wae set -2 Code No: R203204Q R20 ML [Link] IT Semester Regular / Supplementary Examinations, COMMUNICATIONS May / June 2024 1. a) Depieting the organization of layers, Explain the open system interconnestio® et. ‘The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a reference model that beer, : ‘transmitted and received across a network by breaking down the process into seven layer 1. Physical layer Data link layer Network layer Transport layer Session layer Presentation layer Application layer J i (Garren twos) Tt} + (emote ] oon | }+- (Sneune caver) Diagram: 3 Marks & Explanation 4 Marks 1. b) What are the uses of a layered network model, explain. A layered network model, also known as layered architecture, is a framework that divides a network's processes into smaller sub-tasks and assigns them to specific layers. Bach layer Performs a different task, and the model can help simplify networking protocols, increase flexibility, and make them easier to modify. Uses of a layered network model: + Cloud-based applications: The layered architecture approach is well-suited for cloud- based applications that require a flexible and portable architecture. Legacy systems: The application's architecture can be broken into separate independent modules, making it easier to manage legacy systems. * Understanding complex network interactions: The concept of network layers helps to understand complex network interactions. = Explanation 4 Marks 2. a) Discuss briefly parallel and serial data transmission with suitable diagrams.Serial Transmission: ther computer in bi-direction. In In Serial Transmission, data-bit flows from one computer to an h-direstion. this transmission, one bit flows at one clock pulse. In Serial Transmission, 8 bits are transferre at a time having a start and stop bit Parallel Transmission: In Parallel Transmission, many bits are flow together simultaneously from one computer to ‘another computer. Parallel Transmission is faster than serial transmission to transmit the bits. Parallel transmission is used for short distance. Explanation 7 Marks 2. _b) What are Network Interface Card (NIC) and Network Operating System (NOS)?Write the characteristics of NIC and NOS A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware component without which a computer cannot be connected over a network. It is a circuit board installed in a computer that provides a dedicated network connection to the computer. It is also called network interface controller, network adapter, or LAN adapter. An NOS is an operating system that manages network resources. One example of a NOS is Microsoft Windows Server, which is designed for enterprise-level management, data storage, networking, and application hosting. Explanation 7 Marks UNIT 3. a) Differentiate Noisy less Channels and Noisy Channels. Data link layer protocols are divided into two categories based on whether the transmission channel is noiseless or noisy. The data link layer protocol is diagrammatically represented belowi ‘chan a C aia Noisy less Channels ind Noisy Channels Explanation 7 Marks 3. b) Explain the features of $02.11 MAC Protocol. ‘The IEEE 802.11 standard, commonly known as Wi-Fi, outlines the architecture and defines the MAC and physical layer specifications for wireless LANs (WLANS). Wi-Fi uses high-frequency radio waves instead of cables for connecting the devices in LAN. Given the mobility of WLAN nodes, they can move unrestricted within the network coverage zone. The 802.11 structure is designed to accommodate mobile stations that participate actively in network decisions. Furthermore, it can seamlessly integrate with 2G, 3G, and 4G networks. Frame |Duration| Address |Address| Address] Address control} 1b 1 2 oat | So |) mama peed aoe [eens [rene perp ed cores _[rones] ies | 9,57 | capes Protocol to | From | more Power] More pe [subtype eu ier version | TYP “yPe} ps | ps. | Frag | PY mgme| data | WEP | Ord IEEE 802.11 MAG Frame Structure MAC: 3 Marks & Features Explanation 4 Marks 4. a) Explain CRC with an example. How does single bit error differ from a burst error? Error is a condition when the receiver's information does not match the sender's information. During transmission, digital signals suffer from noise that can introduce errors in the binary bits traveling from sender to receiver. That means a 0 bit may change to 1 or a 1 bit may change to 0. ‘Types of Errors Single-Bit Error A single-bit error refers to a type of data transmission error that occurs when one bit single binary digit) of a wansmitted data unit is altered during transmission, resulting in an incorrect or corrupted data unit. Burst ErrorWhen several consecutive bits are flipped mistakenly error. This error causes a sequence of consecutive incor —! a Single Bit Error Burst Error Cyclic Redundancy Check (CR) + In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, called cyclic redundancy check bits, are appended to the end of the data unit so that the resulting data unit becomes exactly divisible by a second, predetermined binary number. ‘+ At the destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the same number. If at this step there is no remainder, the data unit is assumed to be correct and is therefore accepted. + A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged in transit and therefore must be rejected. Explanation: 3 Marks & Example Explanation 4 Marks 4. b) Give a note on the frame format and configurations of the HDLC. High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) is 2 group of communication protocols of the