GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

Geothermal energy is energy from the heat of the earth’s core. Geothermal energy is a
renewable resource, because its origin is from earth’s core, but assigned to between these resources.

Understanding geothermal energy begins with an understanding of the source of this energy - the
earth’s internal heat. The Earth’s temperature increases with depth, with the temperature at the
center reaching more than 4200 °C (7600 °F). A portion of this heat is a relic of the planet’s
formation about 4.5 billion years ago, and a portion is generated by the continuing decay of
radioactive isotopes. Heat naturally moves from hotter to cooler regions, so Earth’s heat flows
from its interior toward the [Link] fed back into the transmission grid.

Because of the geologic processes known as plate tectonics, the Earth’s crust has been broken into
12 huge plates that move apart or push together at a rate of millimeters per year. Where two plates
collide, one plate can thrust below the other, producing extraordinary phenomena such as ocean
trenches or strong earthquakes. At great depth, just above the down going plate, temperatures
become high enough to melt rock, forming magma. Because magma is less dense than surrounding
rocks, it moves up toward the earth’s crust and carries heat from below. Sometimes magma rises
to the surface through thin or fractured crusts as lava.

However, most magma remains below earth’s crust and heats the surrounding rocks and
subterranean water. Some of this water comes all the way up to the surface through faults and
cracks in the earth as hot springs or geysers. When this rising hot water and steam is trapped in
permeable rocks under a layer of impermeable rocks, it is called a geothermal reservoir. These
reservoirs are sources of geothermal energy that can potentially be tapped for electricity generation
or direct use.

RESOURCES IDENTIFICATION
Geological, hydrogeological, geophysical, and geochemical techniques are used to identify
and quantify geothermal resources. Geological and hydrogeological studies involve mapping any
hot springs or other surface thermal features and the identification of favorable geological
structures. These studies are used to recommend where production wells can be drilled with the
highest probability of tapping into the geothermal resource. Geophysical surveys are implemented
to figure the shape, size, depth and other important characteristics of the deep geological structures
by using the following parameters: temperature (thermal survey), electrical conductivity (electrical
and electromagnetic methods), propagation velocity of elastic waves (seismic survey), density
(gravity survey), and magnetic susceptibility (magnetic survey) [1]. Geochemical surveys
(including isotope geochemistry) are a useful means of determining whether the geothermal
system is water or vapor- dominated, of estimating the minimum temperature expected at depth,
of estimating the homogeneity of the water supply and, of determining the source of recharge
water.

Geothermal exploration addresses at least nine objectives:

1. Identification of geothermal phenomena

2. that a useful geothermal production field exists
3. Estimation of the size of the resource
4. Classification of the geothermal field
5. Location of productive zones
6. Determination of the heat content of the fluids that will be discharged by the wells in
the geothermal field.
7. Compilation of a body of data against which the results of future monitoring can be
viewed.
8. Assessment of the pre-exploitation Ascertaining values of environmentally sensitive
parameters
9. Determination of any characteristics that might cause problems during field
development.
GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS
Utility-scale geothermal power production employs three main technologies. These are known
as dry steam, flash steam and binary cycle systems. The technology employed depends on the
temperature and pressure of the geothermal reservoir. Unlike solar, wind, and hydro-based
renewable power, geothermal power plant operation is independent of fluctuations in daily and
seasonal weather.
DRY STEAM

Power plants using dry steam systems were the first type of geothermal power generation plants
built. They use steam from the geothermal reservoir as it comes from wells and route it directly
through turbine/generator units to produce electricity. The dry steam extracted from the natural
reservoir is 180-225 ºC (356-437 ºF) and at a pressure of 4-8 Mpa (580-1160 psi). This steam can
achieve 1kWh per 6.5 kg of steam. A typical 55MW plant requires 100kg/s of steam. The steam is
later condensed and pumped back into the ground.

An example of a dry steam generation operation is at the Geysers Region in northern California.

FLASH STEAM

Flash steam plants are the most common type of geothermal power generation plants in operation
today. They use water at temperatures greater than 360°F (182°C) that is pumped under high
pressure to the generation equipment at the surface. Upon reaching the generation equipment, the
pressure is suddenly reduced, allowing some of the hot water to convert or “flash” into steam. This
steam is then used to power the turbine/generator units to produce electricity. The remaining hot
water not flashed into steam, and the water condensed from the steam, is generally pumped back
into the reservoir. These plants generated between 5 and 100MW using 6 to 9 tones of steam per
hour.

An example of an area using the flash steam operation is the CalEnergy Navy I flash geothermal
power plant at the Coso geothermal field.

