International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 163 (2025) 108667

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International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer

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Synergistic effects of cadmium telluride and graphite nanoparticles with

entropy analysis through Keller-box method
Mahnoor Sarfraz a,*, Khursheed Muhammad b , N. Ameer Ahammad c, Ibrahim E. Elseesy d
a
Faculty of Engineering Sciences, Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology (GIKI), Topi 23640, KP, Pakistan
b
Department of Humanities and Sciences, School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (SEECS), National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST),
Islamabad, Pakistan
c
Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science, University of Tabuk, P.O. Box 741, Tabuk 71491, Saudi Arabia
d
Mechanical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha 61421, Saudi Arabia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Motivated by the growing demand for high-efficiency photovoltaic systems, this research innovatively explores
Keller-box method the enhancement of solar cell efficiency and thermal regulation through the strategic combination of cadmium
Nanofluids telluride and graphite nanoparticles in water. It compares hybrid nanofluids (CdTe+C+H2 O) with mono nano-
Linear radiation
fluids (CdTe+H2 O) across two distinct stagnation-point flows: Crane’s stretching flow (Hiemenz flow) and radial
Photovoltaic cells
stretching flow (Homann flow). The novelty of the study stems from the synergistic properties of these nano-
Radial stretching
Spherical-shaped particles, as cadmium telluride excels in converting sunlight into electricity, while graphite offers thermal sta-
bility and energy storage potential, making their combination a powerful tool for optimizing a system. In
addition, the effects of critical factors, such as permeability, Joule heating, the Hall effect, energy generation/
absorption, and irreversibility, are meticulously studied for spherical-shaped particles in both profiles. Numerical
solutions are derived using the Keller-Box Method in MATLAB, demonstrating the method’s accuracy in solving
nonlinear problems. The results conclusively demonstrate that hybrid nanofluids offer superior thermal con-
ductivity and heat management compared to mono nanofluids. Notably, radiative heat transfer is the dominant
mechanism in boosting solar cell energy output and improving thermal insulation. The stretching-strain rate ratio
augments the energy transport rate while reducing frictional forces. The study also finds that Crane’s stretching
flow exhibits more pronounced effects, displaying stronger thermal conductivity and superior suitability for
photovoltaic cells. These findings underscore the potential of hybrid nanofluids in next-generation solar energy
systems.

This innovative approach aims to enhance the thermal properties of the

1. Introduction fluid beyond what was achievable with mono NFs. By combining
different NPs, HNFs can optimize heat transfer and improve thermal
The increasing demand for energy-efficient systems is driven by the conductivity more effectively. Iijima [1] experimentally proposed the
necessity for effective temperature management across a wide range of innovative idea of carbon nanotubes (CNTs), where two graphite rods
everyday applications, from electronics to industrial processes. Whether act as electrodes and transmit electricity by generating an arch of sparks
it’s cooling mechanisms in electronic devices, thermistors, resistors, or and carbon gas clouds between them that cause the anode rod tip to
solar/photovoltaic cells, manipulating heat efficiently has become vaporize. Once the carbon-rich air settled, a thin coating of black soot
important. This need has led to the development and utilization of was created which was discovered to be CNTs. Choi and Eastman [2]
nanofluids (NFs), which are engineered fluids comprising nanoparticles. used “nanofluid” to characterize fixed nanoscale particles floating in a
The purpose of this suspension is to enhance thermal conductivity and fluid medium while the liquid’s primary constituents were still complex
heat transfer capabilities, and it makes them more efficient and reliable hydrocarbon molecules. According to Jang and Choi [3], the motion of
for both cooling/heating applications. An advanced modification of nanoparticles via Brownian diffusion at both molecular-nanoscale levels
traditional NFs includes hybrid nanofluids (HNFs), which are created by impacts the thermophysical properties of suspensions. These properties
dispersing multiple types of nanoparticles (NPs) within a base fluid (BF). comprise viscosity, specific heat capacity, density, and electro-thermal

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mahnoor@[Link] (M. Sarfraz), [Link]@[Link] (K. Muhammad).

[Link]

Available online 12 February 2025

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M. Sarfraz et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 163 (2025) 108667

Abbreviations ν Kinematic viscosity (m2 s− 1 )

R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , R 5 Known coefficients in discretized equation
BF Base fluid Bo Magnetic field intensity (kg s− 2 A− 1 )
BCs Boundary conditions M Magnetic number
BL Boundary-layer Nu Nusselt number
HNF Hybrid nanofluid kp Porosity coefficient (m2 )
KBM Keller-box method λp Porosity parameter
MHD Magnetohydrodynamic Pr Prandtl number
NF Nanofluid p
̂ Pressure (kg m− 1 s− 2 )
NPs Nanoparticles Rd Radiation parameter
SPFs Stagnation-point flows
qr Radiative flux (kg m− 3 )
List of symbols Re Reynolds number
Be Bejan number so, r o SPF strain rates (s− 1 )
β* Biot number po Stagnation pressure (kg m− 1 s− 2 )
Br1 , Br2 Brinkman numbers along x and y axis h Step size
CdTe Cadmium telluride ℓ1 , ℓ2 , ℓ3 Strain rate (s− 1 )
(x, y, z) Cartesian coordinates (m) s1, r 1 Stretching strain rates (s− 1 )
L Characteristic length (m) ω Stretching-strain ratio
Df Coefficient of skin drag T
̂w , T̂∞ Temperature at surface and far field (K)
N 1 , N 2 , N 3 , N 4 , N 5 Coefficients of discretized energy equation Ω Temperature ratio
M 1 ,M 2 ,M 3 ,M 4 ,M 5 Coefficients of discretized momentum equation k Thermal conductivity (kg m s− 3 K− 1 )
ϱ Density (kg m− 3 ) p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 Variables for conversion into first order system
ξ, η, ζ Dimensionless variable U,
̂ V, ̂ ̂ W Velocity components (m s− 1 )
μ Dynamic viscosity (kg m− 1 s− 1 ) a Volume fraction
Ec1 , Ec2 Eckert numbers along x and y axis Qo Volumetric heat-producing/absorbing coefficient
σ Electrical conductivity (kg− 1 m− 3 s3 A2 ) (kg m− 1 s− 3 K− 1 )
ℯʹ Electron charge (A s) τxz , τyz Wall stresses (kg m− 1 s− 2 )
nℯʹ Electron density (m− 3 ) H2 O Water
Sℊ , Sℊo Entropy (dimensional) (kg m− 3 s− 2 K− 1 )
C Graphite Subscripts
mℯ Hall parameter x, y, z, η Derivatives w.r.t x, y, z, η
cp Heat capacity (m2 s− 2 K− 1 ) f , hf , nf Base fluid, Hybrid nanofluid, and nanofluid
Iteration index
Heat flux (kg m− 3 )
i
qw
δq Heat-producing/absorbing parameter

