Cartilage

1- Characteristic features of cartilage.

2- Components of cartilage.
3- Types & sites of cartilage.
4- Growth of cartilage.
5- Healing of cartilage.
 Cartilage
• Cartilage are modified type of
connective tissue in which the
extracellular matrix is hardened to
provide rigidity, support and
attachment for soft tissues.
 Characteristic features of cartilage
1- The extra cellular matrix is firm and
flexible.
2- It is avascular, no lymphatic vessels or
nerves.
3- It is usually covered by perichondrium.
4- Cells are isolated in small cavities in the
ground substance called lacunae.
 Perichondrium
• Site: Cartilage is usually covered by a
membrane called perichondrium
except inside joint cavities.
• Structure: It consists of two layers:
1- An outer fibrous layer: dense CT, rich
in type І collagen & few in blood
vessels.
2- An inner vascular&cellular
layer(chondrogenic layer): contain
chondroblasts (forming new cartilage).
 Perichondrium
• Functions:
1- Growth of cartilage at its periphery.
2- Nourishment as it contains blood
vessels

Inside joint cavities: these functions are committed by synovial fluid

 Components of cartialge
1- Extracellular matrix including:
Ground substance.
Fibers: Collagen& elastic fibers.
2- Cartilage cells:chondroblasts
&chondrocytes.
 I- Extracellular matrix
• It is responsible for the firmness and flexiblility of the
cartilage. It is produced by cartilage cells.
• Structure:
1- Ground substance:
A- Water: 60-80% of cartilage weight.
Function: Diffusion of metabolites to the cartilage cells.
B- Proteoglycans: glycosaminoglycans as
 Chondroitin sulfate
 Keratan sulfate.
 Hyaluronic acid.
C- Glycoproteins: such as chondronectin ( anchors
chondrocytes to the matrix).
2- Fibers: mainly collagen fibrils type II, in addition to type I
collagen and elastic fibers according to type of cartilage.
 II-Cartilage cells
1-Chondroblasts
• Origin: from undifferentiated
mesenchymal cells.
• Site: in the inner cellular layer of
perichondrium.
• Function:
1- They secrete the extracellular matrix,
2- They become imprisoned inside
lacunae forming chondrocytes.
• Structure:
Shape: Oval.
Nucleus: Oval.
Cytoplasm: basophilic.
 2-Chondrocytes
• Origin: From the chondroblasts after
secreting the matrix, trapped in lacunae.
• Site and shape:
1- Young chondrocytes: underneath the
perichondrium, spindle in shape and can
undergo mitosis.
2- Mature chondrocytes: deeply situated,
rounded in shape.
The matrix is condensed around the lacunae
forming the capsule rich in chondroitin
sulphates
• Function: They maintain the extracellular
matrix.
 Types of cartilage
1- Hyaline cartilage.
2- Elastic cartilage.
3- White fibrocartilage.
 1- Hyaline cartilage
• Fresh state:
1- Smooth & firm.
2- Bluish in color.
 1- Hyaline cartilage
• Sites:
1- Skeleton of the embryo.
2- Epiphyseal plates in growing age.
3- Costal cartilages.
4- Nose, larynx, trachea and bronchi in the
respiratory system.
5- Articular surfaces of synovial joints.
 1- Hyaline cartilage
• Characteristic features:
Perichondrium: It is usually covered with
perichondrium except inside joint cavity.
Nutrition: from perichondrium, but if it is
present inside the joint cavity, it is nourished
by diffusion from the synovial fluid.
Matrix: abundant, glassy, pale basophilic &
no apparent fibers (WHY).
Fibers: Type II collagen fibrils.
Chondrocytes: widely scattered, number of
chondrocytes/capsule is 1-8 forming a cell
nest.
 2- Elastic cartilage
• Fresh state:
1- Flexible, can bear mechanical stress
without permanent deformation.
2- Yellowish in color.
 2- Elastic cartilage
• Sites:
1- The auricle of the ear (ear pinna).
2- External auditory meatus.
3- Epiglottis.
 2- Elastic cartilage
• Characteristic features:
Perichondrium: covered always with
perichondrium.
Nutrition: Perichondrium.
Fibers: large number of elastic fibers, in
addition to collagen type II.
Chondrocytes: Numerous, number of
chondrocytes/capsule is 1-3.
 3-White fibro cartilage
• Fresh state:
1- It has a great strength & flexibility.
2- Whitish in color.
 3-White fibro cartilage
 Sites:
1-The intervertebral disc.
2-The symphysis pubis.
3-The temperomandibular joint
4- The sternoclavicular joint.
5- The menisci of knee joint.
 3-White fibro cartilage
• Characteristic features:
Perichondrium: Never covered with
perichondrium.
Nutrition: from the surrounding
connective tissue of joint capsule and
ligaments.
Fibers: large number of type I collagen
fibers, in addition to type II collagen.
Chondrocytes: Few, number of
chondrocytes/capsule is 1-2.
 Hyaline cartilage Elastic cartilage White fibrocartilage
Character Smooth, firm, bluish in Flexible, yellow in fresh Strong , flexible, white
fresh state. state. in fresh state.
Perichondrium Covered with Always covered with Never covered with
perichondrium, except perichondrium. perichondrium.
inside joint cavity.
Nutrition 1- Perichondrium. Perichondrium. from the surrounding
connective tissue of
2- Inside joint cavity by
joint capsule and
synovial fluid.
ligaments.

Extracellular  Type II collagen  Large number of  Type I collagen

fibrils ( not appear) elastic fibers +
matrix: fibers + type II
 It is pale basophilic, type II collagen
glassy appearance. fibrils. collagen.
 Hyaline cartilage Elastic cartilage White fibrocartilage
Chondrocytes Widely scattered. Numerous. Few .
Cell 1-3 1-2
(1- 8 chondrocytes/ chondrocytes/lacuna chondrocytes/lacuna.
lacuna)
Sites: 1. Costal cartilages. 1. Auricle of the ear. 1. The intervertebral
2. Nose, larynx, 2. External auditory disc.
trachea,bronchi canal. 2. The symphysis
3. Articular surfaces of 3- Epiglottis. pubis.
joints. 3. Tempromandibular j.
4. Skeleton of embryo. 4. Sternoclavicular j.
5. Epiphyseal plate. 5. Menisci of knee j.
 Growth of cartilage
Growth of cartilage is very limited in adults.
• There are 2 types of growth:
1- Appositional growth:
 It is growth of cartilage at its periphery by adding new layers from
perichondrium.
 It is caused by mitosis of chondroblasts in the perichondrium.
 They secrete new matrix on the surface, then transform to
chondrocytes.
2- Interstitial growth:
 It is growth of cartilage from inside.
 It occurs as a result of mitosis of chondrocytes within the
cartilage.
 They form cell nests in the lacunae & secrete more matrix.
 This causes cartilage to expand from within.
Types Appositional growth Interstitial growth

Definition It is growth of cartilage at its periphery by It is growth of cartilage from inside

adding new layers from outside

Events Mitosis of chondroblasts in the Mitosis of chondrocytes within the

perichondrium. They secrete new matrix cartilage. They form cell nests in the lacunae
on the surface, then transform to and secrete more matrix.
chondrocytes.
 Healing of Cartilage
• Cartilage has a limited ability to repair (WHY),
if extensively damaged, the cartilage tear will
be repaired with fibrous tissue.
Which statement is describing the elastic
cartilage?
1- The matrix contains type I collagen fibers.
2- The number of chondrocytes are 1-2/ capsule.
3- It is nourished from the synovial fluid.
4- It is present in the ear pinna.
Which statement is describing the elastic
cartilage?
1- The matrix contains type I collagen fibers.
2- The number of chondrocytes are 1-2/ capsule.
3- It is nourished from the synovial fluid.
4- It is present in the ear pinna.
 Cartilage
1- Characteristic features of cartilage.
2- Components of cartilage.
3- Types & sites of cartilage.
4- Growth of cartilage.
5- Healing of cartilage.
 Cartilage
• Cartilage are modified type of
connective tissue in which the
extracellular matrix is hardened to
provide rigidity, support and
attachment for soft tissues.
 Characteristic features of cartilage
1- The extra cellular matrix is firm and
flexible.
2- It is avascular, no lymphatic vessels or
nerves.
3- It is usually covered by perichondrium.
4- Cells are isolated in small cavities in the
ground substance called lacunae.
 Perichondrium
• Site: Cartilage is usually covered by a
membrane called perichondrium
except inside joint cavities.
• Structure: It consists of two layers:
1- An outer fibrous layer: dense CT, rich
in type І collagen & few in blood
vessels.
2- An inner vascular&cellular
layer(chondrogenic layer): contain
chondroblasts (forming new cartilage).
 Perichondrium
• Functions:
1- Growth of cartilage at its periphery.
2- Nourishment as it contains blood
vessels

