Chapter 3
Modeling of Electrical Systems
This chapter presents the mathematical modeling of the electrical systems, the
governing fundamental equations, and how to develop the different standard models.
Electrical System
An electrical system is composed of electrical elements, which can be grouped into
two categories: (1) passive elements and (2) active elements.
Passive elements cannot introduce energy into a system; they can only store or
dissipate energy. Resistors, capacitors, and inductors are passive electrical elements.
Active elements, on the other hand, can introduce energy into an electrical system.
Voltage and current sources are active elements.
4.1 Electrical system transfer function
The table below summarizes the components and the relationships between voltage
and current of the three passive linear components: resistors, capacitors, and
inductors.
Basic laws governing electrical circuits are Kirchhoff’s
current law and voltage law.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (loop law) states that at any
given instant the algebraic sum of the voltages
around any loop in an electrical circuit is zero.
Kirchhoff’s current law (node law) states that the
algebraic sum of all currents entering and leaving a
node is zero.
Example 4.1
Considering the LRC circuit shown in
the figure, determine the transfer
function Eo(s)/Ei(s).
Solution
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the system,
we obtain
Taking the Laplace transforms of Equations, assuming zero initial conditions, we obtain
Eliminating I(s) from both equation and solving for Eo(s)/Ei(s)
Another solution
The transfer function can also be calculated by replacing each element in the circuit by
its impedance.
Ei (s) = I(s) ( Z1 + Z2 )
Eo (s) = I(s) Z 2
from which we have,
Eo (s) Z2 1 / Cs 1
= = =
Ei (s) Z1 + Z 2 Ls + R + 1 / Cs LCs 2 + RCs + 1
Example 4.2
Considering the LRC circuit shown in the
figure, determine the transfer function
Eo(s)/Ei(s).
Solution
The circuit shown in the figure can be
redrawn as shown below.
I I2
Ei = I . Z1 + I1 . Z2 (1)
I1
I = (I1 +I2) (2)
I1 . Z2 = I2 ( Z3 + Z4) (3)
Eo = I2 . Z4 (4)
Substituting from (2) in (1)
Ei = (I1+I2 ) . Z1 + I1 . Z2 (5)
From (4)
Eo
I2 = (6)
Z4
From (6) in (3)
Eo ( Z3 + Z 4 )
I1 = (7)
Z4 Z2
From (6) and (7) in (5)
E ( Z + Z 4 ) Eo E (Z + Z4 )
E i = o 3 + Z1 + o 3 Z2
Z4 Z2 Z4 Z4 Z2
Eo ( Z3 + Z 4 )
E i = + 1 Z1 + Z3 + Z 4
Z4 Z2
From which we get
Eo Z4
=
Ei ( Z3 + Z 4 )
Substituting + 1 Z1 + Z 3 + Z 4
Z2
Transfer Functions of Non-loading Cascaded Elements.
The transfer function of a system consisting of two non-loading cascaded elements
can be obtained by eliminating the intermediate input and output. For example,
consider the system shown in the figure. The transfer functions of the elements are
If the input impedance of the second element is infinite, the output of the first
element is not affected by connecting it to the second element. Then the transfer
function of the whole system becomes
The transfer function of the whole system is thus the product of the transfer functions
of the individual elements. This is shown in below figure.
As an example, consider the system shown in figure. The insertion of an isolating
amplifier between the circuits to obtain non-loading characteristics is frequently used
in combining circuits. Since amplifiers have very high input impedance (ideally, Zi =
∞), and very low output impedance (ideally Zo = 0), an isolation amplifier inserted
between the two circuits justifies the non-loading assumption.
The two simple RC circuits, isolated by an amplifier as shown in the above figure, have
negligible loading effects, and the transfer function of the entire circuit equals the
product of the individual transfer functions. Thus, in this case,
Electronic Controllers.
In what follows we shall discuss electronic controllers using operational amplifiers.
We begin by deriving the transfer functions of simple operational amplifier circuit.
Then we derive the transfer functions of some of the operational-amplifier controllers.
Operational Amplifiers.
Consider the op-amp shown in figure. When
the two voltage levels e1 and e2 are applied to
the op-amp relative to the ground, the output
is,
where K is the differential gain (magnitude of K is approximately 105 ~ 106 for signals
with frequencies less than approximately 10 Hz)
The op-amp has the following features:
• Since K is very large, the difference e2 – e1 is neglected i.e., e2 ≈ e1. (eo is usually
limited to 10-12 V)
• Assuming Ideal op-amp, input impedance is infinity, no current flows into the input
terminal.
