Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Chemical reactions

1. Chemical reactions
A chemical reactions is a process in which one or more substances, called reactants, are
transformed into another or other substances, called products
Reactant + reactant + … = Product

Chemical reactions are represented by chemical equations, where the reactants and
products are represented by their formula and the physical state of each is indicated.

The chemical equations must be adjusted or equalized by numbers that are placed before
the formulas, in order to have the same number of atoms of each element in the part of the
reactants and products, these numbers are called stoichiometric coefficients.

This equalization of atoms is due to the law of conservation of mass or Lavoisier’s law which
says “in any chemical reaction the mass of the products is equal to that of the reactants, the
mass is conserved in any chemical reaction”.

Chemical combustion equation of methane (CH4)

Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

​ ​ CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) -> CO2(g) + 2 H2O (I)

As molecules: 1 molecule + 2 molecules -> 1 molecule + 2 molecules

As moles: 1 mol + 2 moles -> 1 mol + 2 moles

1 molecule of methane gas combines with 2 molecules of dioxygen gas

to obtain a 1 molecule of carbon dioxide and 2 molecules of liquid water.

1 mole of methane gas is combined with 2 moles of dioxygen gas, and 1

mole of carbon dioxide and 2 moles of liquid water.

!! If all the compounds involved in a chemical reaction are in gaseous

state, under the same conditions of pressure and temperature, the
stoichiometric coefficients also indicate the number of volumes of each
compound.
Therefore, in the combustion reaction of methane gas, in which all
reactants and products are in a gaseous state, the equation can also be
read in volumetric terms:

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) -> CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)

As volume: 1 volume + 2 volumes -> 1 volume + 2 volumes

The volume can be expressed to the extent of volume that suits us:
liters, m3…

Types of reactions:
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

2. Equalization(igualació) of the chemical

equation
Equalizing a chemical equation is to determine the stoichiometric coefficients of the
substances in the reaction so that it is satisfied that the number of atoms of each element in
the reactants is the same as in the products.

The stoichiometric coefficients are in red:

2Fe(s) + 3/2 O2 (g) -> Fe2O3

To adjust a given chemical reaction, we can follow two methods: “tanteig” or system of
equations

Prove method (tanteig) (this method is the most used)

It’s used to equalize simple chemical equations, through these steps:

Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

1.​ Equalize the atoms of metals and nonmetals, except hydrogen and oxygen. To
equalize the atoms of the elements found in the least number of substances.
2.​ Equalize the hydrogen atoms
3.​ Equalize the oxygen atoms
4.​ Review, if it’s necessary, section 1

Example: The combustion reaction of butane is not equalized:

​ C4H10 (g) + O2 (g) -> CO2 (g) + H2O(g)
Step 1. We will start by equalizing the metal atoms ( there are none) and then the non-metal
atoms (carbon, C)
C4H10 (g) + O2 (g) -> 4CO2 (g) + H2O(g)
Step 2. Adjust hydrogen atoms
​ C4H10 (g) + O2 (g) -> 4CO2 (g) + 5H2O(g)
Step 3. Adjust oxygen atoms
​ C4H10 (g) + 13/2 O2 (g) -> 4CO2 (g) + 5H2O(g)

We check the elements

​
Element Reactant Product

C 4 4

H 10 10

O 13 13
System of equations method
It’s used when is more difficult to equalize through “tanteig”

x C4H10 (g) + y O2 (g) -> z CO2 (g) + k H2O(g)

Carbon: 4x = z
Hydrogen: 10x = 2k
Oxygen: 2y = 2z+k

3. Determination of empirical and molecular

formulas
Empirical formula indicates only the proportion between the elements of the atom ( the
simplest relationship between the atoms present. Non-molecular substances have only this.

Molecular formula expresses what is the true number of atoms of each element of the
compound. It is a molecular substance.
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

A molecular compound presents both formulas. If they are different, the empirical will be the
abbreviation of molecular formula.

Example -> ethane hydrocarbon -> CH3 (empirical) -> C2H6 (molecular)

Caffeine
C: 49.43%,
H: 5.15%,
N: 28.83%,
and the rest of oxygen.
When caffeine crystallizes, it crystallizes together with a molecule of water and then its
molecular mass is 212.21 g/mol. Molecular formula?

Starting with 100 g, you have:

C -> 49.43 g
H -> 5.15 g
N -> 28.83 g
O -> 16.59g (100 - ( 49.43+5.15+28.83) )

We calculate the moles of each element dividing the mass of the element by his atomic
mass:
C = 12 g/mol ; ​H = 1g/mol;​ ​ N = 14 g/mol ​​ O = 16 g/mol

C -> 49.43 g / 12=4.12 moles

H -> 5.15 g / 1 = 5.15 moles
N -> 28.83 g / 14= 2.06 moles
O -> 16.59g / 16 = 1.03 moles
We divide all of them by the smallest quantity of moles:

C ->4.12 moles / 1.03 moles = 4

H -> 5.15 moles /1.03 = 5
N -> 2.06 moles/1.03 = 2
O -> 1.03 moles/1.03 = 1

The empirical formula of the caffeine its:

C4H5N2O
From this we can deduce the molecular mass of caffeine:
C4H5N2O -> 4·12 + 5·1 + 2·14 + 16 = 97g/mol

To calculate the molecular formula, we know that the molecular mass of the compound is
212.21g/mol (with molecule of water)
212.21 g/mol - 18g (molecular mass of water) = 194.21 g/mol
194𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
194 g = x · 97 ->𝑥 = 97 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 2
We have to multiply the empirical formula by x:
C4H5N2O · 2 = C8H10N402
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

The molecular formula of the caffeine is C8H10N402

[Link] of chemical reactions(I)

According to the transformations in chemical reactions (we are seeing about reactants and
products), they can be classified into:

Synthesis or formation reactions: Two or more substances combine to form a product. They
have more substances in reactants than in products.

Decomposition reactions: A substance is transformed into two or more. They are the
inverses of synthesis reactions.

Displacement or substitution reactions: An atom of one compound is replaced by another

(displaced) There are the same number of substances in reactants as in products.

Displacement or double substitution reactions: An atom of one compound is replaced by one

atom of another compound, at the same time, the place of the last atom is occupied by the
first atom .
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Combustion reactions: these are oxidation reactions that generate large amounts of energy.
Characteristics:
●​ They don’t progress in the absence of oxygen
●​ They start with a spark
●​ A large amount of heat is released.
●​ When the combustion of organic matter occurs the products of the reaction are
carbon dioxide, water vapor and ash(tray)

For example : Combustion of propane gas -> C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g) -> 3 CO2(g) +4 H2O (l)
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

5. Stoichiometry
It’s the part of chemistry responsible for the quantitative study of chemical reactions. It
involves performing numerical calculations to determine the quantities (masses, volumes) of
the substances involved in a chemical reaction, they are called stoichiometric calculations.

Steps to solve the stoichiometry exercises:

1.​ The chemical equation of the reaction is written and adjusted.
2.​ Underneath each substance are written the data that is known.
3.​ The amount of this substance that gives us the problem is expressed in moles.
4.​ The quantity (in moles) of any other substance of the reaction ( the one we want to
know), is obtained using the relationship indicated by the stoichiometric coefficients
of the two substances (of which they give us the amount of which we want to search)
in the chemical equation.
5.​ The quantities obtained from the substances are expressed in the units requested
(grams, liter, mol…)
Stoichiometric calculations can be performed:
●​ In mass, usually used with the solid state
●​ In gas volume. If the reactants are gasses, it’s easier to work in volume than in mass.
●​ In concentrations of dissolution. Many reactions are carried out with reactants and
products dissolved in water; under these conditions, the reaction proceeds faster.

6. Mass stoichiometric calculations

If we interpret the stoichiometric coefficients of a chemical reaction as the number of moles,
and if we pass this number to grams through the molar mass of the compound, we can
establish relationships between the masses of reactants and products that participate in a
chemical reaction.

We use conversion factors to do this.

To calculate the mass of one reactant or product, known as the mass of another, one must
take into account the ratio of moles between both substances, which is known by the
adjusted chemical equation.

Example:

Metallic sodium reacts with water to produce sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and dihydrogen gas.
If they fully react 10g of sodium:
a)​ Formulate the corresponding chemical equation and adjust it.
b)​ The moles of dihydrogen that will be obtained, when all 10g of sodium react.
c)​ The grams of sodium hydroxide produced by reacting all 10g of sodium.

a)​ 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)

Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

b)​ 2 moles of sodium + 2 moles of water -> 2 moles of sodium hydroxide + 1 mol of
hydrogen
We have 10 g of sodium -> Na 10g
2 moles of sodium gives 1 mol of H2

10g of Na are -> ? moles

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2
10𝑔 𝑁𝑎 · 23 𝑔
· 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎
= 0.22 mol H2

c)​ Grams of sodium hydroxide obtained from 10g Na (We need the molecular mass of
NaOH, too) 23+16+1

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 40𝑔 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻

10𝑔 𝑁𝑎 · 23 𝑔
· 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 17.4 g NaOH

7. Volume stoichiometric calculations

Gasses reactions, the volume of gasses can be calculated by applying the ideal gas
equation: P·V = n·R·T

If the reaction is carried out under normal conditions: T=0ºC = 273 K and P=1 atm remember
than a mole of gas occupies 22,4 liters, and contains 6.022·1023 molecules.

