05-BMG-PP1 Physical Principles of Geosciences I
05-BMG-PP1-1 Physics of the Solid Earth
01-00-04-PhyNMG-V/-Ü Physics for Natural Science I
Dr. Raghu Ram Gudipati raghuram@[Link]
Prof. Marta Perez Gussinye gussinye@[Link]
GEO R 4310
Schedule
Date Class
19/10/23 Introduction in the Physics of Solid Earth
26/10/23 -
02/11/23 Introduction to plate tectonics
Seismology I: Strength, Stress, strain, Elastic behaviour, Hooke’s law, elasticity moduli,
09/11/23
stress-strain curves, yield strength
Seismology II: Seismic waves: wavelengths, periods and frequencies, types of seismic
16/11/23
waves: body and surface waves, seismic velocities, Earth’s structure
Seismology III: Huygens and Snell principles, reflection, refraction, conversion,
23/11/23
absorption, divergence, travel time curves: 2 layers and multiple layers case
Seimology IV: Phases of a seismogram, Raypaths in Earth, shadow zones, Earth´s
30/11/23
structure from travel time paths
07/12/23 Seimology V: recording of seismic waves, principles of the seismometer
14/12/23 Seismology VI: First motion, Hypocenter location, Focal mechanisms, Faulting
21/12/23 Seismology VII: seismic tomography; Seismology VIII: Prediction and geohazards
11/01/24 Deformation mechanisms I: Rheology, elasticity, plasticity, viscosity
18/01/24 Deformation mechanisms II: Rheology, mantle convection
25/01/23 SUMMARY
01/02/24 EXAM
Recap
• Seismic waves
• Travel through Earth’s interior.
• Arrive at seismic stations in wave groups (Phases).
• Different phases arrive at different times.
• Physical principles of seismometer
• Seismogram
The principle of the seismometer
• Time travel curves of recorded seismic waves at
different stations give an understanding of the interior of
Earth.
In this lecture,
1) What seismograms tell us about the earthquakes
2) Characteristics of earthquakes
3) Types of earthquakes
Description (characterization)of earthquakes
HypoCenter
• Place of origin of an earthquake or the Earthquake focus.
• The epicenter describes the projection of the hypocenter to the
surface of the earth.
• The distance between the hypo- and epicenter indicates the
depth of the focus.
• The epicentral distance ∆km describes the distance of the
epicenter from one seismological measuring station at the
surface of earth
• It is either in ∆ km in expressed kilometers along the surface of the
earth or as a central angle ∆ ° between center of the earth,
epicenter and seismological station.
∆ km
180 ∆𝑘𝑚
Δ°= .
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
Localization of an earthquake
• The epicentral distance (∆km) can be calculated from the
difference in the transit time of the P and S waves be
determined.
• For the localization of an earthquake, i.e., for the
determination of the coordinates (longitude and latitude) of
the epicenter, the correct identification of the P-and S-phase
necessary in seismograms.
𝑆 𝑆 𝑣𝑃 − 𝑣𝑆
𝑡𝑆−𝑃 = − = 𝑆
𝑣𝑆 𝑣𝑃 𝑣𝑃 𝑣𝑆
𝑣 𝑣
𝑆 = (𝑡𝑆−𝑃 ) . 𝑣 𝑃− 𝑆𝑣
𝑃 𝑆
• This is done with the help of many seismograms of an
earthquake, made by many different stations were registered.
• A rough estimate of the distance from the hypocenter is
possible with 𝑡𝑆−𝑃 . Rough estimate because variations in
the crustal structure are not taken into account.
Localization of an earthquake
• Determination of the epicentral distance from the difference in the
transit time of the P and S waves on one as large a number of
stations as possible (at least 3).
• The localization of quakes assumes one 'Flat' earth and determine
the epicenter by going around stations circles with the radius of the
epicentral distance.
• The circles should intersect at one point - i.e., the epicenter.
Seismic Wave travel time curves (3 stations)
DIY: [Link]
Determination of the Earthquake focal depth
• Typically a 1-D average velocity model is used.
• For nearby events, unmodelled velocity structure gives good
estimates.
• Jointly inverting for improved velocity structure and new set of
hypocenters can also give good estimates.
• Many processing methods to minimize location errors.
Simple Example:
• The path of the pP wave is longer than the path of the P wave.
• The difference in transit time between the two phases(pP - P)
gives a measure of the depth of the focus.
Classification of Earthquakes on Focal depth
Focal Depth (km) Classification
0 - 70 Shallow
(a) Theoretical pP-P time calculations for two intermediate-depth earthquakes
70 - 300 Intermediate using the ak135 Earth model. (b) Cartoon representation of P and pP raypaths.
300 - 670 Deep
Florez and Prieto, 2017
Distribution of earthquakes
Earthquake from the USGS / NEIC catalog
Period from 1/1/2000 to 31/12/2001 Period from 1/1/1991 to 31/12/2001
• An analysis of the two-year catalog of the USGS / NEIC in
the period from 2000/1/1 to 2001/12/31 already shows that
quakes are arranged along certain lineaments and delimit
lithospheric plates.
• Shallow tremors are much more common than deep
tremors.
Earthquake Focal depth distribution
Deep Earthquakes – Convergent Plate Margins
Example of Shallow Earthquake at Divergent Plate Margin
Earthquake Focal depth distribution
• Subduction Zones
• Earthquake distribution along the plate interface is also known as
seismogenic zone.