Inside joint cavities: these functions are committed by synovial fluid

 Components of cartialge
1- Extracellular matrix including:
Ground substance.
Fibers: Collagen& elastic fibers.
2- Cartilage cells:chondroblasts
&chondrocytes.
 I- Extracellular matrix
• It is responsible for the firmness and flexiblility of the
cartilage. It is produced by cartilage cells.
• Structure:
1- Ground substance:
A- Water: 60-80% of cartilage weight.
Function: Diffusion of metabolites to the cartilage cells.
B- Proteoglycans: glycosaminoglycans as
 Chondroitin sulfate
 Keratan sulfate.
 Hyaluronic acid.
C- Glycoproteins: such as chondronectin ( anchors
chondrocytes to the matrix).
2- Fibers: mainly collagen fibrils type II, in addition to type I
collagen and elastic fibers according to type of cartilage.
 II-Cartilage cells
1-Chondroblasts
• Origin: from undifferentiated
mesenchymal cells.
• Site: in the inner cellular layer of
perichondrium.
• Function:
1- They secrete the extracellular matrix,
2- They become imprisoned inside
lacunae forming chondrocytes.
• Structure:
Shape: Oval.
Nucleus: Oval.
Cytoplasm: basophilic.
 2-Chondrocytes
• Origin: From the chondroblasts after
secreting the matrix, trapped in lacunae.
• Site and shape:
1- Young chondrocytes: underneath the
perichondrium, spindle in shape and can
undergo mitosis.
2- Mature chondrocytes: deeply situated,
rounded in shape.
The matrix is condensed around the lacunae
forming the capsule rich in chondroitin
sulphates
• Function: They maintain the extracellular
matrix.
 Types of cartilage
1- Hyaline cartilage.
2- Elastic cartilage.
3- White fibrocartilage.
 1- Hyaline cartilage
• Fresh state:
1- Smooth & firm.
2- Bluish in color.
 1- Hyaline cartilage
• Sites:
1- Skeleton of the embryo.
2- Epiphyseal plates in growing age.
3- Costal cartilages.
4- Nose, larynx, trachea and bronchi in the
respiratory system.
5- Articular surfaces of synovial joints.
 1- Hyaline cartilage
• Characteristic features:
Perichondrium: It is usually covered with
perichondrium except inside joint cavity.
Nutrition: from perichondrium, but if it is
present inside the joint cavity, it is nourished
by diffusion from the synovial fluid.
Matrix: abundant, glassy, pale basophilic &
no apparent fibers (WHY).
Fibers: Type II collagen fibrils.
Chondrocytes: widely scattered, number of
chondrocytes/capsule is 1-8 forming a cell
nest.
 2- Elastic cartilage
• Fresh state:
1- Flexible, can bear mechanical stress
without permanent deformation.
2- Yellowish in color.
 2- Elastic cartilage
• Sites:
1- The auricle of the ear (ear pinna).
2- External auditory meatus.
3- Epiglottis.
 2- Elastic cartilage
• Characteristic features:
Perichondrium: covered always with
perichondrium.
Nutrition: Perichondrium.
Fibers: large number of elastic fibers, in
addition to collagen type II.
Chondrocytes: Numerous, number of
chondrocytes/capsule is 1-3.
 3-White fibro cartilage
• Fresh state:
1- It has a great strength & flexibility.
2- Whitish in color.
 3-White fibro cartilage
 Sites:
1-The intervertebral disc.
2-The symphysis pubis.
3-The temperomandibular joint
4- The sternoclavicular joint.
5- The menisci of knee joint.
 3-White fibro cartilage
• Characteristic features:
Perichondrium: Never covered with
perichondrium.
Nutrition: from the surrounding
connective tissue of joint capsule and
ligaments.
Fibers: large number of type I collagen
fibers, in addition to type II collagen.
Chondrocytes: Few, number of
chondrocytes/capsule is 1-2.
 Hyaline cartilage Elastic cartilage White fibrocartilage
Character Smooth, firm, bluish in Flexible, yellow in fresh Strong , flexible, white
fresh state. state. in fresh state.
Perichondrium Covered with Always covered with Never covered with
perichondrium, except perichondrium. perichondrium.
inside joint cavity.
Nutrition 1- Perichondrium. Perichondrium. from the surrounding
connective tissue of
2- Inside joint cavity by
joint capsule and
synovial fluid.
ligaments.

Extracellular  Type II collagen  Large number of  Type I collagen

fibrils ( not appear) elastic fibers +
matrix: fibers + type II
 It is pale basophilic, type II collagen
glassy appearance. fibrils. collagen.
 Hyaline cartilage Elastic cartilage White fibrocartilage
Chondrocytes Widely scattered. Numerous. Few .
Cell 1-3 1-2
(1- 8 chondrocytes/ chondrocytes/lacuna chondrocytes/lacuna.
lacuna)
Sites: 1. Costal cartilages. 1. Auricle of the ear. 1. The intervertebral
2. Nose, larynx, 2. External auditory disc.
trachea,bronchi canal. 2. The symphysis
3. Articular surfaces of 3- Epiglottis. pubis.
joints. 3. Tempromandibular j.
4. Skeleton of embryo. 4. Sternoclavicular j.
5. Epiphyseal plate. 5. Menisci of knee j.
 Growth of cartilage
Growth of cartilage is very limited in adults.
• There are 2 types of growth:
1- Appositional growth:
 It is growth of cartilage at its periphery by adding new layers from
perichondrium.
 It is caused by mitosis of chondroblasts in the perichondrium.
 They secrete new matrix on the surface, then transform to
chondrocytes.
2- Interstitial growth:
 It is growth of cartilage from inside.
 It occurs as a result of mitosis of chondrocytes within the
cartilage.
 They form cell nests in the lacunae & secrete more matrix.
 This causes cartilage to expand from within.
Types Appositional growth Interstitial growth

Definition It is growth of cartilage at its periphery by It is growth of cartilage from inside

adding new layers from outside

Events Mitosis of chondroblasts in the Mitosis of chondrocytes within the

perichondrium. They secrete new matrix cartilage. They form cell nests in the lacunae
on the surface, then transform to and secrete more matrix.
chondrocytes.
 Healing of Cartilage
• Cartilage has a limited ability to repair (WHY),
if extensively damaged, the cartilage tear will
be repaired with fibrous tissue.
Which statement is describing the elastic
cartilage?
1- The matrix contains type I collagen fibers.
2- The number of chondrocytes are 1-2/ capsule.
3- It is nourished from the synovial fluid.
4- It is present in the ear pinna.
Which statement is describing the elastic
cartilage?
1- The matrix contains type I collagen fibers.
2- The number of chondrocytes are 1-2/ capsule.
3- It is nourished from the synovial fluid.
4- It is present in the ear pinna.
 Bone
1- Components of Bone
2- Types& sites of bone.
3- Bone growth.
4- Healing of a bone fracture.
 Bone
• Bone is a modified type of connective tissue
in which the matrix is hard.
• Functions:
1- Locomotion.
2- Protection of the vital organs.
3- Metabolic function: by acting as a reservoir
for calcium, phosphate and other minerals.
 Components of bone
I- Bone matrix
• It is composed of:
1- Water:
 constitutes about 25% of the bone weight.
 permits exchange of minerals between blood
and matrix.
2- Inorganic component: constitutes about 45%
of the bone weight. It is mainly in the form of:
 calcium phosphates (in the form of
hydroxyapatite crystals)& calcium carbonates.
 Few other ions e.g. sodium, magnesium and
ferrous.
 It is responsible for the hardness of bone.
Removal

Bone softness
 Components of bone
I- Bone matrix
Rickets Osteomalacia
 Components of bone
I- Bone matrix
3- Organic component: it constitutes about
30% of the bone weight. It includes:
• Ground substance: formed of:
Proteoglycans,
Adhesive glycoproteins e.g. osteonectin
which anchors collagen to the inorganic
matrix.
• Type I collagen fibers: responsible for the
eosinophilic staining of bone matrix in H&E
sections.
Removal
Tensile strength Fragile bone
 Components of bone
I- Bone matrix

