Table of Contents

Trigonometric identities Pages 2-3

Algebra Page 4

Properties of Logarithmic Functions Page 5

Cost, Revenue, Profit Page 6

Marginal Average Cost, Revenue, and Page 7

Profit

Relative Rate of Change Page 7

Elasticity Page 8

Continuity Page 8

Horizontal and Vertical Asymptotes Page 8

Finding Absolute Max/ Mins for a Page 9

Continuous Function f on a Closed
Interval [a, b]
Continuous Compound Interest Page 9

The Definite Integral Symbol Page 10

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Page 11

Average Value of a Continuous Function Page 11

Area Between Two Curves Page 11

Second-Derivative Test For Local Page 11

Extrema
Double Integral Page 12

Average Value Over Rectangular Regions Page 12

Unit Circle Page 13

 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
Relations Between Trigonometric Functions
2 2
sin ( θ ) +cos ( θ )=1

2 2
tan (θ)+ 1=sec (θ)

2 2
cot ( θ ) +1=csc (θ)

1 1
sec ( θ )= csc ( θ ) =
cos ( θ ) sin ( θ )
sin ( θ ) cos ( θ )
tan (θ )= cot ( θ )=
cos ( θ ) sin (θ )

Negative Angle
sin (−θ )=−sin(θ ¿)¿
cos (−θ )=cos ⁡(θ)
tan (−θ )=−tan ⁡(θ)

Addition and Subtraction of Angles

sin( π2 ± θ )=cos ⁡(θ)
cos ( +θ )=−sin ⁡(θ)
π
2

cos ( −θ )=sin ⁡( θ)
π
2
trigfunc ( θ+2 π )=trigfunc (θ)
Double and Half Angle Formulas
sin ( 2 θ )=2 sin ( θ ) cos ⁡(θ)

2 2 2
cos (2 θ ) =1−2 sin ( θ )=cos (θ)−sin ( θ)

( ) √
1
sin θ =±
2
1−cos ⁡(θ)
2

cos ( θ )=±
1
2 √ 2
1+cos ⁡(θ)

Sine and Cosine Squared

2 1
sin ( θ )= [1−cos ( 2 θ ) ]
2

2
] 1
cos ( θ )= ¿ ¿
2

More Angle Relations

if A+B=90 :
sin ( A ) =cos ⁡(B)

cos ( A )=sin ⁡(B)

√ a2−x 2 → x=a sin ⁡(θ)

√ a2 + x 2 → x=a tan ⁡(θ)

√ x 2−a2 → x=a sec ⁡(θ)

Algebra
a x / y = √a x
x y xy y
(a ) =a

x y x+y x −y x− y
a a =a a a =a
 −x 1
a = x √ xy=√ x √ y
a

Polynomial form:
f ( x )=¿ a n x n +a n−1 x n−1+ …+a1 x+ a0

Where n is a positive integer

Properties of Logarithmic Functions

Let b, M, N, p, x be positive real numbers with b≠1
log b 1=0 log b ( MN )=log b M + log b N

log b b=1 log b ( MN )=log M −log N

b b
 log b (M ¿ ¿ )= p∗log b M ¿ ¿
x p
log b b =x

⇔
logb x
b =x log b M =log b N M =N

Do people know that

this means “if and
only if”?

Cost, Revenue, Profit

Definitions
C ( x ) ≔Cost

R ( x ) ≔ Revenue

P ( x ) ≔ Profit

p ( x ) ≔ Price
P ( x )=R ( x )−C ( x )

R ( x )=x∗p ( x )

R ( p )=x ( p)∗p

Marginal Cost: C ( x )= dxd [ C ( x ) ] '

Average Cost: C ( x )=
C(x)
x

Marginal Average Cost: C ' ( x )= dxd [C ( x ) ]

MAC2233 Business Calculus

Marginal Average Cost, Revenue, and Profit
1. C(x) = Cost as a function of x

2. R(x) = Revenue as a function of x = p(x) * x

where p(x) = the price-demand per unit
3. P(x) = Profit as a function of x = R(x) – C(x)
d
4. Marginal Cost = dx
( C ( x ) ) =C ' (x )
C(x)
5. Average Cost = C ( x )=
x
6. Marginal Average Cost = C ' (x)
where x is the number of units of product produced in some time interval. Equations 4. – 6.
also apply to Revenue and Profit.
*Marginal Cost is the instantaneous rate of change of cost relative to production level.
*The marginal cost function approximates the exact cost of producing the (x+1)st item:
Marginal cost Exact cost
 C’(x) ≈ C(x+1) – C(x)
Similar interpretations can be made for marginal revenue and marginal profit.

Relative Rate of Change

f ' (x)
Relative Rate of Change=
f ( x)
f ' ( x)
Percentage Rate of Change= ∗100
f (x )

Elasticity
− p∗f ' ( p)
E ( p )=
f ( p)
1. If E(p) < 1, then the demand is INELASTIC.
a. Increasing price increases revenue
2. If E(p) > 1, then the demand is ELASTIC.
a. Increasing price decreases revenue
3. If E(p) = 1, then the demand is UNIT

Continuity
A function f is continuous at the point x = c if
1. lim f ( x )∃
x →c

2. f(c) exists

3. lim f ( x )=f (c)

x →c

If one or more of the three conditions fails, then f is discontinuous at x = c. A function is

continuous on the open interval (a,b) if it is continuous at each point on the interval.

