HOMEOSTASIS

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment.

Internal environment is the immediate surrounding of cells, i.e. the tissue/intercellular/interstitial
fluid which provides an environment in which cells live. (in multicellular organisms).
Importance of constant internal environment.
❖ Organisms can survive in/ occupy a wide range of habitats with different external
environmental conditions.
❖ Organisms become independent of their external environment. i.e. changes in the
environment do not affect biochemical reactions of organisms.
❖ Biochemical reactions proceed efficiently without interference from the external
environment.
NB: Biochemical processes are enzyme controlled. Enzymes function best under fairly
narrow range of conditions. Changes in temperature, pH and other factors have dramatic
effects on enzyme structure and function.
Factors which must be kept constant in the body’s internal environment
❖ Temperature
❖ Glucose level
❖ PH
❖ Water
❖ Ions /salts
❖ Respiratory gases
❖ Osmotic pressure of body fluids.
NB: Some chemical ingredients are eliminated altogether e.g. nitrogenous wastes like urea,
ammonia, and toxic substances liberated by pathogens.
Components of a control system
1. Norm/ reference point/set point/ standard.
Is the optimum /set level of the variable being controlled. Or the normal/target range of
values for the controlled variable. E.g. set point for body temperature of most mammals
is 35oC to 39oC, normal blood glucose level for humans is 90mg/100cm3 of blood etc.
This is usually genetically determined.
2. Detector/ receptor/sensor
Is any structure that detects/senses and signals the extent of any deviation from the norm.
e.g. sensory receptors e.g. thermoreceptor, chemoreceptor, baroreceptor,
mechanoreceptor etc.
3. Controller /integrator
Is a structure which coordinates the sensory information from various detectors and
sends out instructions to effectors which will correct the deviation. e.g. the central
nervous system (brain and spinal cord) or
 A structure that is capable of initiating the appropriate corrective measures.

4. Effector
Is a structure which brings about the necessary changes needed to return the system to
their norm. or a structure that carries out the corrective measures. e.g. Glands, muscles.
5. Feedback loop
Informs the detector of any change in the system as a result of action by the effector.
Negative feedback
Homeostatic systems are based on negative feedback.
Negative feedback refers to a mechanism in which a disturbance in a system sets in motion a
sequence of events that tend to restore the system to its original state. i.e. action by effectors
oppose/ reduce the change in the internal factor. e.g. in case of an increase in temperature of
internal environment, action by effectors cause a decrease in temperature back to the norm.
Examples of Biological negative feedback mechanisms
❖ Control of oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in blood.
❖ Control of metabolite levels e.g. blood glucose level
❖ Control of body temperature
❖ Regulation of pH
❖ Control of water balance
❖ Control of heart rate
❖ Control of blood pressure
❖ Control of hormone levels e.g. thyroxine, sex hormones levels.
❖ Regulation of animal and plant population in natural habitats
❖ Maintaining constancy of species over long periods of time
Illustration (FA 205)
NB: Positive feedback is a situation in which a disturbance leads to events which increase the
disturbance even further.
Mechanism in which a small change in a variable cause further change in the same direction.
Positive feedback is rare in biological systems since it leads to unstable situation and extreme
states.
Examples of positive feedback mechanisms.
❖ Propagation of nerve impulses. Depolarization of membrane of neuron causes increase in
permeability to sodium ions. As sodium ions pass into the axon through the membrane,
they cause further depolarization of the membrane which leads to even more sodium ions
entering.
❖ During labor. Hormone oxytocin stimulates muscular contractions of the uterus, which in
turn stimulates the release of more oxytocin.
 ❖ Beyond the higher lethal temperature, increase metabolic rate generates more heat which
further rises the metabolic rate.
❖ In a culture medium containing yeast and paramecium, when paramecium is suddenly
removed, the population of yeast would rise exponentially.
Efficient homeostatic system

NB: characteristics of an efficient control system.

❖ Allow very little change from the norm.
❖ Restores the norm rapidly after change.
Inefficient homeostatic system

Illustration (FA 205)

Negative feedback in thyroxine release by thyroid gland.

Illustration (Bs 649)
Question : the diagrams show feedback mechanisms A and B.
A
B

a) Identify the figure that represents the mechanism of;

initiation of action potential.

Regulation of respiratory gases

b) Explain why the mechanism involved in blood clotting is an example of positive feedback.

c) Explain how negative feedback enables the liver to regulate blood glucose level.

d) Positive feed back is generally harmful because it tends to amplify changes in the internal factor that
need to be kept constant. Suggest 2 physiological, 1 behavioural and 1 ecological examples in which
positive feedback might be beneficial, and one physiological example in which positive feedback is
harmful.

Cause of changes in internal environment.

Blank
Formation of tissue fluid
Tissue fluid is formed from blood by the process of ultra-filtration in which small molecules and
ions are separated from large molecules and cells.
When blood reaches the arterial end of a capillary, it is under high pressure due to pumping
action of the heart and narrow lumen of the capillary.
This pressure forces the fluid part of blood through the walls of the capillaries into the
intercellular spaces forming tissue fluid.
Tissue fluid consists of all the constituents of blood except proteins and cells that are held back
by walls of capillaries since they are large molecules.
Once formed, tissue fluid circulates amongst cells. Respiratory gases and metabolites are taken
up by cells, which shed unwanted substances into the tissue fluid.
Tissue fluid returns to the blood vascular system by one of the two routes below;
1. At the venous end of the capillary system, the hydrostatic pressure of blood is
comparatively low due to reduced blood volume, and is exceeded by the osmotic pressure
 of the blood plasma proteins, which are now much more concentrated than the they were
at the arterial end of the system.
This causes tissue fluid to be drawn back into the capillaries, and so returning to the
circulation.
2. Excess tissue fluid drains into the lymph vessels, which eventually passes back into the
veins.

Illustration (FA 201)

REGULATION OF GLUCOSE LEVEL

The normal level of glucose in blood is about 90mg per 100cm3 of blood.
When blood glucose level rises above the normal e.g. after a heavy meal carbohydrate rich meal,
beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas detect, and secrete insulin hormone into the
blood capillaries.
Insulin causes;
❖ An increase in the uptake of glucose and amino acids into respiring cells.
❖ An increase in the rate of breakdown of glucose during cellular respiration in liver,
muscle and other respiring cells.
❖ An increase in the rate of conversion of glucose to fats(glycerol) in adipose (fat storing)
cells
❖ An increase in the rate of conversion of glucose to glycogen (glycogenesis) in liver cells
and muscle cells for storage.
 Glucose level decreases back to the norm. The stimulus for insulin secretion is reduced.
When blood glucose level falls/ reduces below normal e.g. after fasting or after strenuous,
prolonged exercise, Alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas detect, and secrete
glucagon into blood.
Glucagon causes;
❖ A decrease in rate of breakdown of glucose during cellular respiration in the liver, muscle
and other respiring cells.
❖ Breakdown of glycogen to glucose (glycogenolysis) in the liver and muscle cells.
❖ Synthesis of glucose from fats(glycerol) and proteins (amino acids)- gluconeogenesis
Four other hormones are produced when blood glucose level falls namely;
❖ Adrenaline secreted by adrenal glands. Adrenaline causes breakdown of glycogen to
glucose and in the liver, usually in times of acute stress or excitement.
Question :Explain why when a person is shocked e.g. due to an accident, their RQ value
drops to a value between 0.7 and 1.
❖ Cortisol secreted by adrenal glands. Cortisol promotes conversion of amino acids and
glycerol to glucose(gluconeogenesis) by liver cells when the glycogen stores are
exhausted.
❖ Thyroxine secreted by thyroid gland. Thyroxine promotes breakdown of glycogen and
protein to glucose in the liver.
❖ Growth hormone. Promotes breakdown of glycogen and protein to glucose in the liver.
Glucose level increases back to the norm. the stimulus for secretion of glucagon,
adrenaline, cortisol, thyroxine and growth hormones is reduced.
NB: 1. Removal of pancreas/ pancreas malfunctioning / non-responsiveness of liver cells to
insulin hormone causes rapid increase in glucose level in blood above the
norm(hyperglycaemia), blood glucose level increases to a critical level when glucose starts to be
excreted in urine(glycosuria). Presence of glucose in urine causes absorption of water from
blood into urine, producing large volumes of dilute urine(diuresis). This cause dehydration.
This is accompanied by a decrease in glycogen content of liver and muscles; that causes body
fats and proteins to be used up as respiratory substrates, causing rapid loss of body mass.
During pregnancy, the renal threshold for glucose may be lowered. A small rise in glucose
e.g. after a meal may cause glucose to be excreted in urine(glucosuria). this is a normal
condition.
Question : Explain the effect of removing the pancreas from the body of a mammal. (08
marks)

3. Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder that results when the Beta cells of islet of
Langerhans is unable to produce sufficient amounts of insulin (pancreas malfunctioning)/
loss of responsiveness to insulin.
 The symptoms are described in NB 1 above. Diabetes can be reversed by regular insulin
injection and eating carefully controlled diet.
Question : the graph below shows the changes in glucose concentration of a normal
person and a diabetic person with time after ingesting glucose.

a) Compare the glucose concentration of the diabetic and normal individual.

b) Explain the difference in the difference in glucose concentration of normal and diabetic individual
with time after ingestion of glucose.
c) What are the effects of diabetes to the individuals body.

4. Wasting away of tissues which occurs in extreme starvation is because the body resorts to
converting its own tissue proteins to carbohydrates (gluconeogenesis) for respiration.
Significance/ importance of regulating blood glucose level
1. All respiring cells require a continuous supply of glucose in order to continue
functioning. Brain cells entirely dependent on glucose and are unable to use any other
substrate as a source of energy. Lack of glucose results into fainting.
2. Very high blood glucose level causes dehydration as explained in NB 1 above.
3. Low levels of blood glucose are particularly damaging to tissues that store glucose such
as the brain.
NB: endurance training enables long distance runners to restrict the rate of glucose use by
muscles to match the rate at which glucose can be produced in the body from glycogen. With out
this ability, glucose level would reduce to zero during prolonged exercise. Since brain cells can
only use glucose as respiratory substrate, the runner would collapse.
Question:
A person fasted over night and then swallowed 75g of glucose. The graph shows the resulting
changes in the concentration of insulin and glucose in blood.
a) Explain the relationship between the concentration of glucose and insulin in blood in the first 30
minutes after glucose was swallowed.
b) On the same graph, sketch a curve to show the changes in concentration of glucagon in blood and
glycogen in the liver.
c) Explain the shape of the curves you have sketched in b) above.
d) Use the information in the curve, explain what is meant by negative feedback.
e) Explain why the concentration of glucagon rises during exercise why that of insulin falls.
f) Suggest why exercise may be beneficial to a diebetic person.
2. The graph shows changes in glucose concentration after a meal.
a) Explain the changes in glucose concentration in each of the regions A to F.
Structure of the liver
The liver is made up of many tightly packed lobules (functional units of the liver).
Each lobule is filled with liver cells called hepatocytes arranged in rows radiating from
the center towards the periphery/edge likes spokes of wheel.
Hepatocytes have a prominent nucleus and golgi apparatus, many mitochondria and
lysosomes and are rich in glycogen granules and fat droplets.
Between adjacent lobules are branches of the hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein
collectively known as interlobular vessels, and branches of bile duct.
In the center of each lobule is a branch of hepatic vein called central vein/ intralobular
vein.
The interlobular vessels are connected to the central vein by a system of blood spaces
called sinusoids, that run parallel to and in close contact with the row of hepatocytes
which have microvilli.
On the other hand, the row of hepatocytes is surrounded by fine channels called bile
canaliculi, which carry bile made by hepatocytes to branches of the bile duct at the edge
of the lobule.
Blood reaches each lobule via the interlobular vessels i.e. Oxygenated via the branch of
hepatic artery, and blood rich in food materials via the branch of hepatic portal vein.
Blood then flows along the sinusoids towards the central vein, as blood flows, liver cells
take up what they require e.g. oxygen and shed into blood all its products e.g. carbon
dioxide, urea, glucose etc. except bile.
 Attached to walls of sinusoids are large phagocytic macrophages called Kupffer cells
which destroy old red blood cells, remove bacteria and foreign particles from blood
flowing through the liver.
NB: The liver is the largest organ in the body, made up of several lobes.
Almost all the functions of the liver are performed by the Hepatocytes except
Kupffer cells already mentioned above.
Hepatocytes have prominent nucleus and Golgi apparatus, many mitochondria and
lysosomes and are rich in glycogen granules and fat droplets.
Question : (U.B page 513 no.5)
Functions of the liver
1. Regulation of blood glucose level/ Carbohydrate metabolism
When glucose level in blood from hepatic portal vein is high, the liver is stimulated
by insulin to;
❖ Increase breakdown of glucose into carbon dioxide and water to release
energy.
❖ convert glucose to glycogen (glycogenesis) and store.
❖ Converts excess glucose into fats and stores it.
When glucose level in blood from hepatic portal vein is low, the liver
❖ converts the stored glycogen into glucose (glycogenolysis). This involves
activation of phosphorylase enzyme by hormone glucagon produced by
the pancreas. In times of danger, stress or cold, this activity is also
stimulated by adrenaline and noradrenaline.
❖ Synthesis glucose from non-carbohydrate sources such as glycerol, amino
acids, fatty acids.
2. Regulation of amino acids, and hence proteins/ protein metabolism
The body is unable to store excess amino acids taken up in the diet. The liver regulates protein
levels through the following processes
❖ Transamination; this is the synthesis of amino acids by transfer of the
amino group from an amino acid to another organic acid. All non
essential amino acids are produced from other amino acids in the liver by
transamination.
This involves exchange of chemical groups between th amino acid and the
other organic acid.

Illustration
NB; Essential amino acids cannot be synthesised by transamination in the
liver and must be otained from the diet.