Hard + Strong

Calcium Collagen
 Components of bone
II- Bone coverings
1- The periosteum: it covers the external
surfaces of bone. It is similar to the
perichondrium, formed of two layers:
The outer fibrous layer: formed of dense
connective tissue with few blood vessels.
The inner vascular and cellular layer:
containing the osteogenic cells
(osteoprogenitor cells&osteoblasts) which
form new bone during growth and repair.
2- The endosteum: it lines the bone marrow
cavities. It is formed of cellular layer of
osteogenic cells and blood vessels.
 Components of bone
III- Bone cells
• There are four types of bone cells:
1- Osteoprogenitor cells.
2- Osteoblasts.
3- Osteocytes.
4- Osteoclasts.
 1-Osteoprogenitor cells= Mother cells of the
bone
• Origin: from undifferentiated mesenchymal cells.
• Function: whenever there is bone formation ,the
osteoprogenitor cells proliferate and differentiate to
osteoblasts.
• Sites:
 Cellular layer of the periosteum.
 Endosteum.
 Lining the Haversian canals.
• LM picture:
 Shape: small &spindle.
 Nucleus: oval.
 Cytoplasm: pale basophilic.
• EM picture: few organelles, mainly polysomes.
 2- Osteoblasts= The bone forming cells
• Origin: from osteoprogenitor cells.
• Sites: in the same sites as osteoprogenitor
cells.
• Function: bone formation by:
1- Secretion of the osteoid which is the
uncalcified organic components of the bone
matrix.
2- Secretion of alkaline phosphatase enzyme
responsible for the deposition of calcium salts
from the blood into the bone matrix (bone
mineralization).
3- The osteoblast is entrapped by the calcified
matrix in a lacuna and becomes an osteocyte.
 2- Osteoblasts= The bone forming cells
• LM picture:
Shape: cuboidal or columnar,
arranged in one row (resembling
the simple epithelium), attached to
each other by short processes.
Nucleus: eccentric (WHY)& pale.
Cytoplasm: deep basophilic with a
juxtanuclear negative Golgi image.
• EM picture: It shows the
ultrastructure features of protein
synthesizing cells(constitutive
secretion).
 III-Osteocytes= The unit bone cells
• Origin: from osteoblasts; when entrapped
within the lacunae (cavities).
• Function: maintenance of the bone matrix.
• Sites: inside lacunae within the bone
matrix.
• LM picture:
Shape: flattened cells with many processes.
Nucleus: deeply stained.
Cytoplasm: pale basophilic.
 III-Osteocytes= The unit bone cells
• EM picture:
Nucleus: more heterochromatic than that
of osteoblast.
Cytoplasm: moderate amounts of
organelles.
They are present within lacunae.
Their processes are present within minute
spaces in the bone matrix called canaliculi.
The lacunae and canaliculi communicate
with each other.
The processes of neighboring osteocytes
are connected via gap junctions.
 IV-Osteoclasts= The bone eating cells
• Origin: from the blood monocytes (mononuclear
phagocyte system), migrate to the bone, fuse
together and differentiate into osteoclasts ( motile
cell).
• Function: bone resorption during osteogenesis.
• Sites: present within shallow depressions in bone
matrix called the resorption bays or Howship's
lacunae (formed by the osteoclasts activity).
• LM picture:
Size: Giant.
Shape: irregular outline.
Nucleus: multinucleated( may contain up to 50 dense
nuclei).
Cytoplasm: deeply eosinophilic& vacuolated.
 IV-Osteoclasts= The bone eating cells
• EM picture:
It has two surfaces: a smooth surface
and a ruffled surface, towards the area of
bone resorption, with many irregular
projections separated by narrow clefts.
Cytoplasm: contains:
1- Many mitochondria,
2- Well developed Golgi apparatus,
3- Large number of lysosomes, vesicles and
vacuoles.
The cell has a polarity
 Polarity of osteoclast
1. Ruffled border: face the
resorption area.
2. Smooth surface: away from area
of resorption.
3. Mitochondria under ruffled
border.
4. Nuclei toward smooth surface.
 Osteoclasts= The bone eating cells
• Function: bone resorption
during osteogenesis.
 Osteoprogenitor Osteoblast Osteocyte Osteoclast

Origin Undifferentiated Osteoprogenitor Osteoblast Blood monocytes

mesenchymal cells

LM:
Shape Small ( few organelles) cuboidal;columnar in a Flattened with Giant (resulted from
Spindle row with processes. processes fusion of 50 cells)
Irregular with smooth &
ruffled surfaces.

Multinucleated (up to
Oval,pale (division) Eccentric, pale 50)
Nucleus Dark
Pale basophilic (few Deep acidophilic
organelles mainly Deep basophilic (rER) & (mitochondria) &
Cytoplasm ribosomes) negative golgi image ( Pale basophilic vacuolated
Golgi) ( moderate ( lysosomes)
organelles)
Types Osteoprogenitor Osteoblast Osteocyte Osteoclast

EM few organelles mainly Protein synthesizing cell •Moderate amount of •Large number of
ribosomes for division abundant rER, Golgi& organelles (less active) lysosomes (resorption),
secretory vesicles. •Cells are within •Golgi.
lacunae. •endocytotic vesicles (
•Processes are within contain degradation
canaliculi. products.)
•Mitochondria
( energy to pump H )

Sites Sites of initiation of The same as Within lacunae while Within depressions on
bone formation: osteoprogenitor their processes within the resorbing matrix
1- inner cellular layer of canaliculi. called resorption bays
periosteum. or Howship s lacunae.
2- endosteum
3- lining Haversian
canal.
 Osteoprogenitor Osteoblast Osteocyte Osteoclast

Functions The mother cell of the Bone forming cell The unit bone cell; The bone eating cell;
bone; 1- secretion of organic maintain matrix bone resorption during
Divide and give components of matrix. osteogenesis, growth &
osteoblasts 2- secretion of alkaline repair.
phosphatase
(calcification)
3- transformed into
osteocytes.
 Types of Bone
I-Primary bone or woven bone
• It is the first bone to be deposited during
the bone development, growth & repair.
• It has the following characters:
1- It is immature weak bone due to low
calcium content.
2-Irregular arrangement of collagen fibers.
3- Osteocytes are numerous and irregularly
arranged.
4- Temporary and is replaced later on by
the secondary bone.
 Types of Bone
II- Secondary or lamellar bone
• It is characterized by:
1- It is mature strong bone with high calcium
content.
2- Regular arrangement of collagen fibers in
the form of multiple layers or lamellae( the
histological unit of bone)where collagen
fibers in each lamella are organized parallel to
each other.
3- Osteocytes are less abundant, regularly
aligned inside their lacunae along the
lamellae.
Types Primary bone Secondary, mature,lamellar bone

Calcium content Low High

Collagen Irregularly deposited Regular arranged in lamellae

Osteocyte More Less

Irregularly arranged. Regularly arranged within lamellae.
 Types of mature lamellar bone
1- The compact bone.
2- The cancellous bone (Spongy bone).
 I-Compact bone
• Site:
1- The diaphysis (shaft) of long bones.
2- The outer and inner tables of flat.
• Structure:
1- The bone coverings: The external surface is covered by
the periosteum, while its single medullary cavity in long
bones is lined by the endosteum.
 At the site of attachment of the periosteum to the
tendon, the collagen fibers are thickened forming the
Sharpey's fibers that penetrate deep into the bone
substance to be fixed to the external circumferential
lamellae and interstitial lamellae.
2- The bone tissue: the bone lamellae are regularly
arranged in three patterns.
 1-The circumferential lamellae
• These are 2-3 parallel bone lamellae that
encircle the whole circumference of the
bone shaft.
• According to their localization, there are:
A- The outer circumferential lamellae: lie
just beneath the periosteum.
B- The inner circumferential lamellae:
surround the central medullary cavity just
beneath the endosteum.
 2-The Haversian systems (the osteons)
• It is the characteristic structural unit in
compact bone.
• Each osteon is formed of:
A cylinder of 4-20 concentric bone lamellae
that are telescoped inside each other.
The lamellae are concentrically arranged
around a central Haversian canal that runs
parallel to the long axis of the bone.
The Haversian canal is lined by osteogenic
cells and contains loose connective tissue
rich in blood vessels and nerves.
 Volkmann's canals
• They are transverse or oblique bony canals that connect
the blood vessels of Haversian canals with each other and
with the blood vessels of the periosteum and the
endosteum.
• They differ from Haversian canal in:
1- They are not surrounded by concentric bone lamellae;
instead, they perforate the lamellae.
2- They extend in an oblique or a transverse direction and
not in a longitudinal direction as the Haversian canal.
• Function of Haversian and the Volkmann's canals: They
represent the vascular channels that transport nutritive
substances throughout the compact bone.
Types Haversian canal Volkman canal

Direction Parallel to long axis of bone Taransverse;oblique to the long axis of

bone

Surrounding structure Surrounded by concentric bone lamellae Not surrounded by concentric bone
lamellae

Function Nutritive canal: nourish the osteon Nutritive canal: connect the blood vessels
of Haversian canals with each other and
with the blood vessels of the periosteum
and the endosteum
 3- The interstitial lamellae
• These are irregular groups of
parallel bone lamellae filling the
spaces between the Haversian
systems.
• They represent the lamellae
that are left behind from the old
osteons during the process of
continuous remodeling of bone.
Osteon

H
 II- Cancellous bone
• Site:
1- The epiphysis of long bones(the outer
surface is covered by a thin layer of
compact bone).
2- The area between the outer & inner
tables of flat bones(Diploë).
 Components of cancellous bone
1- The bone trabeculae:
• Thin interconnected bone trabeculae.
• Each trabecula is made up of bone lamellae
not arranged as osteons.
• Primitive Haversian systems might be present.
2- The bone marrow cavities:
• These are numerous cavities of separating the
bone trabeculae & responsible for
nourishment of the bone tissue.
• They are lined by endosteum.
• They are filled with myeloid tissue (active red
bone marrow, but in old age the red marrow
is largely replaced by adipose tissue).

Bone coverings: Endosteum which line bone marrow cavities

Compact versus cancellous bone
Types Compact bone Cancellous bone
Naked eye Dense with no holes Spongy with many holes

Sites - Shaft of long bones - Diploë of flat bones

- Outer& inner tables of flat bones - Epiphysis of long bones
Structure
Periosteum present absent
Endosteum Lines the central marrow cavity. Lines the central marrow cavities.

Bone marrow Single, central cavity. Multiple cavities.

Bone lamellae -Regularly arranged.. - lamellae
-They form Haversian systems, interstitial
and circumferential lamellae - They form bone trabeculae

Haversian system Mature, fully developed Immature, primitive Haversian systems

might be present.