conductivity. To illustrate the distribution of nanoparticle improvement great significance due to their numerous applications in engineering
via thermophysical characteristics of polymers, Maxwell-Garnett [4] systems. SPFs occur at points where fluid motion comes to a halt. These
presented a theoretical framework for characterizing the thermal con- flows are often used as reference points in high-speed and pressure-
ductivity of composite materials. Brinkman [5] gave the relations for the driven applications (airfoils), where they can lead to maximum energy
effective viscosity of the nanofluid for two-phase mixtures. Xuan and Li transfer and impact aerodynamic heating, drag reduction, and lift
[6] performed experimental measurements of the apparent viscosity of optimization in vehicles. Hiemenz [13] explored the steady flow near a
transformer oil-water nanofluid and water‑copper nanofluid around the planar stagnation point over a rigid surface. The investigation focused
20–50 ◦ C temperature spectrum and demonstrated moderately good on a cylindrical object submerged in a uniform fluid stream. The analysis
agreement with Brinkman’s theory. Tiwari and Das [7] integrated these provided a mathematical characterization of the velocity profiles near
effects for viscosity, density, specific heat capacity, and thermal the stagnation point. It established that velocities at different positions
expansion and incorporated these models into their study. The exami- along the streamlines, away from the stagnation point, would be the
nation of these properties paved the way for new studies which signify same. Homann [14] provided the solutions for SPFs for viscous fluid
their applications in numerous disciplines. This study implemented two which impinges radially and symmetrically onto a flat surface. Howarth
types of NPs, namely cadmium telluride and graphite. The novelty of [15] significantly improved upon the solutions first introduced by Hie-
this analysis lies in the selection of these NPs, as they have great menz. He extended the analysis to a three-dimensional flow near a
importance in photoelectrochemical solar cells. This study implemented stagnation point and developed a more general form of boundary layer
two types of NPs, namely cadmium telluride (CdTe) and graphite (C). equations that could consider the effects of three-dimensionality in the
The novelty of this analysis lies in the selection of these NPs, as they have flow. He also provided more accurate predictions of fluid behavior near
great importance in photoelectrochemical cells. The composition and curved surfaces or flows with distinctive pressure gradients. Rott [16]
attributes of CdTe thin films were discussed by Chu et al. [8] and Yi et al. presented an unsteady rigid-rotary harmonic motion of a plate in its
[9]. Başol and McCandless [10] projected a review of applications plane (Karman-Cochran). Davey [17] analyzed the boundary-layer (BL)
generated due to CdTe. Ahmad et al. [11] gave the computational flow at a saddle point of attachment and examined the solution of
evaluation of convective energy induced HNF for blade shaped CdTe and Howarth’s equation for the saddle point when the fluid attachment point
C. Vinothkumar and Tamalapakula [12] demonstrated the non-uniform is not linear. Crane [18] proposed self-similar solutions for the flow over
heat producing/absorbing Williamson fluid. a stretching surface. These studies laid the foundation of numerous ap-
In fluid mechanics, the study of stagnation-point flows (SPFs) holds plications, some of which are discussed by Misra et al. [19] and Brimmo

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M. Sarfraz et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 163 (2025) 108667

Fig. 1. Geometrical configuration.

and Qasaimeh [20]. Weidman and Turner [21] combined all such flows
Table 1
and presented their flow dynamics. Some recent studies related to SPFs
Nanoparticle’s thermophysical properties (see Ahmad et al. [9]).
can be seen in Refs. [22–26].
Motivated by the growing demand for high-efficiency photovoltaic σ k cp ϱ Pr
1 3
(kg− m− T 3 A2 ) (kg m s− 3
K− 1 ) (m2 s− 2
K− 1 ) (kg m− 3
)
systems and inspired by the literature presented above, this research
explores the enhancement of solar cell efficiency and thermal regulation H2 O 5.5 × 10− 6 0.613 4179 997.1 6.2
through the strategic combination of cadmium telluride and graphite CdTe 7 × 10− 7 7.5 209 5855 –
C 5 × 102 25 720 2060
nanoparticles in water. The significance of HNFs over mono NFs is
–

emphasized by incorporating two types of suspensions: CdTe+C+H2 O in

HNFs and CdTe+H2 O in mono NFs, analyzed across two types of ◆ These nanoparticles combinedly contain only 10 % (5 % of CdTe
stagnation-point flows (SPFs): Crane’s stretching associated with Hie- and 5 % of C) of the whole suspension in HNF. While the volume
menz flow and radial stretching associated with Homann flow. The fraction of CdTe in maintained 10 % for NF case.
novelty of this study lies in the selection of nanoparticles. CdTe NPs are ◆ The surface’s boundary persists convective heat transfer with its
known for their photovoltaic applications, particularly their efficiency coefficient q and temperature T̂ w , while at far away it becomes
in transforming sunlight into electric energy in thin-film solar cells.
w
T
̂ ∞.
Similarly, graphite NPs are commonly utilized for energy storage in
batteries and supercapacitors due to their thermal stability. By ◆ The velocity field varies w.r.t (x, y, z) coordinates for U,
̂ V, W
̂ ̂
combining these two types of NPs, the study aims to leverage CdTe’s components with uniform magnetic field as [0, 0, B o ], applied
energy conversion efficiency alongside graphite’s thermal management along z-axis.
properties. Additionally, the effects of permeability, Joule heating, Hall ◆ The surface is imbedded with porous medium with NPs, Hall ef-
effect, and energy generation/absorption for spherical nanoparticles are fect, Ohmic heating, heat producing/absorption source, Darcy’s
examined in both cases. The thermal irreversibility is also analyzed to permeability, and linear solar radiation.
understand its impact on the system’s performance. Numerical solutions ◆ The surface encompasses a comparison of an electrically con-
are computed using the Keller-Box Method (KBM) in MATLAB, which ducting HNF and mono NF and combines the nanoparticle’s
provides accurate solutions for nonlinear problems. thermophysical properties (see Table 1).

The governing equations are (following Weidman and Turner [21]

2. Mathematical modeling
and Muhammad et al. [26])
Consider the surface as shown in Fig. 1, with the following ∂U
̂ ∂V W
̂ ∂̂
assumptions: + + = 0, (1)
∂x ∂y ∂z

◆ Bi-directional axial stretching of a heat producing and absorbing { ̂} { 2̂

∂ U ∂2 U ̂ } μhf
̂ ∂2 U
̂ ∂U + V
̂ ∂U + ̂ ∂U ∂̂p
̂ ̂
surface with SPF and stretching strain rates (s o , r o ) and (s 1 , r 1 ), ϱhf U W =− + μhf + + + U
̂
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2 kp
respectively, that induces the flow with porous medium. { }
◆ Through the variation of these strain rates, two different flows are σ hf B 2o ̂ + σ hf mℯ V
+ ( )2 − U ̂ ,
generated, namely Crane’s stretching associated with Hiemenz σhf mℯ σf
1+
SPF and radial stretching associated with Homann SPF. σf

◆ Incorporating cadmium telluride (CdTe) and graphite (C) nano- (2)

particles in pure water (H2 O) to make hybrid nanofluid, while
mono nanofluid contains only CdTe in H2 O.