❖ Deamination. This is removal of amino group from amino acid to form

ammonia. The amino acid residues enter the krebs cycle and are oxidized
 to release energy or are converted to fats and carbohydrates for immediate
use or storage.
The ammonia formed must be eliminated from the body because it is very
toxic and soluble, to avoid its harmful effects and conserve water. this is
achieved by converting ammonia into urea.
Question: U.B page 513 no. 6
❖ Urea formation; ammonia is converted into urea by combining it with
carbon dioxide in a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions known as the
ornithine cycle. Urea formed is less toxic and less soluble, so it is
released into blood and excreted by the kidneys.
❖ Plasma protein production; liver cells absorb amino acids and use them to
synthesis plasma proteins. Liver cells are therefore imporatnt sites for
protein synthesis. Plasma proteins include;
✓ fibrinogen and prothrombin- responsible for blood clotting.
✓ albumin which contributes to the osmotic potential of blood, and also act as transsport
molecules, carrying substances such as calcium, bile, salts and some steroid hormones.
✓ Globulin. Alpha and beta globulins transport hormones e.g. thyroxine and insulin,
cholesterol, lipid, irons and vitamins A, B12, D and K. gamma globulins are antibodies
produced by immune cells and are involved in immune response.
The liver therefore establishes a stable protein pool in blood by synthesizing, and breaking down
proteins depending on the demand.
3. lipid regulation/Fat metabolism
Liver cells;
❖ Convert excess carbohydrates into fat
❖ Remove cholesterol from blood and break it down
❖ Synthesis cholesterol when necessary
❖ Break down fats into fatty acids and and glycerol for respiration if glucose level is low in
blood.
NB: The fatty acids are converted to acetyl groups which combine with Co enzyme A to form
acetyl Co enzyme A which enters the Krebs cycle. Fatty acids may also be converted to other
chemicals and exported out of the liver.
Glycerol on the other hand can be converted to glucose.
4. Production of heat.
The liver is very metabolically active, large and has an excellent blood supply. This makes it
important in heat production and hence temperature regulation. Under extremely cold
conditions, the hypothalamus increase the heat releasing(exothermic) reactions of the liver
stimulating the release of adrenaline and thyroxine hormones.
5. Production of bile
The liver produces bile salts and adds the to bile pigments bilirubin from breakdown of red blood
cells. These together with sodium chloride and sodium hydrogen carbonate, cholesterol, and
water form a green- yellow fluid known as bile.
Bile is synthesized by hepatocytes and stored in the gall bladder. It is then secreted into the
duodenum where it is involved in digestion(bile salts emulsify fats) and absorption of fats and is
a means of excreting bile pigments.
6. Formation of cholesterol.
Cholesterol is produced by the liver and used for synthesis of other steroid molecules,
and as a constituent of cell membranes, . Excess cholesterol is excreted in bile.
Thyroxine hormone both stimulates cholesterol formation in the liver and increase its rate
of excretion in bile.

NB; Excessive amounts of cholesterol in blood is harmful. It may be deposited in the

walls of arteries causing atherosclerosis (narrowing of the arteries) and increasing the
risk of thrombosis (formation of a blood clot), it may also precipitate in the gall bladder
or bile duct as as gall stones that block the bile duct leading to obstructive jaundice due to
retention of bilirubin in blood. Elimination of excessive cholesterol is an important
function of the liver.
7. Formation of red blood cells.
The liver of a fetus is responsible for red blood cell formation but this function is
gradually taken over by the cells of the bone marrow. However, in adults the liver still
plays an important part in red blood cell production as it stores vitamin B12 which is
required for red blood cell formation.
Once the bone marrow takes over the role of red blood cell production, the liver takes the
opposite role and assists in breaking down red blood cells and haemoglobin.
8. Storage storage of blood.
The veins in the liver have great power of expansion and contraction. The liver therefore
is a reservoir which stores large volumes of blood and regulates amount of blood in
circulation. Note that blood is always moving within these hepatic vessels.
Adrenaline and sympathetic neurones can constrict the hepatic vessels and make more
blood to be available in circulation, however when blood volume increases, the hepatic
veins dilate to take up the excess volume.
9. Storage of minerals
Iron is most abundant mineral stored in the liver from break down of haemoglobin in old
red blood cells for use in manufacture of haemoglobin in new red blood cells in the red
bone marrow. Potassium and elements needed in small quantities (trace elements) such as
copper, zinc, cobalt and molybdenum are also stored.
10. Storage of vitamins.
Fat soluble vitamins; A,D,E, and K, and some water soluble vitamins such as vitamin
B12 and C are stored in the liver.

11. Detoxification; this is removal of toxins/poisons.

The liver;
❖ Coverts toxic ammonia into less toxic urea.
❖ Breaks down hydrogen peroxide, a toxic product of certain metabolic pathways, into water
and oxygen gas. Hydrogen peroxide is broken down by catalase enzyme in the liver.
❖ Removes bacteria and other pathogens (by kupffer cells) and toxins produced by pathogens
and convert the toxins into harmless forms (by hepatocytes).
❖ Removes harmful substances such as alcohol and nicotine and converts them into less
harmful products. Alcohol is removed by enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase.
❖ Inactivates many sex hormones and insulin.
12. Breakdown of haemoglobin
Worn out red blood cells are broken down by phagocytotic cells in the liver, spleen and bone
marrow. The haemoglobin in red blood cells is released into blood and taken up from blood
plasma by macrophages in the liver (kupffer cells).
Inside the kuffer cells, haemoglobin is broken down into haem and globin.
Globin, the protein part of the molecule is brroken down into amino acids which are used
according to the demands of the body.
Iron is removed from the haem and the remaining part of the molecule forms a green pigment
called biliverdin. Biliverdin is converted into an orange pigment called bilirubin which is a
component of bile.
The iron combines with a plasma protein to form a complex called transferrin.
NB:breakdown of haemoglobin takes place by macrophages in the liver, spleen and lymph
glands.
Accumulation of bilirubin is a symptom of liver disease and produces a condition called
jaundice (yellowing of the skin).
The iron formed can be re used by cells in the one marrow to form more haemoglobin or can be
stored by the hepatocytes in from of a compound called ferritin.
13. Elimination of hormones after they have performed their functions.
Some are modified chemically by liver cells, some are sent to the kidney for excretion,
others are expelled in bile. Testosterone and aldosterone are destroyed rapidly whereas
insulin, glucagon and gut hormones, female sex hormones, adrenaline, ADH and
thyroxine are destroyed less rapidly.

Adaptations of pancreas to perform it function

➢ The liver is a large organ with high metabolic rate to generate large amounts of heat for
temperature regulation.
➢ The liver contains specialized Kupffer cells that engulf and break pathogens, and old red
blood cells.
➢ Hepatocytes contain enzymes for various activities such as alcohol dehydrogenases for
eliminating alcohol, phosphorylase enzyme which catalyses breakdown of glycogen to form
glucose.
➢ Veins in the liver have great power to expand and contract inorder to store large volumes of
blood and release blood into circulation respectively. This enables liver to be a reservoir that
regulates blood volume.
➢ Hepatocytes have numerous microvilli on surfaces in contact with blood to increase
exchange of materials.
➢ Hepatocytes have numerous mitochondria that generate ATP for active processes.
➢ Hepatocytes are unspecialized therefore they can perform a variety of functions.
➢ Hepatocytes have receptors sites for hormones such as insulin, glucagon to bind in order to
stimulate glucose regulation
➢ The liver is well supplied with blood vessels which bring large volumes of blood containing
metabolites, wastes and carry away products of the liver.
➢ The liver is large in size to provide enough space for storage of blood, minerals and
vitamins.
➢ Liver contains numerous bile canaliculi and branches of the bile duct that transport bile
formed by hepatocytes to bile duct, and hence to the gall bladder.
➢ The hepatic portal vein provides liver with a rich supply off nutrients from the gut which
may be stored, used in synthesis or passed into general circulation.
➢ Liver is well supplied with oxygen through the hepatic artery which maintains a high
metabolic activity.

STRUCTURE OF THE PANCREAS

Pancreas made up of cells which surround numerous branches of the pancreatic duct. Each
branch is surrounded by a ring of cells called an acinus. The acinus cells are exocrine cells
which secrete enzymes of the pancreatic juice into the pancreatic duct.
Tiny patches of endocrine cells known as islets of Langerhans exist in the pancreas. The islets
of Langerhans consist of a small number of large cells known as alpha cells which secrete
glucagon hormone, many smaller cells known as beta cells which secrete insulin and blood
capillaries.
Illustration

FUNCTIONS OF THE PANCREAS

➢ Detects changes in blood glucose level and secretes appropriate hormone into blood.
(endocrine function)
➢ Secretes digestive enzymes in pancreatic juice that is conveyed to duodenum via pancreatic
duct. (exocrine function)

Adaptations of pancreas for its function

➢ Contains alpha cells which detect low glucose level and secrete glucagon and beta cells
which detect high glucose levels and secrete insulin.
➢ Contains numerous blood capillaries in the islets of Langerhans into which hormones are
secreted and transported to the liver.
➢ Contain acinus cells that secrete digestive enzymes.
➢ Contains numerous pancreatic ducts into which enzymes are secreted and transported to the
duodenum.

REGULATION OF RESPIRATORY GASES

The respiratory and circulatory systems determine how much carbon dioxide and oxygen are
present in the body at a given time. For example, if the amount of carbon dioxide in blood is high
and oxygen is low, the body responds by increasing
a) Ventilation rate (The rate and depth of breathing)
b) Cardiac output (the rate and force of the heart beat)
c) Local Vasodilation of arterioles in areas with high carbon dioxide or low oxygen levels.
Opposite events occur in case of low carbon dioxide and abnormally high oxygen levels.
The overall effect is to keep the general levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen in blood constant.
1. Control of ventilation rate / breathing.
Ventilation rate is controlled by the respiratory or breathing centre in the medulla oblongata of
the hindbrain. The lower(ventral) part of the respiratory centre acts to increase the rate and depth
of inspiration so it is known as the inspiratory centre.
The upper(dorsal) part inhibits inspiration and stimulates expiration so its known as the
expiratory centre
When carbon dioxide levels in blood rise, chemoreceptors in the aortic and carotid bodies are
stimulated and send impulses via afferent nerves to the inspiratory centre.
The inspiratory centre sends out impulses via the phrenic nerve and the external intercostal nerve
to the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles respectively causing them to increase the rate
at which they contract. This increases the rate of inspiration.
As the lungs expand stretch receptors in the lungs(walls of bronchioles) are stimulated and send
impulses via the vagus nerve to the expiratory centre which temporarily inhibits the inspiratory
centre and inspiration. The external intercostal muscles relax, diaphragm relax, elastic recoil of
the lungs occurs and expiration occurs.
After expiration, the stretch receptors are no longer stimulated and therefore the expiratory centre
becomes inactive as the inspiratory centre becomes active again.
Note; expiration is largely a passive process. Forcible expiration can be achieved by contraction
of internal intercostal muscles.
If the vagus nerve is cut, rhythmical breathing will still continue, though deeper and slower than
before. This is because the respiratory centre possess an intrinsic rhythmicity.
2. control of blood pressure
Blood pressure is controlled by the cardio- regulatory centre and vasomotor centre in the medulla
oblongata of the hind brain.
When blood pressure rises, pressure receptors(baroreceptors) or stretch receptors in the walls of
the aorta and carotid sinuses are stimulated to impulses via the afferent nerves to the cardio
vascular centre (cadio regulatory centre and vasomotor centre) in the medulla.
The cardio vascular centre sends impulses via the vagus nerve to the;
✓ SAN which decreases heart rate and cardiac output
✓ blood vessels causing vasodilation.
This decreases blood pressure back to normal.
When blood pressure falls, stretch receptors stop being stimulated, no impulses are sent to the
cardio vascular centre. The cardiovascular centre sends impulses via the sympathetic nerves to
the;
✓ SAN causing increased heart rate and cardiac output
✓ Blood vessels causing vasoconstriction.
This increases blood pressure.
NB: When stretch receptors in the walls of the vena cava are stimulated due to large volume of
blood returning to the heart from tissues, heart rate and cardiac output are increased.

Chemical control of the vasomotor/ cardio vascular centre(blood pressure)

High carbon dioxide concentration(low pH) of blood stimulates chemoreceptors at the carotid
bodies to send impulses to the vasomotor centre/ cardiovascular centre in the medulla.
The vasomotor/ cardiovascular centre sends impulses to the;
✓ blood vessels to constrict
✓ SAN to increase heart beat.
At the same time accumulation of carbon dioxide in tissues causes local vasodilation.
All these changes result into increased blood pressure and increased blood flow through the
tissues where carbon dioxide has accumulated.
low carbon dioxide concentration/ high pH causes vasomotor/ cardio vascular centre to
✓ Cause vasodilation of blood vessels
✓ Reduce heart beat
And local vasodilation does not occur. This decreases blood pressure
Other stimuli such as emotional stress (excitement, pain and annoyance) increase sympathetic
activity and therefore blood pressure. Also when adrenal gland is stimulated by impulses from
higher nervous centres this increases heart beat and therefore rises blood pressure.

NB: local vasodilation increases supply of glucose and oxygen to very active tissues and removal
of carbon dioxide and other wastes from such tissues.
Question; when an animal is wounded its overall blood pressure rises, but the area in the
vicinity of the wound swells. Explain the cause and advantage of these changes.

Regulation of heart rate

1. Control of respiratory gases

When carbon dioxide level in blood rises e.g. during vigorous exercise, chemoreceptors in the
carotid and aortic bodies are stimulated and they send impulses via afferent nerves to the
inspiratory centre and the cardio- vascular centre in the medulla. The medulla its self also
contains chemoreceptors.
The inspiratory centre then sends impulses via external intercostal and phrenic nerves to external
intercostal muscles and diaphragm respectively, causing them to increase the rate at which they
contract, increasing rate of inspiration(ventilation rate).
The cardiovascular centre on the other hand sends impulses via efferent nerves to the heart
muscles increasing their contraction , which increases cardiac output.
Cardiovascular centre also send impulses via efferent nerves to arterioles causing general
vasoconstriction .
The high concentration of carbon dioxide in particular organs directly causes local vasodilation,
which increase flow of blood through those organs.
These increase the rate at which carbon dioxide is remove from blood and oxygen is supplied to
tissues, lowering carbon dioxide levels back to normal.
When carbon dioxide level in blood reduces, the chemoreceptors are less or not stimulated, little
or no impulses are sent to the inspiratory centre and cardiovascular centre, the diaphragm, the
contraction of intercostal muscles, and heart muscles reduces, hence ventilation rate and cardiac
out put reduce. General dilation and local dilation of arterioles also occurs.
This causes carbon dioxide levels to increase back to normal.
NB;
➢ If the afferent nerves from the aortic and carotid bodies of an intact animal are cut, the
animal can still adjust ventilation rate because the respiratory centre/ medulla itself contains
chemoreceptors sensitive to changes in carbon dioxide levels in the blood.
➢ Ventilation rate is also affected by low pH (increased acidity) of blood and low partial
pressures of oxygen in blood, however, a small change in amount of carbon dioxide is more
effective than even a large change in the amount of oxygen in bringing about change in
breathing rate.
➢ Breathing rate is also under voluntary control as shown y the ability to hold breath, during
speech, singing, sneezing, and coughing. In this case impulses originate from the cerebral
hemisphere(higher centers) which either inhibit or excite the respiratory centre.
➢ The highest frequency of impulse along the afferent nerves from carotid and aortic bodies is
recorded when an increase in carbon dioxide level is accompanied by a decrease in oxygen
level.
Question
The graph below shows the effect increased carbon dioxide and decreased oxygen on
ventilation rate of a human.
Graph A was obtained by getting the subject to breath in and out of a spirometer filled
with pure oxygen with a carbon dioxide absorber removed. The subject was therefore
rebreathing his own expired air.
Graph B was obtained by leaving leaving the carbon dioxide absorber in place so that the
subject was breathing pure oxygen.
a) Describe the the effect of breathing in pure oxygen on the ventilation rate.
(02marks)
b) Explain the relationship between ventilation rate and breathing re breathing expired air.
(04mark)
c) Suggest with reasons, what would happen to ventilation rate if the afferent nerve from the
carotid and aortic bodies of the human were cut at 1 second.
(04mark)
Effects of fluctuation in oxygen and carbon dioxide
Deficiency of oxygen (hypoxia)deprives tissues of a vital metabolic requirement. Special senses,
particularly vision is impaired, as is the brain. This can cause unconsciousness, damage of nerves
hence paralysis and death.
On the other hand, breathing in pure oxygen at atmospheric pressure presents no problems.
Breathing in pure oxygen at pressures greater than atmospheric e.g. in diving is very dangerous
because excess oxygen inhibits certain enzymes in the krebs cycle , thus interfering with
respiration. This causes muscular twitching, followed by nausea, dizziness, impaired hearing and
vision, breathing difficulty, confusion, lack of coordination, convulsion and death.

