DAVID UMAHI FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF HEALTH SCIENCES (IJMB PROGRAMME)

CHEMISTRY
BY DR. KENNEDY I. OGUNWA
1. ATOMS, MOLECULES, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

1.1 Atoms
An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element. It is composed of a nucleus
(containing protons and neutrons) surrounded by electrons. Example:

- Hydrogen atom (H), Oxygen atom (O)

Illustration:
Imagine an atom as a tiny solar system, where the nucleus is the "sun," and the electrons orbit around it like
"planets."

1. 2. Molecules
A molecule is formed when two or more atoms are chemically bonded together. Molecules can consist of the
same type of atoms (as in oxygen gas) or different types (as in water). Example:

o Molecule of oxygen gas: O2 (two oxygen atoms bonded together)

o Molecule of water: H2O (two hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom)

Illustration:
A molecule is like a group of people holding hands to form a chain. Each person (atom) contributes to the
structure of the group (molecule).

1.3. Elements
An element is a pure substance made of only one type of atom. Elements cannot be broken down into
simpler substances by chemical means. Example:

-Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Gold (Au)

Illustration:
Think of an element as a pure gold ring: no matter how small you cut it, every piece remains gold.

1.4. Compounds:
A compound is a substance formed when two or more different types of atoms chemically bond in fixed
proportions. Unlike mixtures, compounds have a uniform structure and distinct properties. Example:

o Water (H2O): Made of hydrogen and oxygen atoms.

o Carbon dioxide (CO2): Made of carbon and oxygen atoms.

Illustration:
A compound is like a recipe: combining specific ingredients (atoms) in a precise way results in a new dish
with its own unique flavor (properties).

1.5 How Are they Interrelated?

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1. Atoms are the building blocks of molecules and elements: Examples: (a) A hydrogen atom (H) and an
oxygen atom (O) combine to form a water molecule (H2O). (b) Carbon atoms form the basis of many
molecules and compounds, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) or methane (CH4).
2. Elements consist of only one type of atom: Examples: (a) Oxygen gas (O2) is made only of oxygen
atoms. (b) Helium gas (He,Helium is an element because it contains only helium atoms and cannot be
broken down further.
3. Molecules can be formed from the same or different atoms: Examples: O2 (same atoms) and H2O
(different atoms).
Compounds are made up of molecules containing different elements: Examples: (a) In sodium chloride
(NaCl), sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) combine to form a new substance. (b) Glucose (C6H12O6),Glucose is
a compound composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms chemically bonded in a specific ratio.

Key Differences at a Glance

Aspect Atoms Molecules Elements Compounds

Smallest unit of Two or more atoms Made of one type of Made of different types of
Composition
matter bonded atom atoms

Size Smallest Larger than atoms Made of many atoms Made of molecules

Example Hydrogen (H) Oxygen (O2) Gold (Au) Water (H2O)

1.5.1 Physical Techniques: Physical techniques are methods and processes used to analyze, manipulate, or
study the physical properties and behaviors of materials or substances without altering their chemical
composition. These techniques are primarily employed in chemistry, physics, biology, and materials science
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to observe and measure characteristics such as structure, mass, density, temperature, magnetic properties,
and more.

Types of Physical Techniques

1. Spectroscopy: Used to study the interaction between light and matter. Examples:

1. UV-Vis Spectroscopy (analyzes absorbance and transmittance of light).

2. Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy (studies molecular vibrations).
3. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy (analyzes atomic environments)
2. Microscopy: Used to visualize structures at a microscopic or atomic scale. Examples:

1. Optical Microscopy (uses visible light to magnify objects).

2. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) (uses electron beams for detailed imaging).
3. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) (studies internal structures at atomic
resolution).

3. Chromatography: Techniques for separating and analyzing mixtures. Examples:

1. Gas Chromatography (GC).

2. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC).

4. Thermal Analysis: Studies how materials behave under changing temperature conditions. Examples:

1. Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) (measures weight changes with temperature).

2. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) (studies heat flow during phase changes).