In a chemical reaction where all substances are in a gaseous state measured under the
same conditions of pressure and temperature, the stoichiometric coefficients of the chemical
equation represent, in addition to the number of moles or particles, the volume. For example,
if all substances (gasses) involved in the ammonia formation reaction are under the same
pressure and temperature conditions, the volume ratio in the table can be used:

N2(g) + 3H2 (g) -> 2NH3(g)

1 molecule of N2 3 molecules of H2 2 molecules of NH3

1 mole of N2 3 moles of H2 2 moles of NH3

1 liter of N2 3 liters of H2 2 liters of NH3

Potassium reacts with hydrochloric acid (HCl) to obtain potassium chloride and dihydrogen.
If 5g of potassium reacts, calculate:
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

a)​ The volume of dihydrogen produced under normal conditions

b)​ The volume of dihydrogen measured at 25ºC and 1.5 atm pressure.

a)2K(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> 2KCl(aq) + H 2 (g)

If when you’re writing the chemical equation, you don’t know the physical state of the
substance, don’t worry. The important thing is to know if the substance volume requested will
be a gas, if it doesn’t, it talks about dissolution.

Sometimes instead dihydrogen or dioxygen, it is called hydrogen or oxygen, in chemical

reactions they are always molecular: H2 and O2

2K + 2HCl -> 2KCl + H2

2 moles of potassium react with 2 moles of hydrochloric acid -> 2 mole potassium chloride

2K(g) + 2HCl -> 2KCl + H2 (g)

2 moles of potassium 2 moles of 2 moles of 1 mole of

5g hydrochloric acid potassium chloride hydrogen
volume?

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐾 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2 22.4 𝑙

5𝑔 𝐾 · 39 𝑔
· 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐾
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 1. 44 𝑙 𝐻2

b)2K(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> 2KCl(aq) + H 2 (g)

𝑃1·𝑉1 𝑃2·𝑉2 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚·1.44𝑙 1,5 𝑎𝑡𝑚 · 𝑉2
𝑇1
= 𝑇2
​​ 273 𝐾
= 298 𝐾
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚·1.44𝑙·298𝐾
273 𝐾·1.5𝑎𝑡𝑚
= 𝑉 = 1. 05 𝑙 𝐻2
According to the book: (also it’s better, because it doesn’t use the approximation)

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐾 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2
5𝑔 𝐾 · 39 𝑔
· 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐾 = 0.065 moles H2
𝑛·𝑅·𝑇 0.065·0.082·298
P·V = n·R·T -> V = 𝑃
= 1.5
= 1. 06 𝑙 𝐻2
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

8. Calculations of substances in solution

In the case of working with reactants or products in solution, the amount of substance or
moles used can be known from the concentration and volume of the solution.

It’s very common for reactants to be dissolved to increase the speed of reactions.

The heartburn is due to an excess of HCl production in the stomach. To counteract it,
aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)3) can be taken, which reacts with acid and gives aluminum
chloride (AlCl3) and water.
a)​ Write the reaction and adjust it
b)​ Calculate the grams of aluminum hydroxide needed to neutralize (react) 8 ml of HCl
1.2M
c)​ Calculate the grams of aluminum chloride that are formed.

a)​ 3HCl (aq)+ Al(OH)3 (aq) -> AlCl3 (aq) +3 H2O (l)
b)​ First we calculate the number of moles
1𝑙 1.2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻𝐶𝑙
8𝑚𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐻𝐶𝑙 · 1000𝑚𝑙
· 1 𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
= 0. 0096 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻𝐶𝑙

Now we write the data that the exercise gives us under each substance.

3HCl (aq) + Al(OH)3 (aq) -> AlCl3 (aq) + 3 H2O (l)

3 moles of 1 mole of aluminum 1 mole of aluminum 3 moles of water

hydrochloric trihydroxide chloride
0.0096 moles HCl grams needed?

With the stoichiometric coefficients of the reaction, we pass the mole of

HCl to mole of Al(OH)3 and this one in grams with its molar mass:

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 78 𝑔 𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3

0. 0096 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻𝐶𝑙 · 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝐶𝑙
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3
= 0. 25 𝑔 𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3

c)

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑙𝐶𝑙3 133.5 𝑔 𝐴𝑙𝐶𝑙3

0. 0096 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻𝐶𝑙 · 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝐶𝑙
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑙𝐶𝑙3
= 0. 427 𝑔 𝐴𝑙𝐶𝑙3
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

9. Calculations with limiting reactant

Chemical reactions end when one or all of the reactants are completely exhausted at the
same time.

It’s called the limiting reactant to the reactant that finishes first, and the excess reactant
which is not fully consumed.
Stoichiometric calculations should be made from the initial amount of the limiting reactant.

In chemical reactions where there is more than one reactant, depending on the amounts that
are mixed of each one, different situations can occur. As a example water formation reaction:

(Remember the H2 + 1
𝑂 -> H2O
2
relation 1:8) 2

Possibility/Moles 1 0.5 1

1 2g 16 g 18 g

2 2g boundless 18 g

3 2g 8g 9g

Possibility 1: We mix stoichiometric amounts of each of the reactants and all the reactants
react and no amount of any reactant is leftover.
Possibility 2: When we have a limited quantity of one reactant (H2) and the other reactant in
excess (O2), we said that the first one is the limiting reactant. The calculations are made
from the limiting reactant. This occurs in the exercises that they give us only one amount.
Possibility 3: They give us two quantities, one of them in excess. We have to look for which
one is in the lowest stoichiometric amount (limiting reactant) to be able to do calculations
with this reactant and solve the exercise. In the example, the limit reactant is oxygen and 1g
of H2 leftover.

Ex: 15g of pure aluminum is mixed with 120 ml of 5M of solution of HCl to obtain AlCl3 and
H2 gas. When they have finished reacting, calculate how much reactant is left in excess.

HCl -> 1+ 27 = 28g/mol

15 g of Al(s) + 120 ml of 5 moles HCl (aq) -> AlCl3 (aq) + H2 (g) + leftover?
​ ​ ​
2Al(s) + 6HCl (aq) -> 2AlCl3 (aq) + 3H2 (g)
15g​ ​ ?
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

?​ 120ml 5M

Molar mass aluminum: 27g/mol

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
15𝑔 · 27 𝑔 = 0. 56 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙

1𝑙 5 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙
120𝑚𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐻𝐶𝑙 · 1000 𝑚𝑙
· 1 𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐻𝐶𝑙
= 0. 6 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙

Molar mass HCl 36.5 g/mol

36.5 𝑔
0. 6 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙 · 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 21. 9𝑔 𝐻𝐶𝑙

2Al(s) + 6HCl (aq) -> 2AlCl3 (aq) + 3H2 (g)

15g​ ​ 21.9 g

The proportion is1/3 it should be 21.9/3 -> 7.3 g used

We calculate the necessary moles of the other reactant:

3 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻𝐶𝑙
0. 56 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙
= 1. 68 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙

Due to the fact that we need more HCl than we have, HCl is the limiting reactant and Al is in
excess. We must make calculations from the amount of limiting reactant. (From moles of
HCl)

We calculate the amount of aluminum reacts and we subtract this number to the total of Al:

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙 27𝑔 𝐴𝑙
0. 6 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙· 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻𝐶𝑙
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙
= 5. 4 𝑔 𝐴𝑙 (reacts)
Amount doesn’t react -> 15 g - 5.4 g = 9.6 g Al (in excess)

10. Calculations with non-pure reactants

If the reactants are not pure, it must be taken into account when performing calculations,
only the pure substance reacts.
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

The percentage of pure substance is called purity or richness of the sample. The sample is
the non-pure substance. Purity or wealth is expressed in % by mass. Sometimes purity is
also spoken of when a substance is in solution and its concentration occurs in % mass or
volume.

Ex: Acetylene (C2H2) can be obtained from calcium carbide (CaC2 ) according to the
equation:
CaC2 (s) + 2H2O (l) -> Ca(OH)2 (s) +C2H2 (g)

If we start with 2g of calcium carbide with 90% purity calculate

a)​ The mass of calcium hydroxide formed
b)​ The volume of acetylene that is released under normal conditions

M(Ca) -> 40g/mol M(C) -> 12g/mol

a)

CaC2 (s) + 2H2O (l) -> Ca(OH)2 (s) +C2H2 (g)

1,8 g CaC2 + -> ​ + ?

M(CaC2) -> 40 + 12·2 = 64 g/mol

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
1, 8 𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝐶2 · 64 𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝐶2
= 0, 028125 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑎𝐶2
M(Ca(OH)2) -> 40 + 16 ·2 +1·2 = 74g/mol

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 74 𝑔 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2

0, 028 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑎𝐶2 · 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝐶2
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2
= 2, 08 𝑔 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2
b)

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝐶2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶2𝐻2 22,4 𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠 (𝑐𝑛)

1, 8 𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝐶2 · 64 𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝐶2
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝐶2
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
= 0, 63 𝑙 𝐶2𝐻2

11. Performance of chemical reactions

So far we have made the calculation assuming that the entire amount of
products obtained is the maximum possible 100%. In practice this never
happens, you will always get less quantity of product than calculated,
since when the reaction is carried out many factors affect ( way of
working, there are other reactions that can also occur) while when we
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

calculate it we do not take it into account. Then most chemical reactions

have a yield of less than 100%.

If a chemical reaction has a yield(rendiment) of 60%, it means that if you

had to obtain 100g of product, only 9g is obtained.

The % of substance that is obtained in a chemical reaction and that is

lower that that which would be obtained in theory is called the yield of a
reaction, it is symbolized by R or by the Greek letter η.
To calculate the performance:

12. Classification of chemical reactions (II):

Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

12.1. According to the energy exchanged

Exothermic and endothermic reactions or processes

The reactions or processes:

●​ that release energy to the environment -> EXOTHERMS
●​ that absorb energy from the environment -> ENDOTHERMS

Heat
A system and its environment, if they are at different temperatures, will
exchange energy in the form of heat until their temperatures are
equalized.