BINARY CYCLE
Binary cycle geothermal power generation plants differ from dry steam and flash steam systems
because the water or steam from the geothermal reservoir never comes in contact with the
turbine/generator units. In the binary system, the water from the geothermal reservoir is used to
heat another “working fluid,” which is vaporized and used to turn the turbine/generator units. The
geothermal water and the “working fluid” are each confined in separate circulating systems or
“closed loops” and never come in contact with each other. The advantage of the binary cycle plant
is that they can operate with lower temperature waters (225°F to 360°F) by using working fluids
that have an even lower boiling point than water. They also produce no air emissions. The Binary
system is 7 to 12% efficient and it commonly produces 0.1 to 40MW. An example of an area using
a binary cycle power generation system is the Mammoth Pacific binary geothermal power plants
at the Casa Diablo geothermal field.

qqq

LIMITATIONS OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

Environmental issues

There is an abundance of greenhouse gases below the surface of the earth. When geothermal
energy is used, some of these gases escape towards the surface and into the atmosphere. These
emissions tend to be higher near geothermal power plants.

Geothermal power plants generate small amounts of sulfur dioxide and silica emissions. The
reservoirs can also contain traces of toxic heavy metals including mercury, arsenic, and boron.
That said, the pollution associated with geothermal power is very low, and just a tiny fraction of
what we see with coal power and fossil fuels.

Surface instability (earthquakes)

The construction of geothermal power plants can affect the stability of the land. In fact, geothermal
power plants have led to subsidence (sinking of the Earth’s surface) in both Germany and New
Zealand.

Earthquakes can be triggered due to hydraulic fracturing, which is an intrinsic part of developing
enhanced geothermal system (EGS) power plants.

In 2006, the construction of a geothermal power plant in Switzerland triggered an earthquake with
a magnitude of 3.4 on the Richter scale

Expensive

Commercial geothermal power projects are expensive. Total installation costs usually end up
somewhere between $2.5–$5 million for a geothermal power plant with a capacity of 1 megawatt
(MW).
The exploration and drilling of new reservoirs play a big role in driving up costs, typically
accounting for half of the overall costs.
As previously mentioned, most geothermal resources cannot be utilized in a cost-effective manner,
at least not with current technology, level of subsidies, and energy prices.

Location-specific
Good geothermal reservoirs are hard to come by. Some countries have been blessed with great
resources – Iceland and Philippines, for instance, meet nearly one-third of their electricity demand
with geothermal energy.

If geothermal energy is transported long distances by means of hot water (not electricity),
significant energy losses have to be taken into account.

Sustainability issues

Rainwater seeps through the earth’s surface and into the geothermal reservoirs over thousands of
years. Studies show that the reservoirs can be depleted if the fluid is removed faster than replaced.

Efforts can be made to inject fluid back into the geothermal reservoir after the thermal energy has
been utilized (the turbine has generated electricity).

Geothermal power is sustainable if reservoirs are properly managed. This is not an issue for
residential geothermal heating and cooling, where geothermal energy is being used differently than
in geothermal power plants.
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY TRENDS

Global trends

Presently geothermal power generation is carried out in 28 countries around the world, mainly
focussed around the Pacific Rim “Ring of Fire”, with over 12,500 MW of installed power
generation capacity, albeit on a small-scale in many countries. The top five countries using
geothermal power today are the USA (3,354 MWe), Philippines (1,875 MWe), Indonesia (1,342
MWe), New Zealand (1,189 MWe) and Mexico (1,062 MWe). The fastest growing geothermal
energy producers are Kenya (590 MWe) and Turkey (397 MWe). Kenya (5 main plants at Olkaria)
and Ethiopia (1 small plant at Alto Laguno) are the only geothermal power generators in Africa.
The Andean countries of Chile, Peru and Ecuador are notable for their absence of geothermal
power use, as is Japan for its low level of utilization.

National trends

The main geothermal resources of Uganda are located in the west of the country centred on Lake
Albert and Lake Edward in the districts of Kasese, Hoima, Bundibugyo and Nebbi. This area is
underlain by the Western Branch of the East African Rift System.
In terms of the total geothermal resource potential of Uganda, initial estimates made in 1982 stood
at 450 MW (McNitt, 1982). This has now been upgraded to over 1,500 MW (Uganda Vision,
2040). The upgrade is in line with most other countries included to the 1982 regional assessment
(Table 1). For example, McNitt (1982) estimated resource potential for Kenya at 1,700 MW,
whereas the latest estimates have revised the potential to 7,000-10,000 MW and similarly in
Tanzania the latest resource estimate is >5000 MW, up from 650 MW in 1982. The variability in
resource estimates highlights the challenge involved in making regional extrapolations of resource
potential and shows that they tend to be quite conservative. As such, it is fair to speculate that
Uganda’s resources could be several times greater than estimated by McNitt in 1982, and more
aligned to the long-term estimate of 1,500 MW of installed capacity envisioned under Vision 2040.