5. Crystallography: Determines the arrangement of atoms in crystalline materials. Example: X-Ray

Diffraction (XRD).
6. Mass Spectrometry (MS): Analyzes the mass-to-charge ratio of particles to identify substances.
7. Magnetic and Electrical Techniques: Analyze magnetic and electrical properties of substances.
Examples:

1. Electron Spin Resonance (ESR).

2. Conductivity measurements.

8. Physical Separation Techniques: Used for isolating or purifying substances. Examples:

1. Filtration.
2. Distillation.
3. Centrifugation.

Applications of Physical Techniques

 Identifying unknown substances.

 Determining structural and functional properties of molecules.
 Characterizing materials in industries like pharmaceuticals, electronics, and nanotechnology.
 Quality control and process monitoring in manufacturing.

Chemical Techniques: Chemical techniques are methods used to analyze, synthesize, or manipulate
substances by altering their chemical composition or studying their chemical properties and reactions.
These techniques often involve breaking or forming chemical bonds to identify, quantify, or create new
compounds.

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1.5.2 Types of Chemical Techniques

1. Analytical Techniques: Used to analyze the chemical composition of substances, often involving
reactions or chemical changes.

- Titration: A method to determine the concentration of an unknown solution using a standard solution.
Example: Acid-base titration using phenolphthalein as an indicator.

- Precipitation Reactions: Used to separate or identify components of a mixture by forming insoluble

compounds. Example: Detection of chloride ions by adding silver nitrate to form silver chloride.

- Gravimetric Analysis: A quantitative technique involving the isolation and weighing of a compound
formed during a chemical reaction.

2. Synthetic Techniques: Used to create new compounds or materials by combining reactants in specific
chemical reactions.

- Synthesis of Organic Compounds: Example: Esterification to produce esters by reacting carboxylic acids
and alcohols.

- Inorganic Synthesis: Example: Preparation of salts like NaCl by neutralizing HCl with NaOH.

- Polymerization: Used to form polymers like plastics.

3. Separation Techniques: Used to isolate or purify components based on their chemical properties.

- Solvent Extraction: Separates compounds based on their solubility in different solvents. Example:
Extracting caffeine from coffee using dichloromethane.

- Chromatography: Separates components of a mixture based on chemical interactions with a stationary

and mobile phase. Example: Paper chromatography for separating pigments.

4. Spectroscopic Techniques: Chemical techniques involving the interaction of matter with electromagnetic
radiation to identify and analyze compounds.

- UV-Vis Spectroscopy: Determines concentration based on absorption of UV or visible light. Example:

Determining iron content using a colorimetric reagent.

- Flame Test: Used to identify metal ions based on the color of the flame.

5. Electrochemical Techniques: Methods involving the study of chemical changes through electrical
measurements.

- Electrolysis: Decomposes compounds using electricity, like splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen.

- Potentiometry: Measures the potential difference to determine ion concentrations. Example: pH

determination using a pH meter.

Applications of Chemical Techniques

1. Pharmaceuticals: Synthesizing drugs and analyzing their purity.

2. Environmental Science: Detecting pollutants in air, water, or soil.
3. Food Industry: Identifying and quantifying nutrients or contaminants.

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 4. Materials Science: Developing new chemicals, polymers, and nanomaterials.

Comparison with Physical Techniques

While physical techniques focus on properties like mass, size, and state without altering chemical
composition, chemical techniques involve changes in chemical structure or composition.

Let me know if you'd like further details on any specific chemical technique!

1.6 Periodic Table of Elements

The Periodic Table of Elements is a tabular arrangement of all known chemical elements, organized based
on their atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical properties. You are required to
know at least the first 20 elements of the periodic table- Everything about them).

