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 Exploring Exploring

Exploring Public Relations

Public Relations
Ralph Tench Liz Yeomans
Second Edition
l
Public Relations
Ralph Tench Liz Yeomans
l

Exploring Public Relations is the definitive academic text on Public Relations. The first edition,
which published in 2006, has sold in its thousands and is now essential reading on courses in Second Edition
PR at undergraduate and postgraduate level. This second edition continues to provide a critical
analysis of the subject and a sophisticated blend of theory with real life, and includes many
case studies, activity exercises, discussion questions and full-colour photographs to illustrate
the discussions in the text.

New to this edition

l New chapter on ‘celebrity’, keeping up to date with the latest PR stunts

l Rewritten chapter on Media Relations responding to changes in this fast-moving area

l More case material on internationalisation/globalisation - from Asia and South America

specifically, showing the truly global nature of PR

l Glossary at the back of the book guiding the reader through the jargon

Professor Ralph Tench is professor of Liz Yeomans is subject leader for public
communications education at Leeds relations and communications at Leeds Second
Metropolitan University. Ralph was the Metropolitan University. Since joining the
subject leader for public relations and university in 1994, Liz has helped establish
Edition
communications at Leeds Metropolitan a centre of excellence in public relations
University for 10 years where he oversaw education and training. As well as

Ralph Tench
the expansion of the undergraduate, contributing to the BA (Hons) Public
postgraduate and professional course Relations programme, she has developed
portfolio. He is widely published in books and taught new courses for working
and academic journals ranging from professionals – including the nationally
management to education journals and has recognised qualification the Chartered
presented his research around the world. Institute of Public Relations Diploma.

l
Liz Yeomans
Visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/tench to access additional resources to help with your teaching
and learning.
Cover image © Getty Images

www.pearson-books.com

CVR_TENC5948_02_SE_CVR.indd 1 21/5/09 14:25:52

A01_TENCH5948_02_SE_FM.QXD 5/13/09 13:53 Page i

Exploring Public Relations

Visit the Exploring Public Relations, second edition, Companion
Website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/tench to find valuable student
learning material including:
• Extra case studies
• Links to relevant sites on the web
A01_TENCH5948_02_SE_FM.QXD 5/13/09 13:53 Page ii

We work with leading authors to develop the

strongest educational materials in public relations,
bringing cutting-edge thinking and best learning
practice to a global market.

Under a range of well-known imprints, including

Financial Times Prentice Hall, we craft high quality print and
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and apply their content, whether studying or at work.

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A01_TENCH5948_02_SE_FM.QXD 5/13/09 13:53 Page iii

Exploring Public
Relations
Second edition

Ralph Tench
Professor
Leeds Metropolitan University

Liz Yeomans
Subject Group Leader, Public Relations and Communications
Leeds Metropolitan University
A01_TENCH5948_02_SE_FM.QXD 5/13/09 13:53 Page iv

Pearson Education Limited

Edinburgh Gate
Harlow
Essex CM20 2JE
England
and Associated Companies throughout the world

Visit us on the World Wide Web at:

www.pearsoned.co.uk

First published 2006

Second edition published 2009

© Pearson Education Limited 2006, 2009

The rights of Ralph Tench and Liz Yeomans to be identified as authors of this work have been asserted
by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the
prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom
issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.

All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark in this text
does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use
of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners.

ISBN: 978-0-273-71594-8

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Exploring public relations / [edited by] Ralph Tench, Liz Yeomans. – 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-273-71594-8
1. Public relations. I. Tench, Ralph. II. Yeomans, Liz.
HM1221.E97 2009
659.2–dc22
2009013610

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
11 10 09

Typeset in 9.5/12pt Minion by 35

Printed and bound by Graficas Estella, Navarro, Spain

The publisher’s policy is to use paper manufactured from sustainable forests.

A01_TENCH5948_02_SE_FM.QXD 5/13/09 13:53 Page v

Brief Contents

Guided tour xvi

About the authors xviii
Foreword xxii
Preface xxiii
Publisher’s acknowledgements xxv

Part 1 The context of public relations 1

1 Public relations origins: definitions and history 3

2 Management and organisation of public relations 19
3 Role of the public relations practitioner 35
4 Media context of contemporary public relations and journalism 68
5 Public relations and democracy 82
6 Community and society: corporate social responsibility (CSR) 97
7 International context of public relations 117

Part 2 Public relations theories and concepts 147

8 Public relations theories: an overview 149

9 Public relations as planned communication 174
10 Public relations research and evaluation 198
11 Audiences, stakeholders, publics 222
12 Corporate image, reputation and identity 237
13 Public relations, propaganda and the psychology of persuasion 252
14 Ethics and professionalism in public relations 273

Part 3 Public relations specialisms 293

15 Media relations 295

16 Internal communication 316
17 Managing community involvement programmes 338
A01_TENCH5948_02_SE_FM.QXD 5/13/09 13:53 Page vi

vi BRIEF CONTENTS

18 Issues management 364

19 Crisis public relations management 385
20 Public relations and the consumer 409
21 Business-to-business public relations 426
22 Public affairs 441
23 Financial public relations (FPR) 462
24 Public relations for information and communications technologies:
principles and planning 481
25 Integrated marketing communications 498
26 Sponsorship 517

Part 4 Sectoral considerations 537

27 Corporate communication 539

28 Campaigning organisations and pressure groups 560
29 Public sector communication and social marketing 577
30 Arts, leisure and entertainment public relations 600
31 Celebrity and public relations 621
32 What next? Future issues for public relations 632

Glossary 645
Index 653
A01_TENCH5948_02_SE_FM.QXD 5/13/09 13:53 Page vii

Contents

Guided tour xvi

About the authors xviii
Foreword xxii
Preface xxiii
Publisher’s acknowledgements xxv

Part 1 The context of public relations 1

1 Public relations origins: definitions and history 3

Lee Edwards
Introduction 4
Public relations definitions 4
Public opinion: justifying public relations 8
Business, politics and public relations: country case studies 9
Summary 16
Bibliography 17

2 Management and organisation of public relations 19

Anne Gregory
Introduction 20
Importance of context 20
External environment 20
Internal environment 24
Systems theory 26
Location of public relations in organisations 27
Future of the public relations department 32
Summary 33
Bibliography 33

3 Role of the public relations practitioner 35

Ralph Tench, Meriel D’Artrey and Johanna Fawkes
Introduction 36
Who are the public relations practitioners? 36
Who does what: the bigger picture 36
Role of the communicator 44
What public relations people do: individual practitioners 48
Skills for the ideal practitioner 51
Role of theory in practice 57
Professionalism 58
A01_TENCH5948_02_SE_FM.QXD 5/13/09 13:53 Page viii

viii CONTENTS

Education and research 60

Summary 65
Bibliography 66

4 Media context of contemporary public relations and journalism 68

Neil Washbourne
Introduction 69
Contemporary media context: the UK media industry 69
Theories of media 70
Regulating the media: from public interest to the market 72
‘Public interest’ 74
Issues for public relations arising from the global media environment 76
Ethics of journalism and public relations 78
Summary 80
Bibliography 80

5 Public relations and democracy 82

Robert Leach
Introduction 83
Conditions for representative democracy 83
Criticisms of modern democracy 84
Elections and voting 86
Elections and political parties 88
Pressure groups and democracy 90
Democracy and multilevel governance 92
Public relations and modern democracy 93
Summary 95
Bibliography 95
Websites 96

6 Community and society: corporate social responsibility (CSR) 97

Ralph Tench
Introduction 98
Social and economic change 98
Sustainable business: corporate social responsibility (CSR) 98
Business case for corporate social responsibility: why be socially responsible? 103
Organisational responsibilities to stakeholders 105
Organisational responsibilities to society 105
Corporate responsibility and irresponsibility 107
Regulatory frameworks 109
Ethics and business practice 109
Summary 114
Bibliography 115
Websites 116

7 International context of business relations 117

György Szondi
Introduction 118
Defining international public relations 119
A01_TENCH5948_02_SE_FM.QXD 5/13/09 13:53 Page ix

CONTENTS ix

Factors and driving forces behind internationalisation 121

International public relations agency networks 127
Global or local approaches to international public relations 127
Special areas of international public relations 134
Public relations for a supranational organisation: the European Union 141
Critical voices in international public relations 143
Professionalism on a global level: public relations as a global profession 143
Summary 145
Bibliography 145

Part 2 Public relations theories and concepts 147

8 Public relations theories: an overview 149

Lee Edwards
Introduction 150
Systems theories: emergence of public relations research 150
Extending the systemic view 156
Developing theory: alternative approaches 158
Feminist views of public relations 161
Diversity in public relations 164
Summary 169
Bibliography 169

9 Public relations as planned communication 174

Anne Gregory
Introduction 175
Why planning is important 175
Systems context of planning 176
Approaches to the planning process 177
Analysis 179
Setting objectives 183
Identifying publics 185
Messages or content 186
Strategy and tactics 188
Timescales and resources 190
Evaluation and review 193
Summary 197
Bibliography 197

10 Public relations research and evaluation 198

György Szondi and Rüdiger Theilmann
Introduction 199
Context of research in public relations 199
Designing research 201
Qualitative vs quantitative research 204
Research methods 204
Designing research instruments 208
Research applications 212
Evaluation 213
A01_TENCH5948_02_SE_FM.QXD 5/13/09 13:53 Page x

x CONTENTS

Summary 219
Bibliography 221

11 Audiences, stakeholders, publics 222

Gerard Choo
Introduction 223
The passive audience 223
The active audience 225
Stakeholders and publics 228
New thinking on publics 231
Summary 235
Bibliography 235

12 Corporate image, reputation and identity 237

Daniel Löwensberg
Introduction 238
Organisational public relations 238
Organisational image 239
Organisational reputation 240
Organisational identity 240
Personality and culture 243
Organisational identity, strategy and process: two models 247
Summary 251
Bibliography 251

13 Public relations, propaganda and the psychology of persuasion 252

Johanna Fawkes
Introduction 253
Public relations and propaganda 253
Public relations and persuasion 256
Who says: the question of credibility 257
Says what: the nature of the message 258
To whom: the audience perspective 262
To what effect: forming and changing attitudes and beliefs 263
Ethical persuasion: is it possible? 268
Summary 270
Bibliography 270
Websites 272

14 Ethics and professionalism in public relations 273

Anne Gregory
Introduction 274
Importance of ethics and professionalism in public relations 274
Definitions of ethics and morality 276
Ethical theories (traditions) 276
Duty to whom? 280
Ethical issues in public relations 282
Ethical decision-making models and their application 285
Summary 288
A01_TENCH5948_02_SE_FM.QXD 5/13/09 13:53 Page xi

CONTENTS xi

Bibliography 288
Appendix 1: Chartered Institute of Public Relations Code of Conduct 290
Appendix 2: Global Alliance Ethics Protocol 291

Part 3 Public relations specialisms 293

15 Media relations 295

Richard Bailey
Introduction 296
Role of media relations 296
Defining issue: advertising or public relations? 296
Media relations principles 299
Negotiated news: media relations in practice 301
Media partnerships 304
Old media, new media and me media 308
Media relations techniques 312
Summary 314
Bibliography 314

16 Internal communication 316

Liz Yeomans
Introduction 317
Definition and purpose of internal communication 318
Where it all began: the in-house journalist 318
Skills to strategy 318
Employee perspective: ‘just a job’? 322
Segmenting internal publics 324
Organisations: culture, leadership and strategic change 326
Line manager role: listening and interpreting 330
Communication channels 331
Ethical communication 333
Summary 335
Bibliography 336

17 Managing community involvement programmes 338

Martin Langford
Introduction 339
Corporate community involvement (CCI) programmes 339
Employees and community programmes 342
Cause-related marketing (CRM) 345
Developing community programmes 351
Evaluating community programmes 357
Summary 362
Bibliography 362
Websites 363

18 Issues management 364

Paul Gillions
Introduction 365
Issues management: defining the field 365
A01_TENCH5948_02_SE_FM.QXD 5/13/09 13:53 Page xii

xii CONTENTS

Context of issues management 367

Action planning: a framework for managing issues 370
Summary 383
Bibliography 383
Websites 384

19 Crisis public relations management 385

Martin Langford
Introduction 386
Crisis public relations management: the context 386
Crisis public relations management vs operational effectiveness 388
Where do crises come from? 389
Communicating during a crisis 390
The Internet and public relations crisis management 398
How to prepare for a crisis 399
Key principles in crisis management 401
Summary 407
Bibliography 408
Websites 408

20 Public relations and the consumer 409

Paul Willis
Introduction 410
What is consumer public relations? 410
Tools and techniques 412
The wonderful world of brands 417
Key challenges 419
Tomorrow’s people 422
Summary 424
Bibliography 424

21 Business-to-business public relations 426

Dennis Kelly
Introduction 427
Core principles of business-to-business (B2B) public relations 427
Trade journals and journalists 427
Coordinating the communications disciplines 433
Building corporate reputation 436
Summary 440
Bibliography 440
Websites 440

22 Public affairs 441

Kevin Moloney
Introduction 442
Scope of public affairs 442
Public affairs defined 443
Contexts of public affairs 444
Public affairs: knowledge, skills and behaviour needed 447
A01_TENCH5948_02_SE_FM.QXD 5/13/09 13:53 Page xiii

CONTENTS xiii

Ethics and public affairs 454

Summary 460
Bibliography 461

23 Financial public relations (FPR) 462

Ryan Bowd
Introduction 463
Overview of financial public relations 463
The landscape of the City: who’s involved in financial public relations 466
Financial PR practice 468
Emerging issues and trends 477
Summary 478
Bibliography 479
Websites 480