• Assuming Ideal op-amp, the output impedance is zero. So, the output voltage is not
affected by the load connected to the output terminal and its transfer function can
be treated separately away from the load.
Inverting Amplifier.
Consider the operational amplifier circuit shown in the figure. Let us obtain the
relationship between the output voltage eo and the input ei.
The equation for this circuit can be
obtained as follows: Define
Since only a negligible current flows into
the amplifier, the current i1 must be equal
to current i2 . Thus
Since K (0 – e’) = eo, and K >> 1, e’ must be almost zero, or e’ ≈ 0. Hence we have
or
Using the impedance approach as
shown in the figure we can get a
general transfer function for the
inverting amplifier in the form,
Example 4.3
Referring to the op-amp circuit shown
in the figure, obtain the transfer
function Eo(s)/Ei(s).
Solution
PID Controller Using Operational Amplifiers.
The figure shows an electronic proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative controller (a
PID controller) using operational amplifiers.
Noting that, since an op-amp has input impedance is infinity and the output impedance
is zero, the cascaded op-amp circuits do not load each other and the transfer function
of each circuit can be calculated separately.
The transfer function E(s)/Ei(s) is given by
where
Thus
Also
So
Comparing the above transfer function with that of the PID controller
Kp is called the proportional gain, Ti is called the integral time, and Td is called the
derivative time, where
Other forms of controllers can be designed similarly as shown in the next table.
Table 4–1 Operational-amplifier circuits that may be used as electronic controllers
4.2 Electrical system state-space representation
A method to simplify getting the state-space representation of the electrical systems is
described below:
Step 1:
Label all of the branch currents in the network.
Step 2:
Select the state variables by writing the derivative equation for all energy storage
elements, that is, the inductor and the capacitor.
Step 3:
Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws, to obtain the right-hand side of the
derivative equation in terms of the state variables.
Example 4.3
Given the electrical network iL(t)
shown in the figure, find a state-
space representation in matrix v(t)
form if the output is the current
iC(t)
through the resistor. iR(t)
Solution
(1)
(2)
We select the state variables as
x1 = vc , x2 = iL
Input and output variables are
u = v(t) , y = iR
From Kirchhoff’s current law we have
Substituting in (1)
Since x1 = vc and x2 = iL ,
1 1
x1 = − x1 + x2
RC C
From Kirchhoff’s voltage law we have
Substituting in (2)
or, v
1 1
x2 = − x1 + u
L L
The output equation is,
y = iR
Substituting by the states we get
1
y = x1
R
Representing in matrix form
Example 4.4
The figure shows a parallel RLC circuit
driven by a current source. Derive the
state-space representation of the electrical
system. Take eC as the output variable.
Solution
(1)
(2)
We select the state variables as
x1 = eC , x2 = IL
Input and output variables are
u = Iin , y = eC
Kirchhoff's current law yields
which can be solved for capacitor current
Substituting in (1)
(3)
Also
Substituting in (2)
(4)
The output equation is
y = eC (5)
.
.
Proceed as indicated in the previous example
4.3 Electro-mechanical system modeling
Electromechanical systems are created by combining mechanical and electrical
elements. Common examples include motors, solenoids, accelerometers, electrostatic
micro-actuators.
Example 4.5
The figure shows a schematic diagram of the DC motor. The armature circuit is
composed of the voltage source ein(t), armature coil inductance La (due to the
windings), armature resistance Ra , and back emf eb. Note that the back emf is linearly
proportion to the armature angular speed (eb = Kb . ω). It is represented by a modified
voltage-source symbol with positive and negative terminals that oppose the
positive (clockwise) flow of armature current Ia. The mechanical component of the DC
motor is shown to the right of the armature circuit and includes the moment of inertia
for the rotor J, viscous friction coefficient b, motor torque Tm (from the current-
magnetism interaction), and load torque TL. The motor torque Tm is linearly proportion
to the armature current (Tm = Km . Ia). Develop the mathematical model of the
electromechanical system.
Solution
To begin, we use Kirchhoff's voltage law around the loop, moving clockwise
we substitute the appropriate element laws for voltage drop across a resistor, inductor
and back emf.
This yields
Summing torques on the rotor and applying Newton's second law yields
So, the complete mathematical model of the DC motor consists of the electrical
system and the mechanical system equations
or
We can, then proceed as before in obtaining the transfer function or the state-space
representation.
