Reactions in Aqueous
Solution
Solutions:
• Homogeneous
mixtures of two or
more pure
substances.
• The solvent is
present in greatest
abundance.
• All other substances
are solutes.
Dissociation
• When an ionic
substance dissolves
in water, the solvent
pulls the individual
ions from the crystal
and solvates them.
• This process is called
dissociation.
water
NaCl (s) Na1+ (aq) + Cl1- (aq)
Ionic Compounds in Water
Water is polar:
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Dissolution of an Ionic Compound
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Molecular Compounds In Water
(s) ⎯water
⎯⎯→ (aq)
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Electrolytes
• Substances that
dissociate into ions
when dissolved in
water.
• A nonelectrolyte may
dissolve in water, but
it does not dissociate
into ions when it does
so.
Electrolytes
• A strong electrolyte
dissociates completely
when dissolved in
water.
• A weak electrolyte
only dissociates
partially when
dissolved in water.
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
Soluble ionic
compounds tend
to be electrolytes.
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
Molecular
compounds tend to
be nonelectrolytes,
except for acids and
bases.
Strong Electrolytes
Strong electrolytes completely ionize or disassociate:
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Strong Electrolytes Are…
• Strong acids
Strong Electrolytes Are…
• Strong acids
• Strong bases
Strong Electrolytes Are…
• Strong acids
• Strong bases
• Soluble ionic salts
Nonelectrolytes
Nonelectrolytes do not disassociate or ionize
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Exceptions
Some molecular compounds interact with water
to form ions
HCl (g) + H2O (l) → H1+ (aq) + Cl1- (aq)
Weak Electrolytes
Weak electrolytes partly ionize and produce a small
number of ions
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HC2H3O2 (aq)↔H1+ (aq) + C2H3O21- (aq)
The solution contains HC2H3O2 molecules, H1+ ions,
and C2H3O21-.
Solubility vs. Strong or Weak
Electrolytes
HC2H3O2 is very soluble in water but is a weak
electrolyte (partly ionizes)
Mg(OH)2 is only slightly soluble but whatever
dissolves completely disassociates
Major Classes of Aqueous
Chemical Reactions
Precipitation Reactions
Acid-Base Neutralizations Reactions
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Solution Chemistry
• It is helpful to pay attention to exactly what
species are present in a reaction mixture
(i.e., solid, liquid, gas, aqueous solution).
• If we are to understand reactivity, we must
be aware of just what is changing during
the course of a reaction.
Precipitation Reactions
When one mixes ions
that form compounds
that are insoluble (as
could be predicted by
the solubility
guidelines), a
precipitate is formed.
Metathesis (Exchange) Reactions
• Metathesis comes from a Greek word that
means “to transpose”
AgNO3 (aq) + KCl (aq) ⎯→ AgCl (s) + KNO3 (aq)
Metathesis (Exchange) Reactions
• Metathesis comes from a Greek word that
means “to transpose”
• It appears the ions in the reactant
compounds exchange, or transpose, ions
AgNO3 (aq) + KCl (aq) ⎯→ AgCl (s) + KNO3 (aq)
Metathesis (Exchange) Reactions
• Metathesis comes from a Greek word that
means “to transpose”
• It appears the ions in the reactant
compounds exchange, or transpose, ions
AgNO3 (aq) + KCl (aq) ⎯→ AgCl (s) + KNO3 (aq)
Metathesis (Exchange) Reactions
A driving force for an exchange reaction:
a)the formation of a precipitate
b) the generation of a gas
c) the production of a weak electrolyte
d) the production of a nonelectrolyte
Precipitation reactions are exchange
reactions:
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
Insoluble: concentration < 0.01 mole/Liter
Molecular Equation
Complete chemical formulas of reactants
and products; reactants and products are
written as if they were molecular
substances, even though they may actually
exist in solution as ions.
•closely describes what you do in the lab
AgNO3 (aq) + KCl (aq) ⎯→ AgCl (s) + KNO3 (aq)
Complete Ionic Equation
All substances written in their ionic or molecular form;
tells what is happening at the level of the ions.
• represents each substance by its predominant form
in the reaction mixture; all strong electrolytes
(strong acids, strong bases, and soluble ionic salts)
are dissociated into their ions.