The heat flux always goes from the element that is at a higher
temperature to the element that has a lower temperature.

The following expressions allow us to calculate the heat necessary for a

system to vary its temperature or for a system to change its state:

●​ Heat to vary temperature: Q= m x Ce x ∆𝑇

○​ m -> mass
○​ Ce-> specific heat
○​ ∆𝑇 -> temperature variation

●​ Heat to change state: Q = m x L

○​ m -> mass
○​ L -> latent heat of the corresponding change state.
When there is a change of status. The temperature of
the system doesn’t vary until the whole compound has
changed state.
○​ Example: Heat is supplied to melt ice at 0ºC, and until
all the ice has melted, the temperature does ot
increase and remains at 0ºC.
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Specific heat of every substance is tabulated. In the case of

liquid water, in I.S., it has a value of 4 186 J/(kg·K).

Units of heat:

International system: Joule (J), as it is a small unit the

multiple is used a lot, kJ

Calorie (cal) or kilocalorie(kcal).

1 cal =4.18 J; 1kcal = 4.18 kJ

Sign criteria:
Q < 0 when the system gives off heat to the environment
(exotherm)
Q > 0 when the system receives heat from the environment
(endotherm)

Enthalpy
​ In the laboratory or industry, chemical reactions are often carried
out at constant pressure, that is, in containers open to the atmosphere.

If a chemical reaction occurs at constant pressure, the energy

transferred in the reaction is called enthalpy variation (∆H)

Note that::
​ The enthalpy variation is equal to the heat absorbed or yielded at
constant pressure.

The enthalpy:
1.​ It has units of energy
2.​ It is always used in variations

IUPAC sign criteria:

​ ∆H > 0, the system absorbs heat, the reaction is endothermic.
​ ∆H < 0, the system yields heat, the reaction is exothermic.
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

●​ For any chemical reaction, for its reverse reaction, the

enthalpy of this will have the same changed sign value:

●​ The enthalpy variation is independent of whether the reaction

occurs in one or more stages.

Enthalpic diagrams

In this reaction the enthalpy

reaction is negative, meaning that water has less enthalpy (energy) than
oxygen and hydrogen.

The so-called enthalpic or energetic diagrams are represented to give a

graphic view of the energy content of reactants and products.

The image shows the enthalpic diagram of an exothermic process, like

the previous one, and an endothermic, where the levels of chemical
energy ( enthalpy) of reactants and products are represented.
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

For a reaction below are the two types of enthalpic diagrams, depending
on whether the endothermic or exothermic reaction R-> P.

Exercices:
[Link] to what temperature will 920 g of ethanol be heated to 15 ° C if we give them
4850 J? And if the same amount of heat is supplied to 920 g of water at 15ºC, what
temperature will it reach?
Data; Ce(ethanol)= 2.46 J/g ºC; Ce(water)=4.18 J/g ºC

Q= m x Ce x ∆𝑇
Ethanol : 4850 J = 920 g x 2.46 J/g·ºC x ∆𝑇

4850 𝐽
920 𝑔 𝑥 2.46 𝐽/𝑔·º𝐶
= 2. 14 º𝐶 ->T ethanol= 15ºC + 2.14ºC = 17.14ºC

Water: 4850 J = 920 g x 4.18 J/g·ºC x ∆𝑇

4850 𝐽
Twater = 920 𝑔 𝑥 4.18 𝐽/𝑔·º𝐶
+ 15 º𝐶 = 16. 3 º𝐶

[Link] have a sample of 3 kg of ice at 0ºC and we want to transform it into water
vapor at 100ºC. It calculates the amount of energy to be supplied at each stage of
the process and the total amount.

Data:
Lf(ice)=334 KJ/kg
Ce(liquid water) = 4.18 kJ /kg· K
Lv(liquid water)=2257 kJ /kg

1)​ Ice 0ºC -> Liquid water 0ºC -> Change of state:
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Q1 = m· Lf = 3 kg · 334 kJ/Kg = 1002 kJ

Liquid water 0ºC -> Liquid water 100ºC -> Temperature change:
2)​
Q2= m x Ce x (T2 - T1)= 3 kg x 4.18 kJ/kg·K x (373 k - 273 k ) = 1254
kJ

3)​ Liquid water 100ºC -> Water steam 100ºC -> Change of state:.
Q2 = m · Lv = 3 kg · 2257 kJ/Kg = 6771 k J

Total amount of energy = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = 1002 kJ + 1254 kJ + 6771 kJ

= 9027 kJ

[Link] data allows us to know if the following reactions are endothermic or

exothermic?
Endothermic reactions

Exothermic reactions

12.2. According to the speed of reaction

Thermodynamics allows us to know if a reaction
gives off energy or absorbs energy
(∆𝐻 < 0 , ∆ 𝐻 > 0 ); but it doesn’t indicate
anything about whether the reaction will be slow or
fast.
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Chemical kinetics is the part of chemistry that studies the speed of chemical
processes and the factors that can influence it.

Many times we will be interested in controlling the

speed of chemical reactions, because we want the
processes to be fast (combustion in car engines).

In other cases we will be interested in controlling the

speed of chemical processes because we want the
process to be slow ( decomposition of food,
oxidation of metals…)

Chemical kinetics has an important experimental

component, and is based on finding mathematical expressions that relate the speed
of a reaction to the different factors on which the speed depends on the reaction
such as: the concentration of the reactant and the temperature, as well as the
presence or absence of catalysts.

Every chemical reaction involves the breakage of bonds in the reactants and the
formation of nuts in the products.

Breakage and formation of bonds in the

formation of the water molecule.

To explain how chemical reactions occur, there are several theories. The best known
are collision theory and complex activity theory or transition state theory.

Collision theory

The particles have a certain energy, are in motion and collide with each other
continuously. If in these shocks the bonds of the reactants are broken, the chemical
reaction will occur and the shock is said to be effective.

●​ The effectiveness of the particles in shocks: for them to react, the particles
must collide in a specific direction.
●​ The energy of the particles: it is necessary that the particles have a
sufficiently large kinetic energy. The minimum kinetic energy required of
the particles for the chemical reaction to take place is called activation
energy.

Transition state theory

Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

●​ It assumes the existence of a sort of unstable chemical between the

reactants and the products that is called activated complex or transition
complex or transition state and is formed by the particles of reactants that
have collided.

The activated complex is usually

indicated by the superscript ‡.

Reaction obtaining ethanol with the formation of the activated complex.

Energy diagram of a reaction indicating the activation energy.

Now we can also define the activation energy as the energy necessary
for the activated complex to form.
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Depending on the endothermic or exothermic reaction we will have

different reaction profiles.

​
Exothermic

Endothermic

In the graphs it can be

seen that it is
satisfied that the
energy of the reaction at constant pressure, that is, the enthalpy, is equal
to the difference between the activation energy of the direct reaction (Ein)
and energy activation of the reverse reaction (Ea’)

∆𝐻 =Ea - Ea’

Factors affecting reaction speed

​ The rate of reaction depends on:

●​ The concentration of the reactants
●​ Nature, physical condition and degree of division of the
reactants
●​ Reaction temperature
●​ Presence of catalysts

Concentration of reactants
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

​ According to collision theory, increasing the number of reactant

particles will increase the number of shocks, and therefore the reaction
speed will increase.
​ In addition, the expression of the velocity equation: v=k·[A]α·[B]β,
it is seen that by increasing the concentration of the reactants, the speed
of the reaction increases.

Nature of the reactants

​ According to transition state theory, the more bonds have been
broken and the stronger they are, higher will be the energy and slower
the reaction velocity. If the reactants are ions in solution, they should
generally not break down bonds and reactions are usually fast, which is
why many reactions are performed with the dissolved reactants.

Physical state
​ The gaseous state favors the mobility of the molecules of the
reactants, then increases the number of shocks and, therefore, the
speed of the reaction.

If the reactants are in the gaseous state, an increase in the total

pressure on the system, will increase the reaction rate, because the
higher the pressure, the lower the volume, then the reactant particles will
be closer and there will be more probability of shocks, and with this, the
reaction rate will increase.

It can be said that substances in the gaseous state react faster than
substances in solution and these do so faster than solid ones v(gas) >
v(liquid,solution) > v(solid)

Degree of division of the reactants

​ For solid-state reactants, the rate of reaction increases with the
degree of division. The larger the contact surface, ,the more the
probability of collisions between the reactant particles will increase, and
therefore the speed of reaction. For instance, iron filings(llimadures)
rust(s’oxiden) faster than a piece of iron.
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Reaction temperature

An increase in temperature will cause an increase in the reaction rate.

When the temperature increases, it translates into an increase in the
speed with which the particles move, which will increase the collisions
between them and, also increase the number of particles with a kinetic
energy greater than the activation energy.

Many examples of the influence of temperature on the speed of a

reaction can be found, for example, the human body works thanks to a
set of chemical reactions that take place at a temperature of 36.5 - 37 º.
If this temperature increases by 2ºC, metabolism accelerates and the
effects of fever are felt. At 42-43ºC some of these reactions are so fast
that the system can no longer work and death occurs.

Catalysts

A catalyst is a substance that adds to the reaction and increases the rate
of the reaction . The catalysts are not consumed in the process and can
be recovered once the reaction is finished. They are not listed as
reactants or products.

Catalysts modify the reaction mechanism (provide an alternative path)

achieving a decrease in the activation energy and an increase in the rate
constant (k), according to transition state theory this causes a higher
reaction rate.

Catalysts are specific, they are only suitable for modifying the reaction
rate of a specific chemical reaction.
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

In the red the energy of reaction without catalyst and in blue with
catalyst. The catalyst is seen to decrease the activation energy.