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M. Sarfraz et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 163 (2025) 108667

( ̂) ( 2̂ ̂ ) μhf
̂ ∂V + V
̂
̂ ∂V + ̂
̂ ∂V ∂̂p ∂ V ∂2 V ̂ ∂2 V √̅̅̅̅̅ √̅̅̅̅̅
ϱhf U W =− + μhf + 2 + 2 + V
̂ νf ̂ νf
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂x 2 ∂y ∂z kp ψ 1 = ℓ1 x f (ξ, ζ, η), ψ 2 = ℓ2 ŷ
g (ξ, ζ, η),
ℓ3 ℓ3
{ }
σ hf B 2o ̂ − σhf mℯ U
( )
+ ( )2 − V ̂ , ̂ y, z) = ∂ψ 1 , V(x,
U(x, ̂ y, z) = ∂ψ 2 , ̂
W(x, y, z) = −
∂ψ 1 ∂ψ 2
+ ,
1+
σhf mℯ σf ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂y
σf √̅̅̅̅̅
(3) T(x, ̂w − T
̂ y, z) = ( T ̂ ∞ , with ξ = x , ζ = y , η =
θ(ξ, ζ, η) + T
̂ ∞ )̂ ℓ3
z.
L L νf
( ) ( 2̂ )
∂ W ∂2 ̂W ∂2 ̂ (7)
̂ ∂W + V
̂ ∂W + ̂ W ∂̂p W
̂ ̂ ∂̂ μhf
ϱhf U W = − + μhf + + + ̂ W,
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2 kp Using Eq. (7) in Eqs. (1)–(6) gives a generalized set of equations
(4)

( ̂) { }( 2 ̂ ̂)
( )
̂ ∂T + V
̂
̂ ∂T + ̂
̂ ∂T 16T∞3 *
σ ∂ T ∂2 T̂ ∂2 T
ϱc p U W = k hf + + 2 + 2 + Q o(T
̂− T
̂∞)
hf ∂x ∂y ∂z 3k * ∂x 2 ∂y ∂z
σhf B 2o ( 2 ) (5)
+ ( )2 V ̂2 .
̂ +U
σhf mℯ
1+ σf

The terms for pressure gradient in Eqs. (2) and (3) are computed
through conditions at free stream. The boundary conditions as per the
model description are

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
k hf ̂
U
̂ x, y, 0 = s 1 x, V
̂ x, y, 0 = r 1 y, ̂
W x, y, 0 = 0, − T z x, y, 0 = q w { T
̂ w − T(x,
̂ y, 0)},
kf (6)
U(x,
̂ y, ∞) = s o x, V(x,
̂ y, ∞) = r o y, T(x,
̂ y, ∞) = T
̂∞.

{ ( )}
so ζmℯ ℓ2 ro
Mμf σhf − ̂f η + gη −
̂ { 2
}
ϱhf μf
ℓ3 ̂
f +
ℓ1
{
ξ ℓ1 ℓ1 ̂f ̂f ηη − ̂f 2 + s o + ℓ2 ̂
g ̂f ηη
( )2 } +
ℓ1 ηηη ℓ21 ℓ1
η
σ m
ϱf μhf
μhf σf 1 + hfσf ℯ (8)
( )
so s1 so
+λp ̂f η − = 0, ̂f (ξ, ζ, 0) = 0, ̂f η (ξ, ζ, 0) = , ̂f η (ξ, ζ, ∞) = ,
ℓ1 ℓ1 ℓ1
{ ( )}
ro ζ ℓ1 ̂ so
Mμf σhf − ̂g η + mℯ fη − { }
ℓ3 ℓ2 ξ ℓ2 ℓ2 ϱhf μf 2 ℓ1 ̂ r 2o
g −
̂ { ( )2 } + g
̂ g
̂ − g
̂ + f g
̂ +
ℓ2 ηηη ℓ22
ηη η ηη
σ m
ϱf μhf ℓ2
μhf σ f 1 + hfσf ℯ (9)
( )
ro r1 ro
gη −
+λp ̂ = 0, ̂ g η (ξ, ζ, 0) =
g (ξ, ζ, 0) = 0, ̂ g η (ξ, ζ, ∞) =
,̂ ,
ℓ2 ℓ2 ℓ2

The similarity ansatz is given as (following Weidman and Turner

[21])

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M. Sarfraz et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 163 (2025) 108667

{ }
ϱhf { } μ 1 The dimensionless form becomes
p − po + (s o x)2 + (r o y)2 + g )2 + ℓ1 ̂f η + ℓ2 ̂
(ℓ1 ̂f + ℓ2 ̂ gη
hf
̂
2ϱf μf 2ℓ3
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ μhf ̂ L 2 s 41
= 0, at λp = 0, Res 1 D f = f ηη (ξ, ζ, 0), with Res 1 = ,
μf ξ νf ℓ3 ℓ21
(10) (19)
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ μhf L 2 r 41
Rer 1 D ℊ = g ηη (ξ, ζ, 0), with Rer 1 =
̂ ,
μf ξ νf ℓ3 ℓ21

{ } ( ) { 2 2}
4k f Rd k f ϱc p hf {ℓ1 ℓ2 ̂
}
k f σhf M Ec1 ξ2 ̂f η + Ec2 ζ2 ̂
gη
θ ηη 1 +
̂ + Pr ( ) f+ ̂
̂ g θ η + Pr { )2 }
3k hf k hf ϱc p f ℓ3 ℓ3 (
σ m
k hf σf 1 + hfσf ℯ
(11)

δq Prk f ̂ k hf ̂
+ θ = 0, θ η (ξ, ζ, 0) = β* {̂
θ(ξ, ζ, 0) − 1 }, ̂
θ(ξ, ζ, ∞) = 0,
k hf kf

