COLLAPSIBLE SOILS
The features of collapsing soils can be summarised as follows
1.Normally occur in arid and semiarid areas
2.Strong if dry but collapse when wet
3.Process of collapse: Hydro-consolidation, Hydro-compression
or Hydro-collapse
4.Predominantly sand silt size particles are in a loose
“Honeycomb” structure
5.Water-softening cementing agents hold together the loose
structure
Types of collapsible soils
1.Collapsible soil transported by wind: Aeoline Soils, sand
dunes, loess and volcanic dust deposits
2.Collapsible soil transported by water: Alluvial Soils
3.Collapsible soil transported by gravity: Colluvial soils
4.Collapsible soil formed in-place by the weathering of rock:
Collapsible residual soils
These soils are generally unsaturated and will undergo a lot change
in the volume upon getting saturated.
The change of volume may or may not be the result of application
of any amount additional load.
Behaviour of these collapsible soils under the load is explained by a
typical void ratio - effective pressure plot as shown in the figure.
As can be observed in this figure
ab is determined from the
consolidation test on a specimen
at its natural water content.
e1 = equilibrium void ratio at an effective
pressure level of σ׳w
e2 = equilibrium void ratio at the same
effective pressure level of σ׳w after
saturation
cd is the branch of the e-log σ׳
Curve under additional load after saturation.
Foundations which are constructed on success experience large and considerable
settlement in this soil and then becomes saturated with an anticipated supply of water the
saturation of the soil may after from any of the sources like
1. Broken water pipelines in the buildings
2. Leaking sewer pipe line
3. Drainage from reservoirs and swimming pools
4. Slow increase in groundwater level and so on.
This type of last settlement generally causes answerable structural damage to the
structures resting on the soil.
Hence identify in such type of collapsible soils during the initial stages of exploration
program is critical and important.
Majority of naturally occurring collapsible soils are mainly obtained as
transported soils.
Aeolian and Loess - type of wind transported soil
These deposits have high void ratios and low unit weights and generally are
cohesionless or with slightly cohesion.
Aeolian soils sands or silts
Loess deposits have silt sized particles.
The cohesion in loess may be the result of clay coatings surrounding the silt
size particles. These coatings hold particles in a rather stable condition in an
unsaturated state.
The cohesion may also be caused by the presence of chemical precipitate
leached by rainwater. When the soil becomes saturated, the clay binders used
in strength and undergo a structural collapse.
This type of soils are present in many parts of the world like United States
Europe China middle East etc.
Many collapsible soils may be residual soils that are products of weathering of
parent rocks.
Weathering produces soils with a large range of particle size distribution.
Soluble and colloidal materials are leached out by weathering, resulting in
large void ratios and the unstable structures.
These type of collapse in soils may result in flash floods and mudflows.
PHYSICAL PARAMETERS FOR IDENTIFICATION
There are various methods for evaluating the
physical parameters of collapsible soil for
identification as given by many researchers.
Jennings and Knight (1975) registered a procedure for describing
the collapsing potential of a soil.
Undisturbed soil specimen is taken at its natural water content in a
consolidation ring. Step loads are applied on to the specimen upto
a pressure level of 200 kN/sq.m
At that Pressure, the specimen is flooded for saturation time and is left for 24
hours. This test provides the void ratios e1 and e2 before and after flooding
respectively.
The collapse and shall of the soil may now be calculated as
Cp = Δε = (e1 – e2)/(1+ e0)
Where e0 = Natural void ratio of the soil
Δε = Vertical strain
The severity of the foundation problems associated with the collapsible soil
have been correlated with the collapse of potential (Cp) by researchers like
Jennings and Knight (1975). They were summarised by Clemence and
Finbarr (1981) and are given in table.
Holtz and Hilf (1961) suggested that Loessial soil that has a void ratio large enough to allow
its moisture content to exceed its liquid limit upon saturation is susceptible to collapse. So
for collapse,
(Saturated water content) ≥ liquid limit. ------------------ (1)
However, for saturated soils e0 = wGs ------------------ (2)
Where Gs = specific gravity of soil solids
Combining equ (1) and (2) for collapsing soils yields e0 ≥ (LL) (Gs )
The natural dry unit weight of the soil required for its collapse is
ϒd = (Gs ϒw)/(1+ e0 ) = (Gs ϒw)/[1+ (LL)(Gs )]
For an average value of Gs = 2.65, the limiting values of ϒd for various liquid limits may now
be calculated from the above equation.