When carbon dioxide accumulates in the body, it dissolves in blood and tissue fluid to form a
weak acid which can start to denature enzymes and other proteins, inhibiting enzymes and
stopping essential metabolic processes such as respiration.

Response to total oxygen deprivation

In most species, Oxygen deprivation result into death within minutes.
In diving animals such as seals and whales, after diving;
➢ the cardiac frequency decrease rapidly(bradycardia)
➢ the arterioles of all body organs except vital body organs such as the the heart and brain
constrict.
➢ Therefore oxygen store from haemoglobin and myoglobin being sent to those organs which
are least able to endure oxygen deprivation e.g. the heart and the brain.
NB; a diving human will develop bradycardia within 30s after diving, in fishes, it occurs when
they are taken out of water.

Adjustments / acclimatization to high altitude

At high altitude the atmospheric pressure and hence the partial pressures of oxygen are
considerably lower than at sea level.
A mountaineer who ascends a mountain slowly over a period of days or weeks has time to
acclimatize to the low oxygen levels. Adjustments occur in the respiratory and circulatory
systems. They include;
a) The total number of red blood cells increase to increase bloods oxygen carrying capacity.
b) The haemoglobin content of the body increase to increase oxygen carrying capacity of
blood.
c) The ventilation rate increase to efficiently supply oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide.
d) The cardiac out put also increase to increase oxygen supply and carbon dioxide elimination.
e) Increased oxygen uptake in the lungs as a result of improved capillary network in the lungs
and deeper breathing.
f) The oxygen dissociation curve shifts to the right to facilitate oxygen release. However,
animals living permanently at high altitudes of above 3500m posses haemoglobin with
higher affinity for oxygen which readily loads with oxygen in the lungs.in this case, the
oxygen dissociation curve is shifted to the left.
g) Increased myoglobin content in muscles to facilitate oxygen exchange of oxygen from blood
to tissues due to its high affinity for oxygen.
h) Blood pH rises due to increase removal of carbon dioxide, leading to excretion of hydrogen
carbonate ions by the kidney to control blood pH.
Adjustments during exercise.
a) Before and during the early stages of the sprint, the sympathetic nervous system is alerted
and adrenaline is secreted into bloodstream. Triggered by impulses received from the
cerebral cortex in anticipation of the race, it causes an increase in cardiac output, and general
constriction of arterioles except for those supplying vital organs so that blood under high
pressure s diverted to the active muscles. Anticipation of the exercise also brings about an
increase in the ventilation rate.
b) During the sprint, metabolic rate increases due to shortage of ATP resulting from muscle
exertion. Shortage of ATP relative to ADP activates the enzyme which initiates further
breakdown of glucose.
c) Increased metabolic rate leads to accumulation of carbon dioxide in the muscle tissue
causing local vasodilation of arterioles.This leads to increased blood flow through the
muscles. Increased temperature also makes the muscles more sensitive to carbon dioxide,
accelerating this mechanism.
d) Rapid movement of the limbs stimulates stretch receptors in the muscle and tendons which
transmit impulses to the respiratory centre leading to further increase in ventilation rate.
e) Fluctuations in the level of carbon dioxide in the blood is monitored by the chemoreceptors
in the carotid, aortic bodies and medulla, which lead to appropriate adjustment of ventilation
rate.
f) During the race muscles start to respire anaerobically due to insufficient oxygen supply to
keep up with the demand. This produces lactic acid which is oxidized after the race via the
Krebs cycle or circulated to the liver and converted back to glycogen.
g) Like carbon dioxide, Lactic acid also causes local vasodilation of arterioles and stimulates
the chemoreceptors in the aortic and carotid bodies therefore accentuating the cardiovascular
and respiratory responses initiated by carbon dioxide.
h) During the exercise dilation of veins in the muscles increases venous return of blood to the
heart which increases cardiac output.
i) Also during the exercise, vasoconstriction of arterioles occurs in tissues such as the gut,
liver, kidneys and spleen which are in less need of oxygen. This increases blood supply to
muscles to supply oxygen and glucose and remove carbon dioxide and heat.
Carbon dioxide itself continues to increase due to oxidation of lactic acid in Krebs cycle and the
buffering of lactic acid in blood stream.
NB: buffering of lactic acid in blood stream
The lactic acid dissociates into hydrogen ions and lactate ions.
Lactic acid lactate ion + hydrogen ion
The hydrogen ions then combine with hydrogen carbonate ions to form carbonic acid.
Hydrogen ion + hydrogen carbonate ion carbonic acid
The carbonic acid splits into carbon dioxide and water.
Carbonic acid carbon dioxide + water.

j) Increased metabolic rate leads to a rise in body temperature which is offset by various
cooling processes.
NB: the same changes above occur during a longer race, One difference however is that the
oxygen debt is paid on the run, with an equilibrium being established between oxygen supply
and oxygen usage.(second wind is acquired)
For the short period involved during a sprint, muscles can function efficiently under anaerobic
conditions provided the oxygen debt is paid afterwards. This enables an athlete to hold their
breath during a short sprint, in this circumstance, the metabolic and circulatory changes occur but
the changes in breathing are temporarily suspended until after the race.

Long term effects of exercise/ advantages of regular exercise

✓ Respiratory muscles become stronger
✓ Blood supply to the lungs increases
✓ Ability of blood to take up oxygen from the alveoli increases
✓ Total amount of red blood cells increases
✓ The heart / heart chambers becomes enlarged (athletes heart)
✓ Concentration of respiratory enzymes in cells increases
✓ Number and size of mitochondria in cells increases
✓ Mass of muscles increases
A trained athlete has a greater cardiac output although the heart rate is normally less than that of
a untrained person. This is because of increased stroke volume caused by increased amount of
heart muscles and size of heart chambers as a result of regular exercise.

TEMPERATURE REGULATION/ THERMOREGULATION

Thermoregulation is regulation of body temperature.
Organisms inhabit environments whose temperatures range from 90oC in the hot springs to -
40oC in the arctic. Most organisms however live in a narrow range of tempratures of 10 to 35oC.
To survive therefore, most organisms need to exert some control over their internal body
temperature.
NB: various organisms however show adaptations that enable them occupy habitats with
extremes of temperatures.
Necessity for thermoregulation/significance of temperature regulation
✓ To provide optimum temperature for action of enzymes since enzyme catalysed reactions
work efficiently only within a limited temperature range. Enxymes are proteins, therefore
rise in temperatures above optimum denature the protein, and enzyme activity ceases.
Abnormally low temperature on the other hand slows metabolic reactions. These impairs the
 brain function which controls circulation and respiration hence disrupting the functioning of
these essential systems.
✓ At extreme temperatures, macromolecules may change their state e.g. phospholipids become
very fluid at high temperatures and solid at very low temperatures.

Heat gain and heat loss

Heat loss
In all organisms, heat may be lost in four main ways;
1. Evaporation
Heat is lost from the body surface during conversion of water to water vapour. The heat lost is
known as latent heat of vaporization. For example during sweating and panting in animals and
transpiration in plants. In humans water loss by evaporation through the skin occurs even when a
person is not sweating. Evaporation of water from the lungs, lining of nasal cavity, mouth and
trachea also contribute to heat loss.
Many factors affect the rate of evaporation and hence heat loss for example relative humidity of
air in contact with the body surface, the air temperature, and the air movements(currents)
2. Conduction
Heat passes from a warm object to a cooler object in direct contact with it by conduction. For
example from an organism to the ground or air or water in direct contact with its body.
Heat is transferred from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature.
The greater the temperature difference between the two objects in contact, the greater the rate
of heat loss by conduction.
For example a cool breeze passing over the skin removes heat by conduction to the air.
Heat loss by conduction is more significant for aquatic and soil dwelling organisms than
terrestrial organisms. Explain ?
3. Convection
Convection is movement of a fluid (air or water) resulting from local pockets of warm fluid
(water or air) being replaced by cooler fluid (air or water)
In convection, heat is transferred by fluid molecules moving in a current. The faster the rate of
fluid movement, the faster the rate of heat transfer.
The air or water movements speed up heat loss by evaporation and radiation.
It may be reduced by insulating materials such as feathers and hairs in animals, clothing in
humans.
4. Radiation
Radiation is the diffusion of heat from a warm body to a relatively colder objects via air. Heat is
transferred inform of infrared waves.
The amount of heat radiated by the body is proportional to the temperature difference between
the body and its surroundings.

The rate of heat loss in endotherms depends upon the temperature difference between the body
core and the skin, and the skin and the environment. The rate can be increased or decreased
depending on the rate of heat production and the environmental temperature.
There are three factors limiting heat loss. They include;
 1. The rate of blood flow between the core and the skin.
If the flow of blood through the skin is low, the skin temperature approaches that of the
environment whereas if blood flow through the skin is increased, the skin temperature
approaches core temperature. The skin is rich in blood vessels and blood can flow through it by
one of the two routes;
✓ Through capillary networks in the dermis
✓ Through shunt pathways deep in the dermis which link arterioles to venules.
The arterioles have relatively thick muscular walls which can contract or relax to alter the
diameter of the blood vessel and the rate of blood flow through it. The degree of contraction is
contolled by sympathetic nerves from the vasomotor centre in the medulla of the hind rain. This
is inturn controlled by nerve impulses received from the thermoregulatory centre in the
hypothalamus.
Constriction of arterioles forces blood through the arterioles and the bulk of blood by passes the
capillaries preventing heat loss.
Dilation of the arterioles encourages blood flow through the capillaries and not through the
shunt vessels. This increases blood flow through the skin and more heat is lost.
2. The rate of sweat production and evaporation from the skin.
Sweat is secreted from tissue fluid by the activity of sweat glands under the control of
sympathetic neurones. From the hypothalamus.
When sweating occurs, energy is lost from the body as latent heat of evaporation and this
reduces body temperature. The rate of evaporation is reduced by low environmental
temperatures, high humidity and lack of wind.
Sweating only occurs as a result of rise in core temperature. lowering core body temperature, by
swallowing ice water or cooling carotid blood vessel in the neck with and ice pack while at the
same time exposing the skin to heat results into a decrease in the rate of sweating, which in turn
increases skin temperature.
The graphs below show the relationship between evaporative heat loss, skin and hypothalamus
temperature.
.
Questions
a) Describe the relationship between the temperature of the hypothalamus and the rate of
sweating.
b) Suggest why the skin temperature rises shortly after the ingestion of the iced water.
c) Suggest why the iced water was not given until 20 minutes after the start of the
experiment.
d) Explain the effect of ingestion of iced water on the temperature of the hypothalamus.
3. The amount of insulation between the core and the environment.
Insulation is provided by the air trapped outside the skin by hair and by fat in the dermis and just
below the dermis(sub cutaneous fat).
Since air is a poor conductor of heat it reduces heat loss. The thicker the layer of air trapped the
larger the amount of insulation. Contraction of erector pili muscles in response to decreasing
temperatures increases the angle between the skin and the hair and so trapping more air.
Seasonal accumulation of sub cutaneous fat is common in non hibernating mammals. Aquatic
mammals living in cold waters such as whales, sea lions walrus and seal have a thick layer of fat
known as blubber which insulates them against cold.

Heat gain
All animals gain heat from two main sources;
1. The external environment by the following processes
a) Conduction
b) Convection
c) Radiation
2. Metabolism of food.
The main source of heat in the body is tissue respiration. The rate at which heat is produced is
proportional to the metabolic rate.which increases greatly during exercise.

Temperature regulation in animals

Animals can be divided into two groups based on temperature control;
1. Endotherms (Homeotherms/homoiotherms)
Endotherms are organisms which are able to maintain a fairly constant body temperature
independently of the environmental temperatures using physiological mechanisms. E.g. birds
and mammals.
Homeoitherms are relatively independent of the external sources of heat and rely on high
metabolic rate to generate heat which must be conserved.Because they rely on internal sources
of heat, they are referred to as endothermic.
However not all the body of endotherm is kept at constant temperature but only the core
consisting of vital organs of the chest and abdomen and the brain. The temperature near the body
surface can vary tremendously depending on the position and external temperature.
Endotherms can remain active over a far wider range of environmental temperatures than
ectotherms. Endotherms are free within certain limits to migrate long distances and maintain
high metabolic rate in all sorts of weather conditions. This allows them to capture and kill
ectotherm prey and escape from ectotherm predators
However maintaining a body temperature different from that of the environment requires a great
deal of energy, therefore endotherms require much more food ectotherms of equal size.
NB: core temperature is the temperature of tissues below the level of 2.5cm beneath the surface
of the skin.
Advantages of endothermy
⚫ high metabolic rate results to more activity
⚫ High level of activity is maintained allowing the animal to migrate long distances
⚫ High activity allows faster escape from predators
⚫ High activity allows easy capturing and killing of ectothermic prey
⚫ Can occupy a wide range of haitats
⚫ Continuosu physiological activity
Disadvantages of ectothermy
⚫ High food consumption to amintain constant temperature
⚫ Breakdown of homeostatic mechnisms can lead to death of the organsism.
In order to maintain a constant body temperature, these organisms need to have a high metabolic
rate and an efficient means of controlling heat loss from the body surface. The skin is the organ
in contact with the environment and monitors the temperatures.

