Academic Progress for every Student

Regular tests &

assignments

VEDANTU
IMPROVEMENT Report card with
PROMISE detailed analysis

VIP

Parent-teacher
meetings

Our Extraordinary Results 2022

5.2X
HIGHER

1414 869
CBSE 10 scored above
3.8X
Vedantu students
90% JEE Main
Vedantu students
scored above 99%ile
HIGHER
6.6X
HIGHER

1000+ 1500+
Vedantu students Vedantu students aced
NEET cleared NEET 2022 JEE Adv. JEE Advanced 2022

student scoring above 90%

SCAN CODE
to know more
about VIP
Published by
Vedantu Innovations Pvt. Ltd.
D. No. 1081, 3rd Floo , Vistar Arcade,
14th Main Rd, Sector 3, HSR Layout
Bangalore, Karnataka, India 560 102
www.vedantu.com

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information
storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Notice: Vedantu is committed to serving students with the best resources and knowledge.
Bearing that in mind, we have obtained all the information in this book from sources regarded
as reliable, and taken utmost care in editing and printing this book. However, as authors and
publishers, we are not to be held responsible for unintentional mistakes that might have crept
in. Having stated that, errors (if any) brought to our notice shall be gratefully acknowledged
and rectified in upcoming editions.

Printed by
Sanjay Printers, U.P.
[email protected]
 How to use your
Tatva Practice Book

1
8. Quantization of charge
When a physical quantity can
have only discrete values rather
than any value, the quantity is
said to be quantised. The
smallest charge that can exist in Scan the QR Code in each
nature is the charge of an chapter’s theory section to
electron.
view micro concept videos
related to the chapter, on
SCAN CODE the Vedantu app.
Electrostatics

Exercise - 2:

2
Solve all types of
1. The rate constant for a first
order reaction is 4.606 ×
10–3s–1. The time required to
reduce 2.0g of the reactant to
0.2g is:
exercise questions (NEET 2020)
based on the latest
NEET pattern. (a) 500s (b) 1000s
(c) 100s (d) 200s

Answer Key

3
CHAPTER-1: ELECTROSTATICS
For extra exam
Exercise-1: Basic Objective preparation content,
visit the Vedantu app.
Scan the QR code in the You can find previous
Answers Section to view years’ NEET papers with
detailed solutions for all solutions and detailed
exercise questions. analysis.
Founder’s Message
Dear Student,
I am delighted to present to you an amazing book, a ready reckoner to guide you through your NEET
exams-‘TATVA’. Tatva- which means the ‘Core’ is fully aligned with the culture, the mission, and the
vision of Vedantu and therefore it gives me immense pleasure and joy to share this book with you. We
at Vedantu have always aimed to revolutionize the teaching and learning process and have speedily
progressed in the direction of bringing superior quality education and content to your table. Tatva is
one such book series that will help you keep up with the pace and competitive nature of NEET. This
book is a guide for medical aspirants who want to crack NEET. It will be your practice guru, and your
companion in moving towards your dreams. Tatva is a result of the consistent effort, diligence, and
research by our experienced team of subject experts and teachers.
This book has been curated to suit the needs of NEET aspirants like you, to strengthen your
fundamentals and concepts, and optimize your learning and efficiency. Tatva is a comprehensive
amalgamation of important concepts, theories, derivations, definitions, solved examples, concept
videos, practice questions, and important questions. We have ensured that high-quality content and
the right ingredients are in place in this booklet to help you climb straight up the ladder to success.
A few guiding points to optimally use Tatva with a planned approach:
• Tatva equips you with Theory, Concept Videos, and Solved examples to help you revise concepts,
mark your notes, walk you through the entire summary, and eventually makes you capable of
clearing all your conceptual doubts all by yourself.
• We suggest a revision of the theory followed by practice of solved examples.
• Practice relevant questions daily after finishing Vedantu lectures and session assignments. We
believe that a daily dose of Tatva will keep all your exam blues at bay.
• Use the Tatva booklet to mark notes so that it always comes in handy for last-minute revision
sessions before your exams. Notes should include key points of theory, solved examples, and some
questions which you couldn't solve in the first attempt.
• Exercise 1 contains easy to moderate questions which are relevant for the exam (level-wise),
Exercise 2 has past year questions and Exercise 3 is the Achiever’s Section that will throw you with
challenges that will prepare you for the challenging questions during the entrance and make things
seamless for you.
• Before wrapping up, here is your practice mantra: “Practice does not make perfect. Only perfect
practice makes perfect” - Vince Lombardi
We strongly believe in you and wish to make the journey to your success
beautiful through this book. Give it your best shot but don’t stress about it.
Wishing that your talent shines bright. If you dream it, you will do it. All the
very best!

