Structural Geology
https://youtu.be/fBLf2tt8isM
https://youtu.be/rEumMkAhwzA
The motion may be a
deformation that breaks a rock
or change its shape or size and
thus leaves a permanent
record of the nature of that
deformation..
Deformation refers to the structural changes that take place in the original
location, orientation, shape and volume of a body of rock. It refers to1 the
physical and chemical processes that produce the structural changes.
Structural deformation result from stresses(directed pressure, in a solid,
the force per unit area, kg/cm2)that exceed rock strength.
When strength is exceeded, the rock will fail by
brittle(fracture) or ductile(flow) deformation,
depending on how the physical environment has
affected the ability of the rock to resist the stresses.
https://youtu.be/2yGMbFQB-a8
At the convergent margin
2
When a substance is stressed, it
Stress and Strain responds by changing size or shape or
both. The term used to describe
change in shape or volume is strain.
Stress is a measure of the magnitude and direction of a deforming
force.
Strain is a measure of the changes in length, volume and shape in a
stressed material.
Stress: directed force
Confining stress: the stress is equal in
all direction
Tensional stress: stretch
Compressional stress: Squeeze
Shear stress: slippage and translation
Strain: the change in size or shape, or
both, in a solid as a result of stress 3
When we observe layers of rock that have been deposited
essentially without interruption called conformity.
Throughout Earth history, the deposition of sediment has
been interrupted again and again. The breaks in the rock
record are termed unconformity.
An unconformity represents a long period during which
deposition ceased, erosion removed previously formed
rocks and then deposition resumed.
4
Earth’s crust has undergone uplift and erosion, followed by subsidence and
renewed sedimentation.
Unconformities represent vast amount
of time that have not been recorded.
https://yout
u.be/YXyN4
aQ2AP0
https://youtu.be/y90iJNrOPSQ
Angular
Disconformity unconformity
Unconformity between Nonconformity
Angular unconformity
parallel strata. Nonconformity have the
consists of tilted or folded
Unconformity at which break separates older
sedimentary rocks that
strata are parallel and the metamorphic or intrusive
are overlain by younger, 5
contact is a simple bedding igneous rocks from younger
sedimentary strata. more flat-lying strata.
plane.
Angular unconformity and disconformity imply crustal movements.
Disconformity can be identified by the ancient erosion surface. It cut
deeply into the older rocks below.
Angular unconformity indicate that during the pause in deposition,
a period of deformation(folding and tilting) and erosion occurred.
Nonconformity to develop must have a period of uplift and the
erosion of overlying rocks. The igneous or metamorphic rocks6 are
weathered and eroded and sedimentation renewal.
Fold
Fold are wavelike undulations that develop
during deformation of rock layers, such as
sedimentary strata.
They are the most obvious and common
structures that demonstrate the existence of
ductile deformation in the Earth. Such
structures apparently imply a high degree of
mobility of the rocks and their component
minerals during deformation.
https://youtu.be/jd3hG2PNdUo
7
https://youtu.be/YcRx7VNJOa8 Fold
The great variety of fold shapes in rocks must
reflect both the physical condition (such as
stress, temperature and pressure) and the
mechanical properties of the rock that existed
when the fold developed.
If we could understand the significance of fold
geometry, then we would have a valuable key to
understanding conditions of deformation in the
Earth.
8
Hinge - the point of maximum curvature.
Limb - sides of the fold.
Geometry of Fold
Axial plane or surface - the surface
connecting all of the hinges of individual
formations within one fold.
Axis - the line that when moved parallel
to itself generates the fold.
Crest - the highest point on a fold.
Trough - the lowest point on a fold.
9
Fold in sedimentary strata are much like those that would form if
you pushed on one edge of carpet, rumpling(folding) it.
Overturned fold:
Strata in one limb
have been tilted Recumbent fold:
beyond the vertical. Axial planes are
Symmetric fold: the Asymmetric fold: No Both limbs dip in horizontal. Strata on
shape on one side of mirror plane of same direction, the lower limb of
the hinge is a mirror symmetry and the though note anticline and upper
image of the shape limbs are of unequal necessarily at the limb of syncline are
on the other side. length. same angle. upside down.
https://
youtu.b
e/2yG
MbFQB
-a8
10
Fold are the result of compressional stresses that
result in the shortening and thickening of the crust.
Monocline
A monocline is a fold pair characterized by two long
horizontal limbs connected by a relatively short inclined
limb.