1.6.1 Structure of the Periodic Table

1. Rows (Periods)
- Represent energy levels of electrons.
- There are 7 periods in total.
2. Columns (Groups or Families)
- Elements in the same group have similar chemical and physical properties.
- There are 18 groups, including alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens, and noble gases.
3. Divisions
- Metals: Located on the left and center of the table.
- Nonmetals: Found on the right side of the table.
- Metalloids: Positioned between metals and nonmetals.
4. Special Groups
- Group 1: Alkali metals (e.g., Lithium, Sodium).
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- Group 2: Alkaline earth metals (e.g., Magnesium, Calcium).
- Groups 3-12: Transition metals (e.g., Iron, Gold).
- Group 17: Halogens (e.g., Fluorine, Chlorine).
- Group 18: Noble gases (e.g., Helium, Neon).
5. Lanthanides and Actinides
- Found in two rows below the main table.
- Include rare earth elements and radioactive elements.
1.6.2 Importance of the Periodic Table
- Predicts chemical properties and behaviors of elements.
- Shows trends like atomic size, electronegativity, ionization energy, and metallic character.
- Groups elements with similar properties together.
1.7 LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION

1. Law of Conservation of Matter: Matter cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction; it only
changes form. The total mass of reactants equals the total mass of products.

Experimental Verification: Antoine Lavoisier (1774), heated mercury (Hg) in a sealed container, which
reacted with oxygen to form mercuric oxide (HgO). The total mass of the container and its contents
remained constant before and after the reaction.

Limitations: Not valid for nuclear reactions where mass can be converted into energy.

2. Law of Constant Proportion: A given compound always contains the same elements in the same
proportion by mass, regardless of its source or method of preparation.

Experimental Verification: Joseph Proust (1799),showed that water (H2O) always contains hydrogen and
oxygen in the mass ratio of 1:8, whether obtained from a natural source or synthesized in the laboratory.

Limitations:

 Does not account for non-stoichiometric compounds (e.g., iron oxide (FeO)).
 Does not apply to isotopes, which can slightly alter mass proportions.

3. Law of Combining Volumes: When gases react, they do so in simple whole-number ratios by volume,
provided all measurements are made at the same temperature and pressure.
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Experimental Verification: Gay-Lussac (1808)
Gay-Lussac's Experiment Setup:
Gay-Lussac performed experiments with various gaseous reactions. He carefully measured the volumes of
reactant gases and products under identical conditions of temperature and pressure.

Key Observations:

Reaction 1- Formation of water vapor

2H2 (2 volumes)+O2 (1 volume)→2H2O (2 volumes)

Observation: Hydrogen and oxygen combine in a 2:1 volume ratio, producing water vapor in the same ratio.

Reaction 2: Formation of ammonia

N2 (1 volume)+3H2 (3 volumes) → 2NH3 (2 volumes)

Observation: Nitrogen and hydrogen combine in a 1:3 volume ratio, forming ammonia in a 2-volume ratio.

Conclusion: Gases combine in simple whole-number volume ratios during chemical reactions.​ .

Limitations:

 Applies only to gaseous reactions.

 Does not consider deviations from ideal gas behavior under high pressure or low temperature.

4. Avogadro’s Hypothesis: Equal volumes of all gases, at the same temperature and pressure, contain the
same number of molecules.

Experimental Verification: Based on Gay-Lussac’s law, Avogadro proposed that 1 mole of any gas
occupies 22.4 L at STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure).

Limitations:

 Valid only for ideal gases.

 Deviations occur for real gases due to intermolecular forces and volume occupied by gas molecules.

In Summary: Laws of Chemical Combination

1. Law of Conservation of Mass: Mass is conserved in all chemical reactions.

2. Law of Constant Proportion: Compounds have fixed compositions by mass.
3. Law of Multiple Proportions: When two elements form multiple compounds, the ratios of the
masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other are simple whole numbers.
4. Gay-Lussac’s Law of Combining Volumes: Gases combine in simple whole-number ratios by
volume.

Examples of Calculations Based on Laws

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1.8 Atomic Mass Scale and the C-12 Isotope

The atomic mass scale is a relative scale used to express the masses of atoms and molecules. It uses the
carbon-12 isotope (12C) as the standard reference.