24 Public relations for information and communications technologies:

principles and planning 481
Lee Edwards
Introduction 482
Information and communication technology (ICT): background and social impact 482
Industry characteristics 483
ICT audience characteristics 485
Public relations in the ICT industry: a model 490
Principles of ICT public relations practice 492
Summary 496
Bibliography 497

25 Integrated marketing communications 498

Graham Hughes
Introduction 499
Definitions of integrated marketing communications (IMC) 499
Strategic marketing communications planning 504
Branding and integrated marketing communications 505
Agency perspectives on integrated marketing communications 507
Integrating the marketing communications mix 509
Summary 515
Bibliography 515
Websites 516

26 Sponsorship 517
Sierk Horn
Introduction 518
Sponsorship: the context 518
Defining sponsorship 520
Management of sponsorship 523
Features and characteristics of sponsorship 527
‘Emotional marketing’ and the emerging sponsorship age 530
Summary 535
Bibliography 535
A01_TENCH5948_02_SE_FM.QXD 5/13/09 13:53 Page xiv

xiv CONTENTS

Part 4 Sectoral considerations 537

27 Corporate communication 539

Emma Wood
Introduction 540
Definition of corporate communication and key terms 540
Context and principles of corporate communication 547
Interface of corporate communication and overall corporate strategy 551
How corporate communication influences corporate decision making 552
Corporate communication objectives: stakeholders vs shareholders 553
Practical application of critical reflection 555
Summary 557
Bibliography 558

28 Campaigning organisations and pressure groups 560

Sue Wolstenholme
Introduction 561
Types of campaigning organisation 561
Key issues for public relations practitioners in organisations and campaigning groups 565
Campaign tactics 566
People, politics and globalisation 568
Building and evaluating consensus 569
Practical guidelines for campaigning public relations 572
Summary 575
Bibliography 575
Websites 576

29 Public sector communication and social marketing 577

Liz Yeomans
Introduction 578
Theories of public communication 578
Central government communication 586
Local government communication 590
Health sector communication 591
A communication planning framework 596
Summary 597
Bibliography 597
Websites 599

30 Arts, leisure and entertainment public relations 600

Shirley Beresford and Johanna Fawkes
Introduction 601
Overview of the creative industries 601
Concepts of culture 605
Role of public relations in the creative industries 606
Public relations objectives, strategies and tactics for arts organisations 608
Trends and directions in the creative industries 611
Summary 619
A01_TENCH5948_02_SE_FM.QXD 5/13/09 13:53 Page xv

CONTENTS xv

Bibliography 619
Websites 620

31 Celebrity and public relations 621

Elliot Pill
Introduction 622
Background and historical development of the VIP (very important person) 622
The rise of the celebrity 623
Publicists, ‘PRs’ and the PR industry 625
Why celebrities are good for the ‘bottom line’ 625
Heroes, celebrity and the global celebrity industry 626
Consumer reaction: why people ‘buy into’ celebrities 627
How celebrity image is manufactured and maintained 628
Summary 631
Bibliography 631

32 What next? Future issues for public relations 632

Ralph Tench and Liz Yeomans
Introduction 633
Future trends and issues for public relations 633
Campaigning and pressure groups 638
Internationalisation of public relations 639
Publics 639
Public relations’ identity 640
Issues 640
Technology 641
Practitioner roles and professionalism in public relations 641
Specialisation of public relations practice 641
Media fragmentation 642
Education 642
Summary 643
Bibliography 643

Glossary 645
Index 653

Supporting resources
Visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/tench to find valuable online resources

Companion Website for students

• Extra case studies
• Links to relevant sites on the web

For instructors
• Complete, downloadable Instructor’s Manual
• PowerPoint slides that can be downloaded and used as OHTs

For more information please contact your local Pearson Education sales representative or visit
www.pearsoned.co.uk/tench
A01_TENCH5948_02_SE_FM.QXD 5/13/09 13:53 Page xvi

Guided tour

36 Part 1 THE CONTEXT OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

CHAPTER 2 Anne Gregory Introduction

Everyone thinks they know what public the jobs. It explores the problems This chapter aims to bridge that divide

Management and organisation relations (PR) practitioners do. They either

hang out with celebrities and sell kiss ‘n’
caused by difficulties in defining the
field, but also the opportunities for indi-
by setting practice clearly in a theoret-
ical context and including examples of

of public relations tell stories to the Sunday newspapers or

they whisper in politicians’ ears and ‘spin’
vidual and professional development.
PR practice is linked to PR theory and
practice from different countries. It also
reflects a range of experiences, through
the entire national media. Don’t they? the need for individuals to undertake case studies and diaries, of being a
A glance at the contents page of this lifelong learning is stressed. The role of practitioner at the start of the twenty-
book will suggest otherwise. Each chapter education and the question of profes- first century. Throughout the chapter
addresses a particular area of PR theory sionalism are also discussed, along you will be able to read mini case histor-
or practice and while there are chapters with the role of professional bodies. ies and diaries of public relations prac-
on media relations and public affairs, Traditionally, books about PR have titioners who are working in different
the reality does not match the image tended to be either too academic to types of settings to help you appreciate
(which may be disappointing for some). shed much light on the practice or ‘how the diversity of the practice and hope-
This chapter aims to show where to’ lists by retired practitioners who only fully gain an insight into what people
people work in PR and what they do in describe what they did in their heyday. actually do.

about the industry in Britain and in other countries (see

Who are the public relations Boxes 3.1 and 3.2 and then complete Activity 3.2).
practitioners?
There is a lot of confusion about who does what in PR –
see Activity 3.1. It may be helpful to look at some facts Who does what: the bigger
picture
Activity 3.1
Learning outcomes Definitions of field
What is public relations all about? Chapter 1 has already explored the historical evolution of
Ask your friends and family what they think PR is PR and discussed the various definitions that are provided
By the end of this chapter you should be able to: from a range of sources including academics, practitioners,
all about and/or which PR practitioners they have
■ describe the principal external influences that contextualise public relations activity overall heard of. national and international professional bodies.
■ analyse this external environment, select those factors relevant to any particular organisation and evaluate This lack of an agreed definition is, however, still a
their impact using appropriate theories and analytical tools Feedback problem for the practice. Deciding what it is and what
■ identify the principal internal influences that affect the status and nature of public relations activity Chances are that the responses will not be flattering
■ identify the relevant underlying theories and that the individuals named may be high profile
■ provide an evidence-based rationale for proposing an appropriate public relations structure for typical organisations themselves (such as Max Clifford – who wouldn’t Activity 3.2
■ describe, justify and evaluate the roles, location and tasks of public relations specialists within organisations consider himself to be anything other than a pub-
licist) or certainly represent activities or individuals
and their relationship with other functional and line departments Comparing PR in different countries
with a significant media interest (sport, music,
■ speculate on the future role of public relations specialists, building realistic scenarios from current evidence.
politics). Yet the bona fide PR practitioner will not
Look at the information in Boxes 3.1 and 3.2. What
be seeking exposure for themselves, but for the
are the key differences? How does each country’s
client or the organisation they work for.
PR association define PR? Look at each of their web-
sites (some sites have English translations).
Structure You may also find that media relations is the func-
tion or activity most closely associated with these
high-profile individuals. Take a quick look at the Feedback
■ Importance of context contents list of this book and the breadth and range Check out other websites – how do their ideas and
of subject matter covered under PR. Are these activ- statistics vary? How many have English translations?
■ External environment
ities reflected in most people’s understanding of the Does the UK site have other languages available? If
■ Internal environment practice? Probably not. not, why not? (See also Chapter 7.)
■ Systems theory
■ Location of public relations in organisations
■ Future of the public relations department

The Learning outcomes will enable you to focus on The Introduction section provides a concise overview
what you need to have learnt by the end of the chapter. of the themes and issues explored in each chapter.
The Structure section will enable you to quickly exam- The Activity sections will encourage you to take your
ine the key points which will be presented in each learning further by conducting web research and
chapter. engaging in discussions with others.

12 Part 1 THE CONTEXT OF PUBLIC RELATIONS Chapter 1 Public relations origins 13

Britain: public interest in private policies. As early as 1922, the local government trade union, for their rapidly expanding number. The vast majority

opinions
the National Association of Local Government Officials
(NALGO), recommended that all local councils include
Mini Case Study 1.2 of its founding members came from the public sector
and subsequently set up the first interest group within the
While commercial interests adopted and drove the a press or publicity division in their makeup (L’Etang Institute, focusing in particular on the need to recognise
development of PR in the United States, it was the public 2004b).
Basil Clarke – Britain’s PR as an important role in local government (L’Etang
sector, and local government in particular, that was the
driving force behind the early use of PR in Britain (see
While central government did not make so much use of
communications strategies in peacetime, the development
first public relations 2004b).
This early institutionalisation of the profession means
Chapter 29). As noted in the introduction, little has been of PR was also closely linked to the use of propaganda dur- consultant? that, in many ways, the presentation of PR in Britain has
written about the history of PR in Britain, with the excep- ing the two world wars. Truth, here, was not so critical but been heavily influenced by the efforts of the IPR as the
tion of Jacquie L’Etang’s (2004b) professional history. Her its sacrifice was justified in light of the need to win at all industry body. Key themes emerging from early years of
Basil Clarke was a former Daily Mail journalist who
book forms the basis for much of the discussion that costs. The need to unite a population under one cause did PR practice have permeated the approach taken by the
founded his own consultancy, Editorial Services,
follows. create opportunities to persuade using other messages and in 1926, following a career in several government
Institute, including: the importance of truth as the ‘ideal’
In the same way as the business sector in the United means. One of these was the British Documentary Film ministries where he directed public information. Edit- PR tool; the conception of PR as a public service; and the
States began to use public relations as a means of pro- Movement, inspired by John Grierson, who focused on orial Services was founded jointly with two practis- potential for PR to be used as a means for promoting
tecting itself against attacks from the reformists, local using film to educate the public on matters of public inter- ing consultants, R.J. Sykes of London Press Exchange freedom, democracy and, in particular, the British way of
governments in Britain found themselves looking to PR est. Visual communications were thus used to present (LPE) and James Walker of Winter Thomas. Basil Clarke life – this last being particularly influenced by institutions
techniques to reinforce the importance of their role in ‘truth’, in the form of a rational argument, in a compelling is credited by some as the ‘father’ of PR in Britain, such as the British Council using PR in this way. In addi-
the face of potential central government cutbacks during fashion (L’Etang 2004b). See also Box 1.1. partly because of his government track record and tion, the IPR conceptualised PR very broadly, specifically
the 1920s and 1930s. Local communities and businesses The propaganda industry during both world wars partly because he drafted the Institute of Public extending the definition of communications beyond pure
did not understand what the role of local government was spawned many post-war practitioners, individuals seeking Relations’ first code of practice. media relations (L’Etang 2004b).
and regarded it as a bureaucratic irritant rather than a a new profession in a world where propaganda was no The emergence of PR consultancies in the 1950s, often
Source: L’Etang 2004a
valuable service. As a result, the focus of much early PR longer required. In addition, many wartime journalists based on editorial services and media liaison, confirmed
in Britain was on the presentation of facts to persuade were left jobless once peace broke out, and frequently went the existence of PR as a distinct profession, separate from
the public – genuine truths about what local government into PR. In the years following the Second World War, the its cousins marketing and propaganda – although these
contributed to the public good. It was assumed that the commercial sector in Britain woke up to the possibilities of boundaries were often blurred. Indeed, although the IPR
power of truth would persuade both the public and central communication and the industry started to expand more the first UK consultancies were established and in-house was intent on maintaining a broad conception of com-
government to be more supportive of local officials and rapidly. Almost 50 years after the first US consultancies, practitioners in commercial organisations became much munications in its definition of the profession, the reality
more common (L’Etang 2004b). See Mini case study 1.2. was that the ex-journalists entering the profession could
Perhaps because of the early influence of public sector provide a unique, easily identifiable service on the back of
bureaucracy, PR practitioners were quick to organise their media expertise that did not overlap with advertising
themselves as a group in Britain, first under the auspices or other marketing disciplines and therefore served the
Box 1.1 training and external promotion. Examples of these are
British Transport Films (BTF) and the National Coal
of the Institute of Public Administration and subsequently
as an independent Institute of Public Relations (IPR). The
profession well.
The IPR, dominated by in-house and public sector
Board Film Unit. IPR was established in 1948 under the leadership of Sir practitioners, had difficulty catering to the specific inter-
Documentary film in UK Corporate film units were connected to Dunlop and
Stephen Tallents – a career civil servant and a keen sup- ests of independent consultancies. One particular concern
porter of publicity and propaganda from his tenure as included the maintenance of professional standards and
public relations ICI, but it is the Shell Oil Film Unit that is regarded
Secretary of the Empire Marketing Board in the 1920s and reputation across a wide range of small organisations. In
as one of the most celebrated of the Document-
ary Movement. The films were often released into 1930s, where he used communications to promote the light of this, a specific consultancy association, the Society
Documentary film was one of the most popular forms cinemas and while many were indirectly related to the reputation of the British Empire and its products among of Independent Public Relations Consultants (SIPRC),
of both internal and external communication in both company’s activities (Shell’s first film was Airport its trading partners. As the first Public Relations Officer in was created in 1960 and worked closely with the IPR.
the public sector and corporations between the 1930s (1934)), the themes were more general, thus exerting Britain, he joined the Post Office in 1933 and then moved However, the SIPRC itself was poorly defined and eventu-
and the late 1970s. Under the influence of Stephen a subtle influence on the public. Another group of to the BBC in 1935. Throughout his professional life, he ally folded. Subsequently, in 1969, the Public Relations
Tallents, state-sponsored film units were attached films made by the Shell Oil Film Unit were educa- used the widest range of tools at his disposal to promote Consultants Association was set up and still exists along-
to the Empire Marketing Board, the Post Office (GPO), tional and unrelated to oil. These films covered topics the interests of his employer to the public, including radio, side the IPR today (L’Etang 2004b).
the Ministry of Information during the Second World such as traditional rural crafts, the evolution of telegraph, film and, of course, newspapers. He was also By the 1970s, then, the British PR industry had estab-
War and, following the war, the Central Office of paint, and the environment. When film was replaced
a strong advocate for recognition of the publicity role as lished itself as an identifiable body with a national institute
Information. One of the most famous documentaries by video in the 1980s, Shell continued as one of the
of this early period was Night Mail (1936) made for
a profession in itself, with a specific and unique skills and increasing numbers of practitioners. Standards of
key players in the audio-visual communications
the GPO, scripted by the poet W.H. Auden and with industry. base. This was reflected in the Institute’s immediate role practice, areas of competence and the range of services
music composed by Benjamin Britten. The national- as a lobbying body to encourage recognition of PR as a provided were all discussed and developed. With this institu-
isation of key industries after the war led to other Source: adapted from www.screenonline.org.uk/film/id/ separate profession (L’Etang 2004b). tional basis in place, the next phase of development was
public sector film units being set up for internal 964488/index.html (British Film Institute) The IPR also served as a body through which practi- driven by commercial interests. A rapid expansion, par-
tioners could share their expertise and establish standards ticularly in the consultancy sector, took place in the

