In the 18th century, people's health began to improve due to better
diets from agricultural advances, cleaner water supplies, and the
beginnings of public health awareness. An important scientific
advancement was the introduction of smallpox inoculation to Europe
in 1726, brought by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu from the Ottoman
Empire. Edward Jenner’s discovery in 1796 of vaccination using
cowpox was a safer alternative to inoculation, as it did not involve
exposure to live smallpox virus. Jenner’s contribution to medicine
saved millions of lives, and he should be remembered as a pioneer of
preventive healthcare.
The Industrial Revolution began in Britain around 1760. It
transformed the British economy from an agricultural base to an
industrial and capitalist one. Britain had many advantages, including
coal and iron resources, a strong navy, stable political institutions,
and colonial access to raw materials and markets. These conditions
allowed for rapid mechanization and factory development. The British
Empire played a key role by supplying raw materials like cotton and
creating global markets for British goods.
The factory system brought large-scale production into centralized
locations, where workers operated machines for wages on strict
schedules. This shift introduced time discipline and separated work
from home life. Many features of today’s society, including
urbanization, industrial labor, mass production, and consumer
culture, originated in this era. People moved from rural areas to cities
for factory jobs, leading to massive urban growth. In cities like
London, this created serious problems such as overcrowding,
pollution, inadequate sanitation, and disease outbreaks like cholera.
Poor living conditions were caused by unplanned urban growth, lack
of regulations, low wages, poor housing, and absence of social
services. These conditions persisted throughout Europe during the
industrial period.
A revolution is a sudden and radical change in political power or
structure, often through popular uprising. A republic is a government
without a monarch where officials are elected by the people. A
democracy is a political system in which citizens have the power to
vote and participate in decision-making.
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement promoting reason,
science, secularism, and individual rights. Thinkers like Locke,
Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau challenged traditional authority
and influenced the rise of democratic ideas. These ideals sparked
political revolutions.
The American Revolution (1775–1783) was driven by Enlightenment
ideas, colonial opposition to British taxes, and the desire for self-rule.
The result was independence and the creation of a democratic
republic based on a constitution and separation of powers.
The French Revolution (1789–1799) was caused by social inequality,
economic crisis, Enlightenment influence, and the weak monarchy of
Louis XVI. The revolution abolished the monarchy, executed the king,
and established the First French Republic. It promoted ideals of
liberty, equality, and fraternity, which spread throughout Europe.
This era gave rise to liberalism, which emphasizes individual rights,
constitutional government, and free markets; republicanism, which
supports governments without monarchs based on popular
sovereignty; and nationalism, which advocates for self-governed
nations of shared culture and identity.
These revolutions and the Industrial Revolution laid the foundation for
modern politics, economies, and societies, defining the transition from
traditional hierarchies to modern democratic and industrial systems.
Questionssss
.1. What factors led to improvements in public health during the 18th
century?2. What scientific discovery was introduced to Europe in
1726, and by whom?3. How did Edward Jenner’s vaccination differ
from earlier methods of smallpox inoculation?4. What role did Edward
Jenner play in the history of medicine?5. Where and when did the
Industrial Revolution begin?6. Why was Britain the first country to
industrialize?7. How did the British Empire support industrialization
in Britain?8. What economic and social changes resulted from the
Industrial Revolution?9. How did the factory system operate, and how
did it affect daily life for workers?10. What modern societal features
originated during the Industrial Revolution?11. Why did people
migrate from rural areas to cities during this time?12. What kinds of
urban problems emerged in cities like London due to industrial
growth?13. What were the main causes of poor living conditions in
18th and 19th century Europe?14. Define the following: revolution,
republic, and democracy.15. What were the main ideas of the
Enlightenment, and who were its major thinkers?16. What caused the
American Revolution and what were its outcomes?17. What were the
major causes of the French Revolution?18. What changes did the
French Revolution bring to France and Europe?19. How did
republicanism, liberalism, and nationalism emerge and spread during
this period?20. How are the Enlightenment, the American and French
Revolutions, and the Industrial Revolution interconnected?