11
The two most common types of folds are anticlines and synclines. They
may be symmetrical, asymmetrical or if one limb has been tilted beyond
the vertical , overturned.
An anticline is a convex up fold
in rock that resembles an arch
like structure with the limbs
dipping away from the center of
the structure.
A syncline is a fold where the
rock layers are warped
downward.
https://yo
utu.be/m
63eH-
HQFVQ
12
Dome and basin are half –
wavelength of the fold.
When downwarping produces
a circular or somewhat
elongated structure, the
feature is called a basins.
When upwarping produces a circular or somewhat 13
elongated structure, the feature is called a dome.
A fold with an inclined axis is said to be a plunging fold, the angle between
a fold axis and the horizontal is the plunge of a fold. The fold hinges of
plunging fold is inclined to the horizontal plane.
https://youtu.be/GJIXL9Lnt
WI
14
Isocline fold Recumbent fold
The limb of the folded layers A fold in which the axial plane
are parallel though the strata is more or less horizontal. Bent
may vary in thick and the back on itself.
axial plane are parallel.
15
Chevron fold Kink fold
Angular fold - called a "chevron" A fold with planar limbs, sharp
where the hinge is very abrupt, the angular hinge and asymmetric.
limbs are straight and symmetric.
https://youtu.be/jEviuRsLdqk
Both fold styles commonly develop in rocks that have a strong planar mechanical
anisotropy such as phyllites and schists, which are characterized by a strong
preferred orientation of abundant platy minerals and finely laminated rocks16such
as interbedded sandstone or cherts with shales.
Fault are fractures along which there is visible offset by
shear displacement parallel to the fracture surface.
Across the fracture plane, that is where the rock on one
side has moved along the fracture relative to the other side,
17
the fracture is termed a fault.
Rock in the crust, especially rock
close to the surface, tends to be brittle.
When the visible movement has
occurred , the fractures are faults.
Faulting that reaches the surface
produces offset of natural and man-
made objects. https://youtu.be/T4s2hJyg7Q0
Old mining term: The hanging wall is the surface of
the block of rock above an inclined fault; the surface
18
of the block of rock below an inclined fault is the
19
Rake of the displacement vectors and
slip components on a fault surface.
Fault can often be recognized by the
characteristic textures and structures
developed in rock as a result of 20
shearing.
Fault Slickensides
Fault surfaces are commonly finely polished slickensided surfaces,
apparently the result of the fine abrasive action of differential
movement.
Frictional abrasion along the fault surface during differential
displacement of the wall rocks produce slickensides. Slickensides
are the smooth or shiny fault surfaces.
21
https://youtu.be/T4s2hJyg7Q0
Cataclasitic rocks(fault rocks)
Fault formed at depths less than 10 to 15 km typically have
cataclastic rocks present in the fault zone. Individual fragments are
generally sharp, angular shape characteristic of brittle fracturing.
Cataclastic rocks divide into four catergories: breccia, gouge,
cataclastic and pseudotachylite. The percentage of fine-grained
matrix in breccia less than 30
percent; cataclasites more than 30
percent.
Cataclasites include a range of
clast size and vary from 30
percent fine-grained matrix up 22
to 100 percent.
Fault breccia
The assembly of broken fragment frequently found along fault.
Breccia are fault rocks compound of angular fragment of wall rock
set in a finer-grained matrix of crushed wall-rock material.
Ordinary breccia contain clasts that are larger than 1 mm and
smaller than 0.5 m.
23
Gouge
Fault gouge is produced by friction between the two sides when a
fault moves. Gouge is a light –colored very fine grained(less than
0.1mm) clayey fault rock that is commonly found along fault surface
and within fault zones.
Gouge is finely ground, whitish rock
powder, noncohesive.
24
Pseudotachylite
Pseudotachylite contains a matrix of crystals less than 1m
in diameter and small amounts of glass or devitrified glass
cementing a mass of fractured material together.
During an earthquake
under dry conditions at
depths generally less than 10
to 15km, frictional heating
can be sufficient to melt
small portions of the rock.
The resulting material may
intrude through fracture s
in the adjacent rock before
quenching to form veins of
25
pseudotachylite.
Mylonitic rocks
Fault zones formed at depths
exceeding about 10 to 15 km are
characterized by another type of very
fine grained rock called mylonitic
rocks. These rocks form only as a
result of ductile deformation, which
occurs in crustal rocks at temperatures
generally in excess of 250℃ to 350℃.
