Biology Notes
1. Cells and Cell Theory
- Cell Theory:
- All living things are made up of cells.
- The cell is the basic unit of life.
- All cells come from pre-existing cells.
- Types of Cells:
- Prokaryotic: No nucleus (e.g., bacteria).
- Eukaryotic: Has nucleus (e.g., plant and animal cells).
- Cell Structures:
- Nucleus: Control center of the cell.
- Mitochondria: Produces energy.
- Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.
- Chloroplast (plant only): Photosynthesis.
- Cell wall (plant only): Structure and protection.
- Cell membrane: Controls movement in and out of the cell.
2. Nutrition and Digestion
- Nutrients:
- Carbohydrates: Energy source.
- Proteins: Growth and repair.
- Fats: Energy storage.
- Vitamins and minerals: Regulation and protection.
- Water: Transport and temperature control.
- Digestive System:
- Mouth: Mechanical and chemical digestion.
- Esophagus: Moves food to stomach.
- Stomach: Acid and enzymes break down food.
- Small intestine: Digestion and absorption.
- Large intestine: Absorbs water.
3. Respiration and Photosynthesis
- Respiration:
- Aerobic: Glucose + Oxygen -> Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
- Anaerobic: Glucose -> Lactic acid + Energy (less efficient)
- Photosynthesis:
- Equation: Carbon dioxide + Water -> Glucose + Oxygen (in presence of sunlight and chlorophyll)
- Occurs in chloroplasts.
4. Reproduction
- Asexual Reproduction:
- One parent, identical offspring.
- Examples: binary fission, budding.
- Sexual Reproduction:
- Two parents, genetic variation.
- Involves gametes (sperm and egg).
- Fertilization -> Zygote -> Embryo
5. Genetics
- DNA: Molecule that carries genetic information.
- Genes: Segments of DNA that code for traits.
- Alleles: Different versions of a gene.
- Genotype: Genetic makeup.
- Phenotype: Physical appearance.
- Punnett Squares: Predicts genetic outcomes.
6. Ecology
- Ecosystem: Community of organisms and their environment.
- Food Chain: Flow of energy from producer to consumer.
- Trophic Levels:
- Producer -> Primary Consumer -> Secondary Consumer -> Tertiary Consumer
- Biotic vs Abiotic:
- Biotic: Living things.
- Abiotic: Non-living factors (temperature, light, water).
- Pollution and Conservation: Effects of human activity and methods to preserve the environment.
7. Human Body Systems
- Circulatory System:
- Heart, blood, blood vessels.
- Transports oxygen, nutrients, waste.
- Respiratory System:
- Nose, trachea, lungs.
- Gas exchange (oxygen in, carbon dioxide out).
- Excretory System:
- Kidneys, ureters, bladder.
- Removes waste from the body.
- Nervous System:
- Brain, spinal cord, nerves.
- Coordinates body activities.
- Immune System:
- Defends against pathogens.
8. Diseases and Immunity
- Types of Diseases:
- Infectious: Caused by pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi).
- Non-infectious: Genetic, lifestyle (e.g., diabetes, cancer).
- Immunity:
- Natural: From exposure to disease.
- Artificial: Vaccines.
- White blood cells fight infections.