Structure of the skin

The skin is composed of two main layers; the outer surface layer, epidermis and the inner layer,
the dermis. These cover the subcutaneous tissue composed of fat containing cells known as the
adipose tissue.
The epidermis comprises three layers;
1. stratum corneum (cornified layer)- This is the surface layer of the skin and
comprises flattened, dead cells impregnated with keratin. The stratum corneum forms a
tough, resistant, waterproof layer which is constantly replaced as it is worn away. It is
thickest where there is greatest wear, i.e. on the palms of the hands and the soles of the
feet. Sweat ducts and hair extend through this layer.
2. Stratum granulosum (granular layer) -This is made up of living cells which have
been produced by the Malpighian layer. As they are pushed towards the skin surface by
new cells produced beneath,they accumulate the fibrous protein keratin, lose their nuclei
and die.
3. The Malpighian layer (germinative layer)- The deepest layer made up of actively
dividing cells. The pigment melanin, which determines the skin colour, is produced here
by cells called melanocytes. Melanin absorbs ultra-violet light and so helps to protect the
tissues beneath from its damaging effects. The Malpighian layer has numerous infoldings
which extend deep into the dermis, producing sweat glands, sebaceous glands and hair
follicles. There are no blood vessels in the epidermis and so the cells of this layer obtain
food and oxygen by diffusion and active transport from capillaries in the dermis across a
basement membrane which separates it from the dermis.
The dermis is largely made up of connective tissue consisting of collagen and elastic fibres. It
possesses
1. Blood capillaries. These supply both the epidermis and dermis with food and oxygen.
Special networks supply the sweat glands and hair follicles. They play an important role
in thermoregulation.
2. Hair follicles. These are infoldings of the Malpighian layer. Cells at the base(papilla)
multiply to produce a long cylindrical hair, the cells of which become impregnated with
keratin and die. The more melanin in the hair, the darker its colour. Attached to it is a
small bundle of smooth muscle,the hair erector muscle, contraction of which causes the
hair to become erect.
3. Sebaceous glands. Situated at the side of the hair follicle, these produce an oily
secretion called sebum which waterproofs the hair and epidermis. It also keeps the
epidermis supple and protects against bacteria and dust.
4. Sweat glands. These are coiled tubes made up of cells which absorb fluid from
surrounding capillaries and secrete it into the tube, from where it passes to the skin
surface via the sweat duct. Sweat has a variable composition, consisting mainly of water
 in which mineral salts and urea are dissolved. Evaporation of sweat from the skin surface
helps to cool the body.
5. Sensory nerve endings. There is a variety of different sensory cells concerned with
providing information on the external environment. These include: (a) touch receptors
(Meissner's corpuscles); (b) pressure receptors (Pacinian corpuscles); (c) pain receptors;
(d) temperature receptors.
6. Subcutaneous fat. Beneath the dermis is a layer of fat (adipose) tissue. This acts both
as a long-term food reserve and as an insulating layer.

Functions of the skin

1. Protection against;
✓ Mechanical damage- the epidermis becoes hardened by friction
✓ Ultraviolet radiation - melanin acts as a barrier to ultraviolet radiations by absorbing them.
✓ Microorganisms - dead cells of cornified layer act as a barrier, sebum from sebaceous glands
has antibacterial action.
✓ Predators - structures such as claws, horns can be used for defence and attack.
✓ Heavy water loss or water gain- oily sebum secreted on skin surface waterproofs the skin.
2. Thermoregulation by varying the amount of sweating, thickness and position of hair,
thickness of adipose layer, and blood supply to the surface.
3. Detection of stimuli- contains receptors sensitive to touch, pain, temperature,
pressure, light.
 4. Communication - chemicals called pheromones are released by specialized sweat
glands.
5. Camouflage by the colour of the skin
6. Production of vitamin D - dermis contains lipids called sterols which are converted
by ultraaviolet light into vitamin D.
Response to cold by an endothermic animal.
Physical mechanisms
a) The subcutaneous fat beneath the dermis of the skin serves as an insulator and reduces
heat loss from the body.animals living in cold habitats e.g. seals and polar nears therefore
have a very thick layer of subcutaneous fat.
b) The hair is raised to a more or less vertical position by contraction of erector pili
muscles. Air is trapped in the spaces between hairs. This air gets warmed by the body and
being an insulator it serves as an insulatory layer around the animal. In birds, feathers
serve the same function.
c) Superficial blood vessels in the skin constrict so that blood is diverted from the surface
to deeper layers. This reduces loss of heat from the blood to atmosphere. In exposed
structures such as the ears there are special shunt vessels interconnecting the arterioles
and venules that take blood to and from the superficial capillaries of the skin. In cold
conditions, shunt vessels dilate so blood by passes the skin surface. This is aided by a
general reduction in the total volume of blood circulating achieved by some blood being
taken up into reservoirs like the spleen. In prolonged conditions of extreme cold, blood
may be diverted from the surface to such an extent and for so long that cells die, resulting
in frost bite.
d) Small surface-area to volume ratio. Animals in colder climates have a tendency to be
more compact, with smaller extremities, than related species in warm climates. In this
way heat loss is reduced.
e) Variations between superficial and core temperature. The extremities of animals in
cold regions are maintained at lower temperatures than the core body temperature. This
reduces the temperature gradient between them and the environment. This is especially
important in order to reduce heat loss from the feet which are in contact with the cold
ground. The reduction of heat loss from these extremities is achieved by counter-current
heat exchangers found in the limbs of certain birds and mammals. Blood in veins
returning from the limbs passes alongside blood in arteries. Heat from the warm blood
entering the limb in arteries is transferred to cold blood in the vein returning from it. The
limb is thereby kept at a lower temperature and cold blood is prevented from entering the
core of the body.
Chemical mechanism
f) Extra heat is produced by an increase in metabolic rate, particularly of the liver and the
muscles. This starts as a general increase in muscular tone but may be followed by
rhythmical involuntary contractions of skeletal muscles (shivering). low temperature
stimulates increased activity of the adrenal, thyroid and pituitary glands which produce
hormones that increase metabolic rate.
 Many mammals have patches of brown fats which have a rich blood supply and a very
high metabolic rates. Its function is to produce heat especially in hibernators as they come out of
hibernation and babies babies whose temperature regulating mechanisms are not yet fully
developed.
NB: one reason why certain people remain thin despite eating a lot is that they posses a
comparatively amounts of brown fat.
g) Behavioral mechanisms. In cold regions, animals are usually more active during
day(diurnal). huddling of groups of mammals is a way to reduce heat loss.reproductive
behavior is adapted to ensure young ones are born at a time when food is available by the
time they are weaned. Delayed fertilization and implantation may occur.
h) Hibernation.During times of greatest cold and hence shortest supply of food,
mammals like squirrels and dormice may undergo a period of long sleep. During tins
time the metabolic rate is reduced 20-100 times below that of normal with a consequent
reduction in food and oxygen consumption. The hibernation may last several months,
during which time fat reserves accumulated during the summer are used. These reserves
take the form of brown adipose tissue winch is easily metabolized at low temperatures.
Breathing and heart beat become slow and irregular. The body temperature falls close to
that of the environment, being 1-4oC higher. To prevent the body freezing at temperatures
of - 4oC and below; well insulated and sheltered nests are essential, often underground.
The role of the hypothalamus/brain in temperature regulation
Core body temperature is controlled by the thermoregulatory centre of the hypothalamus which
monitors temperature of blood flowing through it and is connected to thermoreceptors in the
skin.
The thermoregulatory centre consists of heat gain centre and heat loss centre.
Increase in temperature of blood passing through the hypothalamus stimulates the heat loss
centre or increase in environmental temperature stimulates the hot receptors in the skin which
send impulses via afferent nerves to the heat loss centre.
The heat loss centre then sends impulses via efferent nerves to the;
✓ Arterioles of the skin causing vasodilation which increases heat loss from the skin by
radiation, convection and conduction.
✓ Erector pili muscles to them to relax, flattening the hair, hence decreasing the thickness of
the layer of air.
✓ Sweat glands increasing sweating, and panting.
✓ Skeletal muscles decreasing muscular activity.
✓ Adrenal medulla inhibiting secretion of adrenaline hence decreasing metabolic rate.
✓ Thyroid gland inhibiting secretion of thyroxine hormone, decreasing metabolic rate.
These decreases in body temperature back to norm.
When temperature of blood flowing through the hypothalamus is low or when environmental
temperature is low, the cold receptors in the skin are stimulated and send impulses to the heat
gain centre.
The heat gain centre sends impulses via efferent nerves to the;
✓ Arterioles of the skin increasing vasoconstriction. This decreases heat loss from the skin by
radiation, convection and conduction.
✓ The erector pili muscles to contract, raising the hair which traps a thick layer of warm air.
✓ Sweat glands to inhibit sweating and panting.
✓ Skeletal muscles to increase muscular activity resulting into shivering.
✓ Adrenal medulla to secrete adrenalin which increases metabolic rate
✓ Thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine which increases metabolic rate.
These increase the body temperature back to normal.

Difference between the heat loss centre(heat centre) and the heat gain centre(cold centre)
Heat loss centre(anterior hypothalamus) Heat gain centre (posterior hypothalamus )
Activated by increase in temperature of the Activated by nerve impulses from the cold
hypothalamus receptors in the skin or decrease in temperature
of the hypothalamus
Increases vasodilation. Therefore increases Increases vasoconstriction. Therefore
heat loss from the skin by radiation, convection decreases heat loss from the skin by radiation,
and conduction. convection and conduction.
Increases sweating and panting Inhibits sweating and panting
Decreases metabolic activity Increases metabolic activity through shivering
and release of thyroxine and adrenaline
Decreases thickness of air layer by flattening Increases the thickness of air layer by
hair (relaxing erector pili muscles) contraction of erector pili muscles, making
hair to stand on end.

Response to heat by an endothermic animal

1. Animals living in hot climates have comparatively little sub cutaneous fats. The fat
deposits tend to be localized to encourage heat loss e.g. the camels fat is stored in its
hump and, on top of the neck in buffalo.
2. The hair is lowered by relaxation of the erector pili muscles so that it lies flat on the
skin surface. With no spaces between the hairs, no air can be trapped against the skin.
Insulation is reduced and heat can be lost more readily by convection and radiation.
However when heat cannot be loss in this way when environmental temperature is higher
than body temperature, instead the hair becomes important in insulating the body against
excessive heat uptake especially in large animals like camels which cannot escape the
heat of the sun. In warm climate, the fur/ hair is usually light in cooler to reflect the suns
radiations.
3. Superficial blood vessels dilate so blood is brought near to the surface of the skin from
which it can loss heat to the surrounding atmosphere. The shunt vessels are constricted
and the total blood volume is raised, therefore further increasing the blood supply to the
surface.
 4. Sweating or panting occur. Sweating involves secretion of watery fluid from sweat
glands in the skin. Evaporation of sweat from the surface of the body cools the skin and
the blood flowing through it. The cooling effect of sweating is affected by the following
factors
✓ Relative humidity. When humidity is low, evaporation and hence cooling is rapid. When
relative humidity is high, evaporation and hence cooling is slow.
✓ Temperature. Evapoartion and hence cooling is rapid when temperature is high.
✓ Air movements. Normal evaporation is greatly enhanced by air movements. A gentle breeze
will disperse the high humidity that builds up around the body after a long period of
sweating and encorage further evapoartion to take place.
In the dog and cat families, there are no sweat glands except in the pads of paws and so heat is
lost by panting from the mouth and nose. This greatly speeds up heat loss from the lungs and
also facilitates loss of heat from blood as it flows through the pulmonary capillaries.
Licking has also been reported in kangaroos, cats and rabbits though not very effective like
sweating.

5. The metabolic rate falls so that less heat is generated by the body. This is why
mammals are generally less active in hot weather than in cold weather.
6. large body extremities such as the ears to provide large surface area to volume ratio.
Being well supplied with blood vessels and covered with relatively short hair, ears are
good heat radiators.
7. Variation of body temperature. Some desert animals allow their body temperature to
fluctuate with specific ranges. In camels, this 34- 41oC. By allowing their body
temperature to rise during the day, they reduce the temperature gradient between their
body and the environment and so reduce heat gain. In addition, the onset of sweating is
delayed so conserving water.
8. Behavioral mechanisms. Some desert animals avoid the high temperature by being
nocturnal, others aestivate, others avoid the sun by sheltering under rocks or burrowing
beneath the surface.
Regulation of skin temperature.
The system that regulates skin temperature consists of a set point, detectors, comparator, and
corrective mechanism.
The set point is the preferred skin temperature when one feels comfortable.
The detectors are thermoreceptors in the skin i.e. the heat receptors detect increase in skin
temperature and cold receptors detect decrease in skin temperature.
The cortex of the brain is the comparator. If we feel cold or warm we may decide to move to a
warmer or cooler area, add clothes or remove clothes, or take any other volunatry actions that
bring our body temperature back to the set point.
The error signal consists of nerve impulses supplying the voluntary skeletal muscles.
Behavoral responses act as the corrective measures.

Behavioral control of body temperature.

In ectotherms
✓ Lying in the sun to gain heat by radiation
✓ Absorbing heat from rocks and sand by conduction
✓ Desert lizards are more active in the morning and evening when it is neither hot nor cold,
and hide in shady places like under rocks in the heat of the day.
✓ Larger reptiles like alligators keep cool by thermal gaping.
✓ Tortoises salivate over their neck and front legs to cool their body by evaporation.
✓ Burrowing at night or hiding in crevices to build a warm atmosphere.
In endotherms
✓ birds migrate e.g many birds that spend the summer in northern regions , migrate southwards
to warmer latitudes in winter.
✓ Hibernation.
In winter when temperatures are low and food is short, animals become inactive and enter a
prolonged deep sleep. metabolic rate, oxygen consumption, heart and breathing rates falls to a
minimum required to maintain vital activities of the cells, body temperature falls and is
maintained at a lower set point, slightly above environmental temperature.food reserves in the
body provide the energy to maintain a slow rate of metabolism. Hibernation is common in small
mammals because of their relatively large surface area to volume ratio which makes heat loss
more rapid.
Large mammals e.g. grizzly bears have a period of hibernation called winter sleep when the body
temperature remains high even when the surrounding is cold.
Desert mammals have a form of hibernation to survive long periods of drought rather than cold
called aestivation. During prolonged periods of drought food is short. Reduced rate of breathing
also reduces water loss to prevent desiccation.

Advantages of hibernation
 It is a means of surviving prolonged cold weather when food is scarce.
 Prevents excessive heat loss since organism may burrow underground. During hibernation,
defaecation and urination stop, helping to conserve heat.
 Lowering of set point or switching off the thermostat saves energy expenditure
 It minimizes oxygen consumption.
Disadvantages of hibernation
 Switching off the thermostat in bats can lead to fatal condition if the environmental
temperature falls too low.
 Reduced activity may make an organism susceptible to predation.

Advantages of aestivation
 Enables organism to survive long periods of drought
 Reduced rate of breathing reduces water loss and prevents desiccation.
 Prevents gaining of alot of heat that may raise the core body temperature
 Reduced need for oxygen uptake.

✓ Sleeping in burrows to avoid heat in the desert during day e.g kangaroo rat
✓ Humans wear clothes to trap a layer of air that insulates the body against heat loss.
✓ Temperature tolerance. e.g. camels have tissues that can function well at a wide range of
temperatures. The camel saves water by not sweating, however this means heat is not lost by
sweating. During day, the body temperature rises as high as 40oC, then falls at night to as
low as 34oC, this means that during the next day, the body temperature climbs from
abnormally low, therefore it does not reach the lethal temperature. Camels tissues are also
tolerant to dehydration.
Temperature regulation and the environment(UNEB 2016/1/42)
Consider the graph of metabolic rate as a function of environmental temperature.