As can be seen in the figures above, with catalyst the reactants needs
less energy to reach the transition state,the reaction rate will be higher.

Oxygenated water decomposes spontaneously and gives water and

dioxygen:

This reaction is very slow, it needs a catalyst to pass faster.

If the catalyst and the reactants are in the same phase, we will have a
homogeneous catalysis; while if the catalyst is not in the same phase as
the reactants, we will have a heterogeneous catalysis.

Also catalysts can be positive and negative:

●​ Positive catalysts are those that increase the reaction rate.
●​ Negative catalysts or inhibitors are those that decrease the
reaction rate. They are highly appreciated in the food industry
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

where they are used as additives to delay or prevent reactions that

may alter certain foods.

Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts for many biochemical

reactions

12.3. Depending on whether or not they are reversible

reactions.

In irreversible reactions, the reactants are combined and, under

favorable conditions of pressure and temperature, the reaction takes
place until the reactants are exhausted or the limiting reactant is
exhausted. That is, the reaction takes place one-way.

For example, if we burn a piece of coal, combustion will be

irreversible(it will go from reactants to products, indicated by the arrow)
and will end when the coal is exhausted, usually the limiting reactant.

C(s) + O2 (g) ->CO2(g)

Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

During the combustion reaction , carbon combines with oxygen to form

carbon dioxide.

In real life, many chemical reactions that take place are reversible
reactions, they can take place in both directions.
●​ Direct reaction (the one that takes place in one direction)
●​ Reverse reaction (the one that takes place in the opposite
direction)
(We indicate reversible reaction with double arrows )

When direct and reverse reactions occur at the same time, the state of
equilibrium has been reached. This equilibrium is dynamic at any time
the combination of A with B reactants occurs and at the same time are
combinated reactant C with D.

When the equilibrium state is reached, the direct reaction and the
reverse reaction take place simultaneously at all times-

H2 (g) + I2 (g) ) ↔2 HI (g)

For example, the reaction of formation of hydrogen iodide from its
elements is a reversible reaction.

When hydrogen is introduced into a closed container and iodine at a

given temperature, they both will react until the equilibrium state is
reached. The equilibrium state will be reached when there was a
constant concentration of H2, I2 and HI over time.

This situation will remain stable until there is an external change, like a
change in temperature.

Other examples:
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

1.​ Photochemical smog, a pollutant phenomenon which involves the

reaction of nitrogen monoxide with oxygen in the air producing
nitrogen dioxide:

​ Nitrogen dioxide, NO2 it’s one of the gasses responsible for air
pollution, mainly in urban areas. It’s a toxic and irritating gas.

2.​ Industrial obtaining of ammonia

3.​ The formation of stalactites and stalagmites, constituted by
calcium carbonate (CaCO3)

Characteristics of the equilibrium state

●​ When chemical equilibrium has

been reached in chemical
reaction, there is a mixture of
reactants and products in the
reaction container and the
concentrations of all substances
remain constant over time.

●​ In chemical
equilibrium, the
rates of direct and
inverse reactions
are equal.
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

●​ At a certain temperature, the same equilibrium state is reached

regardless of the initial concentrations.

➔​A state of equilibrium can be reached starting from the reactants or

starting from the products.
➔​It is a dynamic situation, as the reaction continues to occur in both
directions. This fact is macroscopically imperceptible, because
nothing seems to change in the system.
➔​If gasses are involved in the reaction for the equilibrium state to be
reached the container must be closed, the gasses must not be
able to escape.
➔​The equilibrium state depends on temperature, which determines
the proportions between the components of the system in
equilibrium.
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Homogeneous and heterogeneous equilibrium

One way to classify chemical equilibria is based on the state of

aggregation in which the reactants and products are located.

Homogeneous equilibria are equilibria where the reactants and the

products are in the same physician state, that is, they are all in solid or
liquid or gas state(but in the same).

Heterogeneous equilibria are those in which at least one of the

substances involved is in a different phase from the rest.

Examples

Homogeneous balances Heterogeneous balances

Br2 (g) + H2(g) ↔2HBr(g) FeO(s) +CO(g) ↔Fe(s) +CO2(g)
CH3COOH(aq)↔CH3COO-(aq) + CaCO3(s) ↔CaO(s) + CO2(g)
H3O+(aq)
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Kc equilibrium constant

Any substance involved in a chemical equilibrium can be reactant or

product at the same time. In any case, the most common is to call
“Reactants” the substances that are written to the left of the double
arrow and “Products” ones that are written on the right.

REACTANTS ↔PRODUCTS

For any reversible chemical reaction, generalizable as:

aA + bB ↔ cC + dD

It is satisfied that, in the equilibrium state, the quotient between the

product of the molar concentrations of the products and of the reactants,
each raised to its stoichiometric coefficient, is a constant value, which is
represented by Kc and it’s called the equilibrium constant.

The expression of the equilibrium constant(Kc) is:

This expression is called the law of mass action, and it shows the
concentrations of species in the equilibrium state expressed in mol/L and
raised to their stoichiometric coefficients.
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

The value of the equilibrium constant Kc is specific to each chemical

reaction and independent of the initial concentrations of the reactants
and products. It just depends on the temperature. If the temperature is
modified, the value of Kc varies and the system evolves until a new state
of equilibrium is obtained.

In the following table there are examples of reversible reactions and their
equilibrium constants at a given temperature:

Reaction Temperature(K) Equilibrium constant(Kc)

300 4 · 1031
H2(g) + Cl2(g) ↔2HCl (g)
500 4 · 1018
1000 5.1 · 108
298 6.8 · 105
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ↔ 2NH3
(g) 400 41
500 3.6 · 10-2

The equilibrium constant has units that can be deduced from the above
mathematical expression. Anyway, by agreement, we will express the Kc
without units.
Although we will express the Kc without units, example 1 will allow us to
know how to calculate the units:

Example 1- What units will have the equilibrium constant of the following
reactions?
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ aA + bB ↔ cC + dD

​ ​
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Example 2- At 2200 K, a 3 l container contains an equilibrium gaseous

mixture of 0.98 moles of dinitrogen (N2), 1.98 moles of dioxygen ( O2)
and 0.04 moles of NO according to the following reaction:

Calculate the equilibrium constant:

2
[𝑁𝑂]𝑒𝑞
Kc =
[𝑁2] · [𝑂2]
𝑒𝑞 𝑒𝑞

We calculate the concentrations of each substance in equilibrium:

0,98 𝑚𝑜𝑙
[𝑁2]𝑒𝑞 = 3𝑙
= 0. 33 𝑀
1,98 𝑚𝑜𝑙
[𝑂2]𝑒𝑞 = 3𝑙
= 0. 66 𝑀
0,4 𝑚𝑜𝑙
[𝑁𝑂 ]𝑒𝑞 = 3𝑙
0. 013 𝑀

Once we have the concentrations, we can apply the expression:

Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

2 2
[𝑁𝑂]𝑒𝑞 (0.013)
Kc =
[𝑁2] · [𝑂2]
= (0.33) · (0.66)
= 0,000776
𝑒𝑞 𝑒𝑞

12.4. Acid-base or neutralization reactions

Acids and bases

Since ancient times it was known of the existence of two groups of

chemical compounds, acids and bases(or alkalis) which have apparently
antagonistic properties:

●​ The acids give red coloration with the Tornasol indicator, have a
sour (agri) taste and produce effervescence when acting on
carbonates.
●​ The bases give blue coloration with the Tornasol indicator, have a
bitter taste and neutralize acids when reacting with them.

Fruits and vegetables contain acidic substances, such as citric acid in

lemons and oranges, or acetic acid in vinegar.
On the other hand, many household cleaning products contain basic
substances, such as ammonia.

Chemistry includes in the group of acids many other compounds, such

as sulfuric acid or hydrochloric acid, and in the group of composite bases
such as calcium or sodium hydroxides.

In this topic, acid-base reactions also called transfer reactions of protons

(proton: H+) or hydrogen ions will be studied, since, as we will see in this
type of reactions they yield and capture protons.

Three theories are used to explain the concepts of acid and base:
-​ Arrhenius theory
-​ Brönsted-Lowry theory
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

-​ Lewis theory

Since most of the reactions we will study will always occur in an aqueous
medium, we will focus exclusively on the first two theories and especially
on the second.

Acid-base theories

[Link] theory
We need to know the concept of electrolyte.
An electrolyte is a substance that breaks down into ions when dissolved in water.
●​ Acids are the electrolytes that, when dissolved in water, dissociate and
release hydrogen ions(H+).
​ ​ HCl (aq) -> Cl-(aq) + H+(aq) ​hydrochloric acid
●​ Bases are electrolytes that, when dissolved in water, dissociate and release
hydroxide ions (OH -).
NaOH(aq) -> Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) sodium hydroxide

Limitations of Arrhenius theory:

●​ It’s only valid for aqueous solutions (cannot be used on solvents other
than water).
●​ The bases must have OH in its molecule. This theory cannot explain the
basic character of substances such as NH-3 o Na2CO3.
●​ The acids must have H in its molecule and when they dissociate in water
give H. Hydrogen ions or protons, due to their small radius, 10-13cm don’t exist
in aqueous solutions, but are hydrated, originating hydronium ions, H3O+.

[Link]önsted-Lowry theory
It was formulated independently in 1923. It expands the concept of base, explains
how substances with a basic character that do not have OH-, behave like base.