Anand Prakash
Founder and Academic Head, Vedantu

Anand Prakash Sir has been a pioneer in producing Top Ranks in JEE/NEET
and Olympiads. He has personally taught and mentored AIR 1, 6, 7 (JEE
Advanced), AIR-1, 7, 9(AIIMS), and thousands of more students who have
successfully cleared these competitive exams in the last few years.
Credits
“Happiness lies in the joy of achievement
and the thrill of creative effort.”
—Franklin D. Roosevelt

Tatva is the brainchild of a group of creative Vedans who have strived tirelessly to weave success stories for you.
We extend our heartfelt gratitude to the superb team of Vedans who give wings to the vision of Vedantu,
starting with our leaders who have been guiding and encouraging us at every step of the way:
Vamsi Krishna Sir, Anand Prakash Sir and Pulkit Jain Sir

We thank our leaders for their insight and mentorship. They steered the project in the right direction and were
instrumental in making Tatva a reality:
Sahil Bhatia, Sudhanshu Jain, Shubam Gupta, Ajay Mittal, Arshad Shahid, Jaideep Sontakke

The managers who embodied every aspect of what Tatva aimed to accomplish and brought their ideas and
diligence to the table to execute this vision immaculately:
Harish Rao, Neha Surana, Charubak Chakrabarti, Prashant Palande

Physics Team
We truly appreciate all the Master Teachers of Vedantu whose relentless efforts helped us translate this vision
into reality. Our heartfelt gratitude to our creative content developers and the typesetting team, who have put
in their hard work, insight, and eagerness to nurture and execute Tatva into ‘your ready handbook’ and bring a
positive learning experience to you.
Teachers Subject Matter Experts
Gaurang Shah Vivek Rai Atul Singh (Team Lead) Manish Patidar
Pukhraj Singh Kanika Sharma

Typesetting Team Graphic Designers

Sukhdev Kumar Virender Kumar Kichudas V L
Gudupudi Sony

We cannot thank the creative team enough. Their creative minds and contagious energy have added a visual
flair, truly making Tatva the treasure trove of knowledge that it is.
Kajal Nilanjan Chowdhury Rabin Jacob Mohit Kamboj
Kiran Gopal Balaji Sakamuri Thamam Mubarish Haritha Ranchith
Sarib Mohammad

We thank and appreciate the enthusiastic support provided by Arunima Kar, Savin Khandelwal, and Dipshi
Shetty.

The journey of bringing Tatva to life, from an idea to the book you are holding, would not have been possible
without the extensive support of our diligent Operations Team, our amazing Academic Team, our dedicated
team of Teachers, and our talented Tech Team.
6 MODERN PHYSICS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Modern Physics

Theory....................................................................................................................... ................................. 7

Solved Examples........................................................................................................................................ 20

Exercise - 1: Basic Objective Questions.................................................................................................... 29

Exercise - 2: Previous Year Questions....................................................................................................... 41

Exercise - 3: Achiever’s Section ....................................................................................................... ......... 45

Semiconductors and Communication Systems

Theory....................................................................................................................... ................................. 49

Solved Examples........................................................................................................................................ 73

Exercise - 1: Basic Objective Questions.................................................................................................... 79

Exercise - 2: Previous Year Questions................................................................................................... .... 91

Exercise - 3: Achiever’s Section ....................................................................................................... ........ 97

Answer Key……………………………………………………………………………………………... 102

MODERN PHYSICS 7

10
MODERN PHYSICS
8 MODERN PHYSICS

Chapter 10

Modern Physics
1. Photon
A photon is a packet of energy. It possesses energy given 2. The nature loves symmetry. As the radiation has got
by, E = h dual nature, matter should also possess dual nature.
Where h = 6.62 × 10−34 Js is Plank’s constant and  is Thus, according to de-Broglie, a wave is associated with
frequency of the photon. If  is wavelength of the photon, every moving particle. These waves are called de-Broglie
then, c =  waves or matter waves. According to quantum theory of
radiation, energy of a photon is given by
Hence, c = 3 × 108 ms−1 J velocity of light. Therefore, E = h
E = h  …(i)
= hc/
Further, the energy of a relativistic particle is given by
Energy of a photon is usually expressed in electron volt
(eV). 1eV = 1.6 × 10−19 J E= (m C )
0
2 2
+ p2 c2

The bigger units are keV and MeV. Since photon is a particle of zero rest mass, setting m 0 = 0 in
1keV = 1.6 × 10−16 and 1 MeV = 1.6 × 10−13 J the above equation, we have
E = pc …(ii)
2. Dual Nature of Radiation From equation (i) and (ii) we have

The various phenomena concerning radiation can be divided pc = h 

into three parts: h h
or p= = ( c = )
• The phenomena such as interference, diffraction, c 
polarization etc. in which interaction of radiation takes
h
places with radiation itself. Such phenomena can be p=

explained on the basis of electromagnetic (wave)
nature of radiation only. Therefore, the wavelength of the photon is given by
• The phenomena such as photoelectric effect, Compton h
= …(iii)
effect, etc. in which interaction of radiation takes p
place with matter. Such phenomena can be explained
Hence, de-Broglie wavelength is given by
on the basis of quantum (particle) nature of radiation.
h
• The phenomena such as rectilinear propagation, = …(iv)
m
reflection, refraction, etc. in which neither the
interaction of radiation takes place with radiation, nor This is called de-Broglie relation.
of radiation with matter. Such phenomena can be
explained on the basis of either of the two natures of 2.2 Conclusion
the radiation. 1. Lighter the particle, greater is its de-Broglie
wavelength.
2.1 De-Broglie Waves
2. The faster the particle moves, smaller is its de-Broglie
Louis-Broglie put forward a bold hypothesis that matter wavelength.
should also possess dual nature.
3. The de-Broglie wavelength of –particle is
The following observations led him to the duality hypothesis independent of the charge or nature of the particle.
for matter.
4. The matter waves are not electromagnetic in nature. If
1. The whole energy in this universe is in the form of the velocity of the particle is comparable to the
matter and electromagnetic radiation. velocity of light, then mass of the particle is given by