Why Use Carbon-12 as the Standard?

1. The 12C isotope was chosen because carbon is abundant and its atomic structure is well understood.
2. By definition, the mass of one 12C atom is exactly 12 atomic mass units (amu).

1.8.1 Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)

The relative atomic mass of an element is the weighted average of the masses of its isotopes, relative to 12C.

������� ���� �� �� ���� �� �ℎ� �������

�������� ������ ���� (��) =
1/12 �� � ���� �� � 12� ����

For example, hydrogen has a relative atomic mass of approximately 1.008, meaning its average atomic mass
is slightly greater than 1/12th the mass of a 12C atom.

1.8.2 Relative Molecular Mass (Mr)

The relative molecular mass of a molecule is the sum of the relative atomic masses of all the atoms in its
formula. For example, for water (H2O):

M/Mr = (2×Ar(H))+Ar(O) = (2×1.008)+16.00 =18.016

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9
Note; 1 atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as equivalent of 1/12 of the mass of the 12C isotope.
1
Hence, 1amu = of 1 carbon atom.............(1)
12

But, 6.23 x 1023 atoms = 12g carbon

mass of 1 carbon atom = ?
12�
=
6.023 x 1023
1 12� 1
Substitute for 1 carbon atom in equ. 1; 1 amu = x = g
12 6.023 x 1023 6.023 x 1023

1 amu = 1.67 x 10-24g

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1.8.3 Mass Spectrometry for Determining Relative Atomic and Molecular Masses

Mass Spectrometry is a powerful tool to measure the relative atomic and molecular masses by analyzing
the mass-to-charge ratio (m/zm/z) of ions.

Steps in Mass Spectrometry:

Step 1- Ionization: Atoms or molecules are ionized (e.g., by electron bombardment) to form positive ions.

Step 2- Acceleration: The ions are accelerated through an electric field.

Step 3- Deflection: Ions are deflected by a magnetic field based on their mass-to-charge ratio (m/z). Lighter
ions are deflected more, while heavier ions are deflected less.

Step 4- Detection: The detector measures the abundance of ions at different m/z values, producing a mass
spectrum.

Using 12C as a Reference in Mass Spectrometry

 The mass of 12C is set to exactly 12.000 amu.

 All other atomic masses are calculated relative to 12C.
 For example, oxygen's relative atomic mass is 16.00 because its mass is approximately 16/12 times
that of 12C.

Definition of Isotopes

Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons.

 Chemical properties: Identical for all isotopes of an element.

 Physical properties: May vary due to differences in mass.

Examples of Isotopes:

1. Hydrogen isotopes: Protium (1H): 1 proton, 0 neutrons; Deuterium (2H): 1 proton, 1 neutron; Tritium
(3H): 1 proton, 2 neutrons.
2. Carbon isotopes: 12C: 6 protons, 6 neutrons; 13C: 6 protons, 7 neutrons; 14C: 6 protons, 8 neutrons.

Calculating Relative Atomic Mass from Isotopic Abundance

To calculate the relative atomic mass (Ar) of an element from its isotopes:

Ar=∑(Relative Isotopic Mass×Fractional Abundance)

Example:

Chlorine has two isotopes:

 35
Cl (mass = 34.96885 amu, abundance = 75.78%)
 37
Cl (mass = 36.96590 amu, abundance = 24.22%)

Step 1: Convert percentage abundance to fractions:

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Fraction of 35Cl=75.78/100 = 0.7578
Fraction of 37Cl=24.22/100 = 0.2422

Step 2: Apply the formula:

Ar=(34.96885×0.7578)+(36.96590×0.2422) = 35.455
Ar​ =26.503 + 8.952= 35.455

Relative Atomic Mass of Chlorine = 35.455 amu

Importance of the C-12 Scale

1. Provides a consistent and precise standard for measuring atomic and molecular masses.
2. Enables comparisons of atomic masses across all elements.
3. Essential for calculating molar masses and performing stoichiometric calculations.