●​ Acids are substances (molecules or ions) that tend to yield protons (H+).
(hydrochloric acid ) HCl (aq) + H2O (l) -> Cl-(aq) + H3O+(aq) ​

●​ Bases are substances (molecules or ions) that tend to accept protons (H+).
(ammonia) NH3(aq) + H2O (l) -> NH4+(aq) + OH -
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Acid-base reactions are proton transfer reactions.

The limitation of Brönsted and Lowry theory is that it doesn’t explain the acidic
character of substances that don’t have protons in their formula ( AlCl3, BF3)

3. Lewis theory

Lewis proposed a general theory of acids and bases.

According to Lewis:
●​ Acids are substances that can accept a pair of electrons
●​ Bases are substances that can yield a pair of electrons.
All substances that are acids and bases according to the theories of Arrhenius and
Brönsteb-Lowry, are also so according to Lewis theory.

Neutralization reactions

Neutralization is the reaction that occurs between an acid and base and in which a
salt and water are obtained.

Acid + Base -> Salt + Water

For example the reaction of hydrochloric acid with sodium hydroxide:

HCl (aq) + NaOH(aq) -> NaCl (aq) + H2O(l)

1.​ Gastric juices contain hydrochloric acid with a pH close to 1 , which helps
break down the molecules of ingested food facilitating digestion. But the
process of digestion in acid medium can cause discomfort. We can solve this
by neutralizing the acid with a base such as fruit salt or an antacid drug.
In the following neutralization reaction, sodium hydrogen carbonate (or bicarbonate)
(base), combines with hydrochloric acid (acid) present in the stomach, depending on
the reaction, obtaining a product of neutral pH, and, in this way, decreasing the
acidity of the stomach:
NaHCO3(s) + HCl (aq) -> NaCl(aq) + H2O +CO2
2.​ When an insect bites us, although it will always help us to put plenty of water, the
best remedy is to neutralize the acid or the base of the bite in order to reduce its
effect.
Mosquitoes bite the skin to feed on the blood. The saliva they inject contains various
acidic proteins. These proteins can cause allergic reactions.
Bees also secrete an acidic substance. Wasps, on the other hand, secrete a basic
substance.
Complete the following reactions between acids and bases (neutralization reactions):
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

.a. LiNO3(aq)+ H2O (l)

b. NH4ClO4(aq)+ H2O(l)

c. CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l)

d. KCN(aq) + H2O(l)

12.5 Oxidation-reduction reactions

Concept of oxidizer and reducer

We know that iron in contact with air rusts or oxidizes.

Also when exposing the flesh of certain fruits to the action of the air, we can observe
how it darkens after a few moments. This takes place with fruits such as apple, pear,
banana.. And with other foods such as potatoes or mushrooms.
All these transformations are oxidation-reduction reactions.

●​ Oxidation is a transformation in which a substance loses electrons.

●​ Reduction is a transformation, in which a substance gains electrons.

Both processes, oxidation and reduction, must occur at the same time,
simultaneously, because the electrons lost by the oxidizing substance are gained by
the substance that is reduced. For this reason their are called oxidation-reduction or
redox reactions. They are also called electron transfer reactions.

The two processes that form the redox areactions are called half-reactions(semi
reactions) :

Oxidizer is the chemical type capable of making oxidizers, plucking electrons to

another substance. Oxidants are reduced because they gain electrons.
In the previous case, Cu2+ is the oxidizer and it’s reduced.

Reducer is the chemical type capable of making reduction, yields electrons, to

another substance. The reducers are oxidized because they lose electrons . Zn is
the reducing agent and it is oxidized.
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

The oxidation number is a number with a positive or negative sign which represents
the number of electrons that an atom yields, captures or disposes of to form an ionic
bond or covalent bond with another or other atoms.

●​ When it yields electrons in full (in ionic bonds) or partially( in covalent bonds, if
less electronegative than the other bonded atoms), a positive sign is
assigned.
●​ If it captures electrons completely (ionic bonds or partially (in covalent bonds,
if its electronegativity is greater than the other linked atom s), it is assigned a
negative sign.
For example:
In NaCl, it’s an ionic compound where the ions are Na + and Cl -, the oxidation
number of sodium in this compound is +1 and that of chlorine -1

In water, each hydrogen provides an electron to form two covalent bonds with
oxygen, which is more electronegative than hydrogen since hydrogen has oxidation
number +1, while oxygen (provides two electrons and is the most electronegative) it
has oxidation number -2.

IMPORTANT

The oxidation number indicates the real charge, in the case of ionic compounds or
fictitious, in the case of covalent compounds, which would present the elements that
make up a compound if we considered which is made up of ions.

The oxidation number is positive if the atom loses electrons or shares them with an
atom more electronegative than itself; and it will be negative when the atom gains
electrons, or shares them with a less electronegative atom.

Rules:

●​ The oxidation number of all uncombined elements (Fe, Cu,...) into noble
gasses (He, Ne,...) or polyatomic molecules (O2Cl2,...) it’s zero.

●​ The oxidation number of monatomic ionic species coincides with the charge of
the ion. For example S2-, the sulfur ion (2-) in this case has oxidation number
-2.

●​ Alkaline metals combined with other elements have oxidation number +1 and
alkaline earth metals(alcalinoterris) combined have 2+.
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

●​ The oxidation number of hydrogen when combined with other elements is +1,
except in metal hydrides which is -1 (LiH, MgH2).

●​ Oxygen combined with other elements has oxidation number -2, except in
peroxides, which is -1, and when combined with fluorine which is +2.

●​ Fluoride combined with other elements, being the most electronegative

element, always has valence -1.

●​ The algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of a neutral compound is zero

and that of a polyatomic ion coincides with the charge of the ion.

a)​ To determine the oxidation number of an element in a neutral compound. In

this case sulfur, since that of H and O we already know.
​ ​ +1​ X​ -2
​ ​ H2​ S​ O4

2·(+1) + x + 4 (-2) -> x = +8 - 2 = +6

The oxidation number of S in sulfuric acid is +6.

Sulfuric acid is a neutral molecule, the sum of all the oxidation numbers of all the elements

that form it must be zero.

b)​ To determine the oxidation number of an element in a polyatomic ion , N,

since that of oxygen we know to be -2.
​ ​ ​ ​ X -2
​ ​ ​ ​ N O3 -
​
X + 3 · (-2) = -1 -> x = -1+6=+5
​ The oxidation number of N in the nitrate ion is +5
The nitrate ion is an ion with a total charge of -1, the sum of all the oxidation
numbers of all the atoms that form it is -1.

Oxidations numbers:
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

The element that is oxidized ( loses electrons) increases its oxidation number.
The element that is reduced (gains electrons) decreases the oxidation number.

Adjustment of redox reactions by the ion-electron method

The ion-electron method, also called the half-reaction(semireaccions) method, is

used to adjust redox chemical reactions that take place in solution and in which it is
not easy to do so by (tanteig) preemption. If you work in acid solutions, the
adjustment will be made in acid medium, on the contrary if you work in basic
medium, the adjustment will be made in basic medium.

Adjustment in acid medium of the following reaction:

The following steps are followed:

Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

1.​ The reaction is written in ionic form, which is how they are in solution:

IMPORTANT
They only dissociate:

●​ Acids, in this case -> or

●​ The bases for example NaOH ->

●​ Salts, for example NaCl ->

They don’t dissociate:

●​ The oxides: NO -> X

●​ Non-metal hydrides: NH3 -> X

1.​ In the example

​ ​ H+ + NO3_ + H++Cl_ -> Cl2+NO+H2O

2.​ The oxidation numbers are assigned to all substances involved in the
reaction:
​ +1 +5-2 +1 -1 0 +2-2 +1-2​
+ – + –
​ H + NO3 + H +Cl -> Cl2+NO+H2O
This step identifies which substance loses electrons, oxidizes, and which gains.
Nitrogen(N) gains electrons, the oxidation number decreases (+5 -> +2 ) and
Chlorine (Cl) loses electrons (-1 -> 0)

N is reduced and Cl is oxidized.

3.​ The oxidation and reduction half-reactions (semireaccions) are written, that is,
only the ions or compounds that are oxidized and reduced:
Half-reaction of oxidation : Cl– -> Cl2
Half-reactions of reduction : NO3– -> NO

4.​ The atoms of each element are adjusted, as , always, except hydrogens and
oxygen:

Half-reaction of oxidation : 2Cl– -> Cl2

Half-reactions of reduction : NO3– -> NO
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

5.​ When we have an acidic medium we can only add H2O and H+. Oxygenes are
adjusted adding as many water molecules, on the missing side, as oxygenes
are missing:

Half-reaction of oxidation : 2Cl– -> Cl2

Half-reactions of reduction : NO3– -> NO + 2H2O

6.​ The hydrogens are adjusted by adding as many H+, on the deficit side, as
hydrogen is missing:

Half-reaction of oxidation : 2Cl– -> Cl2

Half-reactions of reduction : NO3– + 4H+-> NO + 2H2O

7.​ The electric charge is adjusted with the electrons in the two members of the
equation, at the end each member of each half-reaction must have the same
charge:
8.​
Half-reaction of oxidation : 2Cl– -> Cl2 + 2e–
Half-reactions of reduction : NO3– + 4H+ +3e– -> NO + 2H2O

9.​ The number of electrons lost and gained is equalized. Each half reaction is
multiplied by a number equal to the number of electrons given by the
substance being oxidized Cl–, (reducer) and the number of electrons gained
by the substance that is reduced NO3– (oxidizer) .