Boxes deliver a wealth of information about the public Mini case studies illustrate issues and concepts with
relations industry. specific reference to real-life scenarios.
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GUIDED TOUR xvii

94 Part 1 THE CONTEXT OF PUBLIC RELATIONS Chapter 5 Public relations and democracy 95

a positive light and may consider that the overriding alle- The Phillis Report thus raises issues not just for the UK’s
giance of communications staff is to themselves, as the current government but for government news management case study 5.1 (continued)
people’s elected representatives. Sometimes politicians and media coverage of politics in all democracies. While
government (this recommendation accepted follow- overriding presumption should be to disclose’ (R8,
bring in their own party experts on temporary contracts to democracy may depend on effective communication,
ing publication of an interim report in 2003) (R2, p. 3). p. 4).
take charge of communication and this can lead to serious not all communication is in the interests of government.
■ Replacement of the Government Information and ■ Clearer rules for the release of statistical informa-
friction with permanent staff committed to a less partisan Inevitably, there are stories and figures that a government
Communication Service by a new network including tion, which ‘should be automatically, routinely and
approach to publicity. One example is the news manage- would prefer to hide or play down, while there are suc-
all those involved in communication activity, led by systematically made available’. There should be a
ment associated with Britain’s Labour government from cesses that it would wish to emphasise. Opposition parties new statute to control the publication of official
the new permanent secretary (R4, p. 3).
1997 onwards (see Case study 5.1). and interests and sections of the media just as naturally statistics to restore public trust (R9, p. 4).
■ Recruitment and training to raise professional
standards and maintain civil service impartiality ■ More direct communication with the public,
(R6, p. 4). including televising daily briefings from the
prime minister’s office, with ministers and press
■ New rules governing the conduct of special advisors
Case Study 5.1 surrounding government communication and relations
with the media. and their relationship with civil servants (R7, p. 4).
officers answering questions (R10, p. 4) and better
customer-driven online communication, involving
■ Effective implementation of the Freedom of Informa-
Government The Phillis Report, published in January 2004, described
tion Act 2000, to end the culture of secrecy. ‘The
a redesign of the central government website (R11,
p. 5).
low and diminishing public trust in both politicians
communication: and the media (particularly the press), with damaging
consequences for public participation in the democratic
information or process. Yet the report, while critical of government prefer to highlight government problems or failures and dis- tion overload can prevent important messages getting
count apparent successes. Even public servants, who may through. Likewise, selection and simplification can lead to
propaganda? Events ‘spin’, substantially endorsed some of Labour’s dis-
satisfaction with the traditional approach to commun- claim to serve the public interest impartially, are inevitably accusations of omission and distortion. While the Phillis
leading to the Phillis ication in the civil service. There was ‘a narrow view
of communication . . . often limited to media handling’.
influenced by organisational, professional and personal inter- Report is right to emphasise the crucial role of communi-
ests that may not always coincide with the public interest. cation in modern democracy, and there is much good
Report (2004) in Britain Communication was ‘not seen as a core function of the In addition, there are often fierce differences within public sense in its specific recommendations, there are few easy
mainstream civil service’. The Government Information sector organisations, rather than a single impartial public answers to some of the broader questions on which the
and Communication Service did not cover all those in
service view. While the wider public want less partial sources report touches. These are the issues with which profes-
When Labour entered government in 1997 it brought in communication, lacked resources and status and was
a team of special advisors headed by Press Secretary
of information, including statistics they can trust, informa- sional communicators will continue to wrestle.
defective in recruitment and training. There was poor
Alastair Campbell to direct their communication strat- coordination of communication across government
egy. This led to some friction with the civil service, a departments and agencies. Despite the passing of the
more antagonistic relationship with the media and Freedom of Information Act 2000 (effective in 2005),
increased public distrust for government communica- there was still a pervasive culture of secrecy that should
Summary encourage more people to take part in political deci-
sion making. Throughout we have raised issues for the
tion, which became associated in the public mind with be replaced by a culture of openness. There was a need PR practitioner in both supporting the relationship
‘spin’, involving a partisan or distorted interpretation for more direct two-way communication between gov- This chapter has defined and discussed the broad between public institutions and voters, as well as inter-
of news. Labour did not invent spin. It was practised, ernment and the public. On the specific issue that had context of democracy in which PR operates. It has dis- acting with these institutions from the vantage point of
sometimes very effectively, by the previous Conserv- led to the review, the role of special advisors, the report cussed systems of democracy, the role of elections, campaigning organisations. Finally, we have identified,
ative government. Indeed, the activity (but not the acknowledged that they performed a useful role in political parties and the different institutions of gover- through the case study of the Phillis Report, the issues
term, which is a recent US import), is as old as politics. modern government and were here to stay, but their nance. It has identified, in particular, the problems of personal, professional and organisational allegiances
Media criticism of government ‘spin’ ignores the obvi- relationship with the civil service required new guide- facing modern democracies where people are not that may conflict with serving the public interest in
ous point that the media also ‘spin’ news stories lines which protected the principle of civil service voting in large numbers and how effective PR might modern democracies.
through their own selection, emphasis and interpreta- impartiality.
tion. Yet criticism of Labour’s news management under-
standably intensified after the publication of a leaked Specific recommendations included:
email from special advisor Jo Moore, suggesting that
■ A redefinition of the role and scope of government
9/11 was ‘a good day to bury bad news’.
communications, involving a ‘continuous dialogue Bibliography Coxall, B. (2001). Pressure Groups in British Politics. London:
with all interested parties’ and a ‘broader range of Pearson.
The ensuing scandal ultimately led to the resignation
of Moore herself and the minister, Stephen Byers, skills’, with the general public being the focus of Age Concern (2008). ‘Age Agenda Report 2008’ at http:// Curtis, J. (2003). ‘Changing voting systems’ in Developments
who had unwisely stood by her. Yet it also raised wider attention (R1, p. 3). www.ageconcern.org.uk/AgeConcern/FCDAC740D6034 in British Politics 7. P. Dunleavy, A. Gamble, R. Heffernan
questions about government information and com- ■ A strong central communications structure, headed C12A01334ED4E597059.asp, accessed on 21 September and G. Peele. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
munication that led to the appointment of an independ- by a new permanent secretary, Government Com- 2008.
Cutlip, S., A. Center and G. Broom (2006). Effective Public
ent review, chaired by Bob Phillis. While the review was munications, to be head of profession, and provide Butler, D. and D. Kavanagh (1980). The British General Relations, 9th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
in progress, a massive political row over the govern- strategic leadership for communications across Election of 1979. Basingstoke: Macmillan. Hall.

➜
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war with Iraq further dramatised some of the issues Butler, D. and D. Kavanagh (1997). The British General Election Dahl, R. (1961). Who Governs? New Haven, NJ: Yale
of 1997. Basingstoke: Macmillan. University Press.

The Case study will provide a range of exciting material Each chapter ends with a Summary that draws together
for seminar or private study. all the outcomes of the chapter in a concise overview.

96 Part 1 THE CONTEXT OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

Denver, D. (2002). Elections and Voters in Britain. Basingstoke: Marr, A. (1996). Ruling Britannia: The failure and future of
Palgrave Macmillan. British democracy. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Downs, A. (1957). An Economic Theory of Democracy. New Niskanen, W.A. (1971). Bureaucracy and Representative
York: Harper & Row. Government. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton.
Electoral Commission (2002a). ‘Voter engagement among
Niskanen, W.A. (1973). Bureaucracy: Servant or master?
black and minority ethnic communities’ at www.
London: Institute of Economic Affairs.
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young people’ at www.electoralcommission.org.uk, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
accessed on 13 February 2005. Phillis, R. (Chair) (2004). ‘An independent review of govern-
Game, C. (2004). ‘Direct democracy in 2003: Referendums, ment communication’. Cabinet Office at www.gcreview.
initiatives and recall’ in Developments in Politics Vol. 15. S. gov.uk, accessed on 13 February 2005.
Lancaster (ed.). Ormskirk: Causeway Press.
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Grant, W. (2000). Pressure Groups and British Politics. State. Basingstoke: Macmillan.
Basingstoke: Palgrave.
Hague, R, and M. Harrop, (2001). Comparative Government Rhodes, R.A.W. (1997). Understanding Governance: Policy
and Politics. Basingstoke, Palgrave. networks, governance, reflexivity and accountability. Milton
Keynes and Philadelphia: Open University Press.
Hansard (1947). http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/com-
mons/1947/nov/11/parliament-bill. Scope (2002). ‘Polls apart: A future for accessible democracy’
Held, D. (1996). Models of Democracy. Cambridge: Polity. at www.electoralcommission.org.uk, accessed on 13
February 2005.
Hellman, D. (2002). ‘Italy’ in European Politics in Transition,
4th edition. M. Kesselman and J. Krieger. Boston, MA: Skelcher, C. (1998). The Appointed State. Buckingham: Open
Houghton-Mifflin. University Press.
Kesselman, M. and J. Krieger (2002). European Politics in Ukpolitical (2008) www.ukpolitical.info; accessed 22 Septem-
Transition, 4th edition. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin. ber 2008
Leach, R. (2004). ‘Democracy and elections’ in Developments
Wallas, G. (1908). Human Nature in Politics. London:
in Politics, Vol. 15. S. Lancaster (ed.). Ormskirk: Causeway
Constable.
Press.
Lowndes, V., G. Stoker, L. Pratchett, D. Wilson and S. Leach Weir, S. and D. Beetham, (1999). Political Power and
(1998). ‘Enhancing public participation in local govern- Democratic Control in Britain: The democratic audit of
ment’. London: DETR. Great Britain. London: Routledge.
Lowndes, V., L. Pratchett and G. Stoker (2001). ‘Trends in Worcester, R.M. and M. Harrop (1982). Political Com-
public participation: Part 1 – local government perspec- munications: The general election campaign of 1979.
tives’. Public Administration 79 (1). London: Allen & Unwin.

Websites
Age Concern: www.ageconcern.org.uk
Electoral Commission: www.electoralcommission.org.uk
European Parliament: www.europarl.eu.int
European Parliament (UK office): www.europarl.org.uk
European Union: www.europa.eu.int
Times Online: www.timesonline.co.uk

A number of useful weblinks are sited in the Websites

section which will help you take your learning further.
A01_TENCH5948_02_SE_FM.QXD 5/13/09 13:53 Page xviii