Efficiency range is the range of temperature over which the body’s physical mechanisms alone are
capable of maintaining a constant body temperature. Physical mechanisms include insulation by sub
cutaneous fat, and raising of hair, vasodilation and vasoconstriction and evaporation of sweat or
panting.
Low critical temperature is the lowest temperature at which physical mechanisms alone can regulate
the body temperature. At this temperature the physical mechanisms are no longer capable of
maintaining a constant body temperature on their own, and so metabolic rate starts to increase.
Further lowering of environmental temperature leads to further increase in metabolic rate until
eventually the chemical mechanism breaks down. Lower lethal temperature is reached and the subject
dies.

High critical temperature is the temperature at which the body’s cooling mechanisms fail, and metabolic
rate increases as environmental temperature rises. The body’s ability to regulate its temperature breaks
down and so chemical reactions in the cells every time temperature rises by 10oC. The metabolic rate
goes on increasing even if environmental temperature is no longer increased because any increase in
metabolic rate generates heat which increases the metabolic rate further. This is an example of positive
feedback.
As the the body temperature continues to rise, heat exhaustion sets in characterized by cramps and
dizziness. This is followed by death at the upper lethal temperature (42oC for humans)
NB: The efficiency range of an individual is not constant and fixed. If kept in areas of low temperature,
an individual acclimatizes by lowering the low critical temperature e.g hibernators. If kept in high
temperatures, an individual raises its higher critical temperature.
A graph of metabolic rate of different mammals as a function of the environmental temperature.

The critical temperature at which metabolic rate starts to rise is much lower for arctic than tropical
animals.

A graph of relationship between body temperature and air temperature in three different kinds of
animals.
In winter, the hibernators homeostatic set point is lowered so that it maintains a constant body
temperature at a lower level than in the summer.
The non hibernating endotherm maintains the same body temperature throughout the year.
The ectotherm is unable to maintain a constant body temperature.
Adaptations of camel to hot dry climate
1. Losing heat through evaporation from the body surface inhot dry conditions with free access
to water.
2. When deprived of water, the camel can tolerate a wide range of body temperature
fluctuation by storing heat depending on the extent of dehydration, in order to conserve water.
This heat is then released during the night by convection , radiation and conduction.
3. By being partially ectothermic, the camel reduces the temperature differences between the
body and the environment hence reducing heat gain.
4. Fur of the camel acts as an insulator by reducing heat gain and water loss.
5. Camel is able to tolerate dehydration because it is able to maintain its blood volume even
when dehydrated.
NB: heat death as a result of dehydration is due to decrease in blood volume which results to inability of
circulatory system to transfer heat from the core body to the surface at a rate fast enough to prevent
overheating.
6. The camel is able to drink a large volume of water in a short period of time to rehydrate the
body tissues after severe dehydration.
7. The camel can gain water from oxidation of fats stored in the humps, but this is not very
effective.
2. Ectotherms (poikilotherms)
Ectotherms are organisms which are unable to maintain their body temperature within narrow
limits using physiological mechanisms but do so by behavioral mechanisms. E.g. all non
vertebrates, fish, reptiles, and amphibians.
Their body temperature changes with changes in environmental temperatures. Because they rely
on heat derived from outside the body(external environment), they are known as ectotherms.
Both endotherms and ectotherms maintain reasonably constant temperatures but by totally by
different means; endotherms by physiological means, ectotherms by behavioral means.
The majority of animals are ectotherms and their activity is determined by the environmental
temperature. Their metabolic rate is relatively low and they lack physiological mechanisms of
conserving heat.
Advantages of ectothermy
⚫ Low food consumption due to low metabolic rate
⚫ Require less energy to regulate body temperature.
⚫ Can regulate body tempertaure by simply behavioral means
Disadvantages of ectothermy
⚫ Can only occupy limited range of habitats
⚫ Low metabolic rate makes the less active
⚫ Susceptible to predation in cold areas due to low activity
⚫ Discontinuous physiological activities
Temperature regulation in aquatic ectotherms
Aquatic ectotherms live within restricted temperature ranges determined by the size of the water
body in which they live e.g. temperature of a pond may vary throughout the year while the
temperature of an ocean may change by only a few degrees.
Aquatic temperatures are more stable and less extreme than terrestrial.many animals therefore
have aquatic stages in their life cycle e.g. mosquitoes, mayflies, dragonflies etc.
Aquatic non vertebrates are able to tolerate greater temperature fluctuations than aquatic
vertebrates due to their relatively simple physiology.
Fish have a higher rate of metabolism than aquatic non vertebrates but the majority of extra heat
produced is rapidly spread around the body and lost to the surrounding through the gills and skin
so fish usually have a body temperature in equilibrium with that of the water. Some fish can
maintain the heat through counter current heat exchange systems.
Temperature regulation in terrestrial ectotherms
Terrestrial ectotherms have to cope with greater temperature fluctuations than those of aquatic
ectotherms, but they have the benefit of living at higher environmental temperatures allowing
them to be more active. The relatively poor conductivity of air reduces the rate of heat loss from
the organism whilst water loss by evaporation may be used to cool them.

Mechanisms of temperature control in ectotherms

In cold conditions
1. Some ectotherms become dark in colour at low temperatures to absorb solar radiation
and heat up rapidly e.g. a species of Australian grasshopper, and a horned lizard.
2. Some ectotherms position themselves at right angles to the suns rays to increase
surface area exposed to heating. e.g. desert locust and horned lizard
3. Reptiles move into water at night to avoid the low temperatures on land.
4. lizards hide in burrows or under rocks.
5. Iguana, a marine reptile also reduces blood flow between the surface and the core
tissues by slowing the heart rate while in water in order to avoid losing heat.
6. Lying in the sun or on rocks or sand.
7. Desert lizards are most active in the early morning and evening when it is neither hot
nor cold.
8. Fish have a body temperature which is in equilibrium with the water hence reducing
water loss.
9. Tuna fish retain heat by means of countercurrent heat exchange system.
10. Aquatic non vertebrates are ale to tolerate greater temperature fluctuations than
aquatic vertebrates due to their relatively simple physiology.
11. Many species maintain there body temperatures slightly above or below
environmental temperature to reduce heat gain or heat loss.
12. Lizards and desert locust orient their body parallel to the suns rays or raise its body
off the ground or climbs vegetation to reduce heat gain by radiation and conduction.
13. Some artic fish prevent their blood and tissue fluid from freezing by secreting a
glycoprotein which acts as a natural antifreeze

In hot conditions
 1. Reptiles also open their mouth to increase heat loss by evaporation
2. In the heat of the day, desert lizards retire to shady places such as under rocks
3. Thermal gaping. Alligators open their mouths and evaporation of water from the
buccal cavity has cooling effect.
4. Iguana improve the effect of thermal gaping by protruding their tongue and breathing
rapidly.the tongue has rich blood supply.
5. Tortoises salivate over their necks and front legs thereby cooling the body by
evaporation.
6. When temperatures become too high, reptiles move into water which is relatively
cooler.
7. Horned lizard is capable of reducing its surface area by pulling back its ribs to reduce
heat gain.
8. Panting removes excess heat by evaporation of water from the mouth, pharynx and
lungs, eye balls
9. Thermal dancing in reptiles
14. Elimination of urine from the cloaca in reptiles
15. The reptile iguana basks on rocks
16. The moist skin of amphibians enables heat loss by evaporation.
17. Amphibians move to moist shaded places to reduce heat loss by evaporation.
18. As temperature rises up above the set point, absorption is reduced by the exoskeleton
becoming lighter in colour e.g. in species of Australian grass hopper and horned lizard.
Effect of temperature on animal growth and distribution
On growth
Temperature influences metssbolic activity of animals in a number of ways;
⚫ Temperature mainly affects the rate of enzyme activity and the rate of movement of atoms
and molecules. This directly affects the rate of animal growth.
⚫ Temperature also affects the geographical distribution of animals through its influence on
plants as primary producers in the food chain. With exception of some insects, birds and
mammals which migrate, the ecological range of most animals is determined by the local
availability of food.
⚫

Temperature control in plants

Influence of temperature on growth and distribution of plants
Temperature is a limiting factor in the growth and distribution of plants by influencing the rates
of processes like cell division. Photosynthesis and other metabolic processes. The light
independent reactions of photosynthesis are temperature dependent and lead to various metabolic
pathways.
The rate of photosynthesis and accumulation of sufficient food to enable the plant complete its
life cycle are important factors determining the geographical range of plants.
Adaptations of plants to low temperatures(temperate climate)
Temperate climate consists of only mosses and a few grasses and fast growing annuals. To
overcome adverse conditions such as low light intensity, low temperature and frozen soil, the
plants show many structural, physiological and behavioral adaptations for example.
✓ Most woody perennials are deciduous and loss their leaves under the influence of plant
growth regulator abscisic acid(ABA) in order to prevent water loss by transpiration during
periods when water uptake is limited by low temperature.
✓ Shedding off leaves also prevents wind and snow damage during this period when rate of
photosynthesis is limited by low light intensities, low temperature and unavailable water and
salts.
✓ The buds are protected by scale leaves during this period.
✓ The buds become dormant. Their metabolic activity is inhibited by presence of abscisic acid.
✓ The conifers have needle like leaves which reduces the amount of snow that can accumulate
on them.
✓ Conifers have thick cuticle to prevent water loss in the summer.
✓ Many annuals have short growing periods.
✓ Many annuals produce resistant seeds or organs of perennation.
✓ Some for example lilac buds require low temperatures to break dormancy.
✓ Tissues of plants can tolerate wide fluctuations in temperature.
Adaptations of plants to high temperatures
High temperatures are associated with water shortage. Most adaptations of plants to high
temperature is related to ability to resist desiccation. For example
✓ Thin leaves provide larges surface area to volume ratio to allow gaseous exchange and
absorb light. This also prevents damage by excessive heating because a thin leave has a
relatively low heat capacity and therefore assumes the temperature of its environment.
✓ Secretion of shinny cuticle by he epidermis, which reflects much of the incident light,
preventing heat being absorbed and overheating the plants.
✓ The large surface area contains numerous stomatal openings which allow transpiration
resulting into cooling.
✓ Many plants wilt in response to high temperature due the rate of transpiration being greater
than the rate of water uptake by roots. This results into overall loss of turgidity by
parenchyma cells . this prevents overheating by reducing the surface area of leaves exposed
to direct sunlight.
✓ They posses needle like leaves which permits maximum heat loss.
✓ They produce abscisic acid that caues stomata to close thus reducing water loss by
transpiration.
✓ Some respond to extreme conditions by surviving in seed or spore form. These are called
drought evaders and can germinate, grow and flower in a short time after rain.
(B.S 700)

EXCRETION AND OSMOREGULATION

Excretion is the removal from the body of waste products of metabolism. If waste products
accumulate in the body, they become toxic and prevent maintenance of homeostasis.

Egestion((defaecation) is the removal of undigested food from the gut. This is different from
excretion because the materials taken into the gut through the mouth is not made by the body
itself. The only excretory pigment in faeces are bile pigments, bilirubin from breakdown of haem
group of haemoglobin.

Secretion is release of useful substances such as hormones from cells. Some few excretory
products are also secreted into the kidney during excretion.

Osmoregulation is maintenance of a constant osmotic conditions in the body. Or

Is the process by which the osmotic pressure of blood and tissue fluid is kept constant.
Osmotic pressure is determined by relative amounts of solutes and water in body fluids(cell
content, blood plasma, tissue fluid, and lymph). Osmoregulation involves regulation of water
content and solute content of body fluids.
Solutes whose concentration should be kept constant include mainly sodium, potassium and
chloride ions, plus others like magnesium, calcium, iron(II), hydrogen, iodine,phosphate, and
hydrogen carbonate.

Significance of excretion and osmoregulation.

1. Removal of unwanted products of metabolic pathways.
Many metabolic reactions are reversible and the direction of reaction is determined by the
relative concentrations of reactants and products e.g. A + B C+D
Continued production of useful product C is ensured by removal of unwanted product D.
2. Removal of toxic wastes.
Most waste products of metabolism are toxic, acting as enzyme inhibitors and hence affecting
metabolic activity if allowed to accumulate.
3. Regulation of ionic concentration of body fluids.
Ions are vital for many metabolic activities such as enzyme activity, protein synthesis,
production of hormones and respiratory pigments, membrane permeability, electrical activity and
muscle contraction, regulating PH, water, solute potential of body fluids. If balance of ions is not
maintained in body fluids, efficiency of cell activities is reduced. E.g. reduction in concentration
of sodium ions decreases nervous coordination.
4. Regulation of water content of body fluids
Regulating of amount of water is important in maintaining solute potential and volume of body
fluids.
Regulation of amount of water in the body has produced some of the most important structural
and functional adaptations shown by organisms.
5. Regulation of pH
This involves regulation of hydrogen ions and hydrogen carbonate ions which influence the pH
of blood. Hydrogen and hydrogen carbonate ions may be excreted in urine to maintain the pH of
body fluids constant
Excretory products
Major excretory products in animals.
Excretory product Source
Nitrogenous compounds e.g. urea, Breakdown of proteins, nucleic acids or
ammonia, uric acid amino acids
Carbon dioxide From cell respiration. In autotrophs, this
may be used as a source of carbon.
Bile pigments Breakdown of haem in the liver.
Oxygen From photosynthesis in plants, algae and
some bacteria.
Some of these may e used in respiration
Water From metabolic reactions e.g. aerobic
respiration.
Mineral salts

Nitrogenous excretory products and environment

The first product of breakdown of amino acids(deamination) is ammonia. Ammonia may be
excreted immediately or converted to less toxic forms, urea or uric acid. The exact nature of
excretory product is determined by three factors;
1. Production of enzymes necessary to convert ammonia into urea or uric acid.
2. Availability of water in the habitat for the removal of the nitrogenous waste material.
3. The animals ability to control water loss or water uptake.
Relationship between excretory products and habitat of representative animal groups.
Animal Excretory product Habitat
Protozoan Ammonia Aquatic
Freshwater bony fish Ammonia Aquatic
Marine bony fish Urea, trimethylamine oxide Aquatic
Mammal Urea Terrestrial
Terrestrial Insects Uric acid Terrestrial
Birds Uric acid Terrestrial

The correlation with habitat may be summarized as;

Ammonia aquatic (water conservation not a problem)
Urea aquatic/ terrestrial
Uric acid terrestrial

1. Ammonia
The major source of ammonia is deamination of excess amino acids.
Formation of ammonia/ deamination
Excess amino acid is oxidized by liver cells using oxygen. This results in removal of the amino
group (-NH2) and leaving an acid.
The acid can enter Krebs cycle and be used as a source of energy in cell respiration.
The amino group is converted into ammonia.
Properties
➢ Extremely toxic therefore requires large volumes of water for diluted and eliminated
immediately from the body.
➢ Extremely soluble so can be eliminated from the body if diluted in sufficient volumes of
water.
➢ Diffuses readily across cell membranes.
It is therefore excreted rapidly as ammonium ions in most aquatic organisms.
NB: marine and terrestrial organisms have a problem of gaining and conserving water, therefore
little is available for removal of nitrogenous wastes.These organisms have therefore developed
alternative means of excreting nitrogenous wastes.