x(q w + q r |z=0 ∂T̂ 16σ * T∞

3
∂T
̂
Following Maxwell [4], Brinkman [5], and Xuan and Li [6], we have Nu = , where q w = − k hf , qr = ,
k f (T ̂w − T̂ ∞) ∂z 3k * ∂z
μhf 5 5 μnf 5 (20)
= (1 − a CdTe )2 (1 − a C )2 , = (1 − a CdTe )2 , (12) Nu
(
k hf
)
4Rd ̂ L 2 ℓ3
μf μf ⟹√̅̅̅̅̅̅ = − ξ + θ η (ξ, ζ, 0), where Re = .
Re kf 3 νf
{ }
ϱhf ϱ ϱ ϱnf
= (1 − a C ) (1 − a CdTe ) + a CdTe CdTe + a C C , Eqs. (8)–(11) and (17)–(20) depend on ℓ1 , ℓ2 , ℓ3 , s o , s 1 , r o , and r 1 ,
ϱf ϱf ϱf ϱf which reduces to the following cases of Crane stretching and radial
= (1 − a CdTe ) + a CdTe
ϱCdTe
, (13) stretching, respectively.
ϱf
( ) { ) ( } ( ) 2.2. Entropy generation analysis
ϱc p ϱc p ϱc p C
( ) = (1 − a C ) (1 − a CdTe ) + a CdTe ( CdTe
hf
) + a C( ) ,
ϱc p f ϱc p f ϱc p f Thermal irreversibility in thermodynamic processes is noted through
( ) ( ) (14) entropy generation and Bejan number. These terms are given as
ϱc p nf ϱc p
( ) = (1 − a CdTe ) + a CdTe ( CdTe ) , ( )[( ̂ )2 ( ̂ )2 ( ̂ )2 ]
k hf 4k f Rd ∂T ∂T ∂T
ϱc p f ϱc p f Sℊ = 2 1 + + +
T
̂ 3k hf ∂x ∂y ∂z
( ) ( ) ∞
(entropy due to heat transfer and radiation)
σ hf σC + 2σ nf − 2a C σ nf − σ C σnf σCdTe + 2σf − 2a CdTe σ f − σ CdTe {( )2 ( )2 }
( ), ( ),
σf
=
σ C + 2σnf + a C σnf − σ C σ f
=
σCdTe + 2σf − a CdTe σ f − σCdTe σhf B 2o ̂ + σhf mℯ U ̂ + σhf mℯ V
+ { ( )2 } V ̂ + − U ̂ ,
(15) σ hf mℯ
σf σf
T
̂∞ 1 +
σf
{ ( )}
k hf k C + 2k nf − 2a C k nf − k C k (entropy due to Ohmic heating)
= { ( ) } , nf
kf k C + 2k nf + a C k nf − k C kf (21)
{ ( )}
k CdTe + 2k f − 2a CdTe k f − k CdTe
= { ( )} . (16) Entropy due to heat transfer
k CdTe + 2k f − a CdTe k f − k CdTe Be = . (22)
Total entropy generation number
The dimensionless quantities contain Using Eq. (7), we get the following expressions
( )
μf c p f σf B 2o μf 4T 3 σ * σf B 0 ( ) { 2
2
2 2
}
4k f Rd ̂2 σhf MΩ Br1 ξ ̂f η + Br2 ζ ̂
gη
Qo
Pr = ,M = ,δq = ( ) ,λp = ,Rd = *∞ ,mℯ = ’ , Sℊ k hf
kf ϱf ℓ 1 ϱc p f ℓ3 ϱf kp ℓ1 k kf ℯ nℯ’ Nℊ = = 1+ θη + { )2 } , (23)
Sℊo kf 3k hf (
σ m
√̅̅̅̅̅ σf 1 + hfσf ℯ
q νf ℓ2 L 2 ℓ2 L 2
β* = w √̅̅̅̅̅,Ec1 = ( ) 1 ,Ec2 = ( ) 2 .
k f ℓ3 ̂w − T
c p f (T ̂ ∞) ̂w − T
c p f (T ̂ ∞)
2
(17)
k hf ̂
θη
(24)
kf
Be = ( ) 2 2
.
4k f Rd 2 σ hf MΩ{Br1 ξ2̂
f +Br2 ζ2̂
g }
2.1. Physical quantities 1+ ̂
k hf
kf 3k hf
θη + { ( η )2 }η
σhf mℯ
σf 1+ σf

The coefficients of skin friction (D f ,D ℊ ) and Nusselt number (Nu)

become
k f (̂ T ∞ ) 2 ℓ3
Tw− ̂ ̂
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ where Sℊo = 2 , Ω = T ∞ , Br1 = PrEc1 , and Br2 = PrEc2 .
̂T ∞ νf (̂
Tw− ̂
T∞)
τxz
[ ⃒̂
∂ U ⃒⃒ μhf ℓ3 ϱf μf ℓ1 x
Df = , where τxz = μhf = ̂f ηη (ξ, ζ, 0), Note that B e < 1 gives dominant thermal effects (i.e., fluid flow is slow
ϱf (s 1 x)2 ∂z ⃒z=0 μf but k f is high), B e > 1 dominant viscous effects (i.e., fluid flow is faster
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
[ ⃒̂ μhf ℓ3 ϱf μf ℓ2 y but k f is low), and B e = 1 provide balanced effects (i.e., neither con-
τyz ∂ V ⃒⃒ duction nor convection dominates, indicating a transition phase).
Dℊ = , where τyz = μhf = g ηη (ξ, ζ, 0),
̂
ϱf (r 1 y)2 ∂z ⃒z=0 μf
(18)

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M. Sarfraz et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 163 (2025) 108667

2.3. Case I

2.3.1. Crane’s stretching case

Defining ℓ2 = r o = 0, r 1 = s 1 , ℓ3 , ℓ1 = s 1 , and through first order
truncation, i.e., ∂∂ξ, ∂∂ζ→0, ξ, ζ ≈ 1. This yields ̂
g (ξ, ζ, η) ≡ 0.

Mμf σhf ϱhf μf {

̂f ̂f ηη − ̂f 2 + ω2 + λp (̂f η − ω) = 0,
}
̂f ηηη +
)2 } {ω − f η } + ϱ μ
{ ̂
( η
σ m
1 + hfσf ℯ
f hf
μhf σ f (25)

̂f (ξ, ζ, 0) = 0, ̂f η (ξ, ζ, 0) = 1, ̂f η (ξ, ζ, ∞) = ω,

{ } ( ) 2
4k f Rd k f ϱc p hf k f σ hf MEc1 ξ2 ̂f η δq Prk f ̂
θ ηη 1 +
̂ + Pr ( θ η + Pr
) ̂f ̂ { )2 } + k θ = 0,
3k hf k hf ϱc p f
(
σ hf mℯ
σf 1 + σf
hf

(26)
k hf

k hf ̂
θ η (ξ, ζ, 0) = β* {̂
θ(ξ, ζ, 0) − 1 }, ̂
θ(ξ, ζ, ∞) = 0,
kf

{ } ( ) 2
4k f Rd k f ϱc p hf k f σhf MEc1 ξ2 ̂f η δq Prk f ̂
θ ηη 1+
̂ +2Pr ( ) ̂f ̂ θ η +2Pr { )2 } + k θ
( ) 2 3k hf k hf ϱc p f
(
σ hf mℯ
k hf σ f 1+ σf
hf
k hf 4k f Rd ̂2 σhf MΩBr1 ξ2 ̂f η
Nℊ = 1+ θη + { )2 }, (27)
kf 3k hf (
σ hf mℯ
σf 1+ σf = 0,
(30)
2
̂ 2
k hf
θη ( )
kf
(28) k hf 4k f Rd ̂2 2σhf MΩBr1 ξ2 ̂f η
Be = ( ) 2 . Nℊ = 1+ θη + { }, (31)
k hf
1+
4k f Rd 2 σ MΩBr ξ2̂
f
θ η + {hf ( 1 )η 2 }
̂ kf 3k hf (
σ m
) 2
kf 3k hf
σhf mℯ
σ f 1 + hfσf ℯ
σf 1+ σf

k hf 2
̂
θη
2.4. Case II Be =
kf
. (32)
( ) 2
4k f Rd 2 2σ MΩBr ξ2̂
f
1+ θ η + { hf ( 1 )η2 }
k hf ̂
2.4.1. Radial stretching case kf 3k hf
σhf mℯ
σf 1+
Defining r o = s o , r 1 = s 1 , and ℓ3 , ℓ1 , ℓ2 = s 1 yields ̂f (ξ, ζ, η) ≡
σf

g (ξ, ζ, η).
̂
The BCs are identical to those specified in Eqs. (25) and (26), and the
Mμ σhf ϱhf μf { formulas for D f and Nu remain the same as given in Eqs. (19) and (20).
̂2
}
̂f ηηη +
)2 } {ω − f η }+ ϱ μ 2 f f ηη − f η + ω +λp ( f η − ω)
̂ ̂̂ 2 ̂
{ f(
k (̂
T − ̂ T )2 s
Here, Re = L 2f s , ω = ss1o , and Sℊo = f w 2 ∞ 1 .
ν
σ hf mℯ
1+
f hf
μhf σf σf 1 ̂T ∞ νf
The generalized form of these two cases become
= 0,
Mμ σ hf ϱhf μf {
(29) ̂2
}
̂f ηηη +
)2 } {ω − f η }+ ϱ μ m f f ηη − f η + ω +λp ( f η − ω)
̂ ̂̂ 2 ̂
{ f(
σhf mℯ
1+
f hf
μhf σf σf