About the authors

Professor (Dr) Ralph Tench is professor of communica- Manchester Metropolitan University and Dublin Institute
tions education at Leeds Metropolitan University. Ralph of Technology. He is a PhD examiner at Leeds Met and
was the subject leader for public relations and commun- other UK universities.
ications at Leeds Metropolitan University for 10 years
where he oversaw the expansion of the undergraduate, Liz Yeomans is subject leader for public relations and
postgraduate and professional course portfolio. As pro- communications at Leeds Metropolitan University. Since
fessor he teaches on undergraduate and postgraduate pro- joining the university in 1994, Liz has helped establish a
grammes as well as supervising MA and PhD research. His centre of excellence in public relations education. As well
current focus is in supporting and developing the research as contributing to the BA (Hons) Public Relations, Liz has
strategy for the public relations and communications sub- developed and taught courses for working professionals,
ject at Leeds Met. This also involves engaging with applied and established masters programmes in public relations
research and business counselling for the Leeds Business and corporate communications. As a CIPR member, she
School. A member of the Chartered Institute of Public has contributed book reviews to the Institute’s Profile
Relations (CIPR) he has presented his research around the magazine; is a member of the judging panel for the CIPR’s
world and taught at many European universities specialis- Local Government Group’s Excellence awards; and has
ing in public relations. Ralph has been a Visiting Professor sat as a panel member for CIPR course approvals. Liz is
at the University of Salzburg since 2004. Ralph previously past examiner at London Metropolitan and Manchester
worked as a news and sports reporter before moving into Metropolitan universities and is currently external ex-
consultancy, latterly with Manchester’s Communique aminer at The Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen. Liz’s
(Burson-Marsteller). His client portfolio included FTSE100 earlier career spans magazine publishing, the Government
companies as well as public sector clients. Ralph has a dual Information Service and Hampshire County Council’s
psychology degree from the University of Sheffield and a education department where she was principal public
doctorate from Leeds Metropolitan University. As an active relations officer. She has a degree in English and media
researcher he manages internal and external research teams studies from the University of Southampton, and an MSc
and focuses on corporate relations, corporate social res- in public relations from the University of Stirling. Liz’s
ponsibility, professional practice development and public research interests include internal communication, public
relations and communications education. Funded projects sector communication and the role of emotion in PR rela-
have included research into working patterns in the com- tionship management, which is the subject of a PhD. She
munication and creative sectors since 2000; a major has had articles published in the Journal of Communication
research project for the CIPR to benchmark public rela- Management, the Journal of Public Affairs and Corporate
tions education in the UK; a media perception study of Communications: An international journal. Her interna-
corporate social responsibility; European benchmarking tional experience includes teaching at the University of
and comparative surveys; and corporate social respons- Salzburg, giving a keynote address at Communicare, Mid-
ibility activities within the SME (small to medium sized Sweden University and presenting research papers at
enterprise) sector. He is widely published in books and EUPRERA, BledCom and ICA.
academic journals ranging from management to educa-
tion journals and has presented his research around the
world. Ralph has sat as a panel member and chair for pro-
gramme validations for the CIPR’s course approvals. He The contributors
has worked as a consultant to UK universities setting up
undergraduate programmes in public relations. He is a past Richard Bailey is senior lecturer in public relations at Leeds
examiner for Kingston, Hull and Southampton universit- Metropolitan University. He has over 15 years’ experience
ies and currently an examiner for the University of Ulster, in business journalism, consultancy and in-house public
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS xix

relations management. He specialised in public relations largest global technology brands during her professional
professional training before joining the university in 2003, career, including Microsoft, Dell and Siemens.
where he teaches on undergraduate, postgraduate and pro-
fessional courses. His weblog devoted to public relations Johanna Fawkes was a principal lecturer at Leeds Metro-
can be found at www.prstudies.com. politan University until 2004, since when she has been an
independent writer and researcher. At Leeds Met, she led
Shirley Beresford is senior lecturer in public relations the BA in Public Relations. She started teaching PR at
and marketing at Leeds Metropolitan University, where the London College of Printing in 1990, after 15 years in
she teaches on undergraduate, postgraduate and profes- public sector PR. Johanna then delivered and led the BA
sional courses. She has been an active member of the PR at the University of Central Lancashire from 1994–98,
Chartered Institute of Marketing for 15 years and works as She has an MA in Creative Writing and has written papers
an examiner for their postgraduate courses. Prior to join- for a variety of international journals and conferences,
ing Leeds Metropolitan in 1999, Shirley had a 15-year and contributed several chapters to leading PR text books.
career in arts, leisure, tourism and public sector PR and Johanna is a member of the Institute of Communication
marketing management. Shirley’s research interests lie in Ethics (ICE) Advisory Board and was Chief Examiner
the development of arts marketing and PR. for the Chartered Institute of Public Relations (CIPR)
Diploma, 2005–7. She is currently a PhD candidate, taking
a Jungian approach to professional ethics in public rela-
Ryan Bowd is senior lecturer at Leeds Metropolitan
tions, at Leeds Metropolitan University.
University and an award-winning PR practitioner and
Associate Director of UK-based Connectpoint PR with a
Professor Anne Gregory is Pro-Vice-Chancellor at Leeds
client portfolio of experience including global petroleum
Metropolitan University and director of the Centre for
companies, sports drinks brands, sporting events and eye-
Public Relations Studies. Before moving into academic life,
wear manufacturers to niche luxury brands. Ryan mixes a
Anne spent 12 years in practice, holding senior appoint-
professional life of communications practice and academic
ments both in-house and in consultancy. She is still actively
teaching and learning. Research interests include the fields
involved in consultancy and training for large clients such
of reputation, corporate social responsibility (CSR) and
as the UK Government Cabinet Office and the Department
communications. Ryan is currently undertaking PhD
of Health. Anne was President of the UK Chartered Insti-
research on the subject of corporate social responsibility
tute of Public Relations in 2004 and edits the Institute’s
communications.
Public Relations in Practice series. She is an internationally
recognised researcher, has written and edited books and
Gerard Choo is senior lecturer in public relations at Leeds published in numerous journals. She is editor-in-chief of
Metropolitan University, where he is course leader of the the Journal of Communication Management.
MA in Public Relations and the CIPR Advanced Certifi-
cate. He previously worked in PR and marketing at the Paul Gillions is an independent consultant and has advised
Media Corporation of Singapore. companies and organisations in Europe, North America,
Australia and Asia on a broad range of public policy
Meriel D’Artrey is deputy head of department of Social initiatives and impacts. He is a specialist in issue, crisis and
and Communication Studies at the University of Chester. risk management, and regularly leads sessions on scenario
Prior to this she taught at Leeds Metropolitan University, planning and coalition-building. Paul is a former inter-
after a career in public relations, marketing, advertising national managing director and senior vice president at
and corporate communications, both as a consultant and two of the world’s leading public relations/public affairs
in-house. She is a past chief external examiner for the CIPR consultancies, a Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts, a
diploma and foundation and her research interest is the member of the Institute of Directors and the Chartered
interface between higher education and employment. Institute of Public Relations, and was first selected for
entry in Debrett’s Distinguished People of Today in 1988.
Dr Lee Edwards is senior lecturer in public relations at
Leeds Metropolitan University, where she teaches on under- Dr Sierk Horn is senior lecturer in Japanese Studies at the
graduate, postgraduate and professional courses. Her University of Leeds. He holds a PhD and Habilitation
research interests include the nature of power in public in Japanese studies. His main fields of research are cross-
relations, diversity in public relations, and the intersection cultural marketing and management concepts, Japanese
of public relations with media studies and cultural studies. business and consuming behaviour in east Asia. He has
Prior to joining the University in 2004, Lee specialised in published widely in, amongst other areas, intercultural
technology public relations and worked with some of the competence in accessing Japanese markets.
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xx ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Graham Hughes is a principal lecturer in marketing at Daniel Löwensberg is lecturer at the Hull University
Leeds Metropolitan University. He teaches marketing com- Business School. He has experience at Leeds Metropolitan
munications on a range of undergraduate, post-graduate University as a leader of postgraduate courses in public
and professional courses. He holds an MA in marketing relations and in teaching public relations in the UK and in
from Lancaster University and has held senior marketing France. His research interests cover the areas of corporate
management positions in a range of organisations includ- identity, PR teaching, international PR, and PR research
ing BL, the Weir Group and MCB University Press. He tactics. Before joining academia, Daniel was a PR and mar-
is currently senior examiner for the integrated marketing keting communications pr-based financial professional in
communications module on the CIM diploma and co- the airline and tourism industries, and a committee mem-
authors the Butterworth Heinemann coursebook for the ber of the Airline Public Relations Organisation (APRO)
new CIM marketing communications module with Chris in London for many years.
Fill from the University of Portsmouth.
Karl Milner is the Director of Communications and Public
Dennis Kelly is the Director of Corporate Communica- Relations for NHS Yorkshire and the Humber, an NHS
tions for Leeds Metropolitan University. Before that he region which sees over 150,000 patients a day. As well as
was director of the Centre for Public Relations Studies containing a Press Office that manages thousands of press
at Leeds Met. Dennis is an experienced communications articles a year, Karl’s department also has a nationally
practitioner and was the founder and managing director recognised campaign team who deliver above-the-line
of a major UK public relations consultancy. He also spent and PR campaigns for the NHS in the region. Prior to
12 years in a senior capacity with BT and his experience working for the NHS Karl was a senior lecturer in public
encompasses all aspects of internal and external com- relations at Leeds Metropolitan University and a Partner at
munications in both the public and private sectors. Dennis Finsbury Group – the global financial PR company based
is a Fellow of the Chartered Institute of Public Relations in the City of London. Karl is Chair of the Practitioner
and has been responsible for numerous award-winning Advisory Panel for the BA (Hons) Public Relations degree
campaigns and has been recognised with IPR ‘Swords at Leeds Met.
of Excellence’. Areas of special interest include strategic
campaign planning, integrated communications, internal Dr Kevin Moloney is principal lecturer at Bournemouth
communications and professional development in public University where he teaches public relations and corpor-
relations. ate communications to undergraduate and postgraduate
students. He researches into how these persuasive com-
munications influence and are influenced by the political
Martin Langford is an international authority on crisis economy and civil society. He is the author of Lobbyists For
communications and a recipient of the ‘Public Relations Hire (1996) and Rethinking PR: The spin and the substance
Professional of the Year’ award from PR Week for his work (2000). Before teaching, he worked in PR and marketing
in this discipline. Dubbed the ‘Master of Disaster’ by the for 20 years.
UK’s Daily Telegraph, Martin has led clients through over
350 crisis assignments. Martin is co-founder of issues and Elliot Pill is course director for the MA in International
communications consultancy Kissmann Langford. He Public Relations at the School of Journalism, Media and
previously spent 32 years at the international public rela- Cultural Studies, at Cardiff University. He qualified as a
tions consultancy Burson-Marsteller where he led the newspaper journalist before moving into public relations
London operation for the company and was subsequently consultancy. Elliot was a main Board Director at Hill &
based in Singapore, managing their ASEAN offices. Knowlton, London, and clients included adidas, Gillette,
Stella Artois, Billabong and Pioneer. He holds an MBA
Dr Robert Leach retired from full-time teaching in 2004 from Cardiff Business School and is completing his PhD.
as a principal lecturer at Leeds Metropolitan Univer- His research interests include the cult of celebrity and inter-
sity, where he is now a visiting research fellow. He holds national creativity. Elliot is an external examiner for the
degrees from Oxford and London universities and a MSc in Corporate Communications at Leeds Metropolitan
PhD from Leeds Metropolitan. He has published numer- University.
ous journal articles as well as several books on govern-
ment and politics, including Local Governance in Britain Jo Powell is an associate senior lecturer in public relations
and Political Ideology in Britain. He is currently working at Leeds Metropolitan University. Former deputy course
on a new version of a best-selling textbook on British leader for the BA in public relations, she has taught public
politics. relations at all levels. Before joining Leeds Metropolitan,
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS xxi

Jo accumulated more than 15 years’ management experi- International Sociology. He is writing a book entitled Mediat-
ence in corporate communication for organisations ing Politics: newspapers, radio, television and internet for
including the BBC, Abbey National and Yorkshire Bank. Open University Press (publication date 2009), which
develops his research interests in the differences between
György Szondi is senior lecturer in public relations at mediated politics across institutional and technological
Leeds Metropolitan University. His PhD at the University sites of media.
of Salzburg, Austria, involves researching the concepts of
public relations and public diplomacy for the European Paul Willis is director of the Centre for Public Relations
Union. György set up and chaired the public relations pro- Studies at Leeds Metropolitan University. Before joining
gramme at Concordia International University in Estonia the University he was Deputy Managing Director at
and has been a regular speaker and trainer at conferences and Ptarmigan, a multiple award-winning public relations
workshops throughout eastern Europe. His interests agency and former PR Week ‘Consultancy of the Year’. He
and publications include organisational communication, was a member of the board for 10 years up until 2008.
public relations for the European Union, EU referendum, He has worked as a consumer PR consultant for BT, BMW
public diplomacy, risk and crises communication. György MINI, Britannia Building Society, Green Flag, npower,
worked for Hill and Knowlton in Budapest and in its inter- Reebok, Wm Morrison and Yorkshire Bank. Paul has
national headquarters in London. He holds a bachelor lectured on public relations to audiences as diverse as cor-
degree in economics, an MSc in public relations from the porate communications professionals, civil servants and
University of Stirling and an MSc in physics. students. Paul began his career running a media and research
unit for a group of MPs at Westminster.
Rüdiger Theilmann is senior lecturer in public relations
at Leeds Metropolitan University and course leader for Sue Wolstenholme runs Ashley Public Relations. Clients
the MSc in Corporate Communications. He holds an have included Amnesty International, the Post Office,
MA in communications from the University of Munich. The NHS, the Association of Colleges, the PR Associations
Following his MA Rüdiger worked for a number of con- of Shanghai and Croatia and Al Jazeera Training. Sue led
sultancies mainly in the consumer sector focusing on German MA and BA courses in public relations, awarded by the
and Italian SMEs. After that he lectured at University of University of Exeter, and the postgraduate awards for the
Stuttgart-Hohenheim and University of Applied Sciences Institute of Public Relations. She is the Chair of the CIPR
Schwäbisch Gmünd University of Design in Germany. Qualification Awarding Body and the president of the
Before joining Leeds Metropolitan he was senior lecturer EUPRERA jury to find the best thesis on public relations
at International University Concordia Audentes in Tallinn in Europe. Sue is a former external examiner at Leeds
(Estonia) where he was the leader of the MA communica- Metropolitan University.
tion management course. His academic interests are
mainly in corporate identity and image, PR research and Emma Wood is senior lecturer at Queen Margaret Univer-
evaluation and PR theories. sity College in Edinburgh. She is co-editor of the Journal of
Communication Management and has published chapters
Dr Neil Washbourne is senior lecturer in media studies at on corporate communication and corporate identity in
Leeds Metropolitan University, where he teaches on the The Public Relations Handbook (2002 and 2004). Before
undergraduate degree in media and popular culture. He joining academia Emma worked in industry, latterly as
holds a doctorate from the University of Surrey concern- assistant director of the Confederation of British Industry
ing uses of new technology in the global environmental (CBI) Scotland where she was responsible for public
movement and has had articles published in International relations. Emma is a former external examiner at Leeds
Studies in Management and Organisation and Journal of Metropolitan University.
A01_TENCH5948_02_SE_FM.QXD 5/13/09 13:53 Page xxii