Nutrition Volkman's canals, to the Haversian The vascular channels are lacking as bone
canals, to the bone canaliculi of marrow cavities are present instead.
osteocytes .
 Histogenesis of Bone (Osteogensis)
1-Bone means vascularization.
2- For the matrix of the bone to be secreted, it needs a surface
to be laid upon it. This surface may be a mesenchymal tissue
or a piece of cartilage.
 Histogenesis of Bone (Osteogensis)
3- The bone secreted at the beginning of ossification is immature;
woven or primary bone resembles spongy bone, which will be replaced
with mature secondary lamellar bone by REMODELING.
4- Not all the ossification occurs intrauterine. In some areas , it occurs
after birth ([Link]) up to the age of puberty.
 Histogenesis of Bone (Osteogensis)
• Bone can be formed by either of two ways:
1- Intramembranous ossification: in which
osteoblasts secret bone matrix within a
membrane of mesenchymal tissue.
2- Endochondral ossification: in which the
matrix of preexisting hyaline cartilaginous
model is eroded and replaced by bone matrix.
• During osteogenesis of all types of bone,
areas of woven bone, areas of resorption and
areas of lamellar bone usually appear side by
side.
 I-Intramembranous ossification
• It occurs during:
 Embryonic life: results in the formation of flat bones.
 During postnatal life: results in increase in width of long bones.
• Steps of intramembranous ossification :
1- Development of one or more ossification centers: by condensation
of mesenchymal connective tissue in the area of the developing bone
with increased vascularity to provide enough mineral needed for bone
formation.
2- In response to specific growth factors and enough oxygen tension:
mesenchymal cells proliferate and differentiate into osteoprogenitor
cells.
3- Osteoprogenitor cells: proliferate and differentiate into osteoblasts
secreting bone matrix, then the osteoblasts transform into osteocytes.
4- Trabeculae of developing bones: are formed and fuse together
giving the spongy bone with bone marrow cavities in between.
 Endochondral (Intracartilaginous) ossification
• During embryonic life, many parts of the
skeleton are laid down first as hyaline
cartilage, which gradually replaced by
bones results in the formation of long
bones.
• Later in the fetal and early postnatal life:
these cartilaginous models become
gradually replaced by bone tissue except in
two places: the epiphyseal plate and the
articular cartilage.
 Growth of bone
• During postnatal life, bone formation occurs for:
1- Growth of bone: which includes increase in length, increase in width
and bone remodeling.
2- Repair of bone fractures.
 I-Increase in length of long bone
• It occurs at the epiphyseal plate by endochondral ossification.
• Steps of endochondral bone formation
The following zones are seen starting from the epiphyseal side of
cartilage:
1- Zone of resting cartilage: chondrocytes do not show any signs of
activity. It acts as a reserve.
2- Zone of proliferation and arrangement: in response to growth
hormone chondrocytes proliferate by interstitial growth
forming longitudinal rows resembling stacks of coins.
3- Zone of hypertrophy: chondrocytes accumulate large amounts of
glycogen enlarged and pale the matrix is compressed into
thin septa between the chondrocytes.
 I-Increase in length of long bone
4- Zone of calcification: the hypertrophied
chondrocytes start to release alkaline
phosphatase enzyme calcification of the
cartilage matrix (in H&E sections the pale bluish
staining of hyaline cartilage is intermingled with
the reddish staining of the calcium salts
deposited in the matrix) the insoluble
calcium salts in the matrix interfere with diffusion
of sufficient nutrients to the chondrocytes
degeneration and death of the chondrocytes
leaving empty cavities.
 I-Increase in length of long bone
5- Zone of ossification:
• Blood capillaries and osteogenic cells grow
from the diaphysis and from the periosteum
to occupy the empty cavities.
• Osteoblasts secrete bone matrix on the
calcified cartilage remnants become
entrapped within lacunae changed to
osteocytes.
• This process proceeds resulting in the
formation of woven bone which will be
replaced by lamellar compact bone
surrounding a single marrow cavity.
 I-Increase in length of long bone
• Because the rates of the proliferation and
destruction are nearly equal, the
thickness of epiphyseal plate does not
change. Instead, it is displaced away from
the middle of the diaphysis, resulting in
growth in length of the bone.
• Growth of long bones stops at adulthood
when the epiphyseal plates are
eliminated (closure of the epiphyses).
Once the epiphysis is closed, increase in
length of the bone becomes impossible.
• Different bones have different time of
closure of their epiphyses. This is of
medicolegal importance to determine the
bone age of a person.
Increase in length of long bone
 II-Increase in width of long bones
• It occurs by two parallel mechanisms:
Subperiosteal bone formation: by
osteoblasts from outside, it occurs by an
appositional intramembranous
ossification.
Bone resorption by osteoclast: at the
endosteum from inside, to enlarge the
marrow cavity.
 III-Bone remodeling
• It is a continuous process that occurs
throughout life.
• It involves bone resorption and bone
formation.
• During childhood: bone formation
exceeds bone resorption,
• In adults: bone formation is balanced
with bone resorption.
 Bone remodeling
• Bone remodeling is important for:
 Replacement of immature bone
woven by mature lamellar bone.
Renewal of bone (resorption of old
osteons and formation of new
ones).
Maintenance of plasma calcium
homeostasis.
Maintenance of bone shape to
adapt mechanical stresses (weight
and posture).
Repair of fracture.
 Repair of bone fracture
• Bone has an excellent capacity for repair
because:
1- It contains osteoprogenitor cells in the
periosteum and endosteum.
2- It has an excellent blood supply.
 Phases of fracture healing
1- Clot formation
• When a bone is fractured the blood
vessels are disrupted hemorrhage and the
bone cells adjoining the fracture site die.
• A blood clot is formed to stop the
hemorrhage.
 2- Callus formation (soft callus)
• The blood clot is removed by macrophages
and adjacent bone matrix is resorbed by
osteoclasts.
• The periosteum and endosteum at the site of
fracture show enhanced activity of their
osteoprogenitor cells, which under this
conditions of low oxygen tension, form a soft
callus of fibro-cartilage like tissue that
surrounds the fracture and penetrates
between its ends.
 3- Callus ossification (hard callus)
• Primary bone formation is initiated by:
1- Intramembranous ossification: through
the osteoprogenitor cells in the periosteum.
2- Intracartilaginous ossification.
• Thus, histological examination of a repairing
fractured bone reveals areas of cartilage
together with areas of intramembranous
and endochondral ossification.
• As repair proceeds a hard bone callus is
formed. It is made up of irregular bone
trabeculae of primary bone that unite the
extremities of the fractured bone.
 4- Bone remodeling
• The primary bone of the callus is gradually
resorbed and replaced by secondary bone.
• Further remodeling restores the original bone
structure and contour.
What is the function of the cell in the opposite
diagram?
1- Secretion of alkaline phosphatase enzyme.
2- Bone resorption.
3- Proliferate and differentiate into osteoblast.
4- Maintenance of the bone matrix.
Which statement is true regarding this type of
bone?
1- It contains irregular collagen fibers within
its matrix.
2- The osteoblasts are regularly aligned
within the lamella.
3- It is weakly mineralized.
4- It contains few layered Haversian system.
What is the function of the cell in the opposite
diagram?
1- Secretion of alkaline phosphatase enzyme.
2- Bone resorption.
3- Proliferate and differentiate into osteoblast.
4- Maintenance of the bone matrix.
Which statement is true regarding this type of
bone?
1- It contains irregular collagen fibers within
its matrix.
2- The osteoblasts are regularly aligned
within the lamella.
3- It is weakly mineralized.
4- It contains few layered Haversian system.
Thank you
 Nervous tissue
1- Types& sites of cells in nervous tissue.
2- Definition & structure of a nerve fiber.
3- Definition & structure of peripheral nerves.
4- Response of the nervous tissue to an injury.
5- Regeneration of the nervous tissue.
 Nervous tissue
• It is one of the four primary
basic tissues.
• It consists of two types of cells:
1- Neurons (nerve cells)
2- Neuroglia (supporting cells).
 Neuron=Nerve cell
• It is the structural and functional unit
of the nervous tissue.
• It is characterized by:
1- Excitability: they respond to
environmental changes by generation of
action potential or nerve impulse.
2- Conductivity: they are capable of
propagation of nerve impulse to other
neurons, muscles& glands.
 Histological structure of the neuron
I- Cell body (perikaryon, soma)
• It is composed of:
1- Nucleus: euchromatic.
2- Cytoplasm: contains:
 Nissl bodies
-LM: basophilic granules.
-EM: aggregates of ribosomes and rER.
-Function: protein synthesis.
- Distribution: in the cell body except in the region of axon hillock.
 Large perinuclear Golgi apparatus: for packaging of
neurotransmitters into synaptic vesicles.
 Cytoskeleton: formed of neurofibrils that include
neurofilaments and microtubules playing a role in the
transmission of nerve impulses.
 Inclusions: lipofuscin pigments and lipids.
 Histological structure of the neuron
II- Cell processes
1- Axon:
• Origin: from the axon hillock.
• Number: always single.
• Direction of impulses: conducts nerve impulses away
from the cell body.
• Shape: long, with a regular cylindrical shape.
• Branching: no branches except at axon termination
forming terminal arborizations. It may give off
collaterals arising at right angles.
• Structure: the axoplasm contains few organelles
(neurofibrils, synaptic vesicles and mitochondria). Nissl
bodies are absent.
• Surrounding sheath: axolemma may be surrounded by
sheaths according to the type of nerve fiber.
 Histological structure of the neuron
II- Cell processes
2- Dendrite:
• Origin: from any part of the cell body.
• Number: usually multiple (in multipolar neurons).It may
be single (in bipolar neurons).
• Direction of impulses: conducts nerve impulses towards
the cell body
• Shape: short, thick near its origin and tapers towards its
end.
• Branching: many branches arising at acute angles, having
short spines for synapses.
• Structure: contains most of the organelles as in the
perikaryon except the Golgi apparatus. Nissl bodies are
present.
• Surrounding sheath: not surrounded by sheaths.
 The axon The dendrite
1- Origin Arises from axon hillock Arises from any part of the cell

2- Direction of the impulse. conducts nerve impulse away from conducts nerve impulse toward the
the cell body cell body

3- Number Always single Usually multiple (in multipolar

neurons).It may be single ( in
bipolar neurons)

4- Length Long Short

5- Thickness Thin with a constant diameter. Thick near its origin and tapers as it
goes toward its end.