1.9 Relative Vapour Density and Relationship with Relative Molecular Mass (RMM)

Definition of Relative Vapour Density (RVD):

Relative vapour density (RVD) is defined as the ratio of the mass of a certain volume of a gas or vapour to
the mass of an equal volume of hydrogen gas, measured under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure.

Mass of a given volume of gas/vapour

Relative Vapour Density (RVD) = Mass of an equal volume of hydrogen gas

Relationship Between RVD and Relative Molecular Mass (RMM):

Since the relative molecular mass (RMM) of hydrogen gas (H2) is 2, the relationship is:

Relative Molecular Mass (RMM) = 2 × Relative Vapour Density (RVD)

Example: If the RVD of a gas is 16, its RMM is:

RMM = 2×16 = 32

This indicates that the gas could be oxygen (O2), as its molecular mass is 32.

1.9.1 Determination of Molecular Mass by Victor Meyer’s Method

Principle of Victor Meyer’s Method:

Victor Meyer’s method is used to determine the molecular mass of volatile liquids by measuring the volume
of vapour produced from a known mass of the substance when it is vaporized.

The principle relies on the ideal gas law (PV=nRT) and the fact that equal volumes of all gases at the same
temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules (Avogadro's Law).

Experimental Procedure:

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 Setup: A long cylindrical Victor Meyer apparatus is used. It consists of an inner tube containing a
volatile liquid, an outer jacket for heating, and a graduated water-filled cylinder to collect gas Fig1.

Steps:

1. A small known mass (m) of the volatile liquid is placed in a bulb at the bottom of the inner
tube (sample tube).
2. The apparatus is heated to vaporize the liquid.
3. The vapour displaces an equal volume of air, which is collected in the graduated cylinder
over water.
4. The volume of displaced air (V) is measured.

Measurements Required: Volume of vapour collected (V) in dm3, Temperature of the vapour (T) in Kelvin
and Atmospheric pressure (P), corrected for aqueous tension (in kPa).

Calculations: The molecular mass is determined using the ideal gas law:

PV = nRT

1. Determine the number of moles of gas (nnn) by rearranging the ideal gas equation:
��
� = ��​

where: P = Pressure in kPa, V = Volume of gas in dm3, R = Universal gas constant (8.31 J mol-1K-1),
T = Temperature in K

Molecular Mass (RMM): The molecular mass is calculated as:

���� �� �������� ������ (�)

RMM = Number of Moles (n)

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Example Calculation Using Victor Meyer’s Method:

A volatile liquid of mass 0.23 g, produces 80 cm3 of vapour at 300 K and 100 kPa. What is the Molar Mass?

1. Convert volume to dm3: V= 80 cm3 = 0.080 dm3

2. Corrected pressure: Assume no aqueous tension, so P=100 kPa
3. Number of moles (n): n =PV/RT =(100)(0.080)/(8.31)(300) =0.00322 mol

���� (�) 0.23

Molecular mass (RMM): Number of Moles (n) = 0.00322
= 71.4g/mol

The volatile liquid has a molecular mass of approximately 71.4 g/mol.

1.9.2 Using the Ideal Gas Law (PV=nRT) to Determine Relative Molecular Mass of Gases

The molecular mass of a gas can also be determined using the ideal gas law.
���
��� =
��
​

Where: m = Mass of the gas in grams, R = Universal gas constant (8.31 J mol−1K−1), T = Temperature in
Kelvin, V = Volume of the gas in dm3 and P = Pressure in kPa.

Molar Volume of a Gas at S.T.P.

At standard temperature and pressure (S.T.P.), the molar volume of any gas is 22.4 dm3.

This means that one mole of any gas occupies 22.4 dm3 at 273 K and 101.325 kPa.

1.10 Avogadro's Number and the Mole in Chemistry

Avogadro's Number (NA):

Avogadro's number, 6.022×1023, represents the number of entities (atoms, molecules, or ions) in one mole of
a substance. It establishes a link between the microscopic scale (atomic/molecular level) and the
macroscopic scale (measurable quantities in grams).