Foreword

The first edition of Exploring Public Relations marked tioners. It was not uncritical of a field where technical mas-
an important milestone in the way public relations has tery can override moral behaviour.
changed and is changing. In being both very British and As with a Hollywood sequel to a successful movie, a
very international, it marked the first significant English- second edition carries a weight of expectation. This new
language challenge – in scope, seriousness, and publica- edition of Exploring Public Relations does not disappoint.
tion values – to the US public relations textbooks that had It retains all the virtues of its predecessor in ‘new,
long shaped and dominated the field across the globe. It improved’ fashion by continuing to interface sound edu-
was a beacon for that reason alone. More substantially, cational approaches with ideas and images that actively
however, it represented fresh ways of ordering material encourage students to read and learn with pleasure: good
and linking different areas and theorists into an integrated pedagogy is communicated in seemingly effortless fashion;
whole. Leeds Metropolitan University has the largest pub- the visuals and examples are more attractive and relevant
lic relations faculty in Europe, and it showed in the depth, (the trend-setting area of celebrity PR gets a new chapter
diversity, and range of topics and approaches presented. to itself); the well-organised sequencing of material is
Moreover, Tench and Yeomans (2006) first edition further tightened and refined (see especially the new chap-
achieved all of the above while producing an enticing- ter on theory); media relations are extended to incorporate
looking and extremely user-friendly book of 32 distinct social media alongside, sometimes equally transforma-
but interconnected chapters. From the unforgettable pic- tional, ownership and technology developments; updated
ture of the inquiring meerkats on the front page cover, case studies interconnect industry developments with social
through to the challenging issues facing both the public changes; and, last, but not least, the international coverage
relations profession and public relations educators, which is intensified and widened as the book positions its mater-
are discussed on the final page of text, Exploring Public ial firmly in the context of global shifts. Finally, all of the
Relations not only provided helpful guidelines to practical above come with web supplements (www.pearsoned.co.uk/
action, but raised unsettling questions about impact and Tench). In short, this is an essential text for uncertain
implications as well. It was diverse, different, and consist- times – for lecturers as well as students. I recommend that
ently thoughtful in departing from the US norm. Instead you join me in reading it, enjoying it, and learning from it.
of simple platitudes about equal exchanges, Exploring
Public Relations looked at how to actually perform public Professor David McKie
relations in an ethical manner across very diverse cultures. Management Communication Department
It was also theoretically inclusive, with a light touch that Waikato Management School
left students able to make up their own minds at the same The University of Waikato
time as they learned how to become competent practi- New Zealand
A01_TENCH5948_02_SE_FM.QXD 5/13/09 13:53 Page xxiii

Preface

and delivering public relations campaigns. There is now

Background just one, revised and updated theory chapter. In Part 2
there is a chapter on the related, but often ignored topic of
The first edition of this book started with the idea that a
persuasion and propaganda to help you arrive at your own
textbook should put the student at the centre of the learn-
definitions; while Part 3 includes emerging specialisms
ing experience. We said that we wanted students to learn
such as technology PR, financial PR and public affairs. Part
better by involving them in a personal journey that brought
4 comprises chapters that are not conventionally included
the subject to life on the page and spurred them on to find
within a public relations textbook. In this section, for
out more. This student-centred approach remains an aim
example, the chapter on campaigning organisations and
of this second edition. But a second edition brings fresh
pressure groups is written largely from the perspective of
challenges: the growing information literacy of our read-
the campaigning organisation, rather than from a business
ers; a need to keep the book fresh-looking and contem-
perspective. A new chapter on celebrity and public rela-
porary; and a need to keep up with our readers’ interests
tions is included. The final chapter provides some themes
by introducing new content. Since the last edition, the
and questions that we hope student readers will take up
world has changed remarkably: climate change, an eco-
as topics for investigation and research. Public relations is
nomic crisis and increased globalisation means that hardly
an evolving discipline and its growth requires continual
any institution, organisation or country is untouched by
questioning to challenge its boundaries and establish its
these trends. Reflecting on these trends, we have included
terrain. As students, teachers, researchers and practitioners
new case studies, many of them international or demon-
we are all responsible for achieving this aim.
strating an international dimension.

Target audience Pedagogy

This book is written primarily for second-year under- This is an educational textbook for public relations and
graduates and above who are studying public relations as a therefore includes a number of devices that we hope will
single subject (i.e. a bachelors in public relations), jointly help both students and tutors to get the most out of the
with another subject, or as a single module or unit within material. First, each chapter begins with a list of the Learn-
a wider programme. ing outcomes which students should achieve after engaging
with the material. We have structured the book to have
a range of consistent pedagogy which support the reader
in understanding the chapter subject. For example, there
Book structure are regular Activities, which give instructions on where
to look for more information or how to engage further
The book is divided into four parts. Part 1 provides import- with topics. Think abouts are included to encourage
ant background knowledge to help students understand reflection and for the reader to pause and think a little
the broad business and societal context in which public rela- more deeply about the issues and ideas that are being pre-
tions plays a role. Included here, for example, are chapters sented and discussed. We have attempted to define many
on democracy and on the international (or multicultural) terms or phrases (set in bold) that may not be universally
context of public relations. We also focus on the import- understood or which form part of the specialist language
ance of context be it societal or political in understanding related to that topic or area of study. Definitions are now
A01_TENCH5948_02_SE_FM.QXD 5/13/09 13:53 Page xxiv

xxiv PREFACE

included in a full Glossary at the back of the book. Finally

we have included many cases studies, (Case studies and
Acknowledgements
Mini case studies) which aim to exemplify and apply the In addition to the invaluable contributors already mentioned,
principles under discussion. we would like to thank all those at Pearson Education who
We have been delighted and occasionally surprised at made this second edition possible:
the warm response to our first edition. This book has David Cox (Senior Acquisitions Editor), Georgina Clark-
been used widely around the world and with gratifying Mazo (Senior Desk Editor), Oliver Adams (Marketing
endorsements of our original, pedagogic strategy of mak- Manager), Jane Holden (copy editor), Jill Wallis (proof-
ing clear links between theory and practice. However, reader) and Rachel Naish (permissions editor) at Pearson
there are many questions about public relations and its for their encouragement and helping us see through the
practice which remain under-explored. These we aim to project to completion.
highlight in the book and inspire readers to investigate Finally, but not least, we would like to thank our fam-
further and possibly through detailed research for under- ilies. For Ralph, this dedication goes to Noeline, 01.01.08.
graduate and postgraduate projects and dissertations. Then, of course to, Catherine, Anna and William for being
We hope that this second edition continues to bridge the themselves and providing the fun and distractions through
divide between theory and practice and, above all, is a a packed sporting and social agenda. For Liz heartfelt
thought-provoking and enjoyable read for students and thanks go to John, Daniel and Hannah Faulkner for ‘keep-
tutors alike. ing out of the way’ when work was in progress.
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
always appear to do, even in our more civilised days. Next it was
found that the church must be looked to; and before this was over,
the dependants had come to the conclusion that whilst all this
repairing was being done at the convent and Robert the Slater was
about with his mate and his material upon the ground, it would be a
pity not to renovate their cottages. Poor Dame Petronilla must have
been well-nigh distracted at the thought that Robert the Slater—
who, by the way, did more than roofing, and seems to have been a
jack-of-all-trades, though loose tiles were his forte—having once
secured a foothold in the establishment, had come to stay. But she
gave in with exemplary resignation, and the dependants had their
cottages repaired, or what was the same thing, received money to
pay for them. Taking one thing with another, more than £10 went in
this way during the first year of the procuratorial reign of Dames
Petronilla and Katherine.
Among the workmen that haunted Grace Dieu in these days, and
who, if there is any fitness in things so far as ghosts are concerned,
ought to be found haunting the ruins to-day, was one called Richard
Hyrenmonger. He came, we learn, from Donington, and the accounts
prove that he must have had a good store of all kinds of nails, and
keys, and bolts, judging by the variety he was able to produce.
Under him worked John the Plumber, or rather two Johns the
Plumber, senior and junior; and, like modern plumbers are wont to
do, they appear to have plagued Dame Petronilla and her assistant
with their constant tinkering at the pipes and drains of the
establishment. “John the senior” and “John the junior,” for example,
were six days mending “le pype,” for which they were paid 3s. 4d.;
but apparently it was not properly done, for just after this, “le pype”
misbehaved itself again, and Dame Petronilla had to purchase a new
brass pipe to bring the water to the door of the refectory, and the
two Johns were at work again. Of course Richard the Ironmonger
always found a lot of work for himself on the farm, so that what with
one thing and another, Grace Dieu must have been a very
comfortable inheritance for him.
Among the miscellaneous manners and customs of the good nuns of
Grace Dieu which are recalled to us in these faded papers of
accounts, very few of course can find place here. One such is the
yearly visit of the candle-maker to prepare the tallow dips for the
dark winter evenings. The preparation made for his coming appears
in the purchase of tallow and mutton fat to be used for rush-lights
and cresset-lights, which must have done hardly more than make
visible the darkness of a winter evening and an early winter morning
at Grace Dieu. My lady prioress apparently had an oil lamp of some
kind, and we read of special candles for the wash-place and at the
door of the refectory, etc. It is to be supposed that the nuns had
some means of warming themselves during the cold winter months,
for we read of a travelling tinker employed upon mending a chimney
to the hall fireplace, and probably they were burning logs from out
of Charnwood somewhere or other; but in these accounts there is no
mention of fuel except on one occasion, when Richard the
Ironmonger had some coal purchased for him; but this was only that
he might heat a ploughshare that had got out of shape.
Another most important matter in mediæval times was the annual
salting of the winter provisions which took place in every
establishment. On St. Martin’s Day, November 11th, the mediæval
farmer considered seriously what was the number of his live stock,
what was his store of hay, and how long the one could be kept by
the other. The residue of the stock had to go into the salting-tub for
the winter food of the family and dependants. So at Grace Dieu the
purchase of the salt for the great operation is entered in the
accounts. On one occasion also Dame Petronilla, “when a boar was
killed”—whether by accident or not does not appear—had it spiced
as well as salted, and it was no doubt served up on great occasions
as a special delicacy in the common refectory.
The picture of the Grace Dieu nuns afforded by these accounts is
that of charming, peace-loving ladies; good practical Christian
women, as all nuns should be; taking a personal interest in the
welfare of their tenants and dependants; occupied, over and besides
their conventual and religious duties, in works of genuine charity.
They taught the daughters of the neighbouring gentry, and were not
too exacting in requiring even what had been promised as the
annual pension. They encouraged ladies to come and join them in
celebrating the festivals of the church, and out of their small means
they set aside a not insignificant portion for the care and clothing of
sick in their infirmary; whilst out of their income they found not less
than eight corrodies—or pensions—which cost them £7 7s. 4d., or
more than five per cent. of their annual revenue. Of their work
mention has already been made. They grew the wool and spun it
and wove it into cloth, not only for their own garments, but also for
those of their retainers; whilst a chance entry of receipt reveals that
they were indeed skilled in a high degree in ecclesiastical
embroidery. That they were not guilty of “dilapidation” of their house
their extensive repairs prove; and that they cared for their lands and
farm buildings must be obvious from the purchases made, and the
items of expense in connection with every kind of agricultural
implement. They took their burden in common ecclesiastical
expenses, even contributing their quota of 3d. towards the expenses
of the Procurator cleri of the district to Convocation. They were
peace-loving, if we may judge from the absence of all law expenses,
save and except one small item for an appearance at the local
marshal’s court, and whether even this was for themselves or for
one of their tenants, and what it was about, does not appear. As it
was only 2d., it could not have been much to interfere with the
general harmony which apparently existed in the neighbourhood.
They lived, too, within their income, which was, more or less, £103
13s. 6d. a year. It is true that in the first year, owing probably to the
exceptional repairs which the nuns undertook, they went somewhat
beyond their means. The sum was only slight, being but £7 11s.
10½d., and it is pleasant to observe that “out of love of the nuns,”
and “to relieve the house of anxiety,” a lady paid the deficit, making
her gift £7 12s.
Dame Petronilla and Dame Margaret! how little they could have
thought when they penned their simple accounts that they would
have given such pleasurable information five hundred years after
their time! How little they could ever have dreamed of the pleasant
light their jottings would have thrown on so many of their doings
and their little ways! They were kind, prudent, charitable souls,
without a doubt, and if they might at times have used better ink
than they did, that fault was a point of holy parsimony. And if they
might have given here and there just a little more information on
certain points, they are willingly forgiven and more than forgiven, for
what they have left to posterity. Their souls, oft so troubled and
vexed by the many cares incidental to the office of a conventual
Martha, have long doubtless been in peace, and their spirits no
longer vexed by Richard the “Hyrenmonger” and the two Johns, the
senior and junior plumbers. What would they think, could they to-
day revisit the scene of their former labours and cares? The old
home they evidently loved so well is past repairing now, and not
even the kindly help of that old servant and friend of the convent,
Henry Smith, could avail to suggest the best way of setting about
reparation.
 Larger Image