Half-reaction of oxidation : (2Cl– -> Cl2 + 2e–) · 3

Half-reactions of reduction : (NO3– + 4H+ +3e– -> NO + 2H2O ) · 2

Half-reaction of oxidation : 6Cl– -> 3Cl2 + 6e–

Half-reactions of reduction : 2NO3– + 8H+ +6e– -> 2NO + 4H2O

10.​The two half-reactions are added together, and the electrons and common
substances in the two members are eliminated:

Half-reaction of oxidation : 6Cl– -> 3Cl2 + 6e–

Half-reactions of reduction : 2NO3– + 8H+ +6e– -> 2NO + 4H2O
​ ​ ​ 6Cl– +2NO3– + 8H+ +6e– -> 3Cl2 + 6e– +2NO + 4H2O
6Cl– +2NO3– + 8H+ -> 3Cl2 + 2NO + 4H2O
In this case we can only remove the electrons.
11.​ Finally, the reaction is written in molecular form if the complete initial
substances are known. In this case, 4H+ is used to form HCl and HNO3

6HCl +2HNO3+ -> 3Cl2 + 2NO + 4H2O

Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Adjustment in basic medium

Adjustment in basic medium of the following reaction:

1.​ The reaction is written in ionic form, which is how they are in solution:
Only acids, bases and salts are dissociated, the rest of compounds are not.
​ ​ K+ +CrO2 + K+ + ClO– → K+ + Cl – + 2K+ + CrO4 2-

2.​ The oxidation numbers are assigned to all substances involved in the reaction
​ +1 +3-2 +1 +1-2 +1 -1 +1 +6
–
K+ +CrO2 + K+ + ClO– → K+ + Cl – + 2K+ + CrO4 2-

This step identifies which substance loses electrons, is oxidized and which gains
electrons. Cl gains electrons, the number oxidation decreases (+1 -> -1), and Cr
loses electrons (+3 -> +6 ). Cl is said that is reduced and Cr is oxidized.

3.​ The half-reactions of reduction and of oxidation are written,, that is, only the
ions or compounds that are oxidized and reduced:
Half-reaction of oxidation: CrO2– -> CrO4 2-
Half-reaction of reduction ClO– -> Cl –

4.​ The atoms of each element are adjusted, as always, except hydrogens and
oxygen. In thiis case they are already adjusted:
Half-reaction of oxidation: CrO2– -> CrO4 2-
Half-reaction of reduction ClO– -> Cl –

5.​ When we have a basic medium we can only add H2O and OH–. Oxygenes are
adjusted by adding two OH- molecules, on the side where oxygenes are
missing, as oxygenes are missing and on the other side one molecule of
water for every 2 OH added:
In oxidation we have 2 oxygenes on the side of the reactants and 4 in the products,
we add 4OH– to the reactants and 2 H2O in the products:
Half-reaction of oxidation: CrO2– + 4OH– -> CrO4 2- + 2H2O

In the reduction we have 1 Oxygen

Half-reaction of reduction ClO– + H2O-> Cl – + 2OH–

6.​ The hydrogens are adjusted by adding as many molecules of H2O on the
where there is less, such as hydrogen is missing and on the other side a
molecule of OH–.
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

In this case when the oxygenes have been adjusted, the hydrogens have already
been adjusted too.

7.​ The electric charge is adjusted with the electrons in the two members of the
equation, at the end each member of each half reaction must have the same
charge:
Half-reaction of oxidation: CrO2– + 4OH– -> CrO4 2- + 2H2O + 3e–
Half-reaction of reduction ClO– + H2O + 2e–-> Cl – + 2OH–

8.​ Each half reaction is multiplied by a number equal to the number of electrons
given by the substance to be oxidized CrO2– , (reducer) and the number of
electrons gained by the substance being reduced ClO–(oxidizer)
Half-reaction of oxidation: (CrO2– + 4OH– -> CrO4 2- + 2H2O + 3e–) ·2
Half-reaction of reduction (ClO– + H2O + 2e–-> Cl – + 2OH–) · 3

​ ​ Half-reaction of oxidation: 2CrO2– + 8OH– -> 2CrO4 2- + 4H2O + 6e–

Half-reaction of reduction 3ClO– + 3H2O + 6e–-> 3Cl – + 6OH–

9.​ The two half-reactions are added together, and the electrons and common
substances in the two members are eliminated:
Half-reaction of oxidation: 2CrO2– + 8OH– -> 2CrO4 2- + 4H2O + 6e–
Half-reaction of reduction 3ClO– + 3H2O + 6e–-> 3Cl – + 6OH–
2CrO2– + 8OH– +ClO– + 3H2O + 6e–-> 2CrO4 2- + 4H2O + 6e– + 3Cl – + 6OH–
​ ​ 2CrO2– + 2OH– +ClO– + -> 2CrO4 2- + H2O + 3Cl –

10.​Finally, the reaction is written in molecular form if the complete initial

substances are known. In this case 4H+ are used to form HCl and HNO3

2KCrO2 + 2KOH + KClO + -> 2K2CrO4 + H2O + 3KCl

Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

12.6. Precipitation reactions

Solubility. Solubility product.

When a salt is dissolved in water, ions in the salt

crystal network leave the network and become
surrounded by water molecules.

Concepts:

Saturated: Saturated solution is one that has the maximum amount of solute that can
be dissolved in a certain amount of a solvent at a certain temperature. If more solute
is added, it no longer dissolves.

Precipitation: It’s the appearance of a solid in a liquid. The precipitate is the solid that
originates.

Solubility(s) is the concentration of solute in a saturated solution. Typically it is

expressed in grams per liter of solution or moles of solute per liter(M) (mole/l) of
solution.
The concentration of ions in a saturated solution is solubility(s).

Classification of substances according to their solubility:

Soluble substances Solubility ≥ 0.02 M

Slightly soluble substances 10-5 M < solubility < 0.02 M

Insoluble substances Solubility < 10-5 M

Solubiity product

When we dissolve a solute (solid salt) in a solvent (H2O), there comes a time when
the solution doesn’t admit more solute and begins to precipitate (crystallize),
saturation has been reached, where:

velocitydissolution = velocityprecipitation
A balance is established between the solid ionic compound and ions in aqueous solution.
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

For example, silver chloride, AgCl, is a poorly soluble salt, in a saturated solution of this salt,
an equilibrium will occur between the undissolved salt and the ions in solution, they are
called solubility equilibria:

​ ​ ​ AgCl(s) ↔ Ag+(aq) + Cl– (aq)

Since it is a heterogeneous equilibrium, as we have seen in the previous section, the
equilibrium constant depends only on the concentrations of the ions in the dissolution,
because the concentration of the solids is practically constant, then it will have the next
expression:

Kps = [Ag+]eq · [Cl–]eq

Some times to indicated the solid salt in the chemical equations an arrow is placed with the
tip upside down:

+ –
AgBr(s)↓ ↔ Ag (aq) + Br (aq)

​ ​ ​

SOLUBILITY PRODUCT, KPS is the equilibrium constant of a salt in solution, in general:

The value of Kps depends on temperature:

The concentration of ions in a saturated solution is solubility(s). The following table shows
the relationship between the solubility product and the solubility of ions of several solubility
equilibria:

Solubility equilibrium Kps Concentration Relationships kps

of ions in and s
saturated
solution

Cation Anion

KI (s) ↔ K+ (aq) + I –(aq) Kps = [Ag+]·[Cl–] s s Kps = s·s=s2

Na2SO4 (s) ↔ Kps = [Na+]2·[SO42–] 2·s s Kps=(2·s)2 ·s= 4s3

2Na+(aq)+SO42-(aq)

Al(OH)3(s)↔Al3+(aq)+3OH–(aq) Kps=[Al3+] ·[OH–]3 s 3·s Kps=(3·s)3 ·s=

27s4
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

CaCO3 (s) ↔Ca2+(aq) +CO32- Kps=[Ca2+] · [CO32-] s s Kps = s·s=s2

(aq)

Mg3(PO4)2(s)↔3Mg2+(aq) + Kps=[Mg2+]3 · 3s 2s Kps=(3·s)3 ·(2·s)2=

2PO43-(aq) [PO43-]2 108s5

1.​ Determine the solubility of aluminum hydroxide if the value of Kps at 25ºC is 1.3 ·
10-33:

In balance: ​ Al(OH)3(s) ↔ Al3+(aq)+3OH–(aq)

Solubility product: Kps=[Al3+]eq ·[OH–]3eq

Since equilibrium is established when the solution is saturated, the concentrations of the
ions will be equal to the solubility (s) of the salt, multiplied by their stoichiometric coefficients.

Al(OH)3(s) ↔ Al3+(aq) + 3OH–(aq)

Concentration on balance s 3s

[Al3+]eq = s
[OH–]3eq =3·s
Kps= 1.3 · 10-33

We can determine solubility from the solubility product:

Kps=[Al3+]eq ·[OH–]3eq

4 −33
1.3 · 10
1.3 · 10-33 = s · (3·s)3 -> 1.3 · 10-33 = 27s4 -> s = 27
= 2,63 M

2.​ If the solubility of silver bromide (AgBr) at 25ºC is 7.07·10-7M, calculate the solubility
product of silver bromide:

The reaction will be: AgBr(s) ↔ Ag+(aq) + Br– (aq)

s= 7.07 · 10-7 M

Kps = [Ag+]eq + [Br—]eq = s·s = (7.07 · 10-7)2= ≃5 · 10-13

When the concentrations of the ions in solution are not those corresponding to the
saturated solution, that is, the system is not in equilibrium, the ionic product Qs is defined.
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

The ionic product, Qs, is the product of the molar concentrations of the ions present in a
solution, raised to their corresponding stoichiometric coefficients. In general, we work in
initial concentrations:

If the values of Qs and Kps are compared, the behavior of the solution can be predicted:

Qs < Kps The solution is unsaturated, more solute can be dissolved without forming
precipitate, the reaction moves to the right.