Horizontal and Vertical Asymptotes

A line y = b is a horizontal asymptote for the graph of y = f(x) if: lim f ( x )=b
x→ ±∞

A line x = a is a vertical asymptote for the graph of y= f(x) if: lim f ( x ) =± ∞ or lim f ( x )=± ∞
±
x→ a x →a

Finding Limits at Infinity and Horizontal Asymptotes

m m−1
am x +a m−1 x + …+a 1 x +a 0
If ( x )= n n−1 , am≠0 and bn≠0
b n x +b n−1 x + …+b1 x+ b0
m
am x
Then lim f ( x )= lim n
x→ ±∞ x→ ±∞ bn x
There are three possible cases for these limits:
1. If m < n, then lim f ( x )=0 and the line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote for f(x).
x→ ±∞
am am
2. If m = n, then lim f ( x )= and the line y= is a horizontal asymptote for f(x).
x→ ±∞ bn bn
3. If m > n, then each limit will be +∞ or -∞, depending on m, n, am, and bn, and f(x) does not have a horizontal
asymptote.

Locating Vertical Asymptotes

n(x)
For vertical asymptotes, let ( x )= , where both n(x) and d(x) are continuous at x = c. If at x = c the
d ( x)
denominator d(x) is 0 and the numerator n(x) is not 0, then the line x = c is a vertical asymptote for the
graph of f(x). (Note: zeros of factors on the numerator of f(x) are not vertical asymptotes.

Finding Absolute Max/ Mins for a Continuous

Function f on a Closed Interval [a, b]
1. Check to make certain that f is continuous over [a, b].
2. Find the critical values in the interval (a, b).
3. Evaluate f at the end points a and b and at the critical values found in
step 2.
4. The absolute maximum f(x) on [a, b] is the largest of the values found
in step 3.
5. The absolute minimum f(x) on [a, b] is the smallest of the values
found in step 3.

Continuous Compound Interest

A = Pert
Where: P = the initial amount, t = the Time in years,
r = the Annual nominal interest rate compounded continuously,
A = the Amount at time t,
If r is positive, then A > P. If r is negative, then A < P.

The Definite Integral Symbol

The definite integral of some function, f(x), is equal to the area under the curve
from some point x = a to some point x = b. This is expressed as:
b

∫ f ( x ) dx
a

Areas above the x axis are counted positively and areas beneath the x axis are
counted negatively. If the curve f(x) is split into three areas: A, B, and C, and A
and B were above the x axis and C was below the x axis, then the definite
integral of f(x) from x = a to x = b is:
b

∫ f (x )dx =A−B+C
a
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
If f is a continuous function on the closed interval
[a,b] and F is any antiderivative of f (i.e., F’(x)=f(x)), then:
a

∫ f ( x ) dx=F ( x )∨ba =F ( b )−F (a)

b

Average Value of a Continuous Function

The average value of a cont. function over [a,b] is
b
1
∫ f ( x ) dx
b−a a

Area Between Two Curves

Given two continuous functions f(x) and g(x), the area, A, between the two curves is defined as the integral of the upper curve minus the integral of the lower curve
over the interval [a,b]
b
A=∫ [ f ( x )−g ( x ) ] dx
a

Where f(x) is the upper curve and g(x) is the lower curve.

Second-Derivative Test For Local Extrema

Given:
1.z = f(x,y)
2.fx(a,b) = 0 and fy(a,b) = 0 [(a,b) is a critical point]
3.All second-order partial derivatives of f exist in some circular region containing (a,b) as a center
4.A = fxx(a,b), B = fxy(a,b), C = fyy(a,b)
Then:
1.If AC – B2 > 0 and A < 0, then (a,b) is a local maximum.
2.If AC – B2 > 0 and A > 0, then (a,b) is a local minimum.
3.AC – B2 < 0, then f has a saddle point at (a,b)
4.If AC – B2 = 0, the test fails.

Double Integral
The double integral of a function f(x.y) over a rectangle R = {(x,y) | a ≤ x ≤ b, c ≤ y ≤ d} is
 ❑

∬ f ( x , y ) dA
R
b d

= ∫ [∫ f ( x , y ) dy ]dx
a c
d b

= ∫ [∫ f ( x , y ) dx ]dy
c a

Average Value Over Rectangular Regions

The average value of the function f(x,y) over the rectangle R = {(x,y) | a ≤ x ≤ b, c ≤ y ≤ d} is
❑
1
∬ f ( x , y ) dA
( b−a ) ( d−c ) R

Angle cos( ) θ
sin( θ¿
tan( θ¿
cot(
θ¿
sec( θ¿
csc(
θ¿

0 or 2π
1 0 0 Undefined 1 Undefined
π √3 1 √3 √3 2 √3
6 2 2 3 3 2
π √2 √2 √2 √2
4 2 2 1 1
π 1 √3 √3 √3 2 √3
3 2 2 3 2 3

π
2 0 1 Undefined 0 Undefined 1