Source: Bahati, 2011 Geothermal Resources Map of Uganda

 Electricity generation mix

KEY REQUIREMENTS FOR ESTABLISHING A GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT IN

UGANDA

1. Finding the Hot Spots:

Geological Surveys: Scientists study the earth’s layers to find areas with high
geothermal potential. This involves mapping the subsurface and identifying heat
sources.
Geochemical Analysis: Testing water and gas samples from hot springs and
fumaroles to understand the geothermal system.
Geophysical Methods: Using techniques like seismic surveys and magnetotellurics
to get a clearer picture of the underground structures.

2. Getting the Green Light:

Energy Policy Compliance: Ensuring the project aligns with Uganda’s energy
policies, which promote renewable energy sources.
 Permits and Licenses: Obtaining the necessary permits from government bodies,
which might include environmental permits, drilling licenses, and construction
approvals.

3. Protecting Nature:

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): Conducting studies to predict how the

project will affect the environment and proposing measures to mitigate negative
impacts.
Biodiversity Conservation: Ensuring that local wildlife and plant life are protected
during and after the construction of the plant.
4. Building the Basics:

Drilling Wells: Drilling deep into the earth to access geothermal reservoirs.
This requires specialized drilling rigs and technology.
Power Plant Construction: Building the infrastructure needed to convert
geothermal energy into electricity, including turbines, generators, and cooling
systems.

5. Finding the Funds:

Government Funding: Securing financial support from the Ugandan government,

which may see geothermal energy as a strategic investment.

Private Investment: Attracting private investors who are interested in long-term

returns from renewable energy projects.

International Aid: Applying for grants and loans from international organizations
that support sustainable energy projects.

6. Talking to the Community:

Community Meetings: Holding discussions with local residents to explain the

project, its benefits, and address any concerns.

Stakeholder Engagement: Collaborating with local leaders, NGOs, and other

stakeholders to ensure the project has broad support.

7. Training the Team:

Capacity Building Programs: Offering training programs for local engineers,

technicians, and operators to ensure they have the skills needed to run the plant.

Knowledge Transfer: Partnering with international experts to transfer knowledge

and best practices to the local workforce.
LESSONS TO BE LEARNED FROM COUNTRIES LIKE KENYA

1. Clear Rules and Support:

Kenya’s Example: Kenya has set up clear rules and dedicated support for
geothermal projects. They have laws that make it easier for companies to invest
in geothermal energy.
Lesson for Uganda: Uganda can create similar supportive laws and policies to
attract investors and make the process smoother.
2. Government Backing:

Kenya’s Example: The Kenyan government actively supports geothermal

projects, even setting up a special company to handle the risky parts of
exploration.
Lesson for Uganda: Uganda can follow this by providing financial support and
setting up dedicated institutions to manage geothermal projects.

3. Training Local Talent:

Kenya’s Example: Kenya invests in training its people, ensuring they have the
skills needed to run geothermal plants. They also partner with international
experts for knowledge transfer.
Lesson for Uganda: Uganda should focus on training local engineers and
technicians and seek partnerships with global experts to build a skilled
workforce.

4. Community Involvement:
Kenya’s Example: Projects like Menengai in Kenya involve local communities,
creating jobs and boosting the local economy.
Lesson for Uganda: Engaging with local communities, explaining the benefits,
and involving them in the project can lead to better support and success.

5. Environmental Care:

Kenya’s Example: Kenya ensures that geothermal projects are environmentally

friendly by conducting thorough impact assessments.
Lesson for Uganda: Uganda should also prioritize environmental assessments
to ensure sustainable development and minimize harm to nature.

6. Creative Financing:

Kenya’s Example: Kenya uses a mix of public and private funding, along with
international aid, to finance geothermal projects.
 Lesson for Uganda: Uganda can explore various funding options, including
international grants and partnerships, to secure the necessary investment for
geothermal energy.

CONCLUSION

Geothermal energy offers numerous advantages. It produces no pollution and does not contribute
to the greenhouse effect. Additionally, it requires no fuel and has minimal impact on soil, as the
cooler water is re-injected into the ground.
However, geothermal energy also has some disadvantages. Suitable locations for geothermal
power stations are limited. It requires specific types of hot rocks that can be drilled to certain
depths. Moreover, the process can release hazardous gases and minerals from underground, which
are challenging to manage.
REFERENCES
1. [Link]
2. [Link]
ml
3. [Link]
ner gy_