Qs = Kps The dissolution is saturated, the system is in equilibrium.

Qs > Kps The solution is oversaturated, precipitates excess solute, and favors the shift
to the left of equilibrium.

If the system is not in equilibrium, the reaction will evolve towards equilibrium.

The ionic product (Qs) is also used to determine whether precipitate will form when two
solutions of known concentration are mixed.

3.​ Determine if BaSO4 salt will precipitate when 4 ml of an aqueous solution of BaCl2
2.5 · 10-3 M is mixed with 6 ml of an aqueous solution of Na2SO4 5·10-2M. Data:
Kps(BaSO4) = 1.5 · 10-9 at 25ºC

BaCl2 (s)​ ​ +​ ​ Na2SO4 (aq)

-3
4 ml of 2.5 ·10 M ​ +​ ​ 6 ml of 5 · 10-2 M

The two solutions we mix are not in equilibrium(because they don’t tell us), that is,
the mixture is not saturated. When the two solutions are mixed, we have the Ba2+ and
SO42- ions, depending on whether their concentrations will be saturated or not.
We have to find the difference between the Qs and Kps.

First, we calculate the concentrations of ions of each element in the mixture:

2−
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑂4
SO42- -> 5·10-2 𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
·0.006 L dissolution = 0.0003 mole SO42-
2+
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐵𝑎
Ba2+ -> 2.5 ·10-3 𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
· 0.004 L dissolution = 0.00001 mole Ba2+

Now, we can calculate the ionic product Qs :

2−
0.0003 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑂4
2-
[SO ] = 0.006 + 0.004 𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0. 03 𝑀
4
2+
0.00001 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐵𝑎
2+
[Ba ] = 0.006 + 0.004 𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0. 001 𝑀
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Qs = [SO42-] · [Ba2+] = 0.001 · 0.03 = 3·10-5

The solubility product is given as a data : Kps(BaSO4) = 1.5 · 10-9

We compare them:
​ 1.5 · 10-9 < 3·10-5
​ Kps < Qs -> Then the solution is oversaturated, BaSO4 salt will precipitate.

Effect of the common ion on solubility equilibria:

In a situation of solubility equilibrium, if any of the ions present in the equilibrium is

added, it moves in the direction in which a decrease in ion concentration occurs (to
the left, possible precipitation). This effect is a consequence of Le Châtelier’s
application of principle and is called the common ion effect.

As a result of the effect of the common ion, a salt or hydroxide, in the presence of
one of its ions, becomes less soluble.

The solubility of a poorly soluble ionic compound decreases in the presence of a

second solute providing a common ion.

Effect of the common ion ↔ decrease in solubility

For example, if we have a solubility equilibrium of lead iodide (II) , PbI2 and
potassium iodide, KI, will occur an increase in the concentration of iodide ions (I –), by
Le Châtelier principle the equilibrium will shift to the left, towards the formation of
PbI2, then the solubility of PbI2 decrease.

13. Solving stoichiometry problems

To solve the stoichiometry exercises, in addition to having what we have studied in
the previous chapters, it is advisable to follow the following steps:

1.​ Write and adjust the chemical equation

2.​ Take into account whether you work with pure substances or not.
3.​ Check if there is a limiting reactant and, if so, identify it.
4.​ If the statement of the problem gives us the performance of the reaction.
5.​ Apply conversion factors to find what the problem asks for, taking into account
whether the calculations should be done in mass, volume or dissolution.
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Example:

By reacting 20 g of 80% richness Zn with 100 ml of 2M HCl acid according to the following
reaction. How many liters of H2 will they be collected at 25ºC and 1.5 atm pressure?

​ ​ ​ ​ Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCl2 + H2 (g)

20g of 80% richness Zn
100 ml of 2M HCl
At 25ºC and 1.5 atm, liters of H2?

1.​ The reaction is already adjusted: Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCl2 + H2 (g)
2.​ Zn is not pure, we calculate the quantity then:

80 𝑔 𝑍𝑛(𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒)
20g · 100 𝑔
= 16𝑔 𝑍𝑛

3.​ We have to discover the limiting reactant, first we calculate the moles of each
reactant:
Atomic mass of Zn: 65.4 g/mol
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑍𝑛
16 g Zn · 65.4 𝑔 𝑍𝑛
= 0.245 mol Zn

1𝑙 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙
100 ml · · 1000 𝑚𝑙
· 1𝑙
= 0.2 mol HCl

We discover which is the limiting reactant, we center the attention on the

stoichiometric coefficients:

2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙
0.245 mol Zn · 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑍𝑛
= 0.49 mol HCl

We need more HCl than we have, so then the limiting reactant is HCl and we should
make all calculations from the amount of HCl in this case 0.2 moles of HCl

4.​ Since the statement doesn’t talk about performance, it is assumed to be 100%.
5.​ We have to find the liters of H2, and to find them we have to know the moles.

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2
0.2 mol HCl · 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙
= 0.1 mol H2
Finally, the volume of H2 is calculated with the ideal gas equation:

𝑛·𝑅·𝑇 0.1· 0.082 · (273+25)

P·V = n · R · T -> 𝑣 = 𝑃
= 1.5
= 1. 63 𝑙 𝐻2

14. Exercises solved

Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

1.​ Copper oxide (CuO) reacts with carbon and forms copper and carbon dioxide. What
copper mass is obtained if 8 dm3 of CO2 have been formed under normal conditions?
​ ​ ​ ​ CuO(s) +C(s) -> Cu(s) + CO2 (g)
3
8 dm of CO2
Under normal conditions
Cu obtained ?

2CuO(s) +C(s) -> 2Cu(s) + CO2 (g) (adjusted equation)

(we consider that we are working with pure substances)
(we only have one quantity of the product, then we don’t consider limiting reactant)
(we don’t have the performance of the equation)
(we search the solution with conversion factors)
Atomic mass Cu = 63.5 g/mol

3 1 𝑙 𝐶𝑂2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑢 63.5 𝑔 𝐶𝑢

8 𝑑𝑚 𝐶𝑂2 · 3 · 22.4 𝑙
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑢
= 45. 36 𝑔 𝐶𝑢
1 𝑑𝑚 𝐶𝑂2

2.​ In a process to purify nickel, nickel tetracarbonyl, Ni(CO)4 is produced, through the
following reaction:
​ ​ ​ Ni + CO -> Ni(CO)4
Ni + 4CO -> Ni(CO)4 (adjusted equation)

a)​ Calculate the volume of carbon monoxide, measured at 300ºC and 2 atm pressure,
needed to combine with 1 kg of nickel.
T -> 300ºC -> 300 + 273 = 573 K
P -> 2 atm
1 kg Ni
R = 0.082
(we are working with pure substances, we only have one quantity of Ni then it will not be
considered the limiting reactant, they don’t tell us the performance, we search the solution
with conversion factors and the equation of ideal gasses)
Atomic mass Ni = 58.7 g/ mol
1000 𝑔 𝑁𝑖 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑖 4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂
1 𝑘𝑔 𝑁𝑖 · 1 𝑘𝑔 𝑁𝑖
· 58.7 𝑔 𝑁𝑖
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑖
= 68. 14 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂

𝑛·𝑅·𝑇 68.14 · 0.082 · 573

P·V = n·R·T V= 𝑃
= 2
= 1600. 1 𝑙

b)​ Once the reaction is finished, the amount of Ni(CO)4 obtained is 2326.2 g. What is
the performance of the reaction?
Atomic mass C = 12 , O 16
Molecular mass Ni(CO)4 = 58.7 + (12 + 16) ·4 = 170.7 g/ mol

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑖 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑖(𝐶𝑂)4 170.7𝑔 𝑁𝑖(𝐶𝑂)4

1000 𝑔 𝑁𝑖 · 58.7 𝑔
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑖
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑖(𝐶𝑂)4
= 2908 𝑔 𝑁𝑖(𝐶𝑂)4( are obtained theoretically)
2326.2 𝑔
2908𝑔
· 100 = 80%
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

3.​ The ammonia synthesis: N2(g) + H2(g) -> NH3(g), reacts 10g of dinitrogen. Calculate
the volume of ammonia obtained (measured in normal conditions) if the process yield
is 40%.
N2(g) + H2(g) -> NH3(g)
40% performance
10g N2
Volume of ammonia obtained?

N2(g) + 3H2(g) -> 2NH3(g)(adjusted equation)

(pure substance)
(limiting reactant, we only have 10 g N2)
40%(the performance of the equation is 40%)
(we calculate the result with the conversion factors)
Molecular mass of N2 = 14 + 14 = 28
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻3 22.4 𝑙 𝑁𝐻3 40
10 𝑔 𝑁2 · 28 𝑔 𝑁2
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻3
· 100
= 6.4 l NH3

4.​ Nitric acid (HNO3) can be obtained by the reaction between sodium nitrate (NaNO3 )
and sulfuric acid (H2SO4) according to the following chemical reaction:
​ ​ NaNO3 + H2SO4 -> Na2SO4 + HNO3

​ If we want to prepare 100g of nitric acid, what mass of sulfuric acid is needed if the
yield of the reaction is 70%?

We want to prepare 100 g of HNO3

Performance 70 %
Mass of H2SO4 needed?