FRANCISCAN NUNS IN CHOIR

All the larger nunneries and probably most of the smaller ones, to
whatever Order they belonged, opened their doors for the education
of young girls, who were frequently boarders. In fact the female
portion of the population, the poor as well as the rich, had in the
convents their only schools, nuns their only teachers, in pre-
Reformation times. Chaucer, in describing the well-to-do miller of
Trompington, says—
“A wyf he hadde, come of noble kyn;
Sche was i-fostryd in a nonnery ...
 Ther durste no wight clepe hir but Madame
What for hir kindred and hir nortelry
That sche had lerned in the nonnerye.”
John Aubrey, too, writes almost as an eye-witness of the Wiltshire
convents that “the young maids were brought up ... at nunneries,
where they had examples of piety, and humility, and modesty, and
obedience to imitate and to practise. Here they learned needlework,
the art of confectionery, surgery (for anciently there were no
apothecaries or surgeons—the gentlewomen did cure their poor
neighbours: their hands are now too fine), physic, writing, drawing,
etc. Old Jacques could see from his house the nuns of the priory (St.
Mary’s, near Kington St. Michael) come forth into the nymph-hay
with their rocks and wheels to spin: and with their sewing work. He
would say that he had told threescore and ten: but of nuns there
were not so many, but in all, with lay sisters and widows, old maids
and young girls, there might be such a number. This,” he concludes,
“was a fine way of breeding up young women, who are led more by
example than precept; and a good retirement for widows and grave
single women to a civil, virtuous, and holy life.”
In the well-known case of Nunnaminster, Winchester, there were, at
the time of the suppression, twenty-six girl boarders who were
reported by the local commissioners to be daughters of “lords,
knights, and gentlemen.” The list that is set forth begins with a
Plantagenet and includes Tichbornes, Poles, and Tyrrells. So, too, in
the case of the Benedictines of Barking, of Kingsmead, Derby, and of
Polesworth and Nuneaton, Warwickshire; of the Cluniacs of Delapré,
Northampton; of the Cistercians of Wintney, Hants; and of the
Gilbertines of Shouldham, Norfolk, it can be established that not only
were many of the nuns of good birth, but that their pupils were in
the main drawn from the same class.
The Episcopal Visitations of the Diocese of Norwich for 1492 to
1532, edited by Dr. Jessop, throw some interesting light on the inner
life and social working of the nunneries of East Anglia. From the
names of the inmates it becomes evident that some of these houses
were in the main occupied by ladies of gentle birth, such as
Willoughbys, Everards, Wingfields, Jerninghams, and the like. This
was especially the case with the Austin house of Campsey and the
Benedictine houses of Bungay and Thetford. When Bishop Nicke
visited the last of these houses in 1514, complaint was made to him
by one of the ladies that the prioress was intending to admit an
ignorant (indocta) novice, and particularly one Dorothy Sturges, who
was deaf and deformed. Apparently the arguments of the objector
prevailed, but poor Dorothy was, not long after, admitted to the
smaller nunnery of Blackborough.
When the priory of Carrow, a favourite retreat for the religious
daughters of the citizens of Norwich, was visited in 1526, several of
the ladies were advanced in years. The sub-prioress, Dame Anna
Marten, had been in the convent for sixty years, and two others,
Dames Margaret and Katherine, had been thirty-eight years in
religion. It is a little touching to note that almost the only complaints
that reached the bishop’s ears were those of the aged sub-prioress
and Dame Margaret that the pace of chanting the Office by the
sisters was too rapid, and lacking the proper pauses, and that of
Dame Katherine who found the beer too small. At the next recorded
visitation, six years later, all these good old ladies were still at
Carrow, though Dame Anna’s age did not allow her to discharge the
duties of sub-prioress; but she was then (1532) in charge of the
infirmary. At this time the bishop interfered, probably at the
suggestion of the aged dames, to stop an accustomed Christmas
game (on Holy Innocents’ Day), when the youngest of the novices
assumed the functions of a lady abbess, after the same fashion as a
boy-bishop amongst the choir boys. The nuns of Carrow maintained
a school for some of the better-class girls of the city and district, and
doubtless this Christmas-tide sport was intended in the main for
their delectation.
NUN ASKING PARDON OF AN ABBESS
 CHAPTER IX
EXTERNAL RELATIONS OF THE MONASTIC ORDERS

1. THE BISHOP
Normally, the bishop of the diocese in which a religious house was
situated, was its Visitor and ultimate authority, except in so far as an
appeal lay from him to the pope. In process of time exemptions from
the regular jurisdiction of the diocesan tended to multiply; whole
Orders, like the Cistercian and the Cluniacs among the Benedictines,
and the Premonstratensians among the Canons Regular, and even
individual houses, like St. Alban’s and Bury St. Edmunds, on one
ground or another obtained their freedom from the jurisdiction of
the Ordinary. In the case of great bodies, like those of Citeaux,
Cluny, Prémontré, and later the Gilbertines, the privilege of
exemption was in the first instance obtained from the pope, on the
ground that the individual houses were parts of a great corporation
with its centre at the mother-house. Such monasteries were all
subject to the authority of a central government, and regular Visitors
were appointed by it. In the thirteenth century, on the same
principle, the mendicant Orders, whose members were attached to
the general body and not to the locality in which they might happen
to be, were freed from the immediate control of the bishops of the
various dioceses in which their convents were situated.
In the case of individual houses, the exemption was granted by the
Holy See as a favour and a privilege. It is hard to understand in
what the privilege really consisted, except that it was certainly
considered an honourable thing to be immediately subject only to
the head of the Christian Church. Such privileges were, on the
whole, few; only five Benedictine houses in England possessed
them, and even such great and important abbeys as Glastonbury, in
the South of England, and St. Mary’s, York, in the North, were
subject to the regular jurisdiction of the diocesan. In the case of the
few Benedictine houses which, by the intercession of the king or
other powerful friends, had obtained exemption in this matter,
regular fees had to be paid to the Roman chancery for the privilege.
St. Alban’s, for example, at the beginning of the sixteenth century,
made an annual payment of £14 to the papal collector in lieu of the
large fees previously paid on the election of every new abbot, and as
an acknowledgment of the various privileges granted to him, such
as, for example, the right to rank first in dignity among the abbots,
and for the abbot to be able “even outside his own churches to use
pontificalia and solemnly bless the people.” Edmundsbury, in the
same way, paid an annual sum for its exemption and privileges, as
also did Westminster, St. Augustine’s (Canterbury), Waltham Holy
Cross, and a few others. By this time, too, some of the Cluniac
houses, such as Lewes Priory and Lenton, had obtained their
exemption and right of election.
In regard to the non-exempt monasteries and convents—that is
ordinarily—the relation between the bishops and the religious houses
was constant; and, apparently, with exceptions of course, cordial.
The episcopal registers show that the bishops did not shirk the duty
of visiting, and correcting what they found amiss in the houses
under their control; and whilst there is evidence of a natural desire
on their part to bring the regular life up to a high standard, there is
little or none of any narrow spirit in the exercise of this part of the
episcopal office, or of any determination to worry the religious, to
misunderstand the purpose of their high vocation, or to make
regular life unworkable in practice by any over-strict interpretation of
the letter of the law. It is, of course, after all, only natural that these
good relations should exist between the bishop and the regulars of
his diocese. The unexempt houses were not extra-diocesan so far as
episcopal authority went, like those of the exempt Orders; but they
were for the most part the most important and the most useful
centres of spiritual life in each diocese. It was therefore to the
bishop’s interest as head of the diocese to see that in these
establishments the lamp of fervour should not be allowed to grow
dim, and that the good work should not be permitted to suffer
through any lessening of the cordial relations which had traditionally
existed between the bishops and the religious houses within the pale
of his jurisdiction.
The bishop’s duties to the religious houses in his diocese were
various. In the first place, in regard to the election of the superior:
here much depended upon the actual position of the monastery in
regard to the king, to the patron, or even to the Order. If the king
was the founder of the house or had come to be regarded as such,
which may roughly be said to have been the case in most of the
greater monastic establishments, and especially in those which held
lands immediately from the Crown, then the bishop had nothing to
say to the matter till the royal assent had been given. The process
has been already briefly explained; but the main features may again
be set out. On the death of the superior, the religious would have to
make choice of some of their number to proceed to the court to
inform the king of the demise and to obtain the congé d’élire, or
permission to elect. The first action of the king would be the
appointment of officials to administer the property in his name
during the vacancy, having due regard to the needs of the
community. He would then issue his licence for the religious to
choose a new superior. All this, especially if the king were abroad or
in some far-off part of the country, would take time, sometimes
measured by weeks. On the reception of the congé d’élire, the
convent proceeded to the formal election, the result of which had to
be reported to the king; and if he assented to the choice made, this
was signified to the bishop, whose office it was to inquire concerning
the validity of the election and the fitness of the person chosen—
that is, he was bound to see whether the canonical forms had all
been adhered to in the process and the election legal, and whether
the elect had the qualities necessary to make a fitting superior and a
ruler in temporals and in spirituals. If after inquiry all proved to be
satisfactory, the bishop formally confirmed the choice of the monks
and signified the confirmation to the king, asking for the restitution
of temporalities to the new superior. If the election was that of an
abbot, the bishop then bestowed the solemn blessing upon the elect
thus confirmed, generally in some place other than his own monastic
church, and wrote a formal letter to the community, charging them
to receive their new superior and show him all obedience. Finally,
the bishop appointed a commission to proceed to the house and
install the abbot or prior in his office.
In the case of houses which acknowledged founders or patrons
other than the king, the deaths of superiors were communicated to
them, and permission to proceed to the choice of successors was
asked more as a form than as a reality. The rest was in the hands of
the bishops. In ordinary circumstances where there was no such lay
patron, a community, on the death of a superior, merely assembled
and at once made choice of a successor. This election had then to be
communicated at once to the bishop, whose duty it was to inquire
into the circumstances of the election and to determine whether the
canonical formalities had been complied with. If this inquiry proved
satisfactory, the bishop proceeded to the canonical examination of
the elect before confirming the choice. This kind of election was
completed by the issue of the episcopal letters claiming the
obedience of the monks for their new superior. It was frequently the
custom for the bishop to appoint custodians of the temporalities
during the vacancy at such of these religious houses as were
immediately subject to him. The frequency of the adoption by
religious of the form of election by which they requested the bishop
to make choice of their superior is at least evidence of the more than
cordial relations which existed between the diocesan and the
regulars, and of their confidence in his desire to serve their house to
the best of his power in the choice of the most fitting superior.
Sometimes, of course, the episcopal examination of the process, or
of the elect, would lead to the quashing of the election. This took
place generally when some canonical form had not been adhered to,
as on this matter the law was rightly most strict. Less frequently, the
elect on inquiry was found to lack some quality essential in a good
ruler, and it then became the duty of the bishop to declare the
choice void. Sometimes this led to the convent being deprived of its
voice in the election, and in such a case the choice devolved upon
the bishop. Numerous instances, however, make it clear that
although legally the bishop was bound to declare such an election
void, he would always, if possible, himself appoint the religious who
had been the choice of the community.
In other instances again, the bishop’s part in the appointment of a
new superior was confined to the blessing of the abbot after the
confirmation of the election by the pope, or by the superior of the
religious body. This was the case in the Cistercian and Cluniac
bodies, and in such of the great abbeys as were exempt from
episcopal jurisdiction. Sometimes, as in the case of St. Alban’s, even
the solemn blessing of the new abbot could by special privilege be
given by any bishop the elect might choose for the purpose.
Outside the time of the elections and visitations, the bishops
exercised generally a paternal and watchful care over the religious
houses of their diocese. Before the suppression of the alien priories,
for example, these foreign settlements were supervised by the
Ordinary quite as strictly as were the English religious houses under
his jurisdiction. These priories were mostly established in the first
instance to look after estates which had been bestowed upon foreign
abbeys, and the number in each house was supposed to be strictly
limited, and was, in fact, small. It was not uncommon, however, to
find that more than the stipulated number of religious were
quartered upon the small community by the foreign superior, or that
an annual payment greater than the revenue of the English estate
would allow was demanded by the authorities of the foreign mother-
house. Against both of these abuses the bishop of the diocese had
officially to guard. We find, for instance, Bishop Grandisson of Exeter
giving his licence for a monk of Bec to live for some months only at
Cowick Priory, and for another to leave Cowick on a visit to Bec. Also
in regard to Tywardreath, a cell of the Abbey of St. Sergius, near
Ghent, the same bishop on examination found that the revenue was
so diminished that it could not support the six monks it was
supposed to maintain, and he therefore sent back three of their
number to their mother-house on the Continent. This conclusion, be
it remarked, was arrived at only after careful inquiry, and after the
bishop had for a time appointed a monk from another religious
house to assist the foreign superior in the administration of the
temporals of his priory. Upon the report of this assistant he deprived
the superior for negligence, and appointed custodians of the
temporalities of the house. From the episcopal registers generally it
appears, too, that once the foreign religious were settled in any alien
priory, they came under the jurisdiction of the bishop of the locality,
in the same way as the English religious. The alien prior’s
appointment had to be confirmed by him, and no religious could
come to the house or go from it, even to return to the foreign
mother-house, without his permission.
In regard to all non-exempt monastic establishments of men and
convents of women, the episcopal powers were very great and were
freely exercised. Thus to take some examples: the Benedictine
abbey of Tavistock in the fourteenth century was seriously troubled
by debt, partly, at least, caused by an incapable and unworthy
superior. This abbot, by the way, had been provided by the pope;
and apparently the bishop did not consider that his functions
extended beyond issuing a commission to induct him into his office.
In a short time matters came to a crisis, and reports as to the bad
state of the house came to the ears of Bishop Grandisson. He
forthwith prohibited the house from admitting more members to the
habit until he had had time to examine into matters. The abbot
replied by claiming exemption from episcopal jurisdiction, apparently
on the ground that he had been appointed by the Holy See. The
bishop, as he said, “out of reverence for the lord Pope who had
created the both of us,” waived this as a right and came to the
house as a friend, to see what remedy could be found to allay the
rumours that were rife in the country as to gross mismanagement at
the abbey. How far the bishop succeeded does not transpire; but a
couple of years later the abbot was suspended and deposed, and the
bishop appointed the Cistercian abbot of Buckland and a monk of
Tavistock to administer the goods of the abbey pending another
election. How thoroughly the religious approved of the action of the
bishop may be gauged by the fact that they asked him to appoint
their abbot for them.
In the ordinary and extraordinary visitations made by the bishop, the
interests of the religious houses were apparently the only
considerations which weighed with him. Sometimes the injunctions
and monitions given at a visitation appertained to the most minute
points of regular life, and sometimes the visitatorial powers were
continued in force for considerable periods in order to secure that
certain points that needed correction might be seen to. One curious
right possessed and exercised by the bishop of any diocese on first
coming to his see, was that of appointing one person in each
monastery and convent to be received as a religious without
payment or pension. It is proper, however, to say that this right was
always exercised with fatherly discretion. Again and again the
records of visitations in the episcopal registers show that the bishop
did not hesitate to appoint a co-adjutor to any superior whom he
might find deficient in the power of governing, either in spirituals or
temporals. Officials who were shown to be incapable in the course of
such inquiries were removed, and others were either appointed by
the bishop, or their appointment sanctioned by him. Religious who
had proved themselves undesirable or impossible in one house were
not unfrequently translated by the bishop to another. Thus in a.d.
1338-9 great storms had wrought destruction at Bodmin. The priory
buildings were in ruins, and a sum of money had to be raised for the
necessary repairs which were urgently required. Bishop Grandisson
gave his permission for the monks to sell a corrody—or undertaking
to give board and lodging for life at the priory—for a payment of
ready money. A few years later, in 1347, on his visitation the bishop
found things financially in a bad way. He removed the almoner from
his office, regulated the number of servants and the amount of food;
and having appointed an administrator, sent the prior to live for a
time in one of the priory granges, in order to see whether the house
could be recovered from its state of bankruptcy by careful
administration.
One proof of the friendly relations which as a rule existed between
the bishop and the regular clergy of his diocese may be seen in the
fact that the abbots and superiors were frequently, if not generally,
found in the lists of those appointed as diocesan collectors on any
given occasion. The superiors of religious houses contributed to the
loans and grants raised in common with the rest of the diocesan
clergy, either for the needs of the sovereign, the Holy See, or the
bishop. That there were at times difficulty and friction in the working
out of these well-understood principles of subordination need not be
denied; but that as a whole the system, which may be described as
normal, brought about harmonious relations between the bishop and
the regulars must be conceded by all who will study its workings in
the records of pre-Reformation episcopal government.