Mylonitic rocks have a matrix of very
fine grains that are derived by
reduction of grain size from the
original rock.
Mylonitic rocks form as a result of the
recrystallization of mineral grains
during rapid ductile deformation. The
grain is polygonal to sutured grain. 26
The surface trace of a fault zone exposure on the earth’s surface and
the variation with depth of the type of fault rock within the fault
zone.
Slickensides
Fault breccia
& Gouge 1-4km
Cataclasites
Cataclastic 4-10km
fault rocks
Brittle deformation
Temperature 250-350℃
Mylonitic
fault Mylonites
rocks(>50μm Ductile deformation
, <50 μm, <10
μm)
27
Strike-slip fault accommodate Fault Types
horizontal slip between adjacent
blocks. They are described as left-
handed or right-handed,
depending on the sense of actual
relative movement.
Dip-slip fault are marked by
translation directly up or down the
dip of the fault surface. Movement
on a dip-slip fault is described with
reference to the relative movement
of hanging wall and foot wall.
https://y
outu.be/
hmX8Bm
D3L7k
Oblique-slip
fault is inclined
between strike- 28
slip and dip-slip.
Normal faults are inclined dip-slip
faults along which the hanging wall
block has moved down with respect
to the footwall block. (hanging –
wall –down motion, lengthening or
extension of the earth crust).
Hanging wall
https://youtu.be/EW6nbkp
cRdw
footwall
Normal fault resulting in missing section in a vertical drill hole.
29
Thrust faults and Reverse fault are
dip-slip fault on which the hanging
wall block has moved up relative to
the footwall block. Reverse faults
have dips greater than 45º and
thrust faults dip less than 45º.
Hanging wall
https://youtu.be/Xy0f_r
ubZJI
footwall
30
Thrust fault resulting in repeated section in a vertical drill hole
A special class of reverse fault, called thrust fault and
generally known as thrusts, are low angle reverse fault
with dips less than 45°.
31
The movement of strike-slip fault is horizontal. Strike-slip faulting
results in stretching and shortening in the plane of horizontal
layering.
Left-handed strike- Right-handed strike- https://youtu.be/nG_0NnLtgLg
slip faults slip faults
32
Horst and Graben are formed by extension, or
pulling, of the crust. Horsts are relatively lifted ,
generally unrotated blocks bounded on either side
by outward-dipping normal fault. Graben, on the
other hand are relatively down-dropped, relatively
unrotated blocks bounded on either side by
inward-dipping normal faults.
https://youtu.be/MmgYBsHuVHk
33
Sudden movement along faults is the cause of most earthquakes.
The energy that in one case will be released by thousands of tiny
slips(fault surface do not slip easily) and earthquake will in another case
be stored(energy can be stored in elastically deformed bodies of rock) and
released in a single giant earthquake. https://youtu.be/9mwg8uf0K2I
Most earthquake occur in the brittle
rock of the lithosphere. At great depth,
temperature and pressure are too high
for brittle fracture to happen.
Earthquakes are a phenomenon of the 34
outer, cooler portion of the Earth.
The name given to the study of earthquake is seismology.
The device used to study the shock
and vibration caused by
earthquakes is a seismograph.
The point of the first release of
energy that causes an earthquake
is called the earthquake focus. The
point on the Earth’s surface that
lies vertically above the focus of
an earthquake as the epicenter. https://youtu.be/2rYjlVPU9U4
The wave is called seismic waves, spread out in all direction from the focus. Two
types of seismic wave are body wave(Primary waves, 6km/s, Secondary, 3.5km/s)
and surface wave(Rayleigh wave, Love wave). https://youtu.be/t7wJu0Kts7w
https://you https://you
tu.be/en4H tu.be/6yXg 35
ptC0mQ4 fYHAS7c
Houses built in the hanging wall or footwall of the block,
the damage will little when the Fault moving.
Houses and Dam built
along the “fault line” were
destroyed.
36
Joint is a surface fracture or parting in a rock, without
displacement; they are fracture on which these has been no
movement, or no discernible movement of one side (or wall)
relative to the other. In this way joint differ from faults.
If many adjacent joints
have a similar geometry,
the fractures collectively
are called a joint set.
37
Bruce Lee scar
Master joint set
The predominant set of joints in any jointing pattern is
called a master joint set.