SCAN CODE
Modern Physics
MODERN PHYSICS 9

m0 by electrons, so that every atom is electrically neutral. If the

m=
1− v / c
2 2 atom gets slightly perturbed, the electrons in the atoms
oscillate about their equilibrium position and result in the
2.3 De-Broglie Wavelength of Electron emission of radiation of definite frequencies in the form of
infra-red, visible or ultraviolet light.
Consider that an electron of mass m and charge e is
accelerated through a potential difference V. If E is the Failure of Thomson’s Atom Model
energy acquired by the particle, then It had to be discarded, because of the following reasons:
E = eV …(i) 1. It could not explain the origin of the spectral lines in
If v is the velocity of electron, then the form of series as in case of hydrogen atom.

E = 1/2 m2 or v =  2E  …(ii) 2. It could not account for the scattering of -particles
 
 m  through large angles as in case of Rutherford’s -
Now, de-Broglie wavelength of electron is given by scattering experiment.
h
=
h 3.2. Rutherford’s Alpha Scattering
=
m  m 2E /m
Experiment Observations
h Most of -particles were found to pass through the
Or = …(iii) 1.
2mE gold foil without any appreciable deflection.
substituting the value of E, we get 2. The different -particles in passing through the gold
h foil undergo different amounts of deflections. A large
= …(iv)
2meV number of -particles suffer fairly large deflections.
Setting m = 9.1 × 10−31 kg; e = 1.6 × 10−19 C and h = 6.62 × 3. A very small number of -particles (about 1 in 8000)
10−34 Js, we get practically retracted their paths or suffered deflection
12.27 of nearly 180º.
= ×10−10 m
V 4. The graph between the total number of –particles
12.27 N() scattered through angle  and the scattering
Or = A …(v)
V angle  was found to be as shown in fig.
For example, the de-Broglie wavelength of electrons, when
accelerated through a potential difference of 100 volt, will be

=
12.27 
 1.227 A
100
Thus, the wavelength of de-Broglie wave associated with 100
eV electrons is of the order of the wavelength of X-rays.

3. Atomic Structure and It’s

Fig. 10.1
History The experimental observations led Rutherford to the
following conclusions:-
3.1 Thomson’s Atom Model 1. Since most of the -particles passed undeviated, the
The positive charge is uniformly distributed over the entire atom has a lot of empty space in it.
sphere and the electrons are embedded in the sphere of 2. Since fast and the heavy -particles could be deflected
positive charges just like seeds in a watermelon or plums in even through 180º, the whole of the positive charge
the pudding. For this reason, Thomson’s atom model is also and practically the entire mass of the atom was
known as plum-pudding model. The total positive charge confined to an extremely small central core. It was
inside the atom is equal to the total negative charge carried

SCAN CODE
Modern Physics
10 MODERN PHYSICS

called nucleus. Since 1 in about 8000 -particles is

deflected through 180º, the size of the nucleus is about
1/10000th of the size of the atom.
3.2.1 Rutherford’s Atom Model
On the basis of the results of -scattering experiment,
Rutherford suggested the following picture of the atom: Fig. 10.2
1. Atom may be regarded as a sphere of diameter 10–10 m
3.2.4 Impact Parameter
but whole of the positive charge and almost the entire
mass of the atom is concentrated in a small central The scattering of an alpha particle from the nucleus of an
core called nucleus having diameter of about 10–14 m. atom depends upon the impact parameter.
2. The nucleus is surrounded by electrons. In other Impact Parameter of the alpha particle is defined as the
words, the electrons are spread over the remaining perpendicular distance of the velocity vector of the alpha
part of the atom leaving plenty of empty space in the particle from the centre of the nucleus, when it is far away
atom. from the atom. It is denoted by b.

3.2.2 Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Atom Ze2 cot  
b=
1
. 2
Model 40 1
mu 2
1. When the electrons revolve round the nucleus, they 2
are continuously accelerated towards the centre of the
nucleus. According to Lorentz, an accelerated
charged particle should radiate energy continuously.
Therefore, in the atom, a revolving electron should
continuously emit energy and hence the radius of its
path should go on decreasing and ultimately it should
fall into the nucleus. However, electrons revolve
round the nucleus without falling into it. Therefore,
Rutherford’s atom model cannot explain the stability
of the atom.
2. If the Rutherford’s atom model is true, the electron Fig. 10.3
can revolve in orbits of all possible radii and hence it
should emit continuous energy spectrum. However,
3.3 Discussion
the atoms like hydrogen possess line spectrum. The following inference can be drawn from the above
equation:
3.2.3 Distance of Closest Approach
1. If the impact parameter b is large, then cot /2 is also
Consider an -particle of mass m possesses initial velocity u, large i.e. the angle of scattering  is small and vice-
when it is at a large distance from the nucleus of an atom versa.
having atomic number Z. At the distance of closest approach,
Thus, if an -particle has large impact parameter, it
the kinetic energy of -particle is completely converted into
gets scattered through a very small angle and may
potential energy. Mathematically.
practically go undeviated and if the -particle has

1/2 mu2 =
1 ( 2e )( Ze ) r = 1 . 2 Ze 2
small impact parameter, it will be scattered through a
.
40 1/ 2 mu 2
0 large angle.
4 0 r0
2. If the impact parameter b is zero, then cot /2 = 0 or
/2 = 90º or  = 180º.