1.10.1 The Mole as a Fundamental Unit in Chemistry

The mole is the SI base unit for the amount of substance. One mole contains 6.022×1023 particles, such as
atoms, molecules, or ions, of the substance. For example:

 1 mole of oxygen atoms contains 6.022×1023 oxygen atoms.

 1 mole of water molecules contains 6.022×1023 water molecules.

1.10.2 Relationship Between the Mole and Avogadro's Number:

The mass of one mole of a substance in grams is numerically equal to its relative atomic or molecular mass.
For instance:

 1 mole of carbon-12 atoms has a mass of 12 grams.

 1 mole of water molecules (H₂O) weighs approximately 18 grams (since 2 × 1 + 16 = 18).

1.10.3 Mass and Mole Ratio in Reactions

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In chemical reactions, the mole ratio is derived from the coefficients in a balanced chemical equation. This
ratio helps determine the relative amounts of reactants and products.
Example for the reaction:

2H2​ +O2​ →2H2O

 2 moles of H2 react with 1 mole of O2 to produce 2 moles of H2O.

 If 4 moles of H2 are used, 2 moles of O2are required, and 4 moles of H2O are produced.

1.10.4 Mole Concept and Its Applications in Volumetric Analysis

The mole concept is vital in volumetric analysis for determining the concentration of solutions,
stoichiometry of reactions, and in titrations. It connects:

1. Moles of solute to solution volume (in liters).

2. Reaction stoichiometry to volumes of solutions required for neutralization or precipitation.

1.10.5 Concentration Terms in Chemistry

moles of solute
Molarity (M), Units- mol/dm³: � = volume of solution in dm3

Example: A 1 M NaCl solution contains 1 mole of NaCl in 1 dm³ of solution.

moles of solute
Molality (m), Units- mol/kg: � = mass of solvent in kg

Example: A 1 m solution contains 1 mole of solute dissolved in 1 kg of solvent.

mass of solute
Parts per million (ppm): ��� = mass of solution � ��� (Used for very dilute solutions).

mass of solute
Parts per billion (ppb): ��� = mass of solution � ��� (Even smaller concentration units than ppm).

mass of solute
Weight/Weight Percent (w/w or m/m%): %�/� =
mass of solution
� ���

mass of solute (g)

Weight/Volume Percent (w/v or m/v%): %�/� =
������ of solution (ml)
� ���

Interconversion Between Concentration Units

� � � ��
 From molarity to molality: ​ � = ������� of solution (g/ml) − ����
(Mr is RMM)
 From w/w% to ppm: ��� = (%�/�) � ���

1.10.6 Preparation of Solutions and Calculations

1. Preparation of Standard Solutions: Weigh the calculated amount of solute using a balance, dissolve the
solute in a small volume of solvent and then transfer to a volumetric flask and dilute to the mark with
solvent.

2. Dilution of Solutions:
The dilution principle is based on the equation: C1V1 = C2V2 ​

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 where: C1 and C2 are the initial and final concentrations, while V1 and V2 are the initial and final
volumes.

Steps for Dilution: Determine the volume of concentrated solution required, add this volume to a
volumetric flask, and then dilute with solvent to the desired final volume.

Examples of Calculations

Standard Solution Preparation:

To prepare 1 dm³ of 0.5 M NaOH:

- Molar mass of NaOH = 40 g/mol; Mass required = 0.5×40=20 g; Dissolve 20 g NaOH in water and make
up to 1 dm³.

Dilution Calculation:
To dilute 10 mL of 5 M HCl to 1 M:

5 x 10 = 1 x V2 ⟹ V2 = 50 mL

Add water to 10 mL of HCl until the total volume is 50 mL.

1.10.7 Applications of the Mole Concept

1. Chemical Stoichiometry: Calculating reactants and products.

2. Volumetric Analysis: Titrations to determine unknown concentrations.
3. Dilution: Preparing solutions of desired concentrations.
4. Quantitative Analysis: Determining ppm or ppb of pollutants in water or air.

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