Procedure for calculating Collapse settlement of soils
Jennings and Knight (1975) proposed the following Laboratory
procedure for determining the settlement of structures upon
saturation of soil
1. obtain two undisturbed soil specimens for test in a standard
consolidation test apparatus (Oedometer)
2. Place the two specimens under a pressure of 1 kN/sq.m for 24
hours of time
3. After 24 hours, saturate one specimen by flooding it with water.
Keep the other specimen at its natural water content.
4. After 24 hours of flooding, resume the consolidation test on both the
specimen by doubling the load (the same procedure adopted in the standard
consolidation test) to the desired pressure level
5. Draw the variation of void ratio and pressure (e-log σ׳0) graph for both the
specimens
6. Calculate the in-situ effective pressure value (σ׳0). Draw a vertical line
corresponding to this pressure σ׳0
7. From the e-log σ׳0 curve of the soaked specimen, determine the pre-
consolidation pressure (σ׳c). If the ratio of pre-consolidation to in situ effective
pressure (σ׳c/ σ׳0) is 0.8 to 1.5, soil is normally consolidated. However if the
value of this ratio is more than 1.5, then the soil is pre-consolidated
8. Determine the value of e׳0, corresponding to σ׳0 from the e-log σ׳0 curve of the soaked
specimen (this procedure for normally consolidated and over consolidated soil is shown in
figures 1 and 2 respectively)
NC Clays OC Clays
9. Through Point (σ׳0, e׳0 ) draw a curve that is similar to e-log σ׳0 curve obtained from the
specimen tested at its natural water content
10. Determine the incremental pressure Δσ׳, on the soil caused by construction of the
foundation. Draw a vertical line corresponding to the pressure of σ׳0 + Δσ ׳in the e-log σ׳0
curve.
11. Now determine the values of Δe1 and Δe2.
The settlement of soil without change in natural water contain is
Sc(1) = Δ e1 (H)/ (1+ e0 )
Where H = Thickness of soil susceptible to collapse
Also, the settlement caused by collapse in the soil structure is
Sc(2) = Δ e2 (H)/ (1+ e0 )
(c) PREWETTING (HOUSTON AND HOUSTON, 1977; HANSEN ET AL, 1989)
Prewetting is done by flooding the soil which is likely to be collapsed due to
saturation before the structure is built and reduces the chances of collapse
after the construction of structure.
This method is useful for canals and roadways. Wetting of the soil can be
done by constructing ponding or trenches and boreholes.
(Weak) Compressible Soils
Soft Soils – River mouth; Below the wet lands; Around the bays; Low lying
areas (below wet areas)
Remedies
1. Delay the construction
2. Preloading with vertical drains
3. Replace with compacted soil (incase if it is of shallow depth)
4. Design to accommodate the settlement by Jacking facility
5. Improving the soil – Stone columns; Preloading with drains; Electro
Osmosis
6. Opting for deep foundations
7. Light weight fills – Geofoam (SBC = 10 t/m 2 ) & Flyash – for small areas
LIQUEFACTION
LIQUEFACTION
Momentary transformation of saturated cohesionless soils into
thick viscous slurry
Favourable conditions
1.Soil is cohesionless
2.Soil is in loose state
3.Soil is saturated
4.Adequate intensity and duration of ground shaking
5.Development of undrained conditions
S = C ׳+ σ ׳tanϕ
When particles shake S=0 because already c = 0 and σ ׳also
becomes zero
In case of cohesive soils, due to the reserved cohesive
strength, liquefaction is very remote.
LIQUEFACTION
By Seed & Idriss (1971)
CSR – Cyclic Stress Ratio – Indicates stress induced
CRR - Cyclic Resistance Ratio – Indicates available resistance
Liquefaction damages
1.Landslides
2.Lateral spread
3.Bearing capacity problems
4.Large settlement / shrinking of structures
5.Floating of substructures --- Pipe lines; Subway tubes;
Water pumps etc.
Possible only when water table is present
Remedial Measures
1.Deep foundation
2.Soil Replacement
3.Continuous pumping to lower the water table
4.Stone columns
5.Ground Improvement