6- Branching Does not branch except at its Many branches arising at acute
termination (terminal arborization). angles, having short spines.
It may give off collaterals arising at
right angles.

7- Organelles present Contains few organelles (neurofibrils, Contains most of the organelles as in
vesicles and mitochondria. Nissl the perikaryon except Golgi. Nissl
granules are absent. granules are present

8- Surrounding structures It may be surrounded by sheaths. It is not surrounded by sheaths

 General organization of the nervous system
I- Structurally
1- The central nervous system (CNS):
Includes the brain and spinal cord.
 the nerve cell bodies are present mainly in
the grey matter while their axons are
present mainly in the white matter.
2- The peripheral nervous system (PNS):
 Includes nerve endings, peripheral nerves
(somatic & autonomic) and the ganglia
(cranio-spinal & autonomic).
The nerve cell bodies are present mainly in
the ganglia while the axons are forming the
peripheral nerves.
 CNS

Gray matter •
Brain White matter •

Spinal White matter •

cord Gray matter •
 General organization of the nervous system
1- The central nervous system (CNS):
Includes the brain and spinal cord.
 the nerve cell bodies are present mainly in
the grey matter while their axons are
present mainly in the white matter.
2- The peripheral nervous system (PNS):
 Includes nerve endings, peripheral nerves
(somatic & autonomic) and the ganglia
(cranio-spinal & autonomic).
The nerve cell bodies are present mainly in
the ganglia while the axons are forming the
peripheral nerves.
Peripheral nervous system

Nerve endings

Peripheral nerves

Ganglia
Peripheral nervous system
General organization of the nervous system
II- Functionally
Somatic (sensory& motor)

Autonomic
Autonomic NS
General organization of the nervous system
II- Functionally
 Classification of the neurons
I- Functionally
1- Sensory neurons: they carry
impulses from receptors to the CNS.
2- Motor neurons: they carry impulses
from CNS to the effector organs.
3- Interneurons (association neurons):
act as a link between sensory and
motor neurons in CNS only.
 Classification of the neurons
II-Morphologically
• Neurons are classified according to the number
of their processes into:
1- Unipolar: have only one cell process.
Site: present in the embryonic stage.
2- Pseudounipolar: have a single process that
divides like the letter T into two branches (both are
axons).
Site: in the cranio spinal ganglia.
3- Bipolar: have two processes, one is an axon and
the other is a dendrite.
Site: the olfactory neurons present in the
olfactory mucosa of the nose.
 Classification of the neurons
II-Morphologically
4- Multipolar: have more than two processes.
These are classified according to the shape of
their perikaryon into:
A-Stellate neurons: they are the anterior horn
cells of the spinal cord and the autonomic
ganglion cells.
B- Pyramidal neurons: in the cerebral cortex.
C- Pyriform neurons: in the cerebellar cortex
(Purkinje cells)& the retina (ganglion cells).
D- Granule cells: in the cerebellar cortex.
 Nerve fiber
• Definition: It is an axon enveloped by a
special sheath.
• It differs in the enveloping sheaths according
to whether the fibers are part of the central
or peripheral nervous system.
 Types of nerve fibers
I- In PNS
1- Myelinated with myelin sheath and
neurilemma: They are present in
peripheral nerves (nerve trunks).
2- Unmyelinated with neurilemma:They
are present mainly in autonomic nervous
system.
3- Naked: uncovered by sheath, present
in the nerve endings (terminal part of the
peripheral nerves).
 1-Myelinated nerve fibers in PNS
• They are large axons,enveloped by myelin sheath and
neurilemmal sheath.
A-Myelin sheath:
 It is a lipid-rich coat that covers the axon.
 It is formed by wrapping of Schwann cell around the axon.
 It is interrupted at equal intervals by constrictions called
nodes of Ranvier where the axon can emit its collaterals.
 The segment between two nodes is the internodal
segment and is occupied by single Schwann cell. At each
node, the outer Schwann cell sheath meets the axon
providing it with nutrients, as it is not covered by myelin.
• Function: Insulation, protection of the nerve fiber as well
as fast conduction of nerve impulse
 1-Myelinated nerve fibers in PNS
B-Schwann cell sheath (neurilemmal sheath):
• It consists of the Schwann cells that form an
outer thin sleeve around the myelin.
• Function:
1-Formation of myelin.
2- Nutrition of the axon (at nodes of Ranvier).
3- Regeneration of the nerve fiber after
injury.
 2- Unmyelinated nerve fibers in PNS
• Axons are usually small in diameters &
enveloped by Schwann cell sheath only
(neurilemma).
• A single Schwann cell envelops multiple
segments of different axons.
 Types of nerve fibers
I- In PNS
1- Myelinated with myelin sheath and
neurilemma: They are present in
peripheral nerves (nerve trunks).
2- Unmyelinated with neurilemma:They
are present mainly in autonomic nervous
system.
3- Naked: uncovered by sheath, present
in the nerve endings (terminal part of the
peripheral nerves).
 Types of nerve fibers
I- In CNS
1- Myelinated with myelin sheath:
present in white matter and the optic
nerve.
2- Naked: present in grey matter.
 Myelinated nerve fibers in the CNS
• Nerve fibers are enveloped by myelin
sheath without neurilemma.
• It is formed by the oligodendrocytes.
• It differ from Schwann cell in that:
1- Multiple processes of a single
oligodendrocyte can envelop multiple
segments of several axons.
2-The cell body of the oligodendrocyte
located at some distance from the axons
it myelinates.
Types Myelination in CNS Myelination in PNS

Cell Oligodendrocyte Schwann cell

Myelination Multiple processes of single Single Schwann cell is wrapping around a

oligodendrocyte can envelop segments segment of an axon.
of several nearby axons.
The cell body of the oligodendrocyte will Schwann cells lie on the myelinated axon
be at some distance from the axons it
myelinates

Neurilemmal sheath Absent Present

 Peripheral nerves= Nerve trunk
• Definition: groups of nerve fibers
surrounded by a connective tissue
sheath (e.g. median & sciatic nerves).
 Structure of a peripheral nerve
I- CT sheath
It is formed of:
• Epineurium:
 Dense CT sheath covering the nerve trunk from outside.
 It consists of longitudinally arranged collagen fibers.
 Fat cells are seen in close association with the nerve trunk.
• Perineurium:
 Cellular sheath surrounding each bundle (fascicle) of the nerve fibers.
 It consists of concentric layers of epithelial like fibroblasts joined together
by tight junctions and are bounded by external lamina.
 This layer forms the blood nerve barrier that prevent the passage of
harmful macromolecules into the nerve fibers.
• Endoneurium: thin layer of reticular fibers surrounding each nerve fiber
separately.
• Function of CT sheath: supportive as well as nutritive function as it
carries blood vessels.
 Structure of a peripheral nerve
II- Nerve fibers
• The majority of nerve trunks are mixed containing
myelinated and unmyelinated nerve fibers.
1- With H&E stain: a myelinated nerve fiber is formed
of:
 a central eosinophilic axon,
 surrounded by an empty space representing the
myelin sheath,
 The neurilemma form the outer layer around the
myelin.
2- With osmium tetroxide stain: the only stained
structure in a myelinated nerve fiber is the myelin
sheath.
 Neuroglia
• Definition: They are the supporting cells of
the nervous system.
• They are branching cells that bind neurons
together and to other elements e.g. blood
vessels.
• They could be demonstrated by:
1- Immunohistochemical stain: using
antibodies against glial fibrillary acidic protein.
2- Gold or silver impregnation technique.
 Types of neuroglia
I- In CNS
1-Astrocytes.
1-Microglia.
3- Oligodendrocyte.
4- Ependymal cell.
 1- Astrocytes=macroglia
• Histological features: large, stellate cells,
have multiple processes, each ends by
foot like expansion on the surface of the
blood vessels.
• Functions:
1- Support.
2- Nutrition.
3- Metabolic function that influence
neuronal survival and activity.
4- Formation of the blood brain barrier.
 2- Microglia=mesoglia
• Histological features: small, oval cells, have
processes arising from the two poles. The cell
body and the processes have minute spines.
• Function: they are members of the
mononuclear phagocyte system, they
phagocytose bacteria, apoptotic and
malignant cells.
 3- Oligodendrocytes
• Histological features: small cells with few
short processes as compared with astrocytes.
They are aligned in rows between the axons in
the white matter.
• Function: they form the myelin sheath in the
white matter of CNS.
 4- Ependymal cells
• Site: lining the brain ventricles and the
central canal of the spinal cord.
• Function: formation of cerebro-spinal
fluid.
• Histological features:
They are epithelial like cuboidal cells,
Their apical surfaces have microvilli and
few cilia,
Their basal surfaces have infoldings
without a basement membrane.
 Astrocyte =Macroglia Microglia Oligodendrocyte Ependymal cell

LM:
Shape •Large stellate. •Small, oval. •Small cells. •Epithelial-like cuboidal cells,
•Multiple •Processes arising from •Few short processes. lining the brain ventricles and the
processes,end by foot the two poles. The cell • They are aligned in central canal of the spinal cord.
like expansion on the body and the processes rows between the axons •Apically have microvilli and few
blood vessels. have minute spines. in the white matter. cilia, while basally have numerous
infoldings without a basement
membrane.

