match teaching strategies to students strengths
Strategies
Build student confidence and provide opportunities for
success
Perhaps most importantly is to use differentiated
instruction.
Differentiated instruction will incorporate many of the
previously mentioned strategies.
Differentiated instruction allows teachers to address the
unique needs of each student by capitalizing on the
students strengths and weaknesses.
Differentiated instruction recognizes that one size cannot
fit all. Students learn in different ways and at different
rates.
Differentiated Instruction
Teachers can differentiate:
The content – what they teach
The process – how they teach
The product – how students show they know something
The learning environment- where students learn
Fable for Teachers
Once upon a time, the animals had a school. The
curriculum included: swimming, running, climbing, flying;
and all the animals took all the subjects.
The duck was an excellent swimmer and made passing
grades at flying but was hopeless in running. He was made
to stay after school to practice running so he had to drop
his swimming class. He kept this up until he was only
average in swimming. But average is acceptable, so
nobody worried about the duck.
The eagle was considered a problem student, and was
disciplined severely. He beat all the others to the top of the
tree in climbing class; but he had used his own way of
getting there. The rabbit started out at the top of the class
in running; but had a nervous breakdown, and had to drop
out of school, on account of so much make-up work in
swimming. The squirrel lead the climbing class, but his
flying teacher made him start his flying lessons from the
ground instead of at the top of the tree, and he developed
charley horses from overexertion at the take-off and began
getting Cs in climbing and Ds in running. The practical
prairies dogs apprenticed their offspring to a badger when
the school authorities refused to add digging to the
curriculum. At the end of the school year, an eel that could
swim well, run, climb, and fly a little was made
valedictorian.
One size does not fit all
Remember
All students with a learning disability can learn and
experience success in the classroom if provided with the
right support and intervention.
To help children succeed focus on their strengths, know
their weaknesses, and employ strategies that address
the specific difficulty.
Remember many persons with LD go on to live
successful lives and become productive contributing
members of society.
Famous persons with LD
Nelson Rockefeller – Vice President of USA under Nixon
Charles Schwab – founder of the successful stock brokerage firm
Thomas Edison - inventor
Albert Einstein – theory of relativity
Walt Disney –founder Disney World
Whoopi Goldberg – actor & comedian
Tom Cruise – actor
Anthony Hopkins – actor
Richard Branson – founder of Virgin Airlines
Sylvester Stallone – actor
And more
Harry Belafonte –singer
Mozart - musician
Danny Glover - actor
John Lennon - musician
Robin Williams – actor & comedian
Leonardo da Vinci - artist
Winston Churchill – Prime minister of Great Britain during the World
War II
Susan Summers – actress & health guru
Magic Johnson - athlete
Carl Lewis – athlete
Cher – singer & actress