2. THE CHURCH IN ENGLAND GENERALLY

The monastic Orders were called upon to take their share in the
common burdens imposed upon the Church in England. These
included contributions to the sums levied upon ecclesiastics by
Convocation for the pope and for the king in times of need; and they
contributed, albeit, perhaps, like the rest of the English Church,
unwillingly, their share to the “procurations” of papal legates and
questors. Sometimes the call thus made upon their revenues was
very considerable, especially as the king did not hesitate on
occasions to make particular demands upon the wealthier religious
houses. At Convocation, and in the Provincial Synods the regular
clergy were well represented. Thus, from the diocese of Exeter in
the year 1328-9 there were summoned to the Synod of London
seven abbots to be present personaliter, whilst five Augustinian and
seven Benedictine priories also chose and sent proctors to the
meeting. As a rule, apparently, at all such meetings the abbots, and
priors who were canonically elected to rule their houses with full
jurisdiction, had the right, and were indeed bound to be present,
unless prevented by a canonical reason. The archbishop, as such,
had no more to say to the regulars than to any other ecclesiastic of
his province, except that during a vacancy in any diocese he might,
and indeed frequently did, visit the religious houses in that diocese
personally or by commission.

3. THE ORDER
Besides the supervision and help of the bishop, almost every
religious house had some connection with and assistance from the
Order to which it belonged. In the case of the great united
corporations like the Cluniacs, the Cistercians, the
Premonstratensians, and later the Carthusians, the dependence of
the individual monastery upon the centre of government was very
real both in theory and in practice. The abbots or superiors had to
attend at General Chapters, held, for instance, at Cluny, Citeaux, or
Prémontré, and were subject to regular visitations made by or in
behalf of the general superior. In the case of a vacancy the election
was supervised and the elect examined and confirmed either by, or
by order of, the chief authority, or, in the case of daughter-houses,
by the superior of the parent abbey. Even in the case of the
Benedictines, who did not form an Order in the modern sense of the
word, after the Council of Lateran in 1215, the monasteries were
united into Congregations, for common purposes and mutual help
and encouragement. In England there were two such unions,
corresponding to the two Provinces of Canterbury and York, and the
superiors met at regular intervals in General Chapters. Little is
known of the meetings of the Northern Province; but in the South
the records show that they were regularly held to the last. The first
and ordinary business of these General Chapters was to secure a
proper standard of regular observance; and whatever, after
discussion, was agreed upon, provided that it met with the approval
of the president of the meeting, was to be observed without any
appeal. Moreover, at each of these Chapters two or more prudent
and religious men were chosen to visit every Benedictine house of
the Province in the pope’s name, with full power to correct where
any correction might be considered necessary. In case these papal
Visitors found abuses existing in any monastery which might render
the deposition of the abbot necessary or desirable, they had to
denounce him to the bishop of the diocese, who was to take the
necessary steps for his canonical removal. If the bishop did not, or
would not act, the Visitors were bound to refer the case to the Holy
See. By the provisions of the Lateran Council in a.d. 1215, the
bishops were warned to see that the religious houses in their
dioceses were in good order, “so that when the aforesaid Visitors
come there, they may find them worthy of commendation rather
than of correction.” They were, however, warned to be careful “not
to make their visitations a burden or expense, and to see that the
rights of superiors were maintained, without injury to those of their
subjects.”
In this system a double security was provided for the well-being of
the monasteries. The bishops were maintained in their old position
as Visitors, and were constituted judges where the conduct of the
superior might necessitate the gravest censures. At the same time,
by providing that all the monasteries should be visited every three
years by monks chosen by the General Chapter and acting in the
name of the pope, any failure of the bishop to fulfil his duty as
diocesan, or any incapacity on his part to understand the due
working of the monastic system, received the needful corrective.
One other useful result to the monasteries may be attributed to the
regular meetings of General Chapter. It was by the wise provision of
these Chapters that members of the monastic Orders received the
advantage of a University training. Common colleges were
established by their decrees at Oxford and Cambridge, and all
superiors were charged to send their most promising students to
study and take their degrees in the national Universities. Strangely
enough as it may appear to us in these days, even in these colleges
the autonomy of the individual Benedictine houses seems to have
been scrupulously safeguarded; and the common college consisted
of small houses, in which the students of various monasteries dwelt
apart, though attending a common hall and chapel.

4. THE IMPROPRIATED CHURCHES

In regard to the external relations of the monastic houses, a word
must be said about their dealings with the parochial churches
appropriated to their use. Either by the gift of the king or that of
some lay patron, many churches to which they had the right of
presentation became united with monasteries, and a considerable
portion of the parish revenues was applied to the support of the
religious, to keeping up adequate charity, or “hospitality” as it was
called in the neighbourhood, or other such objects. The practice of
impropriation has been regarded by most writers as a manifest
abuse, and there is no call to attempt to defend it. The practice was
not confined, however, to the monks, or to the action of lay people
who found therein an easy way to become benefactors of some
religious house. Bishops and other ecclesiastics, as founders of
colleges and hospitals, were quite as ready to increase the revenues
of these establishments in the same way.
In order that a church might be legally appropriated to a religious
establishment the approval of the bishop had to be obtained, and
the special reasons for the donation by the lay patron set forth. If
these were considered satisfactory, the formal permission of the Holy
See was, at any rate after the twelfth century, necessary for the
completion of the transaction. The monastery became the patron of
the benefice thus attached to it, and had to secure that the spiritual
needs of the parish were properly attended to by the vicars whom
they presented to the cure. These vicars were paid an adequate
stipend, usually settled by episcopal authority.
Roughly speaking, the present distinction between a vicarage and a
rectory shows where churches had been appropriated to a religious
house or other public body, and where they remained merely
parochial. The vicar was the priest appointed at a fixed stipend by
the corporation which took the rectorial tithes. It has been calculated
that at least a third part of the tithes of the richest benefices in
England were appropriated either in part or wholly to religious and
secular bodies, such as colleges, military orders, lay hospitals, guilds,
convents; even deans, cantors, treasurers, and chancellors of
cathedral bodies were also largely endowed with rectorial tithes. In
this way, at the dissolution of the religious houses under Henry VIII.,
the greater tithes of an immense number of parish churches, now
known as vicarages, passed into the hands of the noblemen and
others who obtained grants of the property of the suppressed
monasteries.
Whilst the impropriation of churches to monastic establishments
undoubtedly took money out of the locality for the benefit of the
religious, it is but fair to recognise that in many ways the benefit
thus obtained was returned with interest. Not only did the monks
furnish the ranks of the secular priesthood with youths who had
received their early education in the cloister school or at the
almonry; but the churches and vicarages of places impropriated
were the special care of the religious. An examination of these
churches frequently reveals the fact that the religious bodies did not
hesitate to spend large sums of money upon the rebuilding and
adornment of structures which belonged to them in this way.
 HENRY VII GIVING CHARTER TO MONKS AT WESTMINSTER HALL

5. KING AND PARLIAMENT

Of many of the religious houses, especially of the greater abbeys,
the king either was, or came to be considered, the founder. It has
already been pointed out what this relation to the Crown implied on
the part of the monks. Besides this the Crown could, and in spite of
the protests of those chiefly concerned, frequently, if not ordinarily
did, appoint abbots and other superiors of religious houses members
of the commissions of peace for the counties in which their
establishments were situated. They were likewise made collectors
for grants and loans to the Crown, especially when the tax was to be
levied on ecclesiastical property; and according to the extent of their
lands and possessions, like the lay-holders from the Crown, they had
to furnish soldiers to fight under the royal standard. In the same way
the abbot and other superiors could be summoned by the king to
Parliament as barons. The number of religious thus called to the
House of Peers at first appears to have depended somewhat upon
the fancy of the sovereign; it certainly varied considerably. In 1216,
for example, from the North Province of England eleven abbots and
eight priors, and from the South seventy-one abbots and priors—in
all ninety religious—were summoned to Parliament by Henry III. In
1272 Edward I. called only fifty-seven, mostly abbots, a few,
however, being cathedral priors; and in later times the number of
monastic superiors in the House of Peers generally included only the
twenty-five abbots of the greater houses and the prior of Coventry,
and these were accounted as barons of the kingdom.