Function •Supportive Phagocytosis of Formation the myelin Formation of cerebro-spinal fluid.

•nutritive bacteria,apoptotic and sheath in the white
•Metaboloic malignant cells. matter of CNS
•Formation of blood
brain barrier.
 Types of neuroglia
I- Outside CNS
1- Schwann cells.
2- Satellite cells in the ganglia.
3- Pituicytes in the posterior lobe of pituitary
gland.
 Response of the neuron to an injury
If an injury to a nerve fiber occurs:
1- The proximal segment: that maintains its
continuity with the perikaryon will not
degenerate.
2- The distal segment: that will be separated
from the nerve cell body will undergo Wallerian
degeneration.
3- The perikaryon: will undergo retrograde
degeneration.
 I-Wallarian degeneration= antegrade
degeneration
• Definition: It is the degeneration that occurs in
the distal segment of a nerve fiber following its
injury.
• The degeneration takes place in the axon and
myelin sheath but not in Schwann cells.
• Nerve fibers and myelin degenerate totally and
phagocytosed by the macrophages from the
surrounding connective tissue
 II-Retrograde degeneration
• Definition: It is the degeneration of the perikaryon
after injury of its nerve fiber.
• It includes:
1- Dissolution of Nissl substance (chromatolysis) with
subsequent decrease in cytoplasmic basophilia.
2- Swelling of perikaryon. The cell draws its processes
and becomes spherical, with migration of the nucleus
to the periphery of the cell body.
3- Fragmentation and disappearance of the
neurofibrils, Golgi apparatus and mitochondria.
 Regeneration of the nervous tissue
1- If an injury occurs in the perikaryon:
 The nerve cell will die and never be
replaced (static cell).
 Recent researches are now directed to
neural stem cells in order to replace nerve
cells lost in neurodegenerative disorders
e.g. Alzheimer and Parkinson disease.
 Regeneration of the nervous tissue
2- If an injury occurs in the nerve fibers:
A- In PNS:
The retrograde degeneration stop and
neurons can regenerate as nerve fibers
can regenerate due to the presence of
Schwann cells.
 If the injury is sever: failure of
regeneration and death of the nerve
cell body.
B- In CNS: nerve fibers fail to regenerate
as Schwann cells are absent and death of
the neurons occur.
 Regeneration after injury of nerve fiber in PNS
1- In the distal stump:
• Schwann cells proliferate to give rise to a solid cellular tube.
• Rows of Schwann cells serve to guide the newly growing axon sprouts.
2- In the proximal stump:
• The axon of proximal stump grows and branches, forming several axon
sprouts that progress in the direction of the Schwann cell tube.
• Axons which succeed to grow along the tube reach their destination to
re establish their connections. Surgical suturing are recommended to
help the approximation of the cut ends of the injured nerve fibers.
• If the axon sprouts fail to reach the Schwann cell tube (e.g. when there
is a gap between proximal and distal stumps or when the distal
segment is removed as in case of amputation of a limb), the newly
growing axon sprouts may form a painful amputation neuroma.
Which statement is correct regarding structure
number 1?
1- It conducts the impluses away from the
cell body.
2- It contains Golgi Complex.
3- Nissel granules are present.
4- It may be covered by a sheath.
Which statement is correct regarding structure
number 1?
1- It conducts the impluses away from the
cell body.
2- It contains Golgi Complex.
3- Nissel granules are present.
4- It may be covered by a sheath.
 Muscular tissue
1-Types of muscles.
2- Structure of skeletal muscles.
3- Structure of neuromuscular junction.
4- Regeneration of skeletal muscles.
5- Growth of skeletal muscles.
6- Structure of smooth muscle.
7- Regeneration & growth of smooth
muscles.
 Muscular tissue
• It is one of the primary basic
tissues of the body.
• Function: contraction and to a
lesser degree for conductivity.
 Types of muscles
1- Skeletal muscles.
2- Cardiac muscles.
3- Smooth muscles
 I- Skeletal muscle
• Site
1-Most of skeletal muscles are attached to the
bones.
2- Some skeletal muscles are not attached to
the bones, such as ocular muscles, muscles of
the face, the tongue, the pharynx and the
upper two thirds of the esophagus.
 Characteristics of muscular tissue
1-Muscle cells are elongated and thin, hence, they are called
muscle fibers.
2- The muscle fiber is surrounded by sarcolemma and its
cytoplasm is called sarcoplasm
3- The muscle fibers contain 3 main organelles: myofibrils,
mitochondria& sarcoplasmic reticulum.
4- The main inclusions are: glycogen granules, fat droplets&
myoglobin pigment.
5- The muscular tissue incorporates an amount of connective
tissue. The importance of connective tissue component:
 Carry blood vessels, nerves& lymphatics to supply the
muscle fibers with nutrients and oxygen.
 At the end of the muscle, the connective tissue continues as
a tendon that transmit the force of contraction to the bone.
 Structure of skeletal muscles
I- LM
1- CT components
1- Epimysium: a sheath of dense connective tissue
surrounding the entire muscle. Collagen fibers of the
epimysium are continuous with those of the tendon and
the periosteum on which the muscle pulls.
2- Perimysium: thin fibrous septa extend from the
epimysium to divide the muscle fibers into bundles
(fascicles).
3- Endomysium: thin layer of reticular fibers extend
from the perimysium and surrounding each muscle fiber
separately.
• Blood vessels and nerves penetrate the epimysium to
the perimysium and endomysium but lymphatic
vessels are present in the epimysium and perimysium
only.
 Structure of skeletal muscles
I- LM
2- Skeletal muscle fibers =Rhabdomyocytes
• Longitudinal section:
1- Shape: long, cylindrical& parallel to each other.
2- Nucleus: each fiber is multinucleated, the nuclei
are elongated & peripherally situated.
3- The sarcoplasm: eosinophilic ( due to numerous
myofibrils).
4- At relatively high magnification, the muscle fibers
show transverse striation because:
 Each myofibril shows alternate light and dark
bands.
 Similar bands of adjacent myofibrils are placed side
by side in one level.
 Myofibrils are closely packed within the muscle
fiber.
 Structure of skeletal muscles
I- LM
2- Skeletal muscle fibers =Rhabdomyocytes
• Cross section:
1-Each muscle fiber is polyhedral in
shape.
2- According to the level of cut, some
muscle fibers show no nuclei while others
show one or more peripheral nuclei.
3- The myofibrils appear granular.
 Structure of skeletal muscle fibers
II- Polarized light
1- Dark bands are anisotropic (A bands) or
birefringent ( refract polarized light in two
directions).
2- Light bands are isotropic ( I bands) refract
polarized light in a single direction.
3- Each I band is bisected by a dark line called
Z line. The Z line passes right across the
muscle fiber to join the sarcolemma.
4- Each A band is bisected by a pale band
called H zone. The H band is bisected by a
darker line called M line.
5- The portion of a myofibril between two
successive Z lines is called a sarcomere
(functional unit of the myofibril).
 Structure of skeletal muscle fibers
III-EM
The sarcoplasm fills all the interstices
between the myofibrils and is most
abundant at the poles of the nuclei,
containing:
1- Myofibrils.
2-Mitochondria
3- Sarcoplasmic reticulum.
 1- The myofibrils
• The myofibrils are made up of myofilaments.
• There are two types of myofilaments:
1- The thick myofilaments:
 Extend from one end of the A band to the other end(both
ends of the thick myofilament are free).
 They are composed of a protein called myosin.
2- The thin myofilaments:
 Attached to the Z line by one end and extend from it
towards the margin of the H zone where they end freely,
interdigitating with 1/4 of the length of the thick
myofilaments(one end of the thin myofilament is attached
and the other is free).
 The thin myofilaments are composed of a protein called
actin together with two other associated proteins called
tropomyosin and troponin.
 1- The myofibrils
• According to the arrangement of thin&thick
myofilaments:
1-The A band: is formed of thick myofilaments&
the interdigitating part of thin filaments.
2- The I band: is formed of thin myofilaments.
3-The H band: is formed of thick myofilaments
only.
4- The M line: is the site where fine transverse
filaments connect the thick myofilaments and
keep them grouped in bundles.
5- The Z line: is the site where the ends of thin
myofilaments of two adjacent sarcomeres are
attached. It consists of filaments of α-actinin.
 Molecular structure of myofilaments
I-The thin myofilament: is formed of:
1-Actin filament: consists of monomers of
globular actin called G actin, which
polymerized to form two strands of
filamentous actin called F actin which coil
around each other to form the double helix
of actin filament.
 Molecular structure of myofilaments
2- Tropomyosin: a filament that fits in the spiral
groove along the double helix of actin for
reinforcement.
3- Troponin complexes:
Attached to the tropomyosin filament at regular
intervals and share in regulating muscle
contraction.
Each troponin complex is composed of:
A- Troponin C (TnC): binding calcium.
b- Troponin T (TnT): binding to tropomyosin.
C- Troponin I (TnI): inhibiting actin-myosin
interactions. This inhibition ends when the troponin
C binds calcium.
 Molecular structure of myofilaments
II- The thick myofilament:
Consists of about 350 myosin molecules.
 Each myosin molecule has:
- A long tail: formed of two coiled
polypeptides chains.
- Two globular heads: each has two binding
sites, one for ATP and one for actin.
 Sarcomere during contraction
• Contraction occurs due to sliding of thin
myofilaments over thick myofilaments.
• Thus during muscular contraction:
There is no change in the length of:
1- The thin myofilaments .
2- The thick myofilaments.
2- The A bands.
There is shortening in the length of:
1- The sarcomere.
2- The I bands.
3- The H zones (they may even disappear).
 Molecular structure of myofilaments
III-Desmin intermediate filaments:
They form networks extending
transversely across the muscle fiber.
They are attached to the myofibrils at the
level of Z lines and extend to be attached
to the sarcolemma.
Functions:
1- Stabilize the neighboring myofibrils.
2- Transmit pull of contraction to the
sarcolemma.
 2- The transverse tubules (T tubules)
• Definition: These are tubular
invaginations of the sarcolemma that
penetrate deep into the interior of the
muscle fiber.
• Site: They branch to encircle each
myofibril transversely at the junction
between the A and I bands.
• Each sarcomere is encircled by two T
tubules.
• Function: They conduct the
depolarization simultaneously to all the
myofibrils of a muscle fiber so that they
contract all at the same time.
 3-Sarcoplasmic reticulum
• Branching network of smooth endoplasmic reticulum
surrounding each myofibril.
• It is formed of:
1- Sarcotubules: run longitudinally.
2- Terminal cisternae:
 Collar-like dilatations completely surrounding each myofibril.
 Two terminal cisternae are located at the level of the A I
junction and are separated from each other by a T tubule.
 This arrangement is called a triad. Therefore, each sarcomere
in the skeletal muscle is encircled by two triads.
• Function: Regulation of the concentration of calcium ions
within the myofibrils.