= 0,
(33)

{ } ( ) 2
4k f Rd k f ϱc p hf k f σ hf MEc1 mξ2 ̂f η δq Prk f ̂
θ ηη 1 +
̂ + Pr ( ) {m̂f ̂
θ η } + Pr { )2 } + k θ = 0, (34)
3k hf k hf ϱc p f
(
σ m
k hf σ f 1 + hfσf ℯ
hf

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M. Sarfraz et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 163 (2025) 108667

( ) 2 ◆ Discretization
k hf 4k f Rd ̂2 σhf MΩmBr1 ξ2 ̂f η
Nℊ = 1+ θη + { )2 }, (35)
kf 3k hf (
σ m
σf 1 + hfσf ℯ To compute approximate solutions, domain is discretized after
obtaining first order system. This can be done by dividing the domain
into uniform grids, as shown in Fig. 2(b). Accuracy of the numerical
2
k hf ̂
θη results depends upon these grids. The smaller the grids, the higher the
(36) accuracy of the numerical results (see Fig. 2(b)).
kf
Be = ( ) 2 .
2 σ MmΩBr ξ2̂
k hf
1+
4k f Rd f
θ η + {hf ( 1 )η2 }
̂ Defining h = 0.005 with ηo = 0, ηi = h + ηi − 1 , ηI = 3, where i = 1,2,
3k hf
3, ⋯, (i − 1). The FDEs are obtained by using central differences and
kf
σhf mℯ
σf 1+
mean averages. Defining these as
σf

where m = 1, 2 for Case I and Case II, respectively. ̂f

̂f i + ̂f i − 1 ̂f i − ̂f i − 1 (p1 ) + (p1 )i − 1 ( )
1 = , (̂f η )i − 1 = , (p1 )i − 1 = , (p1 )η i − 1
i−
2 2 2 h 2 2 2
3. Methodology (p1 )i − (p1 )i − 1
= ,
h
The numerical solution is attained through an implicit finite differ- (42)
ence scheme, namely the Keller-box method (KBM). It provides second-
order accuracy, attains the solution faster with efficiency, flexibility, and (p2 ) + (p2 )i − 1 ( ) (p2 )i − (p2 )i − 1 ̂
(p2 )i − 1 = , (p2 )η i − 1 = , θi − 1
absolute stability. Fig. 2(a) provides the step-by-step process in terms of 2 2 2 h 2
flowchart. ̂
θi + ̂θi − 1 ̂ ̂
θi − ̂θi − 1
= , ( θ η )i − 1 = , (43)
2 2 h
◆ Formation of first order system
(p3 ) + (p3 )i − 1 ( ) (p3 )i − (p3 )i − 1
(p3 )i − 1 = , (p3 )η i − 1 = , (44)
Eqs. (33)–(36) are transformed into 1st order system by introducing 2 2 2 h
p1 , p2 , p3 and p4 , as a new set of variables.
The FDEs become
̂f η = p1 , (37)
(̂f η )i − 1 = (p1 )i − 1 , (45)
2 2
̂f ηη = p2 , (38)
( )
(p1 )η i−
1 = (p2 )i − 1 , (46)
2 2

Mμf σ hf ϱhf μf { }
(p2 )η + { ( )2 } {ω − p1 } + ϱ μ m̂f p2 − p21 + ω2 + λp (p1 − ω) = 0,
σ m
1 + hfσf e
f hf
μhf σf (39)

̂f (ξ, ζ, 0) = 0, p1 (ξ, ζ, 0) = 1, p1 (ξ, ζ, ∞) = ω,

θ η = p3 ,
̂ (40)

{ } ( )
4k f Rd k f ϱc p hf k f σhf MmEc1 ξ2 p21 δPrk f ̂
(p3 )η 1 + + Pr ( ) {m̂f p3 } + Pr { )2 } + k θ = 0,
3k hf k hf ϱc p f
(
σ hf me
k hf σf 1 + σf
hf

(41)
k hf
− p3 (ξ, ζ, 0) = β* {̂
θ(ξ, ζ, 0) − 1 }, ̂
θ(ξ, ζ, ∞) = 0.
kf

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M. Sarfraz et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 163 (2025) 108667

⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
( ) Mμf σhf ⎨ ⎬ ϱhf μf ⎨ ⎬
(p2 )η 1 + { ( )2 } ⎪ω − (p1 )i − 1 + m̂f i − 1 (p2 )i − 1 − (p1 )2i − 1 + ω2
i−
2 σ m ⎩ 2⎪⎭ ϱ μ
f hf ⎩⎪ 2 2 2 ⎪
⎭
μhf σ f 1 + hfσf e
(47)
⎧ ⎫
⎪
⎨ ⎪
⎬
+λp (p1 )i − 1 (p1 )i − 1 − ω = 0, ̂f i − 1 (ξ, ζ, 0) = 0, (p1 )i − 1 (ξ, ζ, 0) = 1, (p1 )i − 1 (ξ, ζ, ∞) = ω,
2⎪
⎩ 2 ⎪
⎭ 2 2 2

(p3 )(ji +1) = (p3 )(ji ) + ε(p3 )(ji ) . (54)

(̂
θ η )i − 1 = (p3 )i − 1 , (48)
2 2 After using these in FDEs and neglecting higher ε, we get

(R 1 )i − 1 = − (ε̂f i − ε̂f i − 1 ) + h ε(p1 )i − 1 , (55)

2 2

⎧ ⎫
k f σ hf MmEc1 ξ2 (p1 )2i − 1
{ } ( ) ⎪ ⎪
( ) 4k f Rd k f ϱc p hf ⎨ ⎬
1 1+ + Pr ( m̂f 1 (p3 )i − + Pr
) { 2
(p3 )η
3k hf ⎪
1
⎪ ( )2 }
i−
2 k hf ϱc p f ⎩ i− 2 2 ⎭ σ hf me
k hf σf 1 + σf
(49)
⎧ ⎫
⎪ ⎪
δq Prk f ̂ k hf ⎨ ⎬
+ θi − 1 = 0, − (p3 )i − 1 (ξ, ζ, 0) = β* ̂θ i − 1 (ξ, ζ, 0) − 1 , ̂
θ 1 (ξ, ζ, ∞) = 0.
k hf 2 kf 2 ⎪
⎩ 2 ⎪
⎭ i− 2

( )
(R 2 )i − 1 = − ε(p1 )i − ε(p1 )i − 1 + h ε(p2 )i − 1 , (56)
2 2
◆ Linearization

(R 3 )i − 1 = (M 1 )i ε̂f i + (M 2 )i ε̂f i − 1 + (M 3 )i ε(p1 )i + (M 4 )i ε(p1 )i − 1 + (M 5 )i ε(p2 )i