Ag+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) + K+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) ⎯→
AgCl (s) + K+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)
Net Ionic Equation
• To form the net ionic equation, cross out anything
that does not change from the left side of the
equation to the right.
Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + K+(aq) + Cl-(aq) ⎯→
AgCl (s) + K+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
Net Ionic Equation
To form the net ionic equation, cross out anything that
does not change from the left side of the equation to
the right.
• The only things left in the equation are those things
that change (i.e., react) during the course of the
reaction.
• Demonstrates that mixing any solution of silver ions
with any solution of chloride ions will produce this
same reaction
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) ⎯→ AgCl (s)
Writing Net Ionic Equations
1. Write a balanced molecular equation.
2. Dissociate all strong electrolytes.
3. Cross out anything that remains
unchanged from the left side to the
right side of the equation.
4. Write the net ionic equation with the
species that remain.
Ionic Equations
a)Charge is balanced
b) If everything in a complete ionic equation is a
spectator ion then there is no reaction
c) Net ionic equations represent the essential feature
of any strong electrolyte containing a specified
cation and any strong electrolyte containing a
specified anion
Use the solubility guideline to determine if the
following substances are soluble or insoluble
NaNO3 CaCO3
BaSO4 KCl
Use the solubility guideline to determine if the
following substances are soluble or insoluble
NaNO3 CaCO3
Soluble Insoluble
BaSO4 KCl
Insoluble Soluble
Barium swallow of the esophagus, showing multiple
rings associated with eosinophilic esophagitis.
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Acids:
• Substances that
increase the
concentration of H+
when dissolved in
water
• Proton donors
Acids
Dissociation: pre-formed ions in solid move apart in
solution
Ionization: neutral substance forms ions in solution.
Acids with one acidic proton are called monoprotic
(HCl).
Acids with two acidic protons are called diprotic
(H2SO4).
Acids with many acidic protons are called polyprotic.
Acids
There are only seven
strong acids:
• Hydrochloric (HCl)
• Hydrobromic (HBr)
• Hydroiodic (HI)
• Nitric (HNO3)
• Sulfuric (H2SO4)
• Chloric (HClO3)
• Perchloric (HClO4)
Dr. William Beaumont,
circa 1821
Alexis and Marie St. Martin in Old Age
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Bases:
• Substances that
increase the
concentration of OH−
when dissolved in
water.
• Proton acceptors
Bases
The strong bases are
the soluble salts of
hydroxide ion:
• Alkali metals
• Calcium
• Strontium
• Barium
Which substances are acids?
HNO3 CH3OH
HC2H3O2 NaOH
H2SO4 H3PO4
Acid-Base Reactions
In an acid-base
reaction, the acid
donates a proton (H+)
to the base.
Neutralization Reactions
Generally, when solutions of an acid and a base are
combined, the products are a salt and water.
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) ⎯→ NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
a salt – sodium chloride
Salt: ionic compound whose cation comes from a
base and anion from an acid
Neutralization between acid and metal hydroxide
produces water and a salt.
Neutralization Reactions
When a strong acid reacts with a strong base, the net
ionic equation is…
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) ⎯→ NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + Na+ (aq) + OH-(aq) ⎯→
Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + H2O (l)
Neutralization Reactions
When a strong acid reacts with a strong base, the net
ionic equation is…
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) ⎯→ NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + Na+ (aq) + OH-(aq) ⎯→
Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + H2O (l)
H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq) ⎯→
Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + H2O (l)
Neutralization Reactions
Observe the reaction
between Milk of
Magnesia, Mg(OH)2,
and HCl.
Write the net ionic
equation for the
reaction.
Gas-Forming Reactions
• These metathesis reactions do not give the
product expected.
• The expected product decomposes to give a
gaseous product (CO2 or SO2).
CaCO3 (s) + HCl (aq) ⎯→CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
NaHCO3 (aq) + HBr (aq) ⎯→NaBr (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
SrSO3 (s) + 2 HI (aq) ⎯→SrI2 (aq) + SO2 (g) + H2O (l)
Gas-Forming Reactions
• This reaction gives the predicted product, but
you had better carry it out in the fume hood, or
you will be very unpopular!