Couple excitation to contraction

 Neuromuscular Junction
Motor end plate
• Definition: It is a specialized nerve
ending (motor) by which a motor nerve
fiber ends in a skeletal muscle.
 Structure of motor end plate
1- Axon terminal:
Near the sarcolemma, the myelinated motor nerve fiber
loses its myelin sheath and divides into several branches
forming axon terminals.
These terminals terminate in contact with the
sarcolemma by epilemmal ending.
The axon terminal contains large number of
mitochondria and synaptic vesicles containing the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine.
2- Synaptic cleft:
 It is the space between the axon terminal and the
sarcolemma of the skeletal muscle fiber.
 It contains a high concentration of acetylcholine
esterase enzyme.
 Structure of motor end plate
3- Postsynaptic sarcolemma:
Under the axon terminal, the sarcolemma is
corrugated forming junctional folds to increase the
surface area of sarcolemma exposed to the
neurotransmitter.
 It contains receptors for acetylcholine.
4- Sole plasm:
 It is the sarcoplasm under the postsynaptic
sarcolemma.
 It is slightly elevated with many nuclei.
 It appears granular as it contains numerous
mitochondria, ribosomes, rER and glycogen granules.
 Myofibrils, here are absent.
 Regeneration of skeletal muscle fibers

Myogenic stem cells

Satellite cell

Myotubes
 Regeneration of skeletal muscle fibers
It is carried by the satellite cells:
mononucleated cells, located between the
skeletal muscle fibers& their external lamina.
They have a limited regenerative potential.
After injury of the muscle fibers:
A- In case of mild injury:
1- The necrotic areas are removed by the
macrophages.
2- The satellite cells replace the degenerated
part.
B- In case of sever lesion: Fibrous scar tissue
will be formed.
 Growth of skeletal muscle
The skeletal muscle fibers cannot
divide, so increase muscle mass is due
to enlargement of existing muscle
fibers( hypertrophy). This occurs by:
1- Increase the width of muscle fibers:
by synthesis of new myofibrils.
2- Increase the length of the fibers: by
activation of satellite cells
myoblasts fused with skeletal
muscle fibers.
 II- Smooth muscle
• Smooth muscles are unstriated&
involuntary muscles.
• Site:
1- viscera
2- Blood vessels.
• Function:
1- Contraction.
2- Synthesis of collagen, elastin and
proteoglycans of the extracellular matrix.
 Structure of smooth muscles
I- LM
1- CT components
• Smooth muscle fibers are arranged into
bundles surrounded by connective tissue
collagen and elastic fibers.
• In each bundle, fine reticular fibers
surround individual muscle fiber in the
bundle.
 Structure of smooth muscles
I- LM
2- Smooth muscle fibers=Leiomyocytes
• LS:
1- Shape: fusiform.
2- Nucleus: single, oval& central.
3- The sarcoplasm: eosinophilic& relatively
homogeneous.
4- The smooth muscle fibers are organized
in a way that the broad middle portion of
one fiber is usually located at the same level
of the narrow tapering portion of the
adjacent fiber.
 Structure of smooth muscles
I- LM
2- Smooth muscle fibers=Leiomyocytes
• Cross section:
1- They appear rounded& unequal in size.
2- The fibers cut in their middle thick
portion: are larger and contain a central
nucleus.
3- The fibers cut in their peripheral portion:
are smaller, without a nucleus.
 Structure of smooth muscle fibers
II-EM
1- Myofilaments
They differ from that of skeletal muscles in:
1- The proportion of actin to myosin: is
greater than in striated muscle.
2- The myofilaments: are not organized in
parallel myofibrils and not arranged in
sarcomeres, instead, they are grouped in
bundles with oblique orientation to the long
axis of the cell.
3- The thin myofilaments: lack troponin
complexes. They are attached with one end to
the dense bodies while the other end is free
interdigitating with the thick myofilaments.
Why the smooth muscle is unstriated?
 Structure of smooth muscle fibers
II-EM
2- Dense bodies
• Definition: fusiform densities consisting of alpha
actinin.
• Function: They are suggested to be the
functional equivalent of the Z lines which are
absent in smooth muscle fibers.
• Sites: They are scattered in the sarcoplasm
(sarcoplasmic dense bodies), while some of them
are attached to the sarcolemma
(subsarcolemmal dense bodies).
• Desmin intermediate filaments: connect these
dense bodies together forming a strong cable like
system that transmits the pull generated by the
interaction of actin with myosin filaments to the
dense bodies attached to the sarcolemma.
 Contraction in smooth muscle fibers
• It is based on the sliding filament mechanism.
• Sliding of thin filaments over thick filaments
generate a pull on sarcoplasmic and
subsarcolemmal dense bodies shortening
of the smooth muscle fiber.
 Structure of smooth muscle fibers
II-EM
3- Caveolae
• Definition: vesicular invaginations
from the sarcolemma of the smooth
muscle fiber.
• Function: They are regarded as the
counterparts of the T tubules which
are absent in smooth muscle fibers.
 Structure of smooth muscle fibers
II-EM
4- Sarcoplasmic reticulum
• The sarcoplasmic reticulum is poorly-
developed and consists of narrow
sarcotubules that are often associated with
the caveolae.
• This association allows transmission of the
electrical stimulation of the cell surface to
the interior of sarcotubules with the release
of calcium and the initiation of muscular
contraction.
 Structure of smooth muscle fibers
II-EM
5- Other organelles& inclusions
• They are mainly located at the poles of
the nucleus.
• They include mitochondria, Golgi
complex, few rough endoplasmic
reticulum and ribosomes, centrioles,
glycogen granules and fat droplets.
 Structure of smooth muscle fibers
II-EM
6- Gap junctions
• Are found between the adjacent smooth
muscle fibers.
• Function: facilitate transmission of
impulses for contraction from one smooth
muscle fiber to another.
 Growth & regeneration of smooth muscle
• They have the ability to divide by mitosis
(regenerative capacity).
• They respond to increase demands by:
 Compensatory hypertrophy: by increasing in
size.
Compensatory hyperplasia: by increasing in
number.
Types Skeletal muscle Smooth muscle
Action Voluntary. Involuntary.

CT component Epimysium,perimysium, endomysium. Collagen and elastic fibers surround bundles.

Reticular fibers surround each muscle fiber.

Shape of fibers Long cylindrical. Fusiform.