2 (57)
+(M 6 )i ε(p2 )i − 1 + (M 7 )i ε̂
θ i + (M 8 )i ε̂
θ i − 1 + (M 9 )i ε(p3 )i + (M 10 )i ε(p3 )i − 1 ,

To linearize the obtained FDEs (Eqs. (42)–(49)), we use Newton’s

method. According to this method
(j +1) (j ) (j )
(̂f )i = (̂f )i + ε(̂f )i , (50)
(R 4 )i − 1 = − (ε̂
θ i − ε̂
θ i − 1 ) + h ε(p3 )i − 1 , (58)
2 2
(p1 )(ji +1) = (p1 )(ji ) +ε(p1 )(ji ) , (51)

(R 5 )i − 1 = (N 1 )i ε̂f i + (N 2 )i ε̂f i − 1 + (N 3 )i ε(p1 )i + (N 4 )i ε(p1 )i − 1 + (N 5 )i ε(p2 )i

2 (59)
+(N 6 )i ε(p2 )i − 1 + (N 7 )i ε̂
θ i + (N 8 )i ε̂
θ i − 1 + (N 9 )i ε(p3 )i + (N 10 )i ε(p3 )i − 1 ,

where
(p2 )(ji +1) = (p2 )(ji ) + ε(p2 )(ji ) , (52) ϱhf μf h
(M 1 )i = m(p2 )i − 1 = (M 2 )i , (60)
ϱf μhf 2 2

(53)
(j +1) (j ) (j )
(̂
θ)i = (̂
θ)i + ε(̂
θ)i ,

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M. Sarfraz et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 163 (2025) 108667

h ϱhf μf σhf μf h M ⎡ ⎤
(M 3 )i = λp − h (p1 )i − 1 − { )2 } = (M 4 )i , [X 1 ] [Z 1 ]
2 ϱf μhf 2 σ f μhf 2 (
⎢ [Y 2 ] ⎥
1 + σf me
σ hf [X 2 ] [Z 2 ]
⎢ ⎥
⎢
⎢ * * * ⎥
⎥
(61)
⎢ * * * ⎥
X =⎢ ⎥, (76)
⎢
⎢ * * * ⎥
⎥
ϱhf μf h ̂ ⎢
⎢ * * * ⎥
⎥
(M 5 )i = 1 + mf 1, (62) ⎣ [Y I− 1 ] [X I− 1 ] [Z I− 1 ] ⎦
ϱf μhf 2 i − 2
[Y I ] [X I ]
ϱhf μf h ̂ ⎡ ⎤
(M 6 )i = − 1 + mf 1, (63)
ϱf μhf 2 i − 2 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
(M 7 )i = (M 8 )i = (M 9 )i = (M 10 )i = 0, (64) ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎢
⎢
⎥
⎥
[ *] [ *] ⎢ (R 1 )i − 1
⎥
( ) ⎢ ε1 ⎥ ⎢ R1 ⎥ ⎢ 2
⎥
⎢ [ ] ⎥ ⎢ [ ] ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
ϱc p
kf h ⎢ * ⎥ ⎢ * ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
mPr(p3 )i − (65) ⎢ ε2 ⎥ ⎢ R2 ⎥ ⎢ (R 2 )i − ⎥
hf
(N 1 )i = ( ) 1 = (N 2 )i , 1
ϱc p f k hf 2
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 2
⎥
2 ⎢ * ⎥ ⎢ * ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ (R 3 )i − 1 ⎥
⎢ * ⎥ ⎢ * ⎥ * ⎢ 2 ⎥
σ hf k f h Ec1 MmPr 2 Y =⎢ ⎥ ⎢
⎢ * ⎥, Z = ⎢ *
⎥, R = ⎢ ⎥, (77)
(N 3 )i = { ( )2 }ξ (p1 )i − 1 = (N 4 )i , (66) ⎢ ⎥ ⎢
⎥ i
⎥
⎢
⎢ (R 4 )i − 1
⎥
⎥
σf k hf 2 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥
σhf
1+ me ⎢ * ⎥ ⎢ * ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
σf ⎢[ ] ⎥ ⎢[ ] ⎥ ⎢ (R 5 )i − 1
⎥
⎢ ε* ⎥ ⎢ R* ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ I− 1 ⎥ ⎢ I− 1 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ [ *] ⎥ ⎢ [ *] ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ε ⎦ ⎣ R ⎦ ⎢ ⎥
(N 5 )i = (N 6 )i = 0, (67) I I ⎢
⎢
(R 6 )i − 1
2
⎥
⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
kf h ⎢ ⎥
(N 7 )i = δq Pr = (N 8 )i , (68) ⎣ ⎦
k hf 2
( )
ϱc p kf h 4 kf where
(N 9 )i = 1 + ( )hf Prm̂f i − 1 + Rd, (69)
ϱc p k hf 2 2 3 k hf ⎡ ⎤
0 0 0 1 0
f

( ) ⎢ ⎥
⎢ h h ⎥
kf h ϱc p 4 kf ⎢ − 0 − 0 0 ⎥
(N 10 )i = − 1 + ( Prm̂f i − 1 − Rd, (70) 2 2
hf
) ⎢ ⎥
ϱc p f k hf 2 2 3 k hf ⎢
=⎢
⎥
⎥ (78)
X 1 ⎢ (M 6 )1 (M 10 )1 (M 5 )1 (M 1 )1 (M 9 )1 ⎥,
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
(R 1 )i = h (p1 )i − 1 − h (̂f η )i − 1 , (71) ⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
2 2
(N 6 )1 (N 10 )1 (N 5 )1 (N 1 )1 (N 9 )1
( )
(R 2 )i = − (p1 )η i − 1 h + (p2 )i − 1 , (72) ⎡ ⎤
2 2
h
⎢ − 0 0 1 0 ⎥
ϱhf μf ϱhf μf ( ) ⎢ 2 ⎥
(R 3 )i = − h ω2 + h (p1 )2i − 1 − h (p2 )η i − 1 + h ωλp − (p1 )i − 1 h λp ⎢
⎢ h
⎥
⎥
ϱf μhf ϱf μhf 2 2 2 ⎢ − 1 0 − 0 0 ⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥
⎧
⎪
⎫
⎪ X i =⎢
⎢
⎥,
⎥ (79)
ϱhf μf σ hf μf hM ⎨ ⎬ ⎢ (M 4 )i (M 8 )i (M 5 )i (M 1 )i (M 9 )i ⎥
− h m(p2 )i − 1 ̂f i − 1 + { ( ) } (p1 ) 1 − ω , ⎢
⎢
⎥
⎥
ϱf μhf 2 2 σ f μhf 2 ⎪
⎩ i−
2 ⎪
⎭ ⎢ 0 − 1 0 0 0 ⎥
1 + σhff me
σ
⎣ ⎦
(N 4 )1 (N 8 )1 (N 5 )1 (N 1 )1 (N 9 )1
(73)
⎡ ⎤
0 0 0 − 1 0
(R 4 )i = h (p3 )i − 1 − h (̂
θ η )i − 1 , (74) ⎢
⎢ h
⎥
⎥
2 2 ⎢0 0 − 0 0 ⎥
⎢
⎢ 2 ⎥
⎥
( )
( ) ϱc p hf k f 4 kf ( ) Y i =⎢
⎢0 0 (M 6 )i (M 2 )i
⎥
(M 10 )i ⎥, (80)
(R 5 )i = − h (p3 )η i − 1 − ( ) h Prm(p3 )i − 1 ̂f i − 1 − (p3 )η i − 1 h Rd ⎢ ⎥
2 ϱc p f k hf 2 2 3 k hf 2
⎢
⎢0 0 0 0 0
⎥
⎥
⎣ ⎦
σ hf k f Ec h MmPr kf 0 0 (N 6 )i
{ 1( 2 2 (N 2 )i (N 10 )i
−
σf k hf )2 }ξ (p1 )i − 1 − k δq h Pr ̂
θi − 1.
2 2
1+ me
σhf hf
σf
⎡ ⎤
h
⎢ − 2 0 0 0 0⎥
(75) ⎢
⎢
⎥
⎥
⎢ 1 0 0 0 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
Zi =⎢ 0 0
⎥
0 ⎥. (81)
◆ Formation of tridiagonal matrix ⎢ (M 3 )i
⎢
(M 7 )i
⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 1 0 0 0⎥
⎣ ⎦
We obtain tridiagonal block matrices from the above linearized FDEs
(N 3 )i (N 7 )i 0 0 0
as XY = Z , defined by