SCAN CODE
Modern Physics
MODERN PHYSICS 11

4. Bohr Atomic Model rnz =

Bohr radius 2
n = ( 0.529A)
n2
;
Z Z
Bohr adopted Rutherford model of the atom & added some Z2
arbitrary conditions. These conditions are known as his Enz = (– 13.6) ev
n2
postulates:
• The electron in a stable orbit does not radiate energy. Rz = RZ2 – Rydberg's constant for element of
atomic no. Z
m v2 k z e2
i.e. = 2
r r
• A stable orbit is that in which the angular momentum NOTE:
of the electron about nucleus is an integral (n) multiple If motion of the nucleus is also considered, then m is
h h replaced by .
of . i.e. mvr = n ; n = 1 , 2 , 3 , .......(n  0).
2 2 Where  = reduced mass of electron – nucleus system
= meM/(me+M) .
• The electron can absorb or radiate energy only if the
In this case En = (–13.6 ev) , me - mass of electron
electron jumps from a lower to a higher orbit or falls
from a higher to a lower orbit.
• The energy emitted or absorbed is a light photon of
4.2 Spectral Series
frequency  and of energy E = h • Lyman Series: (Landing orbit n = 1).
4.1 For Hydrogen Atom: (Z = Atomic 1 1 
Ultraviolet region  = R  − 2  ; n2 > 1
Number = 1) 2
1 n 2 
h •
• Ln = angular momentum in the nth orbit = n . Balmer Series: (Landing orbit n = 2)
2
1 1
• rn = radius of nth circular orbit = (0.529 Aº) n2 ; Visible region  = R  2
− 2  ; n2 > 2
 2 n2 
(1Aº = 10-10 m) ; rn n2.
• Paschan Series: (Landing orbit n = 3)
• En Energy of the electron in the n th orbit =
1 1
−13.6 eV 1 In the near infrared region  = R  − 2  ; n2 > 3
2 i.e. E n  2  2
 3 n2 
n n
NOTE: • Bracket Series: (Landing orbit n = 4)
Total energy of the electron in an atom is negative, 1 1
In the mid infrared region  = R  2
− 2  ; n2 > 4
indicating that it is bound.  4 n2 
13.6 V • Pfund Series: (Landing orbit n = 5)
Binding Energy (BE)n = – En =.
n2
1 1
• En2 − En1 = Energy emitted when an electron jumps In far infrared region  = R  2
− 2  ; n2 > 5
 5 n2 
from n2th orbit to n1th orbit (n2 > n1) .
In all these series n2 = n1 + 1 is the  line
1 1 = n1 + 2 is the  line
E = (13.6 ev)  2 − 2  .
 n1 n 2  = n1 + 3 is the  line .... etc.
E = h ;  = frequency of spectral line emitted . where n1 = Landing orbit
1

= v = wave no. [ no. of waves in unit length (1m)] 5. Free Electrons in Metals
1 1 1 Electron is a fundamental constituent of the atom. A metal
= R 2 − 2 . contains free electrons, which move about freely through the
  n1 n 2 
atomic spaces in a random fashion. But as soon as an electron
Where R = Rydberg's constant for hydrogen = 1.097
leaves the metal, immediately an equal positive charge is
× 107 m-1 . produced on the surface of the metal. As a result, the electron
• For hydrogen like atom/species of atomic number Z:

SCAN CODE
Modern Physics
12 MODERN PHYSICS

is pulled back into the metal and hence remains confined to 1

it. The pull on the electrons at the surface is found to depend eV0 = mv 2 max
2
on the nature of metal surface and is described by a
characteristic of the metal, called work function.

Work Function
The minimum energy, which must be supplied to the electron
so that it can just come out of the metal surface is called the
work function of the metal.
This process is called electron emission and may be achieved
in the following ways
• Thermionic emission. In this process of electron
emission, the additional energy is supplied in the form
of heat. The emitted electrons are known as thermo- Fig. 10.4
electrons.
6.1 Laws of Photoelectric Emission
• Photoelectric emission. In this process, as already
discussed, the additional energy is supplied by means 1. The emission of photoelectrons takes place only,
of electromagnetic radiation. The emitted electrons when the frequency of the incident radiation is above
are known as photoelectrons. a certain critical value, characteristic of that metal.
The critical value of frequency is known as the
• Secondary emission, in this process, the fast-moving threshold frequency for the metal of the emitting
electrons on collision with the metal surface knock out electrode.
electrons, called the secondary electrons. 2. The emission of photoelectrons starts as soon as light
• Field emission. In this process, the electron are forced falls on metal surface.
out of metal surface by strong electric field 3. The maximum kinetic energy with which an electron
is emitted from a metal surface is independent of the
6. Photoelectric Effect intensity of the light and depends only upon its
frequency.
The phenomenon of ejection from a metal surface, when light 4. The number of photoelectrons emitted i.e.
of sufficiently high frequency falls upon it is known as the photoelectric current is independent of the frequency
photoelectric effect. The electrons so emitted are called of the incident light and depends only upon its
photoelectrons. intensity.
Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect: The apparatus
consists of an evacuated glass tube fitted with two electrodes. 6.2 Einstein's Photoelectric Equation
The electrode E is called emitting electrode and the other Einstein’s photo electric equation according is Einstein, light
electrode C is called collecting electrode. of frequency v, when it interacts with matter, behaves as of
When a suitable radiation is incident on the electrode E, discrete packet of energy known as photon. Energy of a
electrons are ejected from it. The electrons, which have photon E = hv, h is Planck’s constant. The minimum energy
sufficient kinetic energy, reach the electrode C despite its required to remove an electron from the metal surface is
negative polarity. The potential difference between the two known is photo electric work function of the metal 
electrodes acts as the retarding potential. As the collecting  = hv0, where v0 = threshold frequency.
electrode is made more and more negative, fewer and fewer It a photon of energy hv falls on the surface of a metal and is
electrons will reach the cathode and the photo-electric current hv0 is the work function of the metal,
recorded by the ammeter with fall. In case, the retarding
1
Then h = h0 + mv max . This is Einstein’s photo electric
2
potential equals V0, called the stopping potential, no electron
2
will reach the cathode and the current will become zero. In
such a case, the work done by stopping potential is equal to equation.
the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons i.e.