38
Joints in folded sedimentary rocks
Commonly two sets of joints intersecting at right angle or nearly so
are found in many sedimentary rocks and often perpendicular to the
bedding plane, they are called oblique joints.
In dipping or folded sediments the direction of these sets frequently
corresponds to the strike and dip of the beds, there are strike – joints
and dip- joints.
Other parallel the axis of fold and are concentrated in the fold hinge,
where tension is greatest during folding; they are called tension joint.
39
Joints in Igneous Rock
In igneous rocks concentration joints are formed as a
hot mass cools and contract.
40
Lava flow – Hexagonal joints
A lava flow often develops a hexagonal joints pattern by concentration
around many centers, equally spaced from one another; the contraction
being taken up by the opening of tension joints.
This gives the rise to a columnar structure in the lava sheet, the hexagonal
columns running from top to bottom of the mass.
https://youtu.be/h2t8UzMzLug
https://youtu.be/wgwfTELPyik
41
Columnar joint
The fractures separate the rock into 42
roughly hexagonal or pentagonal columns.
Intrusive igneous body
Joint systems develop during the cooling of the mass
after emplacement and is known as original joints.
43
Flow Line
A lineation of crystals mineral streaks, or inclusions in an
igneous rock, indicating the direction of flow before
consolidation.
44
Steep or vertical and lie
perpendicular to the flow – lines.
Cross – joints ( or Q-joints) A steeply dipping joint
plane in a pluton that is
oriented parallel to the lines
of flow.
Longtitudinal – joints (or S- joints)
Flat- layering joints (or L- joints)
Right angle to the Q and S
joints.
45
Sheet – Jointing
Sheet – jointing which crosses such a joint – system and is
specially developed near the roof of the igneous body, is
probably cause by tension stress generated by the
unloading of the mass during denudation, when sheet –
joints are parallel to topography, often the cause of slips on
hill side.
46
Unloading
Sheet joint Sheet joint
47
Sheet jointing
Shear- joint
A joint that formed as a
shear fracture. The fracture
that result from stresses
that tend to shear one part
of a rock past the adjacent
part.
48
Tension- joint
A joint that formed as a tension fracture. The fracture in
rock that is the result of stresses that tend to pull the rock
apart.
49
Slope failure caused by joint deeply weathered in granite.
Jointing allows water and air to penetrate rock permitting
deep weathering.
The stability of a rock slope is controlled by the
discontinuities(joint, fault) in rock, the increase the
discontinuities in the rock will decrease shearing resistance.
50
Stereographic Projection
Stereographic projection is a powerful method for solving
geometric problems in structural geology.
Stereographic projection displays geometries and
orientations of lines and plane without regard to spatial
relations.
Solving for apparent dip, the trend and plunge of the
intersection of two planes and angle between lines and
planes in space can be carried out rapidly accurately
using stereographic projection.
51
A stereonet is a stereographic projection of a set of
reference planes and lines within one hemisphere.
The projections is used to analysis the geological structure,
to plot strike the and dip of joints, faults, fold and bedding.
An equal area stereonet projection showing great circles
with corresponding dips in 10 degree increments and the
strike line positions from 10-80 degree, in 10 degree
increments.
52
https://youtu.be/OrAz6Rq-swc
Striking NE35°
and dipping 25SE
Rotate the overlay back in its
fundamental position its N
aligned with the N of the
First, mark the stereonet. As expected the
strike of the plane on curvature of the great circle
the overlay on the points toward the SE is the
outer circle of the dip direction, and the pole is
stereonet. located on the opposite sector.
Then, rotate the overlay so that the mark aligns with the NS diameter of the stereonet.
Along the EW diameter locate the great circle 25º as shown. You have the choice between 2
great circles one on the east sector to other of the west sector. However, only one will dip
toward the SE when you will rotate back the stereonet in its fundamental position. Trace
the great circle 25º SE. From that great circle count 90º along the EW diameter and53plot a
dot. This dot is the stereographic projection of the pole of the plane.
https://youtu.be/MylbV
by6Ad8
Trend 124/
plunge 63
First, mark the Rotate the overlay back to its
trend on the fundamental position. The dot is
overlay trace located on the SE sector in accord
paper. with the plunging direction of the line.
Then, rotate the overlay so that this mark
aligns with the EW diameter of the stereonet.
Along the EW diameter count 63º starting 54
from the mark on the outer circle.
https://youtu.be/ifhdyRwGXQ
4
55