Striation Present. Absent.
Nuclei Multiple,peripheral. Single,central.
Sarcomere Present. Absent.
Z line Present. Absent, instead Dense bodies
T tubules Present Absent
at the A-I junction Caveolae instead.
Sarcoplasmic reticulum •Terminal cisternae present & form triads •Terminal cisternae absent
with T tubules.
•Sarcotubules well developed •Sarcotubules poorly developed
Cell junction Absent. present.;gap junction.
Regenerative capacity Limited. Great.
Mitosis Can not divide. Can divide.
Which statement is correct regarding the
pointed structure in the opposite diagram?
1- They are small invaginations of the
plasma membrane.
2- They are the counterpart of the Z
lines.
3- They transmit the nerve impulses
between the adjacent cells.
4- They store calcium ions.
Which statement is correct regarding the
pointed structure in the opposite diagram?
1- They are small invaginations of the
plasma membrane.
2- They are the counterpart of the Z
lines.
3- They transmit the nerve impulses
between the adjacent cells.
4- They store calcium ions.
 Types of cartilage Hyaline cartilage Elastic cartilage White fibrocartilage
Character Smooth, firm, bluish in fresh state. Flexible, yellow in fresh state. Strong , flexible, white in fresh
state.
Perichondrium Covered with perichondrium, Always covered with Never covered with
except inside joint cavity. perichondrium. perichondrium.

Nutrition 1- Perichondrium. Perichondrium. from the surrounding connective

tissue of joint capsule and
2- Inside joint cavity by synovial
ligaments.
fluid.

Extracellular  Type II collagen fibrils ( not  Large number of elastic  Type I collagen fibers +
appear) fibers + type II collagen
matrix: type II collagen.
 It is pale basophilic, glassy fibrils.
appearance.
 Hyaline cartilage Elastic cartilage White fibrocartilage
Chondrocytes Widely scattered. Numerous. Few .
Cell 1-3 1-2
(1- 8 chondrocytes/ chondrocytes/lacuna chondrocytes/lacuna.
lacuna)
Sites: 1. Costal cartilages. 1. Auricle of the ear. 1. The intervertebral
2. Nose, larynx, 2. External auditory disc.
trachea,bronchi canal. 2. The symphysis
3. Articular surfaces of 3- Epiglottis. pubis.
joints. 3. Tempromandibular j.
4. Skeleton of embryo. 4. Sternoclavicular j.
5. Epiphyseal plate. 5. Menisci of knee j.
Types of cartilage growth Appositional growth Interstitial growth

Definition It is growth of cartilage at its periphery by It is growth of cartilage from inside

adding new layers from outside

Events Mitosis of chondroblasts in the Mitosis of chondrocytes within the

perichondrium. They secrete new matrix cartilage. They form cell nests in the lacunae
on the surface, then transform to and secrete more matrix.
chondrocytes.
Types of bone cells Osteoprogenitor Osteoblast Osteocyte Osteoclast

Origin Undifferentiated Osteoprogenitor Osteoblast Blood monocytes

mesenchymal cells

LM:
Shape Small ( few organelles) cuboidal;columnar in a Flattened with Giant (resulted from
Spindle row with processes. processes fusion of 50 cells)
Irregular with smooth &
ruffled surfaces.

Multinucleated (up to
Oval,pale (division) Eccentric, pale 50)
Nucleus Dark
Pale basophilic (few Deep acidophilic
organelles mainly Deep basophilic (rER) & (mitochondria) &
Cytoplasm ribosomes) negative golgi image ( Pale basophilic vacuolated
Golgi) ( moderate ( lysosomes)
organelles)
Types of bone cells Osteoprogenitor Osteoblast Osteocyte Osteoclast

EM few organelles mainly Protein synthesizing cell •Moderate amount of •Large number of
ribosomes for division abundant rER, Golgi& organelles (less active) lysosomes (resorption),
secretory vesicles. •Cells are within •Golgi.
lacunae. •endocytotic vesicles (
•Processes are within contain degradation
canaliculi. products.)
•Mitochondria
( energy to pump H )

Sites Sites of initiation of The same as Within lacunae while Within depressions on
bone formation: osteoprogenitor their processes within the resorbing matrix
1- inner cellular layer of canaliculi. called resorption bays
periosteum. or Howship s lacunae.
2- endosteum
3- lining Haversian
canal.
 Osteoprogenitor Osteoblast Osteocyte Osteoclast

Functions The mother cell of the Bone forming cell The unit bone cell; The bone eating cell;
bone; 1- secretion of organic maintain matrix bone resorption during
Divide and give components of matrix. osteogenesis, growth &
osteoblasts 2- secretion of alkaline repair.
phosphatase
(calcification)
3- transformed into
osteocytes.
Types of bone Primary bone Secondary, mature,lamellar bone

Calcium content Low High

Collagen Irregularly deposited Regular arranged in lamellae

Osteocyte More Less

Irregularly arranged. Regularly arranged within lamellae.
Types of vascular channel Haversian canal Volkman canal

Direction Parallel to long axis of bone Taransverse;oblique to the long axis of

bone

Surrounding structure Surrounded by concentric bone lamellae Not surrounded by concentric bone
lamellae

Function Nutritive canal: nourish the osteon Nutritive canal: connect the blood vessels
of Haversian canals with each other and
with the blood vessels of the periosteum
and the endosteum
Types of secondary bone Compact bone Cancellous bone
Naked eye Dense with no holes Spongy with many holes

Sites - Shaft of long bones - Diploë of flat bones

- Outer& inner tables of flat bones - Epiphysis of long bones
Structure
Periosteum present absent
Endosteum Lines the central marrow cavity. Lines the central marrow cavities.

Bone marrow Single, central cavity. Multiple cavities.

Bone lamellae -Regularly arranged.. - lamellae
-They form Haversian systems, interstitial
and circumferential lamellae - They form bone trabeculae

Haversian system Mature, fully developed Immature, primitive Haversian systems

might be present.

Nutrition Volkman's canals, to the Haversian The vascular channels are lacking as bone
canals, to the bone canaliculi of marrow cavities are present instead.
osteocytes .
Types of muscles Skeletal muscle Smooth muscle
Action Voluntary. Involuntary.

CT component Epimysium,perimysium, endomysium. Collagen and elastic fibers surround bundles.

Reticular fibers surround each muscle fiber.

Shape of fibers Long cylindrical. Fusiform.

Striation Present. Absent.
Nuclei Multiple,peripheral. Single,central.
Sarcomere Present. Absent.
Z line Present. Absent, instead Dense bodies
T tubules Present Absent
at the A-I junction Caveolae instead.
Sarcoplasmic reticulum •Terminal cisternae present & form triads •Terminal cisternae absent
with T tubules.
•Sarcotubules well developed •Sarcotubules poorly developed
Cell junction Absent. present.;gap junction.
Regenerative capacity Limited. Great.
Mitosis Can not divide. Can divide.
 The axon The dendrite
1- Origin Arises from axon hillock Arises from any part of the cell

2- Direction of the impulse. conducts nerve impulse away from conducts nerve impulse toward the
the cell body cell body

3- Number Always single Usually multiple (in multipolar

neurons).It may be single ( in
bipolar neurons)

4- Length Long Short

5- Thickness Thin with a constant diameter. Thick near its origin and tapers as it
goes toward its end.

6- Branching Does not branch except at its Many branches arising at acute
termination (terminal arborization). angles, having short spines.
It may give off collaterals arising at
right angles.

7- Organelles present Contains few organelles (neurofibrils, Contains most of the organelles as in
vesicles and mitochondria. Nissl the perikaryon except Golgi. Nissl
granules are absent. granules are present

8- Surrounding structures It may be surrounded by sheaths. It is not surrounded by sheaths

Types of myelination Myelination in CNS Myelination in PNS

Cell Oligodendrocyte Schwann cell

Myelination Multiple processes of single Single Schwann cell is wrapping around a

oligodendrocyte can envelop segments segment of an axon.
of several nearby axons.
The cell body of the oligodendrocyte will Schwann cells lie on the myelinated axon
be at some distance from the axons it
myelinates

Neurilemmal sheath Absent Present

Types of degeneration Wallarian degeneration Retrograde degeneration

Segment affected The axon and myelin sheath but not in The perikaryon after its nerve fiber injury.
Schwann cells

Myelination Nerve fibers and myelin degenerate, •Dissolution of Nissl substance

phagocytosed by the macrophages. (chromatolysis) with decrease in
cytoplasmic basophilia.
•Swelling of perikaryon,the cell draws its
processes and becomes spherical
• Migration of the nucleus to the
periphery of the cell body.
•Fragmentation and disappearance of the
neurofibrils, Golgi apparatus and
mitochondria.
Types of Astrocyte =Macroglia Microglia Oligodendrocyte Ependymal cell
neuroglia
LM:
Shape •Large stellate. •Small, oval. •Small cells. •Epithelial-like cuboidal cells,
•Multiple •Processes arising from •Few short processes. lining the brain ventricles and the
processes,end by foot the two poles. The cell • They are aligned in central canal of the spinal cord.
like expansion on the body and the processes rows between the axons •Apically have microvilli and few
blood vessels. have minute spines. in the white matter. cilia, while basally have numerous
infoldings without a basement
membrane.

Function •Supportive Phagocytosis of Formation the myelin Formation of cerebro-spinal fluid.

•nutritive bacteria,apoptotic and sheath in the white
•Metaboloic malignant cells. matter of CNS
•Formation of blood
brain barrier.