2. Urea
Urea is formed by combination of two molecules of ammonia with one molecule of carbon
dioxide in the urea/ ornithine cycle.Formation of urea requires some energy expenditure.
Formation of urea/ Ornithine/ urea cycle
Ammonia is very toxic and very soluble therefore it is converted to urea in a series of enzyme
catalyzed reactions known as the ornithine cycle in order to avoid its harmful effects and
conserve water.

During the ornithine cycle, ornithine combines with one molecule of ammonia and carbon
dioxide to form citrulline. This is accompanied by release of a water molecule.
Citulline then combines with another molecule of ammonia to form arginine, accompanied by
release of another water molecule.
The arginine is hydrolyzed by reacting with a water molecule to form a molecule of urea and
regenerate ornithine and the cycle repeats.
Overall, two molecules of ammonia and one molecule of carbon dioxide are used, one molecule
of water and one molecule of urea are made. Ornithine is regenerated ready for the next cycle.
2NH2 + CO2 CO(NH2)2 + H2O
Urea
Properties of urea
➢ Less toxic than ammonia so less water is needed for its elimination since tissues can tolerate
high concentrations of it.
➢ Less soluble in water
➢ It is a small molecule therefore it is easily filtered in the kidney.
Advantages of using urea as a nitrogenous waste product.
➢ It is non toxic therefore can be carried around the body in blood from the liver where it is
made until it is removed in the kidneys
➢ It is very soluble therefore it does not require much water to get rid of it and it is easily
transported.
➢ It is a small molecule therefore easily filtered in the kidneys.
It is therefore the main excretory product in marine and terrestrial organisms like mammals.
3. Uric acid
Like urea, formation of uric acid requires some energy expenditure. However this is outweighed
by the advantages it confers to the organism.
Properties of uric acid
➢ Non toxic(less toxic than urea) so they can be stored in cells, tissues and organs without
producing any harmful effects. They also require very little water for excretion.
➢ They are insoluble in water (less soluble than urea) so does not produce any harmful
osmoregulatory effects.
➢ Its storage within the organism does not greatly increase their mass since it contains little
water if any. This is an advantage to flying organisms e.g. birds and insects.
➢ It has a high nitrogen content
NB: uric acid and its salts are ideal excretory products for terrestrial organisms and essential for
land insects and birds which produce shelled eggs. As concentration of uric acid in tissue rises, it
settles out as a solid precipitate.
In birds and insects, uric acid is removed as solid pellets or thick paste.
Humans excrete small amounts of uric acid from breakdown of nucleic acids rather than
proteins.

Effect of environment on osmoregulation

The bodies of many aquatic organisms have higher water potential(lower osmotic potential) than
that of the environment. The body therefore loses water by osmosis to the environment.
Organisms with bodies of lower water potential(higher osmotic potential) than the surrounding
gain water by osmosis. In order to minimize the exchanges, aquatic organisms often an
impermeable outer covering.
All terrestrial organisms face the problem of water loss from their body fluids to the
environment. The body fluids of these organisms are maintained by specialized osmoregulatory/
excretory structures.

Excretion and osmoregulation in terrestrial animals

Osmoregulatory challenges faced by terrestrial animals
➢ Water loss by evaporation from their permeable surfaces.
➢ Scarcity of water.
Ways terrestrial animals overcome these problems.
➢ By having water proof integuments. Such as the cornified epithelium of mammals skin,
the keratinous scales of reptiles which provide insulation against water loss. Amphibians are
the least adapted mammals in this respect because their skin is thin and moist and so
encourages evaporation. This explains why amphibians are restricted to damp places. Insects
have developed a water proof waxy cuticle which is impermeable to water.
NB:
❖ water proofing is only a passive way of conserving water and cannot be complete since the
animal has to breathe, therefore some amount of evaporation occurs from respiratory
surfaces.

➢ By reducing the glomerular filtration rate. This is because the kidneys of vertebrates
living in hot dry places e,g the desert frog, chiroleptes have fewer and smaller glomeruli
than those in moist temperate regions.
➢ By producing a non toxic nitrogenous waste. Amphibians and mammals excrete urea
which requires less water for its removal. Reptiles, birds and insects excrete uric acid which
is insoluble in water. Water can therefore be extensively removed from it and it is excreted
in solid or semi solid.
➢ By reabsorbing water. Mammals and birds posses a loop of Henle which reabsorbs water
from the glomerular filtrate flowing in kidney tubules. Desert mammals e.g. kangaroo rat
have extra long loop of Henle and high concentration of ADH in their blood and as a result
produce very concentrated urine. In birds, water is reabsorbed from faeces and excretory
 waste in the cloaca to form a semi solid sludge. In insects water is reabsorbed from uric acid
in the malpighian tubule and rectal glands.
➢ By using metabolic water. Desert animals such as Kangaroo rat oxidizes fats to produce
metabolic water, which is conserved by reducing evaporation from the lungs, not sweating,
and producing highly concentrated urine and very dry faeces. For this reason , it does not
need to drink.
➢ By having tissues tolerant to water loss. Camels tissues can tolerate levels of dehydration
which would be fatal to humans.
➢ By behavioral means. Many animals avoid or reduce water loss by changing their
behaviour or habitats. E.g. kangaroo rat remains in its burrows during heat of the day, earth
warms burrow deeper to areas where soil is so moist that its excretory organ, nephridium,
functions to get rid of excess water and conserve salts instead. Animals like lungfishes go
into a state of dormancy known as aestivation.
Excretion and osmoregulation in terrestrial vertebrates
1. Excretion and osmoregulation in mammals
Excretory structures in mammals.
The skin.
Water, urea and salts are actively secreted from capillaries in the skin by tubules of the sweat
glands. Sweat is secreted on o the skin where it evaporates. In this way heat is lost and this helps
in temperature regulation.
Lungs
Lungs is the only excretory organ for carbon dioxide in mammals. Carbon dioxide and water
diffuse from the surface of lungs. Some of the water released from surface of the lungs is
metabolic.
Liver
The most important excretory role of the liver is the formation of urea from excess amino acids.
The liver also forms bile pigments from breakdown of haemoglobin of old red blood cells. The
bile pigments pass in bile to the duodenum where it is removed along with faeces.
Kidney
The kidney is the major excretory and osmoregulatory organ of mammals and has the following
functions.
➢ Removal of metabolic waste products
➢ Regulation of water content of body fluids
➢ Regulation of pH of body fluids
➢ Regulation of chemical composition of body fluids by removal off substances which are in
excess.
➢ Regulation of blood pressure
➢ Regulation of salt content
Structure of the kidney.
Humans have a pair of kidneys situated towards the back in the lower abdominal cavity. The left
kidney lies slightly above the right.
The kidney contains two distinct regions; the outer cortex and inner medulla.
The cortex is the cortex contains the glomeruli, the Bowman’s capsules and the convoluted
tubules with their associated blood supplies.
The medulla contains the loops of Henle, the collecting ducts and and blood vessels. These
structures in the medulla are in groups known as renal pyramids and they project into an
expanded portion of the ureter known as the pelvis. The apex of each pyramid is called a papilla.
The kidney receives blood from the aorta via the renal artery and renal veins return blood to the
posterior vena cava.
The kidney is made up of numerous minute tubules each called a nephron.

Structure of a nephron
Nephron is the basic structural and functional unit of the kidney.
Each nephron is composed of six regions.
1. The renal corpuscle/malpighian body. It is composed of the Bowman’s capsule(renal
capsule) and the glomerulus
Bowman’s capsule consists of a capsular space between the inner and outer lining of the capsule.
The inner lining is in close contact with walls of glomerular capillaries. The barrier between the
capsular space and the lumen of the capillaries is 2 layers of cells I.e. the epithelium of capsule
and the endothelium of the capillary.
acts as an ultrafiltration unit, separating large particles(which remain in blood) from small
particles(which pass into the nephron).
glomerulus is a dense network of capillaries in the invagination of the Bowman’s capsule. Blood
is conveyed to the glomerulus by an afferent vessel, a branch of the renal artery and blood leaves
the glomerulus via efferent vessel which branches into capillaries enveloping the whole tubule
system.
2. Proximal convoluted tubule
This is the first part of the tubule which is continuous with the capsular space and highly coiled.
It is contained in the cortex.
3. Loop of Henle
U shaped part of the tubule found in the medulla.consists of descending limb and ascending
limb. It does a hair pin in medulla and returns to the cortex.
4. Distal convoluted tubule
Highly coiled connection from the loop of Henle which opens into the collecting duct.
5. Collecting duct
Several other nephrons open into the collecting duct. The collecting ducts converge at the pelvis
and shed their contents into the ureter which coveys it to the bladder.
Capillaries of the vasa recta run parallel to the loop of Henle and collecting duct in the medulla.
Blood flows much less through these capillaries than through those surrounding the convoluted
tubules. This enables the solute potential gradient/ water potential gradient to be maintained in
the tissue of the medulla.
Types of nephrons
There are two types of nephrons; the cortical nephron and the juxtamedullary nephron
Cortical nephron Juxtamedullary nephron
 Found in the cortex Runs through both the cortex and medulla
Has short loop of Henle Has long loop of Henle
Loop of Henle extends slightly into the outer Loof of Henle extends deep into the medulla
medulla
Controls blood volume when water is available Increases water retention when water is in
short supply

NB: the proportion of the two types of nephrons in differ in different mammals e.g. in human
kidney, there are more cortical nephrons (85%) while in desert living rodent nearly all the
nephrons are juxtamedullary.

Fine structure of the Malpighian body renal corpuscle (Bowman’s capsule+ glomerulus.)
The glomerulus is a network of capillaries in the Bowman’s capsule. The diameter of the
capillaries in the glomerulus is much less than those of the afferent arteriole. This increases
pressure of blood entering the narrow capillaries. Blood leaves the glomerulus via the narrower
efferent arteriole.
Filtration takes place through three layers.
1. Endothelium of the blood capillary.
Which is very thin and perforated with numerous pores. The pores are too large, therefore
plasma proteins can pass through them.
2. Basement membrane of blood capillaries
Consists of a meshwork of fibres including collagen fibres. Water and small solute molecules
can pass through the spaces between fibres. Red blood cells and platelets are too large . proteins
are too large and are also repelled by negative electrical charges on the fibres.
3. Epithelium of the Bowman’s capsule(renal capsule)
Made of cells called podocytes, which are highly modified for filtration.the cells fit loosely
together, leaving slits called slit pores/ filtration slits. Each cell has many foot like extensions
projecting from its surface, which interlink with projections from neighbouring cells.
NB: unlike the inner lining which is made up of podocytes, outer lining of the Bowman’s is
made up of unspecialized squamous epithelial cells.
Adaptations of malpighian body for ultratiltration
➢ Afferent arteriole has a wider lumen than the glomerular capillaries. This increase pressure
of blood as it enters the glomerulus facilitating ultrafiltration
➢ The endotheliium of the blood capillaries are thin which reduces diffusion distance, hence
increasing raate of ultrfiltration.
➢ The endothelium of blood capillaries contains numerous pores which allow passage of
filtered fluid.
➢ Basement membrane is made up of fibres like collagen fibres which withstand the pressure
of blood.
➢ Basement membrane contains small pores which allow water and small solutes to pass
through it but prevents large molecules like proteins and cells.
➢ Fibres on the basement membrane posses negatively charged groups which repelled proteins
preventing them from passing with the filtrate.
➢ Podocytes posses foot-like extensions which increase surface area for diffusion of
glomerular filtrate.
➢ Podocytes fit loosely leaving filtration slits through which filtered fluid passes.
➢ Glomerulus has a dense network of capillaries to increase surface area for ultrfiltration
➢ The barrier between capsular space and lumen of capillaries consists of only two cell layers
reducing diffusion distance.
➢ The inner lining of the capsule is closely applied to the walls of the capillaries further
reducing diffusion distance.
➢ Glomerular capillaries are highly coiled to increase surface area for ultra filtration.

Fine structure of the proximal convoluted tubule

This is the longest and widest part of the nephron. It is composed of a single layer of cuboidal
epithelial cells with numerous microvilli forming brushe border on the inside surface the tubule.
At the opposite ends of the cells, their outer membranes rest on a basement membrane, and are
folded inwards to form a series of basal channels which increase surface area of the
cells.neighbouring cells are separated by narrow spaces.fluid circulates through the basal channel
and spaces. This bathes the cells and is a link between them and the surrounding network of
blood capillaries. The cells contain numerous mitochondria near the basement membrane where
they produce ATP for membrane bound carrier molecules involved in active transport.
Adaptations of proximal convoluted tubule for ultrafiltration.
➢ It is long and highly coiled to increase surface area for selective reabsorption.
➢ Made up of cells which contain numerous microvilli on their inner surface to increase
surface area for selective reabsorption.
➢ Cells contain numerous mitochondria located near basement membrane to generate ATP for
active transport
➢ Cells contain membrane bound carrier molecules near the basement membrane involved in
active transport.
➢ Basal channels increase surface area for selective reabsorption.
➢ Narrow spaces between neighbouring cells allows circulation of fluid between the cells and
the network of blood capillaries surrounding them.
➢ Numerous blood capillaries surrounding the cells increases surface area for reabsorption.
➢ The blood capillaries are very close to the cells to shorten diffusion distance
➢ It is composed of a single layer of cuboidal cells to shorten diffusion distance.

Distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct

Here fine control of amount of water and salts is achieved. They also control pH
The cells of distal tubule are similar in structure to those of proximal tubule, with mitochondria
lining their inner surface to increase surface area. And numerous mitochondria o supply energy
for active transport.
Adaptations of distal convoluted tubule
➢ It is long and coiled to increase surface area for reabsorption
➢ Its cells contain numerous microvilli to increase surface area for reabsorption
➢ Its cells contain numerous mitochondria that supply energy for active transport
➢ Cells have receptors for ADH which increases water loss.
➢ Walls are permeable to water reabsorption.
Fine structure of the loop of Henle.
Consists of three distinct regions;
1. The descending limb which has thin walls
This is highly permeable to water and permeable to most solutes(relatively impermeable to ions).
Its function is to allow substances to diffuse through its wall.
2. The thin ascending limb which is the lower half of the ascending limb and has thin
walls like the descending limb.
3. The thick ascending limb which is the upper half of the ascending and has thick walls.
The cells in the thick ascending can actively reabsorb sodium, potassium, chloride and other ions
from the tubule. However both parts of the ascending are impermeable to water. The fluid in the
ascending limb becomes very dilute by the time it reaches the distal convoluted tubule because
cells are impermeable to water.
The loop of Henle, together with the capillaries of the vasa recta and the collecting duct, creates
and maintains an osmotic gradient in the medulla, which extends across the medulla from a less
concentrated salt solution in the cortex, to a more concentrated salt solution at the tip of the
pyramid.water leaves the nephron by osmosis in response to this gradient making urine more
concentrated.
Adaptations of loop of Henle for water conservation
➢ The wall of descending limb is very permeable to water allowing faster reabsorption and
conservation of water.
➢ The ascending limb has sodium- potassium pump which actively pumps salts from the
tubule into the medulla creating an osmotic gradient in the medulla to conserve water
➢ The cells of ascending limb are impermeable to water preventing osmotic movement of
water into the medulla in order to maintain the osmotic gradient.
➢ The loop of Henle is long to increase surface area for reabsorption of water.
➢ Dense network of blood capillaries increases surface area for reabsorption and transport.
➢ Capillaries are in close proximity to the limbs to shorten diffusion distance.
➢ The hair pin shape ensures establishment of a osmotic gradient for the counter current
multiplier to function efficiently.
➢ The ascending and descending limbs run parallel to each other to allow the establishment of
the countercurrent multiplier.
NB: The function of loop of Henle is to conserve water.
birds and mammals are the only vertebrates with loop of Henle, so can produce urine which is
more concentrated than their blood.
The longer the loop of Henle, the more concentrated the urine that can be produced.
A semi aquatic mammal e.g. the beaver has a short loop of Henle and produces large volumes of
dilute urine whereas a desert dweller e.g. kangaroo rat, and jerboa have long loops of Henle and
produce small volumes of highly concentrated urine, they do not drink water but obtain it from
food and metabolic water from respiration.
Urine formation/purification of blood by the kidney
This involves three main processes
1. Ultrafiltration
2. Selective reabsorption
3. Active secretion
Ultrafiltation.
Ultra filtration is separation of large molecules from small molecules by a fine filter(filtration)
under pressure.
This takes place in the renal/Bowman’s capsule.
Blood enters the glomerulus at high pressure through the afferent arteriole from the renal artery.
The high pressure is because;
➢ The diameter of afferent arteriole is greater than that of the glomerular capillaries and the
efferent arteriole.
➢ Of the pumping action of the heart.
The pressure forces water and small solute molecules such as glucose, amino acids,vitamins,
ions, urea, uric acid, creatinine and ssome hormones out of the capillaries, through the
endothelium, the basement membrane and epithelium of capsule into the capsular space. The
endothelium and podocytes act as coarse filters but it is the continuous basement membrane that
acts as a fine filter preventing large molecules such as plasma proteins, red blood cells,white
cells and platelets.
At the point of entering the nephron the filtrate is called glomerular filtrate and it has the same
composition as blood except plasma proteins and blood cells which are too large to pass through
the basement membrane.
NB: Ultrafiltation is a passive process and selection of substances passing from blood into the
glomerular filtrate is according to their relative molecular mass(sizes).
Glomerular filtrate contains glucose, amino acids, vitamins, ions, urea, uric acid, creatinine,some
hormones and water.Some of these like glucose, ions, amino acids, vitamins, water etc are useful
to the body. The rest of the nephron is therefore concerned with reabsorption of these useful
substances. Reabsorption involves both active and passive process.
Blood from the glomerulus has a lower water potential(high osmotic pressure) due to increased
concentration of plasma proteins and a reduced hydrostatic pressure due to reduced blood
volume.
Factors affecting the glomerular filtration rate(GFR)
➢ The hydrostatic pressure of blood and the glomerular filtrate. GFR is high when hydrostatic
pressure of blood is higher than that of glomerular filtrate.
➢ Solute potential of blood and glomerular filtrate. Water tends to move from a less negative
solute potential to a more negative solute potential. As blood flows from afferent to efferent
arteriole though the glomerulus, it loses water and some solutes molecules, but plasma
proteins remain in the blood. This makes solute potential and water potential of blood more
negative and therefore decreases the GFR.
➢ Water potential of blood and glomerular filtrate. The greater the water potential of blood
compared to the glomerular filtrate, the greater the filtration pressure and GFR.
➢ Blood pressure. GFR can be increased by raising blood pressure
➢ Size of afferent arteriole. GFR is increased by dilating the afferent arteriole((vasodilation)
therefore decreasing resistance to blood flow into the glomerulus.
➢ Size of efferent arteriole. GFR can be increased by constricting the efferent
arteriole(vasoconstriction). This increases resistance to blood flow in the efferent arteriole.
Selective reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule.
Over 80% of glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed here, including all the glucose, amino acids,
vitamins, hormones and about 80% of sodium chloride and water.
Mechanism of reabsorption
Glucose, amino acids and ions diffuse into the cells off the proximal convoluted tubule from the
filtrate and are actively transported into the intercellular spaces and basal channels by membrane
bound carrier proteins.
Once in the spaces and channels they diffuse into the permeable blood capillaries and are carried
away from the nephron.
The continued removal of these substances from the cells of proximal convoluted tubule creates
a diffusion gradient down further substances move from the filtrate into the cells. Once inside the
cells, they are actively transported into the spaces and channels are diffuse into blood capillaries.
Active uptake of sodium and other ions makes solute potential in the tubular filtrate less
negative(higher water potential) and an equivalent amount of water leaves the tubular filtrate and
passes into the blood capillaries by osmosis.
About half of the urea in the filtrate is also diffuses into the blood capillaries and passes back
into general circulation.
Small proteins which passed into the tubule during ultrafiltration are removed by pinocytosis at
the base of the microvilli. They are enclosed in pinocytotic vesicles to which lysosomes are
attached. Hydrolytic enzymes in lysosomes digest the proteins into amino acids which are either
used by the tubular cells or diffuse into the blood capillaries.
Some unwanted substances such as creatinine and some urea are actively secreted from the lood
capillaries into the tissue fluid bathing the tubules, from which they are transported into the
tubular filtrate.
As a result of all these activities the tubular filtrate is isotonic with the blood in the surrounding
capillaries and passes into the descending limb of the loop of Henle.

Loop of Henle as a countercurrent multiplier.

The loop of Henle functions as a countercurrent exchange mechanism that increases solute
concentration in the medulla, creating a n osmotic gradient along which water is drown from the
collecting duct if required.
Countercurrent exchange mechanism involves exchange of heat or materials e.g. gases, water,
solutes etc between fluids flowing in opposite directions in two systems.
Countercurrent multiplier system.
Loop of Henle combines the countercurrent exchange mechanism with active secretion of
solutes, such as system is known as a countercurrent multiplier.
Salts (Sodium ions, chloride ions and potassium ions) are actively pumped out of the filtrate in
the ascending limb into the tissue fluid of the medulla by sodium-potassium pump.
The concentration of salts in the filtrate in the ascending limb decreases while the concentration
of salts in the medulla increase.Because the wall of ascending limb is impermeable to water,
water cannot leave the ascending limb by osmosis.
This creates an osmotic gradient which draws water by osmosis from the highly permeable
descending limb into the medulla. This water is carried away by blood in the vasa recta. The
surrounding fluid in the medulla becomes more and more concentrated ensuring that the osmotic
gradient is maintain.
Therefore the glomerular filtrate becomes more and more concentrated as it flows down the
descending limb, reaching its maximum concentration at the tip of the loop since water is
continuously reabsorbed into the medulla, but becomes less and less concentrated as it flows up
the ascending limb as salts are actively pumped out, yet water is not lost.
Water is also drawn from the collecting duct which runs alongside the loop of Henle in the
medulla of the kidney. In this way urine becomes more hypertonic(concentrated) as it moves out
of the nephron.
NB: The vasa recta carries out two functions;
1. Supplies oxygen and nutrients to the loop of Henle.
2. Maintains the osmotic gradient in the medulla.
Its looped arrangement, ensures that the incoming blood first gets saltier as it passes down into
the medulla as it loses water by osmosis to the highly concentrated tissue of medulla, then less
saltier as it ascends back towards the cortex because it absorbs water from the medulla tissue.
This is possible because;
➢ Walls of vesa recta are very permeable to water and solutes of small size
➢ Blood flows slowly in the vasa recta.
Some ions leak back into the thick ascending limb so the concentration in the medulla cannot rise
above 400 units. Some ions do move out of the descending limb but water moves much more
rapidly.
Reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct
The function of distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct control the
➢ Water and salts content of blood.
➢ Blood pH.
Factors which determine amount of water reabsorbed in the distal convoluted tubule and
collecting duct.
➢ The concentration gradient in the medulla created by the counercurrent multiplier system.
This concentration gradient is enhanced when salts are actively pumped out of the distal
convoluted tubule as a mechanism of salt regulation.
➢ The tubules and collecting ducts permeability to water. This is controlled by a negative feed
back mechanism involving ADH which increase their permeability to water, allowing more
water to be reabsorbed, hence producing concentrated urine.

NB: After urine is made, it flows via the ureter to bladder where it is temporarily stored, then via
urethra to outside environment. Urine release to the environment(micturition) depends on how
full the bladder is and a number of muscles controlled by nervous system.

Means of water gain

➢ From food
➢ By drinking
➢ From cell respiration
Means of water loss
➢ Through sweating
➢ Breathing
➢ In urine
➢ In faeces
Active secretion
Wastes substances e.g. creatinine and urea are added to the proximal convoluted tubule by active
secretion from blood capillaries surrounding the tubules.
Hydrogen ions, potassium ions, ammonium ions, and certain drugs are pumped into the lumen of
the tubules in order to regulate pH or remove unwanted materials. This active removal of
substances is known as tubular secretion.
Regulation of nephron function/ hormonal control of osmotic pressure pressure(solute
potential) of blood.
When blood becomes more concentrated (water potential decreases/solute potential becomes
more negative/osmotic pressure of blood rises) e.g. when too little water has been drunk or
excessive sweating has occurred or large amounts of salt have been eaten, osmoreceptors in the
hypothalamus detect the fall in solute potential of blood.
The osmoreceptors send nerve impulses to the posterior pituitary gland which releases
antidiuretic hormone(ADH).
ADH travels in blood to the kidney where it increases permeability of the distal convoluted
tubule and collecting duct to water.
ADH achieves this by binding to its specific receptors on the cell surface membrane which
stimulates fusion of vesicles containing water channel proteins to the cell membrane hence
increasing the number of water channels on the membrane.
The increased number of water channels allows more water to move from the glomerular filtrate
to the cortex and medulla by osmosis, reducing the volume of the urine and making it more
concentrated. This water is carried away in blood in the vasa recta.
ADH also increases permeability of the collecting duct to urea, which diffuses out of the urine
into the tissue fluid of the medulla. Here it increases solute concentration, resulting into removal
of increased volumes of water from the thin descending limb.
When blood becomes less concentrated(water potential increases/solute potential becomes less
negative/osmotic pressure of blood decreases) e.g.due to high intake of water, osmoreceptor are
not stimulated, ADH release is inhibited,the golgi vesicles are taken back into the cell by
endocytosis ready for recycling next time ADH is released. The walls of the distal convoluted
tubule and collecting duct become impermeable to water. Less water is reabsorbed as the filtrate
passes through the medulla and a large volume of dilute urine is excreted.
Hypothalamus also contains thirst centres. When solute potential is very negative, the thirst
centre stimulates a sensation of thirst.
NB: failure to produce sufficient ADH leads to diabete inspidus in which large volumes of dilute
urine is produce(diuresis).
Control of blood sodium level
Maintenance of blood sodium level at steady state is controlled by a steroid hormone
aldosterone which influences water reabsorption. It is secreted by the cortex of the adrenal gland.
A decrease in blood sodium level leads to a decrease in blood volume because less water enters
blood by osmosis. This reduces blood pressure.
Decrease in blood pressure and volume stimulates the juxtaglomerular complex situated between
the distal convoluted tubule and afferent arteriole to release an enzyme renin. Renin activates a
plasma protein produced in the liver to form angiotensin, an active hormone.
Angiostensin stimulates the adrenal cortex to release aldosterone hormone. Aldosterone travels
in blood to the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct where it stimulates the sodium-
potassium pump to pump more sodium ions out of the distal convoluted tubule and collecting
duct into the blood capillaries and tissues fluid. Potassium moves in the opposite direction.
Aldosterone also stimulates sodium absorption in the gut and decreases lose of sodium in sweat.
These rise the sodium level in blood back to normal, which in turn causes more water to enter
blood by osmosis, increasing blood volume and blood pressure back to normal.
If blood sodium level rises, blood volume and hence blood pressure increase beyond normal.
The juxtaglomerular complex is not stimulated, therefore renin is not secreted. This inhibits
conversion of plasma protein to angiotensin. This in turn reduces secretion of aldosterone by the
adrenal cortex, decreasing sodium reabsorption from the distal convoluted tubule and collection
duct. This reduces blood sodium level, blood volume and blood pressure back to normal.

Control of blood pH
The normal pH of blood is 7.4. This must e kept within very narrow limit because enzymes
proteins are easily denatured by changes in pH, and many other changes in body chemistry
would be affected by large changes in pH.
The body produces more acids than bases due to metabolism, therefore the problem usually is
that of reducing acidity(increasing pH) of blood. One main cause of change in pH of blood is
carbon dioxide from cell respiration.
Control of pH is achieved in three main ways;
➢ The lungs expel carbon dioxide which would otherwise accumulate and combine with water
to form carbonic acid which makes blood more acidic. Rise in carbon dioxide level brings
about a reflex action causes increased breathing rate which helps to get rid of excess carbon
dioxide.
➢ The buffering mechanism in blood suppresses the hydrogen ion concentration. E.g.
hydrogen ions are buffered by haemoglobin which combines with it to form haemoglobinic
acid. Hydrogen carbonate ions can also act as buffers by combining with hydrogen ions
when the concentration of hydrogen ions are high to form carbonic acid. Hydrogen
carbonate and phosphate buffers help to prevent hydrogen ions produced by metabolic
activities from decreasing pH of blood.
➢ The kidney gets rid of hydrogen ions and retains hydrogencarbonate ions.

Role of proximal convoluted tubule and the distal convoluted tubule in regulation of blood
pH.
The tubules and collecting duct control the pH of blood in too ways.
1. If blood starts to become too acidic, hydrogen ions are actively secreted from blood
across the cell membrane of the cells of the tubules or collecting duct into the tubules or
collecting duct. In addition, Cells of the distal convoluted tubule also combine water and
carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid. This then dissociates to form hydrogen ions and
hydrogen carbonate ions. The hydrogen ions are then pumped into the lumen of the
tubules where it combines with hydrogen phosphate ions(disodium hydrogen phosphate)
to form dihydrogen phosphate ions(sodium dihydrogen phosphate) which are excreted in
urine. The hydrogen carbonate ions from dissociation of carbonic acid then diffuses into
the blood rising the pH of blood back to normal. The reverse may happen if pH rises.
2. A fall in pH of the filtrate also stimulates the kidney cells to produce the base
ammonium ions (NH4+) (or ammonia) which combines with acids in the kidney and is
 then excreted as ammonium salts. This increases acid excretion. Cells in the distal
convoluted tubule have and enzyme which enables them to produce ammonia from amino
acid glutamine.
NB: in addition to hydrogen ions, potassium ions, ammonium ions, and certain drugs are pumped
into the tubules in order to regulate pH or remove unwanted materials. This active removal of
substances is known as tubular secretion.
Arise in pH above 7.50 is called alkalosis, while a fall in pH below 7.30 is called acidosis.
The distal convoluted tubule helps regulate the blood pH by varying the pH of urine. If blood pH
is too low, more protons are excreted, pH of urine becomes low. If blood pH is too high, more
hydroxide ions/ hydrogen carbonate ions are excreted. pH of urine becomes high.
Assignment: Read about causes, characteristics and treatment of kidney failure
Questions
a) Mention any homeostatic functions of the kidney
b) Explain why it is important for terrestrial mammals to produce hypertonic urine to
their blood.
c) Explain strenuous physical exercise is associated with an increase in volume of urine
produced even when the activity causes water loss through sweating.

a) Explain how ultrfiltration and reabsorption can remove urea from blood without
losing essential substances like proteins and glucose
b) What role is played by the loop of Henle and collecting duct in concentrating urine of a
healthy person
c) Explain why in a patient with kidney failure, excretion of protein in urine causes
retention of tissue fluid.
d) Cafeine cause vasodilation of afferent arterioles. What effect would cafeine have on the
urine formation. Explain your answer.