data Tink layer for transmitting data between network points or nodes. Since itis a data link protocol, data is organized into frames. A frame is transmitted via the network to the destination that verifies its successful arrival. It is a bit - oriented protocol that is applicable for both point - to - point and multipoint communications. Transfer Modes HDLC supports two types of transfer modes, normal response mode and asynchronous balanced mode. + Normal Response Mode (NRM) + Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM)HDLC Frame: rag | aadiess | conto ts vs] Toye dbyte byte Zorabytes 1byte (01111130) (01112310) ‘Types of HDLC Frames Peres otic types of HDLC frames. The type of frame is determined by the control field of the frame ~ y user data from the network layer. They + Teframe — I-frames or Information frames carr vera de flow and error conrol information that i pigaybacked on user data, The first bit of control field of I-frame is 0. + Seframe ~ S-frames or Supervisory ‘used for flow and error control when piggyba control field of S-frame is 10. Usframe— U-frames or Un-numbered eeerame lke Tink management. It may contain an information field, if re first two bits of control field of U-frame is 11 Explanation: 3 Marks INIT-H 5. a) Explain about Ipv4 Addressing with an example. Ba Mphadress is 32 bits long (equivalently, 4 bytes) and there are this & total of 232 possible Fee dresses. By approximating 210 by 103, itis easy to see ut thers about 4 billion called dotted-decimal notation, possible IP addresses, These addresses are typically write” Wt St Posshich each byte of the address is written in its decimal form ‘and is separated by a period (dot) eared in the adres. For example, consider the 1 adress {99.57 2169. The 193 is from open equivalent of the fist 8 bits of the address the 32s he decimal equivalent of the the dee ot the address, and so on. Thus, the adaress 19332-2169 in binary notation is 11000001 00100000 1101 1000 00001001 formation field. They are frames do not contain in! bits of icking is not required. The first two .d for myriad miscellaneous frames are use quired. The ‘& Example Explanation 4 Marks 2. Interfaces addresses and subnets Diagram: 3 Marks & Example Explanation 4 Marks ) Explain about different Network Service ‘Models.The network service model defines the cteristics of end-to-end transport of packets between sending and receiving end systems. Let's now consider some possible services that the nevwork layer could provide. In the sending host, when the transport layer passes a packet to the newvork layer, specific services that could be provided by the network layer include: * Guaranteed delivery. Guaranteed delivery with bounded delay In-order packet delivery. Guaranteed minimal bandwidth. Guaranteed maximum jiter. Security services. Explanation of all 7Marks 6. a) Differentiate Input Processing and Output Processing with an example. Input Processing: The input port’s line termination function and link-layer processing implement the physical and link layers for that individual input link, The lookup performed in the input port is central to the router's operation—it is here that the router uses the forwarding table to look up the output port to which an arriving packet will be forwarded via the switching fabric. —— Datalink Lookup, fowarding, line im eeeing |) aucun ay ten termination rorocel fabric J decopsulation) ‘enteateeeete: Output Processing: Output port processing takes packets that have been stored in the output port's memory and transmits them over the output link. This includes selecting and de-queueing packets for transmission, and performing the needed linklayer and physical-layer transmission functions. ‘Queuing outer Data tna switen |_| “Ianagemend ecmirg | J une |, fe eeciattte encapataton | [Semmes Explanation 7Marks 6. b) Explain about IPv6 with an example. IPv6 Datagram Format The format of the IPv6 datagram is shown in Figure 4.24. The most important changes introduced in IPv6 are evident in the datagram format: Expanded addressing capabilities. IPv6 increases the size of the IP address from 32 to 128 bits. This ensures that the world won't run out of IP addresses. Now, every grain of sand on the planet can be IP-addressable. In addition to unicast and multicast addresses, IPv6 has introduced a newtype of acklress, called an anyeast address, which allows a datagram to be delivered to any ane of ature coud be used, for example, to send an HTTP GET to the nearest a group of hosts. (This ‘of a number of mirror sites that contain a given document.) ‘A streamlined 40-byte header. As discussed below, a number of IPv4 fields have been dropped ford made optional. The resulting 40-byte fixed-length header allows for faster processing of the TP datagram. A new encoding of options allows for more flexible options processing ¥- P Explanation Marks UNITY 7. a) Explain about UDP Checksum. The UDP checksum provides for error detection. That is, the checksum is used to determine whether bits within the UDP segment have been altered (for example, by noise in the links or while stored in a router) as it moved from source to destination. UDP at the sender side performs the 1s complement of the sum of all the 16-bit words in the segment, with any overflow encountered during the sum being wrapped around. This result is put in the checksum field of the UDP segment. 