SCAN CODE
Modern Physics
MODERN PHYSICS 13

7. X–Rays =
hc
for K 
EK − EL
hc hc
 = for K  ,  = for L ,
EK − EM EL − EM

Fig. 10.5
x rays are emitted when fast moving electrons are stopped by
a metal target of high atomic number.
X ray spectrum
Fig. 10.8

8. Nucleus
8.1 Isotopes
The atoms of an element, which have the same atomic
number but different mass numbers, are called isotopes.
(i) 8O16, 8O17, 8O18 (ii) 17Cl35, 17Cl37
Fig. 10.6 (iii) 82Pb206, 82Pb207, 82Pb208.
That there is a minimum wavelength below which no X–ray
is emitted. This is called the cutoff wavelength or the 8.2 Isotones
threshold wavelength. The atoms whose nuclei have same number of neutrons are
For  certain sharply defined wavelengths, the intensity of X– called isotones. 6C14, 7N15
rays is very large as marked K , K. These X–rays are known
as characteristics X-rays. Other wavelengths the intensity 8.3 Isobars
varies gradually and these X-rays are called continuous x-
The atoms, which have same mass number but different
rays.
atomic numbers, are called isobars.
Wavelengths of continuous x rays is given by
(i) 1H3 and 1H3 (ii) 2Li7 and 4Be7
hc hc
=   min = , where V is the accelerating voltage of (iii) 28Ar40 and 29Ca40 (iv) 32Ge76 and 34Se76
E eV
electrons.
8.4 Atomic Mass Unit
The atomic mass unit (a.m.u) is a very small unit of mass
and it is found to be very convenient in nuclear physics.
Atomic mass unit is defined as 1/12th of the mass of one 6C12
atom.
According to Avogadro’s hypothesis, number of atoms in 12
g of 6C12 is equal to Avogadro number i.e. 6.023  1023.
Therefore, the mass of one carbon atom (6C12) is i.e.
1.992678 × 10–26 kg.
Therefore, 1 a.m.u.
Fig. 10.7
Wavelength of characteristic spectrum or 1 a.m.u. = 1.660565  10-27 kg

SCAN CODE
Modern Physics
14 MODERN PHYSICS

8.5 Energy Equivalent of Atomic Mass 8.8 Mass Defect

Unit The difference between the sum of the masses of the
According to Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence relation, nucleons constituting a nucleus and the rest mass of the
the energy equivalent of mass m is given by E = mc2 nucleus is known as mass defect. It is denoted by m.

Where c is speed of light. Let us calculate the mass defect in case of the nucleus of an
atom zXA. The nucleus of the atom contains Z protons and
Suppose that m = 1 a.m.u = 1.660565  10-27 kg
(A−Z) neutrons. Therefore, if mN (zXA) is mass of the
Since, c = 2.998  108 ms-1, the energy equivalent of 1 a.m.u nucleus of the atom ZXA, then the mass defect is given by
is given by
m = [Zmp + (A−Z)mn −mN (zXA)]
1 a.m.u = (1.660565  10-27 kg) × (2.998  108 ms1)2
= 1.4925  10-10 J The binding energy of a nucleus may be defined as the energy
equivalent to the mass defect of the nucleus. It may be
Since, 1 MeV = 1.602  10-13 J, we have
measured as the work required to be done to separate the
Or 1 a.m.u = 931.5 MeV
nucleon an infinite distance apart, so that they no longer
interact with each other.
8.6 Nuclear Size
The volume of the nucleus is directly proportional to the If m is mass defect of a nucleus, then according to Einstein’s
number of nucleons (mass number) constituting the nucleus. mass-energy relation, binding energy of the nucleus = m c2
If R is the radius of the nucleus having mass number A, then (in joule).
4 3 Here, mass defect m has to be measured in kilogram. In
R  A case, mass defect is measured in a.m.u., then
3
Binding energy of the nucleus = m × 931.5 (in MeV)
R  A1/3 R = R0 A1/3 R0 = 1.2  10- m
15
Or Or
Binding energy = [Zmp + (A−Z)mn− mN (ZXA)] × 931.5 MeV
8.7 Nuclear Density
8.9 Binding Energy Per Nucleon
Mass of the nucleus of the atom of mass number A = A
a.m.u The binding energy per nucleon is the average energy
= A  1.660565 × 10-27 kg. If R is radius of the nucleus, then required to extract one nucleon from the nucleus.
binding energy
Thus, binding energy per nucleon =
R =  ( R 03 A1/3 ) = R 03 A
4 3 4 3 4
Volume of nucleus = A
3 3 3
Taking R0 = 1.2  10-15 m, we have
mass of nucleus
Density of the nucleus,  =
volume of nucleus
A 1.66065 10−27
= = 2.26  1017 kg m-3
 (1.2 10 )  A
4 −15 3

3
(independent of A)

NOTE:
Fig. 10.9
• The density of the nuclei of all the atoms is same
as it is independent of mass number. 8.10 Packing Fraction
• 17
The high density of the nucleus ( 10 kg m ) -3
Packing fraction = (mass defect)/A.
suggests the compactness of the nucleus. Such
examples of high densities are met in the form of
neutron stars.