• The upper or lower limit of the seismogenic zone are thermally controlled
and correlate with the 100-150° C and the 450° C isotherm
Determination of seismic velocities from Wadati Diagram
• From the 𝑡𝑆−𝑃 vs 𝑡𝑃 plot , i.e., on the x-axis, the time of first
arrival of the P-wave and on the y-axis is the transit time
difference (𝑡𝑆−𝑃 ).Called the Wadati Diagram
• From the intersection of the straight line with the x-axis is
also the first arrival time t0 .
𝑣𝑃
• From the slope of the regression line one obtains .
𝑣𝑆
Wadati Diagram
Fault Geometry
APPROXIMATE FAULT AS PLANAR WITH GEOMETRY REPRESENTED BY
Three angles: strike f , dip , slip , or
Two orthogonal unit vectors: fault normal n and slip vector d
Coordinate axes chosen with
• x3 vertical and
• x1 oriented along the fault in the plane of the earth's
surface
• x2 oriented perpendicular to x1.
Slip angle is measured between the x1 axis and d in
the fault plane.
Dip angle, measured from the -x2 axis, is < 90°).
f is the strike of the fault measured clockwise from
north. Kanamori and Cipar, 1974
Slip vector describes motion of hanging wall block with respect to the foot wall block.
If we treat a fault as rectangular, the dimension along strike is called the fault length and the dimension in the
dip direction is known as the fault width
Fault Geometry (Contd.)
SLIP ANGLE characterizes Fault type.
Most earthquakes consist of some combination of these motions, and have slip
angles between these values
Earthquake- Force Double Couple
RADIATED SEISMIC WAVES FROM FAULT DESCRIBED BY
Radiation due to motion on the fault EQUIVALENT BODY FORCE: A DOUBLE COUPLE
plane is what would occur for a pair of
force couples, pairs of forces with
opposite direction a small distance
apart.
One couple is oriented in the slip
direction with forces on opposite sides
of the fault plane, other couple oriented
in corresponding direction on opposite
sides of the auxiliary plane.
Pearce, 1977
First P-wave arrivals
P WAVE
FIRST MOTIONS
Stein & Wysession, 2003
Polarity of first P-wave arrival varies between seismic stations in different directions.
First motion is compression for stations located such that material near the fault moves ``toward'' the station,
or dilatation, where motion is ``away from'' the station.
When a P wave arrives at a seismometer from below, a vertical component
seismogram records up or down first motion, corresponding to either compression or dilatation.
First P-wave arrivals
P WAVE
FIRST MOTIONS
Stein & Wysession, 2003
First motions define four quadrants; two compressional and two dilatational.
Quadrants separated by nodal planes: the fault plane and auxiliary plane perpendicular to it.
From the nodal planes fault geometry is known.
Because motions from slip on the actual fault plane and from slip on the auxiliary plane would be the same, first
motions alone cannot resolve which is the actual fault plane.
First P-wave arrivals – Map View
Compression
Auxiliary plane
Fault plane
Compression
Four quadrants – Based on the compression or dilatation of first P waves
Focal Mechanisms
Seismograms recorded at various distances and azimuths used
to study geometry of faulting during an earthquake,and are
known as the focal mechanism (represented by a beach ball). EARTHQUAKE FOCAL
MECHANISM STUDY
The pattern of radiated seismic waves depends on fault
geometry.
Simplest method relies on the first motion, or polarity, of body
waves.
More sophisticated techniques use waveforms of body and
surface waves.
Focal Mechanisms (contd.)
Focal Mechanisms (contd.)
Thrust Faulting earthquakes
Stein & Wysession, 2003
Focal Mechanisms (contd.)
Normal Faulting earthquakes
Stein & Wysession, 2003
Focal Mechanisms (contd.)
FOCAL MECHANISMS FOR BASIC
FAULTS
Although the focal mechanisms look different, they
reflect the same four-lobed P-wave radiation pattern
However, because the fault plane and slip direction are
oriented differently relative to the earth's surface, the
projections of the radiation pattern lobes on the lower
focal hemisphere differ
Stein & Wysession, 2003
Focal Mechanisms (contd.)
Stein & Wysession, 2003
Focal Mechanisms - Fault Geometry
Stein & Wysession, 2003
Focal Mechanisms - Fault Geometry
FOCAL MECHANISMS FOR DIFFERENT FAULTS
All have same N-S striking plane, but with slip angles varying from pure thrust, to pure strike-
slip, to pure normal
Stein & Wysession, 2003
Focal Mechanisms - Fault Geometry
Ren, Lange & Grevemeyer, JGR Solid Earth 2023
Focal Mechanisms - Fault Geometry
NORTH EURASIA
AMERICA
EXTENSION STRIKE-SLIP
TERCEIRA GLORIA
RIFT TRANSFORM OBLIQUE CONVERGENCE
NORTH AFRICA
NUBIA
Summary
• Arrival time of seismic waves at seismometers at different sites is first used to
find the location and depth of earthquake.
• Amplitudes and shapes of radiated seismic waves used to study
- geometry of the fault on which it occurred
- direction and amount of slip
• Analysis of seismograms from earthquakes give an excellent picture of the
kinematics of faulting, needed to understand regional tectonics.