6. THE MONASTIC TENANTS

The division of the monastic revenues between the various
obedientiaries for the support of the burdens of their special offices
was fairly general, at least in the great religious houses. It was for
the benefit of the house, inasmuch as it left a much smaller revenue
to be dealt with by the royal exchequer at every vacancy. It served,
also, at least one other good purpose. It brought many of the
religious into contact with the tenants of the monastic estates and
gave them more knowledge of their condition and mode of life;
whilst the personal contact, which was possible in a small
administration, was certainly for the mutual benefit of master and
tenant. Since the prior, sacrist, almoner and other officials all had to
look after the administration of the manors and farms assigned to
their care, they had to have separate granges and manor-halls. In
these they had to carry out their various duties, and meet their
tenants on occasions, as was the case, for example, at Glastonbury,
where the sacrist had all the tithes of Glastonbury, including West
Pennard, to collect, and had his special tithe-barn, etc., for the
purpose.
Two books, amongst others, The Rentalia et Custumaria of
Glastonbury, published by the Somerset Record Society, and the
Halmote Rolls of Durham, issued by the Surtees Society, enable any
student who may desire to do so, to obtain a knowledge of the
relations which existed between the monastic landlords and their
tenants. At the great monastery of the West Country the tenure of
the land was of all kinds, from the estates held under the obligation
of so many knights’ fees, to the poor cottier with an acre or two.
Some of the tenants had to find part of their rent in service, part in
kind, part in payment. Thus, one had to find thirty salmon, “each as
thick as a man’s fist at the tail,” for the use of the monastery; some
had to find thousands of eels from Sedgemoor; others, again, so
many measures of honey. Some of those who worked for the
monastery or its estates had fixed wages, as, for example, the
gardeners; others had to be content with what was given them.
Mr. Elton, in an appendix to the Glastonbury volume, has analysed
the information to be found in its pages, and from this some items of
interest may be given here. A cottier with five acres of arable land
paid 4d. less one farthing for rent, and five hens as “kirkset” if he
were married. From Michaelmas to Midsummer he was bound to do
three days’ labour a week of farm work on the monastic lands, such
as toiling on the fallows, winnowing corn, hedging, ditching, and
fencing. During the rest of the year, that is, in the harvest time, he
had to do five days’ work on the farm, and could be called upon to
lend a hand in any kind of occupation, except loading and carting.
Like the farmers, he had his allowance of one sheaf of corn for each
acre he reaped, and a “laveroc,” or as much grass as he could gather
on his hook, for every acre he mowed. Besides this general work he
had to bear his share in looking after the vineyard at Glastonbury.
Take another example of tenure: one “Golliva of the lake,” held a
three-acre tenement. It consisted of a croft of two acres and one
acre in the common field. She made a small payment for this; and
for extra work she had three sheaves, measured by a strap kept for
the purpose. When she went haymaking she brought her own rake;
she took her share in all harvest work, had to winnow a specified
quantity of corn before Christmas, and did odd jobs of all kinds, such
as carrying a writ for the abbot and driving cattle to Glastonbury.
The smaller cottagers were apparently well treated. A certain Alice,
for example, had half an acre field for which she had to bring water
to the reapers at the harvest and sharpen their sickles for them. On
the whole, though work was plenty and the life no doubt hard, the
lot of the Somerset labourer on the Glastonbury estate was not too
unpleasant. Of amusements the only one named is the institution of
Scot-ales, an entertainment which lasted two, or even three days.
The lord of the manor might hold three in the year. On the first day,
Saturday, the married men and youths came with their pennies and
were served three times with ale. On the Sunday the husbands and
their wives came; but if the youths came they had to pay another
penny. On the Monday any of them could come if they had paid on
the other days.
On the whole, the manors of the monastery may be said to have
been worked as a co-operative farm. The reader of the accounts in
this volume may learn of common meals, of breakfasts and
luncheons and dinners being prepared ready for those who were at
work on the common lands or on the masters’ farming operations. It
appears that they met together in the great hall for a common
Christmas entertainment. They furnished the great yule-log to burn
at the dinner, and each one brought his dish and mug, with a napkin
“if he wanted to eat off a cloth”; and still more curiously, his own
contribution of firewood, that his portion of food might be properly
cooked.
Of even greater interest is the picture of village life led by monastic
tenants which is afforded by the Durham Halmote Rolls.
“It is hardly a figure of speech,” writes Mr. Booth in the
preface of this volume, “to say we have (in these Rolls)
 village life photographed. The dry record of tenures is
peopled by men and women who occupy them, whose
acquaintance we make in these records under the various
phases of village life. We see them in their tofts
surrounded by their crofts, with their gardens of pot-
herbs. We see how they ordered the affairs of the village
when summoned by the bailiff to the vill to consider
matters which affected the common weal of the
community. We hear of their trespasses and wrong
doings, and how they were remedied or punished, of their
strifes and contentions and how they were repressed, of
their attempts, not always ineffective, to grasp the
principle of co-operation, as shown by their by-laws; of
their relations with the Prior, who represented the Convent
and alone stood in relation of lord. He appears always to
have dealt with his tenants, either in person or through
his officers, with much consideration; and in the
imposition of fines we find them invariably tempering
justice with mercy.”
In fact, as the picture of mediæval village life among the tenants of
the Durham monastery is displayed in the pages of these Halmote
accounts, it would seem almost as if the reader were transported to
some Utopia of Dreamland. Many of the points that in these days
advanced politicians would desire to see introduced into the village
communities of modern England in the way of improved sanitary and
social conditions, and to relieve the deadly dulness of country life,
were seen in full working order in Durham and Cumberland in pre-
Reformation days. Local provisions for public health and general
convenience are evidenced by the watchful vigilance of the village
officials over the water supplies, the stringent measures taken in
regard to springs and wells, to prevent the fouling of useful streams,
as to the common places for washing clothes, and the regular times
for emptying and cleansing ponds and milldams.
Labour, too, was lightened and the burdens of life eased by co-
operation on an extensive scale. A common mill ground the corn of
the tenants, and their flour was baked into bread at a common oven.
A smith employed by the community worked at their will in a
common forge, and common shepherds and herdsmen watched the
sheep and cattle of the various tenants, when pastured on the fields
common to the whole community. The pages of the volume, too,
contain numerous instances of the kindly consideration extended to
their tenants by the monastic proprietors, and the relation which
existed between them was in reality rather that of rent-chargers
than of absolute owners. In fact, as the editor of this interesting
volume says: “Notwithstanding the rents, duties, and services and
the fine paid on entering, the inferior tenants of the Prior had a
beneficial interest in their holdings, which gave rise to a recognised
system of tenant-right, which we may see growing into a customary
right; the only limitation of the tenant’s right being inability, from
poverty or other cause, to pay rent or perform the accustomed
services.” And, it may be added, even when it was necessary for a
tenant on these accounts to leave, provision was made with the new
tenant to give the late owner shelter and a livelihood.
SENESCHAL JOHN WHITEWELL AND MOTHER
ILLUMINATOR OF ST. ALBANS
 CHAPTER X
THE PAID SERVANTS OF THE MONASTERY

No account of the officials of a mediæval monastery would be

complete without some notice of the assistants, other than the
monks, who took so large a part in the administration. Incidentally
something has already been said about the paid lay officers and
servants; but their position requires that their place and work should
be discussed somewhat more fully. They were all of them salaried
servants; and frequently, if not generally, faithful, lifelong friends of
the monks, whose interest in the well-being of the establishment
with which they were connected was almost as keen and real as that
of the brethren themselves. In some of the greater houses their
number was very considerable, and even in small monasteries the
records of the dissolution make it clear that there were, at least in
most of them, a great number of such retainers. In many places the
higher lay offices, such as steward, cook, etc., became in process of
time, hereditary, and were much prized by the family in whose
possession they were. It was also possible, of course, that by default
of male heirs, the position might pass to the female line. Thus in one
case the office of cook in a great Benedictine monastery was held by
a woman in respect to her inheritance of the last holder. She became
the ward of the superior, and he had thus a good deal to say to her
marriage, by which she transmitted the office to her husband as her
dower. Among the various paid officials the following were the most
important.
 1. THE CATERER, OR BUYER FOR THE
COMMUNITY
The caterer, says one Custumal, “ought to be a broad-minded and
strong-minded man: one who acts with decision, and is wise, just
and upright in things belonging to his office; one who is prudent,
knowing, discreet and careful when purchasing meat and fish in the
market or from the salesman.” Under the kitchener, the caterer had
to look after the cook and his assistants, and every day to see that
the expenses were properly and faithfully set down. He had to watch
that the right things were given out to those who had to prepare
them, and at the daily meals of the community it was his duty to
stand at the kitchen hatchway and see that they were served up in a
fitting manner. In the market, the buyer for the superior always gave
way to the caterer for the community. In the case of Edmundsbury
at least, it was settled by Abbot Sampson that this was always to be
so. Under the conventual caterer were two servants always ready at
his call to carry the provisions he purchased in the market to the
monastery. The stipend of the caterer was whatever had been
agreed as just, and he usually had clothes “according to his station,”
and certain provisions at his disposal.

2. THE ABBOT’S COOK

This official held more the position of a steward, or valet to the
superior, than that of a cook. He had to go each morning to the
abbot or prior for orders, and to find out what would be required for
the superior’s table for the day, and he had then to proceed to the
kitchener to inform him what had to be provided. He helped in the
kitchen on occasions such as great feasts, when he was asked to do
so by the kitchener; and as a matter of course, when there were
many strangers or other persons to be entertained and the work was
consequently heavy. For this and such-like services he received a
stipend from the kitchener; but his ordinary payment came from the
superior, who also furnished him with his livery. He was told by the
Custumals to remember that, although he was the abbot’s cook, he
had, nevertheless, to obey the kitchener in all things, and to look
conscientiously to try and prevent waste and superfluity in spices
and such other things as passed through his hands.
If he needed help, the abbot’s valet could have a boy to run on
errands and generally assist; and they were both warned that in the
season for pig-killing and bacon-curing they, like all other servants,
were to be ready to help in the important work of salting. He had, as
part of his duty, to keep a careful list of all the spoons, mugs, dishes,
and other table necessaries, and after meals to see that they were
clean; and, if not, to clean them before the close of the day. Once
each year the inventory had to be shown to, and checked by, the
kitchener.

3. THE LARDERER
The larderer should be “as perfect, just, and faithful a servant” as
could be found. He had charge of the keys of all the outhouses
attached to the great larder of the monastery, which in one
Custumal are specified as “the hay-house, the stockfish-house, and
the pudding-house.” These keys, together with that of the outer
larder itself, he had always to carry with him on his girdle, as he
alone might be responsible for their safety. In all matters he, too,
was to be under the kitchener, and not to absent himself without his
permission. Amongst his various duties a few may be mentioned
here. He had to grind and deliver in powder to the cook all the
pepper, mustard, and spices required for the cooking of the
conventual meals. When the convent were to have “bake-meats,”
such as venison, turbot, eels, etc., the larderer had to prepare the
dish for the cook, and to sprinkle it over with saffron. All the live
animals intended for the kitchen, such as sheep, bullocks, calves,
pigs, etc., had to pass through his hands. He had to see to the
killing, skinning, and preparing them for the spit; the tallow he kept
in order to provide the treasurer with material for the winter candles.
The larderer also had to see that the live birds, such as pheasants,
partridges, capons, hens, chickens, pigeons, etc., were fed properly,
and were ready for the table when the kitchener should need them.
In the same way the store of fish, both in the stews, and salted in
the fish-house, were under his charge, as were also the peas and
beans for the convent pottage.

4. THE COOK
For the infirmary, and especially for the use of those who had been
subjected to the periodical blood-letting, there was a special cook
skilled in the preparation of strengthening broths and soups. He was
the chief or meat-cook of the establishment, and had under him two
boys, one as a general helper, the other to act as his “turnbroach.”
He was appointed to his office by the abbot, and at least in the case
of some of the greater houses it was secured to him for life by a
formal grant. It was his duty to provide those who had been
“blooded” with a plate of meat broth on the second and third day,
and also to give them, and the sick generally, any particular dish
they might fancy. Moreover, he had to furnish the whole community
with soup, meat, and vegetables on all days when meat was eaten
by the whole convent.
He had also to see to the process of salting any meat in the proper
seasons, or whenever it might be necessary. He also prepared the
various soups or pottages for the community; for instance,
“Frumenty” on all Sundays, Tuesdays, and Thursdays, from August
1st to September 29th; or “Letborry,” made with milk, eggs, and
saffron on fish days, from July till October; or “Charlet,” the same
composition with the addition of pork, for other days during the
same time; or “Jussel,” from Easter to July; or “Mortrews,” in which
the quantity of meat was increased, and which was served on all
days, except those of abstinence, during the winter months, from All
Saints’ day to Lent.
One English Custumal warns the cook to reflect often that his work
in the kitchen is necessarily heavy and tedious; and that he should
endeavour to keep up a goodly feeling between himself and his
assistants, for “without this mutual assistance it is difficult” to do
what his office requires of him for the good of others. For his trouble
he had a fixed wage and a house; and many recognised perquisites,
the choppings of joints, and two joints from every other chine of
pork, as well as half the dripping that came from the joints roasted
for the community.

5. THE GUEST-HALL COOK

The cook to attend to the needs of visitors was appointed by the
cellarer, and had under him a boy to help in any way he might direct.
His office was frequently for life, and certainly, once appointed, he
could be removed only with difficulty. He had to get everything ready
for the entertainment of strangers and of the parents of the
religious, whenever they came to the monastery and at whatsoever
hour of the day or night. Besides this ordinary work he had to assist,
when disengaged, in preparing the meals for the monks, and in the
season for salting the pork and mutton, to help in that work with the
chief cook and the larderer. He was to be in all things obedient to
the kitchener in the matters of his office, and in the times of his
service was not to absent himself except with the permission of that
official. His wages were paid by the cellarer according to agreement;
and he had the usual kitchen perquisites of choppings and dripping.

6. THE FISH-COOKS
In the large monasteries, such as, for example, Edmundsbury, there
were two cooks for the fish-dishes: the first was properly called the
“fish-cook,” the other the “pittance-cook.” Their appointment was
made for life, and by letters-patent signed by the abbot in Chapter,
with the prior and the community as witnesses. Though called the
“fish-cooks” these servants had also to attend to the general work of
the kitchen, even on days when meat was eaten, and to cook the
meat and make the gravy required; whilst the “pittance-cook” was
specially detailed to fry or poach the eggs required for the extra
portions, or to prepare whatever else took their place in the dishes
served as pittances to the community, or to individuals such as the
president of the refectory, and the priest who had sung the High
Mass. These two cooks also had to help in the salting time, and in
other common work of the kitchen.

7. INFIRMARY COOK
To serve the sick a prudent, skilful cook was to be chosen by the
infirmarian, who, besides the knowledge of his art, should have
compassion and feel pity for the sufferings and afflictions of the sick.
Like the officers previously named, the appointment of the infirmary
cook was for life; but though he could not be moved at the whim of
a superior, he was not formally appointed in Chapter, but by a letter
from the infirmarian. Day and night he was to show himself
solicitous for the welfare of those in the infirmary, and be ready at
all times to make for them what they needed or might fancy. He,
too, had to help in the general kitchen, and he had to obtain thence
all the requisite food for those who were having their meals in the
infirmary. Like the rest of the above-named officials, he had to give
what help he could in the kitchen in the seasons of great pressure,
and in particular at the time for the winter salting, about St. Martin’s
Day.
When the infirmary cook or servant came to die, for his faithful
service he was borne to the grave, like all the other servants of the
monastery, by the whole convent. His body was met at the great
door of the church by the community in procession, and after Mass
had been celebrated for the repose of his soul by the sub-sacrist, the
monks carried his remains, as that of a good and faithful servant
gone to his reward, to his last resting-place. In some houses there
was even a special portion of the consecrated ground dedicated to
the burial of monastic servants: at Bury, for example, it was called
“Sergeant’s hill,” and the Custumal says that in that “venerable
monastery” such old friends “shall never be forgotten in the prayers
and devout supplications of the community.”

8. THE SALTER
The salter, who was also called the mustardarius, was appointed by
a letter of the kitchener; and like the rest he was irremovable after
his appointment, except for grave reasons, and then only with
difficulty. By his office he had to see to the supply and preparation of
all the mustard used in seasoning the dishes and by the brethren in
the various places where food was partaken, such as the refectory,
guest-hall, infirmary, etc. This was by no means the unimportant
office we might in these days be inclined to consider it, as it was
then considered useful if not necessary to take mustard with all
salted food, flesh or fish. The quantity thus required in a large
establishment was very considerable. The salter was also expected
to make some, if not all, the sauces required for certain dishes. At
Easter, for instance, he was to prepare “vertsauce” with vinegar for
the lamb, if the herb could be found for it; by which it may be
supposed that “mint-sauce” is meant, except that this particular
concoction was supposed also to go with mackerel as well as lamb!
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