SCAN CODE
Modern Physics
MODERN PHYSICS 15

8.11 Nuclear Fission 8.11.3 Safety Measures from Radiation Hazards

The process of splitting of a heavy nucleus into two nuclei of Following precautions are observed by the workers engaged
nearly comparable masses with liberation of energy is called in this field:
nuclear fission. 1. The radioisotopes are transferred in thick-walled lead
U 235
+ 0n → [92U ] → 56Ba + 36Kr + 30n + Q
1 236 141 92 1 containers and are kept in rooms with thick walls of
92
leads.
Neutron reproduction factor is defined as the ratio of the rate
2. The radioisotopes are handled with the help of remote-
of production of neutrons to the rate of loss of neutrons. Thus,
control devices.
rate of production of neutrons
k= 3. The workers are asked to wear lead aprons.
rate of loss of neutrons
4. The radioactive contamination of the work area is
A fission reaction will be steady, in case k = 1. In case k > 1, avoided at all costs.
the fission reaction will accelerate and it will retard, in case
k < 1. 8.12 Nuclear Fusion
When two light nuclei fuse to form a larger nucleus, energy
8.11.1 Nuclear Reactor
is released, this process is called nuclear fusion. Some
Main parts and their functions:- examples of such energy liberating fusion reactions are:
1. Fuel: It is a fissionable material mostly U235. 1
1 H + 11H → 12 H + e + + v + 0.42 MeV
2. Moderator: It is used to slow down the neutrons
released during the fission. The most common
2
1 H + 12 H → 32 He + n + 3.27 MeV
moderators are water, heavy water and graphite.
2
1 H + 12 H → 13 H + 11H + 4.03 MeV
3. Control Rods: these rods are cadmium or boron, which
In the first reaction, two protons combine to form a deuteron
control the chain reaction by absorbing neutrons.
and a position with a release of 0.42 MeV energy. In second
4. Coolant and Heat Exchanger: The coolant takes away reaction, two deuterons combine to form the light isotope of
heat from the reactor core and in turn heats the water helium. In third reaction, two deuterons combine to form a
in the heat exchanger to produce steam. The triton and a proton. For fusion to take place, the two nuclei
commonly used coolants are liquid sodium and heavy must come close enough so that attractive short – range
water. nuclear force is able to affect them. However, since they are
5. Radiation Shielding: These are thick concrete walls, both positively charged particles, they experience coulomb
which stop the radiations from going out. repulsion. They, therefore, must have enough energy to
overcome this coulomb barrier. The height of the barrier
8.11.2 Radiation Hazards depends on the charges and radii of the two interacting nuclei.
1. The exposure to radiation induces deleterious genetic It can be shown, for example, that the barrier height for two
effects. protons is ~ 400 keV, and is higher for nuclei with higher
charges. We can estimate the temperature at which two
2. The strong -ray exposure can cause lung cancer.
protons in a proton gas would (averagely) have enough to
3. The exposure to fast and slow neutrons can cause overcome the coulomb barrier :
blindness.
3
4. The exposure to neutrons, protons and -particles can   kT = K 400 keV, which gives T ~ 3  109 K.
cause damage to red blood cells. 2

5. The exposure to -particles can cause disastrous When fusion is achieved by raising the temperature of the
effects. system so that particles have enough kinetic energy to
overcome the coulomb repulsive behaviour, it is called
6. The strong exposures to protons and neutrons can
thermonuclear fusion.
cause serious damage to productive organs.

SCAN CODE
Modern Physics
16 MODERN PHYSICS

9. Radioactivity
N t
dN
Integrating N N = 0 –λdt
0

The spontaneous transformation of an element into another

N
with the emission of some particle (or particles) or Or log e = −t
electromagnetic radiation is called natural radioactivity. N0
N
Or = e −t
9.1 Laws of Radioactivity Decay N0
Rutherford and Soddy studied the phenomenon of Or N = N0e−t
radioactivity in details and formulated the following laws,
known as the laws of radioactive decay: 9.2 Radioactive Decay Constant
• Radioactivity is a spontaneous phenomenon and one
According to radioactive decay law, Integrating, we have
cannot predict, when a particular atom in a given
dN
radioactive sample will undergo disintegration. = −N
dt
• When a radioactive atom disintegrates, either an -
particle (nucleus of helium) or a -particle (electron) −dN / dt
Or  =
is emitted. N
• The emission of an -particle by a radioactive atom Hence, radioactive decay constant of a substance
result in a daughter atom, whose atomic number is 2 (radioactive) may be defined as the ratio of its instantaneous
units less and mass number is 4 units less than that of rate of disintegration to the number of atoms present at that
the parent atom. time.
− decay
ZX
A
⎯⎯⎯⎯ → Z−2 Y A −4 Again, N = N0 e− t
• The emission of a -particle by a radioactive atom If t = 1/
1
result in a daughter atom, whose atomic number is 1 −
1 N0
then, N = N 0 e N0 =