• Just as in the previous examples, a gas is
formed as a product of this reaction:
Na2S (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) ⎯→ Na2SO4 (aq) + H2S (g)
Oxidation-Reduction
Reactions
Redox Reactions: a transfer of electrons one
substance loses an e- and another substances gains
the e-
Redox Reactions are very common and very
important:
• All combustion reactions are redox reactions.
• Respiration is an oxidation-reduction reaction.
• Rusting is a redox reaction.
• The chemical reaction that produces an electrical
current in a battery is a redox reaction.
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
• An oxidation occurs
when an atom or ion
loses electrons.
• A reduction occurs
when an atom or ion
gains electrons.
Oxidation and Reduction
• When a metal undergoes corrosion it loses electrons to
form cations:
Ca(s) +2H+(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + H2(g)
• Oxidized: atom, molecule, or ion becomes more
positively charged.
Oxidation is the loss of electrons.
• Reduced: atom, molecule, or ion becomes less positively
charged.
Reduction is the gain of electrons.
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
One cannot occur
without the other.
Oxidation: loss of electrons (becomes more +)
Reduction: gain of electrons (becomes more -)
OIL RIG
Oxidation Numbers
To determine if an oxidation-reduction
reaction has occurred, we assign an
oxidation number to each element in a
neutral compound or charged entity.
Oxidation Numbers
• Elements in their elemental form have an
oxidation number of 0.
• The oxidation number of a monatomic ion
is the same as its charge.
Oxidation Numbers
• Nonmetals tend to have negative
oxidation numbers, although some are
positive in certain compounds or ions.
➢Oxygen has an oxidation number of −2,
except in the peroxide ion in which it has
an oxidation number of −1.
➢Hydrogen is −1 when bonded to a metal,
+1 when bonded to a nonmetal.
Oxidation Numbers
• Nonmetals tend to have negative
oxidation numbers, although some are
positive in certain compounds or ions.
➢Fluorine always has an oxidation number
of −1.
➢The other halogens have an oxidation
number of −1 when they are negative; they
can have positive oxidation numbers,
however, most notably in oxyanions.
Oxidation Numbers
• The sum of the oxidation numbers in a
neutral compound is 0.
• The sum of the oxidation numbers in a
polyatomic ion is the charge on the ion.
Activity Series
• Some metals are easily oxidized whereas others
are not.
• Activity series: a list of metals arranged in
decreasing ease of oxidation.
• The higher the metal on the activity series, the
more active that metal.
• Any metal can be oxidized by the ions of elements
below it.
A reaction occurs if the reactant that is
a metal in its elemental form is located
above the reactant that is a metal in its
oxidized form.
Will Fe2+ oxidize magnesium metal?
Mg appears above Fe2+ and is more reactive that
iron. Magnesium will give two electrons to Fe2+
Magnesium is oxidized, and iron is reduced.
Mg(s) + Fe2+(aq) → Mg2+ + Fe(s)
Molarity
• Two solutions can contain the same
compounds but be quite different because the
proportions of those compounds are different.
• Molarity is one way to measure the
concentration of a solution.
moles of solute
Molarity (M) =
volume of solution in liters
If we know molarity and liters of solution, we can
calculate moles (and mass) of solute.
Dilution
MdiluteVdilute = moles = MconcentratedVconcentrated
Solution Stoichiometry and
Chemical Analysis
• There are two different types of units:
– laboratory units (macroscopic units: measure in
lab);
– chemical units (microscopic units: relate to
moles).
• Always convert the laboratory units into chemical
units first.
– Grams are converted to moles using molar mass.
– Volume or molarity are converted into moles
using M = mol/L.
• Use the stoichiometric coefficients to move between
reactants and product.
Quantitative Analysis - determination of the
amount of a substance or species present in a
material
Titrations – a way to find the concentration of a
solution with an unknown concentration using a
known volume of solution with a known
concentration
Equivalence Point - the point at which
stoichiometrically equivalent quantities are brought
together
Titration
The analytical
technique in
which one can
calculate the
concentration of
a solute in a
solution.
Titration