We adjust the equation: 2NaNO3 + H2SO4 -> Na2SO4 + 2HNO3

(pure substance)
(not limiting reactant)
Performance 70 % ->
Conversion factors:
Molecular mass HNO3 = 1+14+16·3 = 63g/mol
Molecular mass H2SO4 = 1 · 2 + 32 + 16 · 4 = 98g/mol

100
100 𝑔 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 · 70
= 142. 86 𝑔 𝐻𝑁𝑂3

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4 98𝑔 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4

142. 86 𝑔 𝐻𝑁𝑂3· 63 𝑔 𝐻𝑁𝑂3
· 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑁𝑂3
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4
= 111. 11 𝑔 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

5.​ In a container, 1.5 liters of dichlorine measured at 90ºC and 2.5 atm are mixed with
3g of sodium and sodium chloride is obtained: Na(s) + Cl2(g) -> NaCl (s)
1.5 l Cl2 + 3 g Na
90ºC
2.5 atm

(adjust) 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2NaCl (s)

(pure)
(the limiting reactant?)
(performance is not told to us, we use 100%)

a)​ Which is the limiting reactant?

2Na(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2NaCl (s)
3 g Na + 1.5l Cl2

To know this, we calculate the moles of each element at the conditions previously
told. (90ºC and 2.5 atm)

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎
3 g Na · 23 𝑔 𝑁𝑎
= 0. 13 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎​

𝑃·𝑉 2.5 · 1.5

n= 𝑅·𝑇
= 0.082 · 363
= 0. 126 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑙2

Then, we calculate how many mole are needed of the other reactant:
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎
0.126 mol Cl2 · 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑙2
= 0.252 mol Na
We need more Na than we have, so the limiting reactant is Na.

b)​ How many grams of sodium chloride will be obtained?

Molecular mass of NaCl = 23 +35.5 = 58.5 g/mol
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 58.5 𝑔 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
​ 0. 13 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎 · 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
= 7. 61 𝑔 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
​
c)​ Calculate the grams of reactant left
​ Molecular mass of Cl2 = 2 ·35.5 = 71 g/mol
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑙2 71 𝑔 𝐶𝑙2
​ 0. 13 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎 · 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑙2
= 4.615 g Cl2 (quantity that reacts)
71 𝑔 𝐶𝑙2
​ 0.126 mol Cl2 · 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑙2
= 8.946 g Cl2 (quantity we have)

​ 8.946 g Cl2 - 4.615 g Cl2 = 4.3 g Cl2 reactant left.

Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

6.​ When a mixture of potassium chlorate and sulfur is heated, a very exothermic
reaction occurs that leads to the formation of potassium chloride and sulfur dioxide. If
you mix 12g of potassium chlorate and 6g of sulfur.
​ ​ ​ KClO3 + S -> KCl + SO2
​ 12 g KClO3
​ 6g S
2KClO3 + 3S -> 2KCl + 3SO2

a)​ Which reactant will be in excess?

Molecular mass KClO3 = 39.1 + 35.5 + 16 · 3 = 122.6 g/mol
Atomic mass S = 32.1g/mol
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾𝐶𝑙𝑂3
12 g KClO3 · 122.6 𝑔 𝐾𝐶𝑙𝑂3
= 0. 098 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾𝐶𝑙𝑂3
3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆
0. 098 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾𝐶𝑙𝑂3 · 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾𝐶𝑙𝑂3
= 0. 147 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆
6 g S · 32.1 𝑔 𝑆 = 0. 187 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆
We have more S than we need, the limiting reactant then is KClO3

b)​ How many liters of sulfur dioxide will be formed measured under normal conditions
(n.c.)?
3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆𝑂2 22.4 𝑙 𝑆𝑂2
0. 098 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾𝐶𝑙𝑂3 · 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾𝐶𝑙𝑂3
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆𝑂2
= 3. 3 𝑙 𝑆𝑂2

7.​ Bauxite is a mineral containing aluminum. If 1g of bauxite is treated with an excess of

diluted hydrochloric acid, the hydrogen obtained occupies a volume of 0.5 l
measured in nc. Calculate the richness or % in aluminum that the mineral bauxite
has.

​ Al(s) + HCl (aq) -> AlCl3(aq) + H2(g)

Adjust equation-> 2Al(s) + 6HCl (aq) -> 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)

We have to calculate the richness of the aluminum in the bauxite:

2Al(s) + 6HCl (aq) -> 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)

1 g of bauxite (Al%?) + x -> y + 0.5 l hydrogen (nc)

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙 27 𝑔 𝐴𝑙
0. 5𝑙 𝐻2 · 22.4 𝑙 𝐻2
· 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙
= 0. 4 𝑔 𝐴𝑙
0.4 𝑔 𝐴𝑙
1 𝑔 𝑏𝑎𝑢𝑥𝑖𝑡𝑒
· 100 = 40 % 𝑟𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠

8.​ Calcium sulfite (CaSO3 ) can be obtained by reaction of calcium oxide and sulfur
dioxide.
​ ​ CaO(s) + SO2(g) -> CaSO3(s)
Calculate the weight of calcium oxide of 90% richness needed to obtain 3 kg of
calcium sulfite.
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

CaO(s) + SO2(g) -> CaSO3(s) (adjusted)

CaO 90% richness needed to obtain 3 kg of calcium sulfite
(100% performance, calcium sulfite limited reactant)
Molecular mass CaSO3= 40.1+ 32.1 +16 ·3=120.2g/mol ; CaO = 40.1 + 16
=56.1g/mol

1000 𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂3 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂3 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑂 56.1 𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝑂 100 %

3 𝑘𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂3 · 1 𝑘𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂3
· 120.2𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂3
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂3
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑂
· 90 %
= 1555. 74 𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝑂

9.​ Limestone, consisting mainly of calcium carbonate, CaCO3, is dissolved with

hydrochloric acid(HCl) according to the equation:
​ CaCO3(s) +2HCl(aq) -> CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O (l)
If 25g of CaCO3 are mixed with 100 ml of a solution of HCl of concentration 4M,
which mass of CO2 will it be formed?

The equation is adjusted CaCO3(s) +2HCl(aq) -> CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O (l)
Pure (aq) (aq) Limiting (Which one?) Performance 100
Calculation -> mass of CO2

Molecular mass CaCO3 = 40.1 + 12 + 16·3 =100.1g/mo

CaCO3(s) +2HCl(aq) -> CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O (l)
25 g ​ + 100 ml 4M

1𝑙 4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 100.1 𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3

100 𝑚𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1000 𝑚𝑙
· 1𝑙
· 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3
= 20. 02 𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3

We have more CaCO3 than we need to be mixed with the HCl we have, that is, the
limiting reactant is [Link]’ll must work with the quantity of HCl we have:

Molecular mass CO2 = 12 + 16 ·2 = 44 g/mol

1𝑙 4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2 44 𝑔 𝐶𝑂2

100 𝑚𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1000 𝑚𝑙
· 1𝑙
· 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2
= 8. 8 𝑔 𝐶𝑂2
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

10.​Zinc reacts with sulfuric acid to form zinc sulfate and hydrogen. Calculate the volume
of sulfuric acid needed from 18% of mass and density from 1.14 g/cm3 so that it
reacts with 35g of zinc.
​ ​ ​ Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) -> ZnSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
The equation is already adjusted
Pure (aq)
Limiting reactant Zn
Perform(100%)
Calculation: volume sulfuric acid H2SO4 (aq) needed from 18% mass and 1.14 g/cm3 density
35 g Zn

Zn(s) + ​ H2SO4(aq)​ -> ZnSO4 (aq) + H2(g)

3
35 g + 1.14 g/cm & 18% mass
Molar mass Zn = 65.4g/mol
Molecular mass H2SO4 = 2 + 32.1 + 16·4 = 98.1 g/mol

3
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑍𝑛 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4 98.1 𝑔 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4 100 % 1 𝑐𝑚 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4 1 𝑙 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4
35 𝑔 𝑍𝑛 · 65.4 𝑔 𝑍𝑛
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑍𝑛
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4
· 18 %
· 1 .14 𝑔 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4
· 3 = 0. 256 𝑙 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4
1000 𝑐𝑚 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4

11.​24 grams of ethanol are reacted (C2H5OH) with 59 grams of phosphorus tribromide
(PBr3) and we get 36 g of ethyl bromide (C2H5Br) and metaphosphoric acid (H3PO3).
Calculate reaction performance.

3C2H5OH + PBr3 -> 3C2H5Br + H3PO3 (adjusted equation)

(pure) (limiting reactant:?)(performance: x? )

3C2H5OH + PBr3 -> ​ 3C2H5Br ​ +​ H3PO3

24 g​ 59g​ 36g

Molecular mass C2H5OH = 12·2 + 5 + 16 +1 = 46g/mol; PBr3 = 31 + 79.9 · 3 = 270.7g/mol

First we search the limiting reactant:

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶2𝐻5𝑂𝐻 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝐵𝑟3 270.7 𝑔 𝑃𝐵𝑟3

24 𝑔 𝐶2𝐻5𝑂𝐻 · 46 𝑔 𝐶2𝐻5𝑂𝐻
· 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶2𝐻5𝑂𝐻
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝐵𝑟3
= 47. 1 𝑔 𝑃𝐵𝑟3
Chemical reactions ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

We have more PBr3 than we need, then the limiting reactant is ethanol C2H5OH. We will
make all the calculations based on this.

Molecular mass C2H5Br = 12 · 2 + 5 + 79.9 = 108.9 g/mol;

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶2𝐻5𝑂𝐻 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶2𝐻5𝐵𝑟 108.9 𝑔 𝐶2𝐻5𝐵𝑟
24 𝑔 𝐶2𝐻5𝑂𝐻 · 46 𝑔 𝐶2𝐻5𝑂𝐻
· 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶2𝐻5𝑂𝐻
· 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶2𝐻5𝐵𝑟
= 56. 8 𝑔 𝐶2𝐻5𝐵𝑟

The theoretical total amount obtained is 56.8 g

36 𝑔
Performance -> 56.8 𝑔
· 100 = 63. 4%