22 bits rc a aa source port# Dest. port # Length Checksum r Gaascaie kenessage) Explanation Marks 7.») Explain the Relationship Between Transport and Network Layers ‘The transport and network layers work together to ensure reliable data delivery and communication across computer networks. While the network layer focuses on routing packets across networks, the transport layer ensures the data reaches its destination reliably. Network layer: Responsible for routing packets between networks, addressing, and packet structure. It relies on the transport layer for secure and error-free transmission, Devices involved include routers and brouters, and protocols used include IPv4, IPv6, and ICMP.Transport layer: Responsible for reliable data delivery between applications, error checking. and sorting received packets. It depends on the network layer to route data to the correct destination, Protocols used include TCP and UDP. Analogy The network layer handles communication between hosts, while the transport layer handles communication between processes on different hosts, Explanation 7Marks 8. a) Define TCP, explain about The TCP Segment Structure, The TCP segment consists of header fields and a data field. The data field contains a chunk of application data. As mentioned above, the MSS limits the maximum size of a segment's data field. When TCP sends a large file, such as an image as part of a Web page, it typically breaks the file into chunks of size MSS (except for the last chunk, which will often be less than the MSS). Interactive applications, however, often transmit data chunks that are smaller than the MSS; for example, with remote login applications like Telnet, the data field in the TCP segment ae is often only one byte. Diagram 3 Marks & Explanation 4Marks 8. b) Explain the Cause and the Costs of Congestion in detail. A state occurring in network layer when the message traffic is so heavy that it slows down network response time. Effects of Congestion + As delay increases, performance decreases. + If delay increases, retransmission occurs, making situation worse. Congestion control algorithms ‘+ Congestion Control is a mechanism that controls the entry of data packets into the network, enabling a better use of a shared network infrastructure and avoiding congestive collapse. + Congestive-Avoidance Algorithms (CAA) are implemented at the TCP layer as the mechanism to avoid congestive collapse in a network. ‘There are two congestion control algorithm which are as follows:«Leaky Bucket Algorithm © Token bucket Algorithm Explanation 7 Marks UNIT-V 9, a) Explain the various Transport Services Provided by the File Transfer. FTP session, the user is sitting in front of one host (the local host) and wants to transfer files (0 or from a remote host, In order for the user to aecess the remote account, the user must provide & ‘ser identification and a password. After providing this authorization information, the user can transfer files from the local file system to the remote file system and vice versa. As shown in Figure 2.14, the user interacts with FTP through an FTP user agent. The user fist provides the hestname ofthe remote ost, causing the FTP client process in the local host to establish a TCP connection with the FTP server process in the remote host. The user then provides the user ‘dontification and password, which are sent over the TCP connection as part of FTP commands ‘Once the server has authorized the user, the user copies one oF more files stored in the local file system into the remote file system (or vice versa) I: Figure 2.14 + FTP moves files between locel and remote file eystoms “Wl Explanation 7 Marks 9.b) Distinguish between DNS and STMP protocols. Downain Name System (DNS) and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) are both application layer protocols used in computer networks: DNS: Resolves domain names into IP addresses. DNS uses distributed servers and wo (yPes of records to help SMTP route messages to recipients: eMail Exchanger (MX) records: Map a domain name to one or more mail hosts «A records: Map a host name to the IP address of a server SMTP: Used for sending email messages, SMTP uses TCP connections at port 25 and pet connections, which allow the same connection to be used to send multiple emails, SMTP doesn't tee intermediate mail servers, 50 mail sent from one user to another goes directly from the sender's server to the recipient's server. stent Explanation 7 Markslectronic Mail in the Internet the beginning of the Internet. It was the most popular s become more and more 10, a) Explain about Electronic mail has been around sin jon when the Intemet was in its infancy [Segaller 1998}, and nd powerful over the years. It remains one of the Internet's most important and applic elaborate utilized applications. Explanation 7 Marks 10.b) Compare FTP and STM protocols. FIP. (File Transfer Protocol) end SMTP ‘Simple Mail Traxster Protocol) are both application layer protocols that allow computers and servers to exchange data: FIP: Used to transfer files between computers, FIP can efficiently transfer multi-gigabyte files. It establishes two TCP connections: a control connection to authenticate the user and a data connection to transfer the files. FTP can be used for various purposes, such as backup processes or moving large files. SMTP: Used to send email messages, SMTP standardizes the way email travels from sender to recipient. It uses persistent connections, so the same TCP connection can be used to send multiple emails once it’s established, SMTP never uses intermediate mail servers, so mail sent from one user to another goes directly between their servers. Differences Explanation 7 Marks [Link] Kumar Professor, TEC