4. Discussion

The section demonstrates the comparative behavior of HNF

9
M. Sarfraz et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 163 (2025) 108667

Fig. 2. (a): Working mechanism of KBM.

(b): Domain discretization.

(CdTe+C+H2 O) and a mono NF (CdTe+H2 O) for m = 1, 2. Solid lines fluid to move more spontaneously, see Fig. 4(a). While me tends to
represent m = 1, while dashed lines represent m = 2. For the HNF, the decrease ̂θ by reducing the resistive heating, alleviating magnetic
graphs are constructed with a 5% volume fraction of each CdTe and C, damping impact, and consequently less kinetic energy is converted into
whereas for the NF, CdTe is immersed at a 10% volume fraction in H2 O. heat and resulted in a cooler system, see Fig. 4(b). In these illustrations,
The solutions are calculated at h = 0.005. The other values are ranged the impact of m = 1 is more prominent than m = 2. Controlling mag-
as 0 < β* , Ec, M, me , λp , Rd ≤ 2 and 0.5 ≤ δq ≤ − 0.5. netic damping will help optimize thermal dissipation of solar cells. Fig. 5
Fig. 3(a,b) and Fig. 4(a,b) present impression of M and me over ̂f η and (a,b) predict how λp influence ̂f η and ̂
θ for Case I (m = 1) and Case II
θ at m = 1, 2. An increase in B o leads to a decrease in ̂f η due to the
̂ (m = 2). Physically, an increase in λp leads to a rise in ̂f η due to the
Lorentz force acting on the charged particles within the fluid. This force reduced obstruction to flow. In a porous medium, porosity signifies the
depends mainly on σ of CdTe,C, and H2 O and causes opposition of the void spaces within the material that allow fluid to pass through. When λp
motion by creating a drag that slows down the flow due to magnetic increases, the medium becomes less dense, offers less resistance, and
damping, see Fig. 3(a). ̂θ tends to rise due to the conversion of kinetic enables the flow more freely, see Fig. 5(a). Higher ̂f η in these scenarios
energy into thermal energy. Since M induces additional resistance, it ensures more efficient transport and extraction of fluids. However, an
dissipates the energy in the form of heat and increase ̂
θ, see Fig. 3(b). increase in λp results in a decrease in ̂
θ due to the reduced interaction
These results attained here qualitatively match with Sami [21]. On the between the fluid and the solid matrix of the porous medium. Higher
other hand, me occurs due to the influence of charged particles, which porosity gives less surface area of the solid matrix in contact with the
increases ̂f η . me induces an additional field which results in a redistri- fluid and indicates less heat exchange between the fluid and the surface.
bution of current and reduces the effective resistance by allowing the Consequently, the fluid retains less thermal energy and cools down more

10
M. Sarfraz et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 163 (2025) 108667

Fig. 3. (a,b): M on ̂f η and ̂

θ.

Fig. 4. (a,b): me on ̂f η and ̂

θ.

quickly, see Fig. 5(b). Both graphs deduce that HNF profile reached BL increase in linear radiation (from 0.1 to 0.3) enhances ̂
θ by increasing
faster than NF profile. Porosity and reduced heat exchange will reduce the amount of radiative heat transfer within the system. Rd emits and
overheating and enhance the solar cell’s lifespan. Fig. 6(a,b) show absorbs energy in the form of electromagnetic waves and boost ̂ θ, see
impression of ω over ̂f η and ̂θ, where ω is the ratio of s o and s 1 . It is Fig. 7(c). This effect is vital in solar cells and thermal insulation, where
determined that ω leads to a rise in both ̂f η and ̂
θ due to enhanced fluid radiative heat transfer manages energy and temperature. Similarly,
motion and energy transfer. When ω increases, the fluid near the surface variation of Ec1 from 0.1 to 0.3 influences ̂ θ through dissipation and
is stretched more rapidly, which accelerates ̂f η (see Fig. 6(a)) and it is suggests that a significant portion of kinetic energy is converted into
primarily due to the stronger pulling effect exerted on the fluid, which thermal energy, raising ̂θ, see Fig. 7(d). These effects are more promi-
lowers the drag force and pressure buildup. At the same time, ̂ θ inten- nent in Case I for both HNF and NF profiles. δq , β* , and Rd directly
sified energy transfer as it undergoes higher rates of deformation and contribute to better heat absorption, dissipation, and management of
generates heat through dissipation. This deformation rate raises the solar cells.
fluid’s internal energy and ̂θ, see Fig. 6(b). The main purpose of the analysis is to reduce the impact of skin drag
√̅̅̅̅̅̅
Fig. 7(a-d) deduce the effect of δq , β* , Rd, and Ec1 on ̂
θ at m = 1, 2 for ( ReD f ), which was achieved through me , ω, and λp in Fig. 8(a-c) and
HNF and NF cases. 0 < δq = 0.1 directly adds more thermal energy, 0 > enhance heat transport rate (√Nu
̅̅̅̅). This is vital for the optimal perfor-
Re
δq = − 0.1 shows opposite trend, while δq = 0 presents a case of no en- mance of solar panels exposed to prolonged sunlight. Fig. 8(a) depicts
ergy source. It elevates ̂
θ by adding additional quantity of energy, see that increment in me (from 0.1 to 0.3) induce a secondary flow in the
direction perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the primary flow
Fig. 7(a). β* present ratio of convective-to-conductive heat transfer. β* is
direction, which disrupt BL by altering the velocity distribution near the
varied from 0.1 to 0.3. It indicates that convective heat transfer at the
surface, (as shown in Fig. 4(a)) and potentially lowers the resistance at
surface is dominant and leads to more efficient heat absorption from the
m = 1, 2. Physically, as ω increases, BL become thinner and disrupt the
surrounding fluid and, consequently, an increase in ̂ θ, see Fig. 7(b). An

11
M. Sarfraz et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 163 (2025) 108667

Fig. 5. (a,b): λp on ̂f η and ̂

θ.