= = 0.368N 0
unit more but mass number is same as that of the parent e 2.718
atom. Hence, radioactive decay constant of a substance may also be
− decay
ZX
A
⎯⎯⎯⎯ → Z +1Y A defined as the reciprocal of the time, after which the number
of atoms of a radioactive substance decreases to 0.368 (or
• The number of atoms disintegrating per second of a
36.8%) of their number present initially.
radioactive sample at any time is directly proportional
to the number of atoms present at that time. The rate 9.3 Half Life
of disintegration of the sample cannot be altered by
changing the external factors, such as pressure, Consider that a radioactive sample contains N0 atoms at time
temperature etc. It is known as radioactive decay law. t = 0. Then, the number of atoms left behind after time t is
According to radioactive decay law, the rate of given by N = N0 e− t
disintegration at any time t is directly proportional to From the definition of half-life, it follows that when t = t1/2,
the number of atoms present at time t i.e.
N0
dN dN N= .
 N or = − N. 2
dt dt
Setting the above condition in equation, we have
Where the constant of proportionally  is called decay
N0
constant of the radioactive sample. It is also known as = N 0 e −t1/2
disintegration constant or transformation constant. Its 2
value depends upon the nature of the radioactive Or e−t1/2 = 1/ 2 Or et1/2 = 2
sample. Further, the negative sign indicates that the
Or T = loge 2 = 2.303 log10 2 = 2.303 × 0.3010 = 0.693
number of the atoms of the sample decreases with the
passage of time.
0.693
Or t1/2 =
From equation, we have
dN
 − dt. 
dt

SCAN CODE
Modern Physics
MODERN PHYSICS 17

Thus, half life of a radioactive substance is inversely

proportional to its decay constant and is a characteristic
property of its nucleus. It cannot be altered by any known
method.

9.4 Mean life or Average Life

The average life of a radioactive substance is defined as the
average time for which the nuclei of the atoms of the
radioactive substance exist. It is defined by tavg.

1
t avg =


9.5 Activity of Radioactive Substance

The activity of a radioactive substance may be defined as the
rate at which the nuclei of its atoms in the sample disintegrate.
If a radioactive sample contains N atoms at any time t, then
dN
its activity at time t is defined as A = − 
dt

The negative sign shows that with the passage of time, the
activity of the radioactive substance decreases.
dN
Since according to the radioactive decay, law = −N the
dt
equation may be expressed as A = N. Since, N =N0 e−t, we
have

A = N 0 e − t
Or
A = A 0 e − t

Here,  N0 = A0 is activity of the radioactive sample at time t

= 0.

9.6 Units of Activity

The activity of a radioactive sample may be expressed as
disintegration per second. The practical unit of activity of a
radioactive sample is curie (ci).
The activity of a radioactive sample is called one curie, if it
undergoes 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations per second. Thus,
1 curie (ci) = 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations s−1
There is also another unit of radioactivity, called Rutherford
(rd).
The activity of a radioactive sample is called one Rutherford,
if it undergoes 106 disintegration per second.
1 Rutherford (rd) = 106 disintegration s−1

SCAN CODE
Modern Physics
18 MODERN PHYSICS

NCERT Corner
Some Important Points to Remember
1. Photoelectric effect is the phenomenon of emission 8. Atoms of each element are stable and emit
of electrons by metals when illuminated by light of characteristic spectrum. The spectrum consists of a
suitable frequency. Certain metals respond to set of isolated parallel lines termed as line
ultraviolet light while others are sensitive even to
spectrum. It provides useful information about the
the visible light. Photoelectric effect involves
atomic structure.
conversion of light energy into electrical energy. It
follows the law of conservation of energy. The 9. de Broglie’s hypothesis that electrons have a
photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process wavelength λ = h/mv gave an explanation for
and possesses certain special features. Bohr’s quantized orbits by bringing in the wave-
particle duality. The orbits correspond to circular
2. Photoelectric current depends on (i) the intensity of
standing waves in which the circumference of
incident light, (ii) the potential difference applied
the orbit equals a whole number of wavelengths.
between the two electrodes, and (iii) the nature of
the emitter material. 10. Bohr’s model is applicable only to hydrogenic
(single electron) atoms. It cannot be extended to
3. The stopping potential (Vo) depends on (i) the
even two electron atoms such as helium. This
frequency of incident light, and (ii) the nature of
model is also unable to explain for the relative
the emitter material. For a given frequency of
intensities of the frequencies emitted even by
incident light, it is independent of its intensity. The
hydrogenic atoms.
stopping potential is directly related to the
maximum kinetic energy of electrons emitted: e V0 11. On the atomic scale, mass is measured in atomic
= (1/2) m 2max = Kmax’ mass units (u). By definition, 1 atomic mass unit
(1u) is 1/12th mass of one atom of 12C;
4. Below a certain frequency (threshold frequency)
0, characteristic of the metal, no photoelectric 1u = 1.660563 × 10–27 kg.
emission takes place, no matter how large the
intensity may be. 12. A nucleus can be considered to be spherical in
shape and assigned a radius. Electron scattering
5. The de Broglie wavelength (λ) associated with a experiments allow determination of the nuclear
moving particle is related to its momentum p as: λ radius; it is found that radii of nuclei fit the
= h/p. The dualism of matter is inherent in the de formula R = R0 A1/3,
Broglie relation which contains a wave concept (λ) where R0 = a constant = 1.2 fm. This
and a particle concept (p). implies that the nuclear density is independent of
A. It is of the order of 1017 kg/m3.
6. Electron diffraction experiments by Davisson and
13. The nuclear mass M is always less than the total
Germer, and by G. P. Thomson, as well as many
mass, Σm, of its constituents. The difference in
later experiments, have verified and confirmed the
mass of a nucleus and its constituents is called the
wave-nature of electrons. The de Broglie
mass defect,
hypothesis of matter waves supports the Bohr’s
∆M = (Z mp + (A – Z)mn) – M
concept of stationary orbits.
Using Einstein’s mass energy relation, we express
7. Rutherford nuclear model has two main difficulties this mass difference in terms of energy as
in explaining the structure of atom: (a) It predicts ∆Eb = ∆M c2
that atoms are unstable because the accelerated The energy ∆Eb represents the binding energy of
electrons revolving around the nucleus must spiral the nucleus. In the mass number range A = 30 to
into the nucleus. This contradicts the stability of 170, the binding energy per nucleon is nearly
matter. (b) It cannot explain the characteristic line constant, about 8 MeV/nucleon.
spectra of atoms of different elements. 14. Energies associated with nuclear processes are
about a million times larger than chemical process.
15. The Q-value of a nuclear process is