Excretion and osmoregulation in amphibians

Of all terrestrial vertebrates, amphibians are the well adapted to osmoregulate. Their skin is thin
and moist and offers little resistance to evaporation. The skin is used as a supplementary
respiratory surface hence it is permanently moist. This is why amphibians are generally restricted
to damp places.
Desert frog has the following adaptations for osmoregulation.
➢ Very low glomerular filtration rate
➢ Retains urine in the bladder for use during the dry season.
➢ At times it may have a water proof skin
➢ It may excrete uric acid instead of urea.

Excretion and osmoregulation in terrestrial insects.

Adaptations of insects to prevent water loss on land
➢ Possess an almost impermeable layer of wax covering their exoskeletons which reduces
water loss from the body surface.
➢ The only openings to the body for gaseous exchange are pairs of small spiracles. This
reduces surface area for water loss.
➢ There are valve like structures in the spiracles to reduces water loss form the tubes that lead
the spiracles to the cells.
➢ The excretory product urea is semi solid to conserve water
➢ Lay eggs with relatively impermeable shells which prevents water loss from the developing
embryo.
➢ Some insects living in very dry habitats are able to take up water from the air provided the
relative humidity of the air is above a certain value.
Water loss by evaporation is prevented by the way lipid(wax) molecules are arranged on the
epicuticle, the layer covering the exoskeleton. A highly organized single layer of lipid molecules
is covered by several layers of irregularly arranged lipid molecules. If this wax layers are rubbed
by sharp particle such as sand, the structure is damaged and evaporation rate increases.
As air temperature increases, their is a gradual increase in rate of evaporation until a particular
temperature is exceeded after which evaporation rate increases rapidly. This point is called the
transition/ critical temperature and it is the temperature at which the ordered orientation of the
single layer of lipid molecules breaks down.
A graph showing the rate of water loss from a cockroach nymph at constant humidity with
increasing temperature.

Formation of uric acid.

Water loss by excretion is prevented by blind ended ducts called malpighian tubules which
produce and excrete insoluble waste substance uric acid.
It is located between the midgut and rectum in the abdomen. They open into the gut at one end
while the other free ends float in the blood filled body cavity.
The tissues of an insect produce nitrogenous waste in form of soluble potassium urate which is
liberated into blood and taken up by cells lining the malpighian tubules.the movement of the
muscular tubules facilitate this process.
In the cells of the tubules, potassium urate reacts with water and carbon dioxide to form
potassium hydrogencarbonate and uric aid.
Potassium hydrogen carbonate formed is absorbed back into blood while the uric acid is
deposited into the lumen of the tubule.
As the uric acid moves towards the gut, water is vigorously reabsorbed back into blood by
epithelial cells having numerous microvilli, to such an extend that the proximal end of the tubule
becomes filled with solid crystals.
Water is further reabsorbed by the folded walls of the rectal gland in the walls of the rectum such
that by the time the urine leaves the body, it is more concentrated than blood. Rectal glands also
absorbed water from the faeces.
NB: the number of tubules is variable insects. They may e long and slender or short and
compact.

Excretion and osmoregulation in aquatic organisms

1. Freshwater habitat
Osmoregulation in freshwater species
The osmoregulatory problem facing freshwater animals is dilution of its tissues resulting from
osmotic influx of water across the exposed semi permeable surfaces of the body. They overcome
theses problems by;
➢ Eliminating water from the body as soon as it enters using structures such as contractile
vacuole, kidney etc. Before water is eliminated, salts are reabsorbed from it. Hence
hypotonic urine is produced.
➢ Salts may be actively taken up from the external medium to offset the diluting effect of the
in flowing water.
Excretion and osmoregulation in protozoans

Protozoans are single celled organisms which are found in freshwater and marine habitats.the
cell contents of protozoans are separated from the external environment only by a partially
permeable cell surface membrane. They must therefore have osmoregulatory mechanisms in
order to survive in an environment with different water potential with its body content.
Excretion in protozoans
Excretion of carbon dioxide and ammonia occurs over the entire cell surface. This has a
relatively large surface area to volume ratio which allows the efficient removal of waste
substances.
Excretion and osmoregulation in freshwater species of protozoans
All fresh water protozoans have lower water potential(more concentrated solution in the cells)
than their surroundings. There is therefore a constant tendency for water to enter the cell by
osmosis through the cell surface membrane. This is overcomed by the presence of organelles
called contractile vacuoles. These remove water which enters the cell preventing the cell from
increasing in size and bursting.
Mechanism of functioning of contractile vacuole
Small vesicles or canals(in paramecium) in the cytoplasm fill with the fluid from the cytoplasm.
At first the fluid has the same composition and water potential as the cytoplasm.
Most of the ions are then pumped out of the fluid by active transport using energy in form of
ATP supplied by mitochondria that surround the vesicles.
The remaining fluid in the vesicles is mainly water and it is loaded into the contractile vacuole
by the vesicles.
The contractile vacuole gradually fills with the fluid. Despite its contents being very dilute(high
water potential), water cannot escape back into the cytoplasm by osmosis since its membrane is
impermeable to water.
When it reaches a certain size, the contractile vacuole fuses with the cell surface membrane,
contracts and releases its water out.

NB: The exact location and structure of contractile vacuoles is variable e.g. in amoeba contractile
vacuoles forms at any point within the cell and discharges its content at any point on the cell
membrane while in paramecium, there are two contractile vacuoles with fixed positions.
The frequency of discharge of water by contractile vacuole decreases as salinity(salt
concentration) of the surrounding medium increases.when amoeba is treated with metabolic
poison, the energy supply by mitochondria stops. This puts the contractile vacuoles out of action.
The cell absorbs water, swells and dies/bursts.
Marine species of protozoa have no contractile vacuoles because their cell contents are
isotonic(have same water potential)with the surrounding sea water.

Freshwater fishes/bony fishes(teleosts)

The excretory and osmoregulatory organs of the fish are the gills and the kidneys.
The gills are in contact with water, permeable to water, nitrogenous wastes and ions, and have
large surface area for efficient exchange of respiratory gases. The body fluids of freshwater fish
are hypertonic (more concentrated) than their environment.
These present the following osmoregulatory problem, particularly in fresh water fish.
➢ Influx of water by osmosis across the gills, lining of the mouth cavity and pharynx.
➢ Loss of ions by diffusion through the permeable gills
Ways these problems are overcomed
➢ The have relatively impermeable outer covering of scales and mucus
➢ Very high glomerular filtration rate due to possession of numerous large glomeruli.
➢ Extensive reabsorption of salts from the glomerular filtrate back into blood resulting into
production of dilute(hypotonic) urine.
➢ Active uptake of salts from water by chloride secretory cells in the gills to replace salts lost
in urine. Some salts are also taken up from food.
Osmoregulation in other organisms e.g. shore crab carcinus.
In shore crab carcinus, water is eliminated by a pair of antennal glands situated at the base of the
antenna in the head.
Each gland consists of a small end sac which connects to a larger sponge like cavity, the
labyrinth, which in turn connects with the bladder which opens into the exterior via a small
pore at the base of the antenna.

Antennal gland in shore crab is responsible for excretion of nitrogenous wastes but not osmoregulation
because it is incapable of holding back salts. Therefore eliminates water and salts alike.
However loss of salts in urine is compensated by absorption of salts by the gills from the surrounding
water and actively secreting them into the blood. In this way, the OPi is maintained at a higher level
than OPe.
In fresh water crayfish the antennal gland is capable of producing hypotonic urine because the antennal
glands are able to reabsorb salts in the coiled tubules linking the labyrinth with the bladder. Thus the
antennal gland of crayfish gets rid of excess water and holds back salts, so that the OPi is higher than
OPe.

2. Marine habitat
The osmoregulatory problem facing marine invertebrates is osmotic extraction of water from the
body leading to dehydration. This is because the body fluids are hypotonic to the their
surroundings I.e. internal osmotic pressure(OPi) is less than external osmotic pressure(OPe)
This problem is overcomed by:
➢ Marine invertebrates e.g. star fishes, sea anemones, spider crabs having body fluids which
are isotonic with the sea water. Since the OPi is equal to OPe, there is no need for these
animmals to osmoregulate. Any change in OPe results into similar changes in OPi.
➢ Swallowing sea water
➢ Having a kidney with relatively low filtration rate. The kidneys of marine teleost compared
to their freshwater relatives have few nephrons which are small in size.
➢ Actively extruding salts by means of chloride secretory cells in the gills. These move salts
against their concentration gradient from blood into the surrounding water.
➢ Eliminating nitrogenous wastes in form of compounds which are soluble but non toxic.
Instead of excreting ammonia which is toxic, marine teleost excrete trimethylamine oxide
which is non toxic so requires less water for excretion.
Osmoregulation in Marine elasmobranchs. E.g. sharks, rays, dogfish etc.
Marine elasmobranchs deal with osmotic difficulties in slightly different ways. They have the
same chloride content to marine teleost, however, their body fluids are slightly hypertonic to sea
water.
This is achieved by retaining the waste product urea in the body so that the osmotic pressure of
the body fluids is raised to a point that it is slightly exceeds that of the surrounding sea water.
The result is a slight influx of water which is readily expelled by the kidney.
The importance of retaining urea is that it eliminates the need to swallow sea water and eliminate
excess salts.
Why elasmobranchs are capable of retaining urea.
➢ Urea is reabsorbed in the kidney tubules.
➢ Gills are impermeable to urea.
➢ Their tissues can withstand/ tolerate high concentrations of urea. This is because
elasmobranchs proteins are immune to effects of urea.
NB: Normally high concentration of urea alters the shape of proteins by breaking hydrogen
bonds linking adjacent polypeptide chains. This disrupts the smooth functioning of cells
especially when enzymes are affected.
Tissues of elasmobranchs thrive on urea i.e. if the heart of a an elasmobranch is injected with a
balanced salt solution lacking the usual high concentration of urea, it will stop beating.
Osmoregulation in migratory fishes
When the salinity of the external medium fluctuates too much, the ability of animals to
osmoregulate breaks down except in migratory fishes which continue to osmoregulate even if
external medium fluctuates drastically. They have osmoregulatory devices which can adjust to
changing conditions. This involves changes in the filtration rate of the kidney and reversal of the
direction in which the chloride secretory cells transfer salt e.g from moving salts inwards in fresh
water they must change to moving them outwards in sea water.

Excretion and osmoregulation in plants

Plants and animals face the same osmoregulatory problems on land i.e. water loss and water
shortage. Plants can be divided into three groups according to how much water is available to
them in their natural environment i.e. hydrophytes, mesophytes, xerophytes.
1. Xerophytes live in dry conditions such has deserts. These plants run the risk of drastic
dehydration and have developed means to avoid this
Adaptations of xerophytes (BS 700)
Structural adaptations
• Some of them have tissues tolerant to dehydration. Their cytoplasm may be completely
dried out but resumes activity when water becomes available. E.g. in moss and ferns.
• Some survive dry conditions inform of seeds and spores; which remain dormant but
viable; and germinate into a new plant when water becomes available.
• Some have extremely deep roots which absorb water from deep layers of soil.
• Some have superficial roots which grow horizontally close to soil surface for maximum
absorption of water from soil surface immediately after a short rain/shower e.g. cactus.
• Some store water in large parenchyma cells in swollen stems and leaves to keep tissues
wet and juicy/ supply water in shortage.
• Reduced number of stomata on leave surfaces to reduce surface area for evaporation/
stomatal transpiration.
• Sunken stomata around which humid air accumulates reducing water potential gradient.
• Hairy epidermis traps a layer of humid air reducing water potential gradient.
• Folding of leaves to reduce surface area exposed to water loss
• Having small leaves reduces surface area for water loss
• Leaves have a thick cuticle impermeable to water to reduce cuticular transpiration
• Lignification of leaves; lignin supports the leaf preventing it from wilting.
• Reduction in cell size and increased thickness of cell wall enables cells to resist wilting.
Physiological adaptations
• Reversing normal stomatal rhythm by closing stomata during day and opening at
night when rate of transpiration is low.
• Shedding of leaves to reduce surface area for water loss
• Orientation of leaves. Leaf positions are always changing to regulate leaf temperature
• Accumulation of salts that lower water potential of cells reducing water loss.
Adaptations of Halophytes
Halophytes live in areas of high salinity (mud flats and salt marches), where external osmotic
pressure is greater than internal osmotic pressure. Therefore, they are faced with a problem of
absorbing water which has a higher solute concentration than usual soil, and too much salt
uptake. They solve this problem by
• Their root cells have a higher solute concentration than ordinary plants enabling them
absorb water by osmosis.
• Some store water for use when external concentration is higher than root cells
concentrations.
• Having tissues tolerant to dehydration.
• Some excrete salts from glands at the margins of leaves.
 •
Physiological drought is a period when water is unavailable to tissues of an organism due to low
water potential of the environment of roots.
Hydrophytes are plants which live partially or completely submerged in water. They therefore
have no difficulty in obtaining water. Therefore hydrophytes have fewer osmoregulatory
problems than any other plant type. They take up water from the environment since OPi is
greater than OPe until a point is reached when OPi=OPe hence no net water gain. The most
common problem is obtaining oxygen for respiration. Since water dissolves little oxygen and
water logged soils have no air spaces. In addition, decaying bacteria use up the liitle oxygen
hence creating anaerobic conditions.
Adaptations
• Presence of aeration tissue/ aerenchyma with large air spaces which store oxygen
fromphotosynthesis from which it can bdiffuse to roots for use.
• Tisssues are tolerant to ethanol which is a by product of anaerobic respiration in water
logged soils.
• Aeration tissue also confers buoyancy to raise the leaves for light and gaseous exchange.
• Lack supporting tissues which would make the plant rigid making it liable to breakage by
water currents.
• Stomata is absent when submegerd
• Stomata on only upper suface when floating.
Mesophytes occupy habitats with adequate water supply. They are faced with the problem of
water loss by evaporation from aerial parts.
Structural (xeromorphic features) adaptations
• Presence of cuticle
• Regulating diameter of stomata
• Varying shape of the leaves
• Abscission/ shedding off leaves
• Inhabiting habitats based on tolerance to dehydration.