Fig. 6. (a,b): ω on ̂f η and ̂

θ.

flow by altering the balance between viscous and inertial forces and dissipation becomes meaningful and leads to higher thermal energy
makes the flow less resistant. The value of ω is augmented from 0.1 to which enhances Nℊ because more energy is irreversibly lost as heat, as
0.3 at m = 1, 2. The value for HNF (CdTe+C+H2 O) for Cases I and II is shown in Fig. 10(a). As M dampen the fluid flow (see Fig. 3(a)), it de-
declined spontaneously as compared to NF (CdTe+H2 O), see Fig. 8(b). creases B ℯ because the viscous effects enhance, as shown in Fig. 11(a).
On the other hand, as the surface is porous, some of the fluid passes On the other hand, increment in β* decreases the thermal resistance and
through the material, and enhances velocity (see Fig. 5(a)). This di- conducted better thermal transport between surface and the fluid by
minishes the shear forces that contribute to the drag for both cases augmenting temperature gradient. This causes Nℊ to enhance, (see
because less fluid is interacting with the surface, and it decreases Fig. 10(b)), meanwhile it converts the balance towards irreversibility
√̅̅̅̅̅̅
ReD f , see Fig. 8(c). The evident result is noted for Rd that heat due to heat transfer rather than viscous effects and augments B ℯ , as
transport rate enhances due to an increment in Rd, as solar radiation shown in Fig. 11(b). Increment in Ω raises Nℊ (due to thermal gradient),
provides radiative heat transfer relative to conductive or convective heat as shown in Fig. 10(c) but lessens B ℯ as it expands the thermal
transfer. Thermal energy is transferred through electromagnetic waves contribution to irreversibility, and there is less room for convective ef-
without the need for a medium, which significantly increases the rate of fects to dominate, see Fig. 11(c).
heat transfer, and is more efficient to convert solar radiation into usable Table 2 presents a comparison of values of coefficient of skin friction
energy, as shown in Fig. 9(a). The presence of these NPs significantly from this study as a special case with literature. The results of ̂f ηη (ξ, ζ, 0)
influences the presence of solar radiation. Similarly, ω and β* presents are compared as a reduced case at a C , a CdTe , M, λp , me = 0 with Refs.
the same trend for √Nu̅̅̅̅ on HNF (CdTe+C+H2 O) and NF (CdTe+H2 O) for
Re [2,11,12]. It is seen that the values of ̂f ηη (ξ, ζ, 0) for Case I and Case II are
Cases I and II at ω, β* = 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 in Fig. 9(b,c). in good agreement with the literature.
Fig. 10(a-c) illustrate the impression of Ec, β* and Ω on Nℊ and Fig. 11
(a-c) of M, β* and Ω on B ℯ . These effects are significant as they allow 5. Final remarks
better thermal management and boost the effectiveness of the solar
energy conversion while minimizing energy losses. As Ec increases, This study examined the enhanced performance of hybrid nanofluids

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M. Sarfraz et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 163 (2025) 108667

Fig. 7. (a-d): δq , β* , Rd, and Ec1 on ̂

θ.

compared to mono nanofluids applied to two distinct stagnation-point ◆ Biot number enhanced convective heat transfer at the surface and
flows. Specifically, Crane’s stretching associated with Hiemenz flow caused more efficient absorption of heat from the surrounding
and radial stretching associated with Homann flow were considered. fluid.
Two types of suspensions were assessed, namely CdTe+C+H2 O and ◆ Linear radiation raised temperature by boosting radiative heat
CdTe+H2 O. The study also investigated the effects of permeability, Hall transfer within the system.
effect, Joule heating, and energy generation/absorption for spherical- ◆ Eckert number contributed to higher temperature by converting a
shaped particles in both cases. Numerical solutions were obtained significant portion of kinetic energy into thermal energy through
using the Keller-Box Method implemented in MATLAB. The results are dissipation.
summarized below. ◆ The effects of all controlled parameters were more pronounced in
Case I for both the hybrid nanofluid and mono nanofluid profiles,
◆ The volume fraction of NPs enhanced resistance by making it indicating stronger thermal conduct.
denser and more viscous, whereas increase in temperature due to ◆ Coefficient of skin drag deteriorated due to the stretching-strain
the enhanced thermal conductivity. rate ratio, porosity, and Hall effect.
◆ Magnetic field strength slowed down the flow due to magnetic ◆ Energy transport rate was augmented due to solar radiation,
damping, but additional resistance elevated temperature. stretching-strain rate ratio, and Biot number.
◆ Hall effect reduced effective resistance and allowed for more ◆ Eckert number, Biot number, and temperature ratio parameter
spontaneous fluid movement, while reduced resistive heating. improved entropy by amplifying dissipation, heat transfer rates,
◆ The porosity parameter led to a rise in velocity but lowered heat and thermal gradients.
exchange and caused the fluid to cool down more quickly. ◆ Magnetic number and temperature ratio diminished Bejan num-
◆ The stretching-strain rate ratio deduced that fluid near the sur- ber by promoting viscous effects and heat transfer irreversibility,
face was stretched more rapidly and enhanced energy transfer. while Biot number boosted it by emphasizing convective heat
◆ Energy sources directly added more thermal energy to the system transfer irreversibility.
and upgraded the temperature.

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M. Sarfraz et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 163 (2025) 108667

√̅̅̅̅̅̅
Fig. 8. (a-c): me , ω, and λp on ReD f .

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M. Sarfraz et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 163 (2025) 108667

Fig. 9. (a-c): Rd, ω, and β* on √Nu

̅̅̅̅.
Re

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M. Sarfraz et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 163 (2025) 108667

Fig. 10. (a-c): Ec1 , β* , and Ω on Nℊ .

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M. Sarfraz et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 163 (2025) 108667

Fig. 11. (a-c): M, β* , and Ω on B ℯ .

Table 2 Validation, Investigation, Conceptualization. Khursheed Muhammad:

Comparison of ̂f ηη (ξ, ζ, 0) at a C , a CdTe , M, λp , me = 0 with Refs. [13,14,24]. Visualization, Validation, Methodology, Investigation, Conceptualiza-
tion. N. Ameer Ahammad: Software, Resources, Funding acquisition,
Hiemenz Homann Sarfraz and Khan Present
[13] [14] [24] Study Formal analysis. Ibrahim E. Elseesy: Investigation, Funding acquisi-
tion, Formal analysis, Data curation.
Case I:
1.232588 – 1.232533 1.2325242
m =1
Case II: Declaration of competing interest
– 1.311938 1.311929 1.3119780
m =2
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
5.1. Future scope the work reported in this paper.

This study can be further extended to investigate the rheology of Acknowledgement

non-Newtonian fluids, thereby enhancing its applicability in diverse
engineering and industrial systems. While the numerical methods uti- The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Research
lized herein yield valuable insights, the necessity of experimental veri- and Graduate Studies at King Khalid University for funding this work
fication remains paramount to bolster the model’s credibility and ensure through Large Research Project under grant number RGP2/227/45.
the accuracy of practical applications. Furthermore, future research
should also encompass real-world complexities, such as turbulence and Data availability
impurities, to provide a more comprehensive understanding of dynamics
in diverse environments. The data that supports the findings of this study are available within
the article.
CRediT authorship contribution statement

Mahnoor Sarfraz: Writing – original draft, Visualization,

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M. Sarfraz et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 163 (2025) 108667

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