SCAN CODE
Modern Physics
MODERN PHYSICS 19

Q = final kinetic energy – initial kinetic energy. constant. The half-life T1/2 of a radionuclide is the
Due to conservation of mass-energy, this is also, time in which N has been reduced to one-half of its
Q = (sum of initial masses – sum of final masses)c2 initial value. The mean life τ is the time at which N
16. Radioactivity is the phenomenon in which nuclei of has been reduced to e–1 of its initial value
a given species transform by giving out α or β or γ In2
rays; α-rays are helium nuclei; T1/ 2 = = In2

β-rays are electrons. γ-rays are electromagnetic
radiation of wavelengths shorter than X-rays;
17. Law of radioactive decay: N (t) = N(0) e–λt where
λ is the decay constant or disintegration

SCAN CODE
Modern Physics
20 MODERN PHYSICS

Solved Examples
Example-1
hc 1 1
The energy flux of sunlight reaching the surface of = 21.76 10−19  2 − 2 
the earth is 1.388 × 103 W/m2. How many photons   n1 n 2 
(nearly) per square metre are incident on the Earth
per second? Assume that the photons in the Here,
sunlight have an average wavelength of 550 nm. h = Planck’s constant = 6.6  10-34 Js
[NCERT]
c = speed of light = 3  108 m/s
Sol. Given:
(n1 and n2 are integers)
Energy flux = 1388 W/sq. m
The shortest wavelength present within the Paschen
Wavelength = 550 nm series of the spectral lines is for values n1 = 3 and
n2 = .
Energy of photon = hc/
hc  1 1 
= 3.61  10-19 J  = 21.76  10−19  2 − 
  (3) (  )2 
So no. of photons = P/E 6.6  10−34  3  108  9
=
21.76  10−19
= 4  1021 Photons/m2s   = 8.189  10−7 m
Example-2   = 818.9nm

The threshold frequency for a certain metal is Example-4

3.3 × 1014 Hz. If light of frequency 8.2 × 1014 Hz
The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is –
is incident on the metal, predict the cut- off voltage
13.6 eV. What are the kinetic and potential
for the photoelectric emission. energies of the electron in this state?
[NCERT] [NCERT]

Sol. Given: Sol. Provided that the ground state energy of hydrogen
atom, E = -13.6 eV which is the total energy of a
0 = 3.3  1014 Hz hydrogen atom.
Here, kinetic energy is equal to the negative of the
 = 8.2  1014 Hz total energy.
Kinetic energy = -E = - (-13.6) = 13.6eV
Cut = off voltage
The potential energy is the same as the negative of
eV0 = h( - 0) two times kinetic energy.
Potential energy = 2  (13.6) = -27.2 eV
Substituting the values  The kinetic energy of the electron is 13.6 eV and
the potential energy is -27.2 eV
V0 = 2.03 eV

Example-3 Example-5

(a) Using the Bohr’s model calculate the speed

What is the shortest wavelength present in the
of the electron in a hydrogen atom in the n = 1,
Paschen series of spectral lines?
2, and 3 levels. (b) Calculate the orbital period in
Sol. We know the Rydberg’s formula is given as; each of these levels.

[NCERT]
MODERN PHYSICS 21

Sol. It is known that the orbital period is related to the

2r1
(a) Consider 1 to be the orbital speed of the electron orbital speed as T1 =
in a hydrogen atom in the ground state level n 1 = 1. 1
For charge (e) of an electron, 1 is given by the Here,
relation, n12 h 2 0
r1 = Radius of the orbit in n1 =
me2
e2
1 =
 h  h = Planck’s constant = 6.6  10-34 Js
n1 4 0  
 2 
e = Charge of an electron = 1.6  10-19 C
2
e
 1 = 0 = Permittivity of free space
2 0 h
= 8.85  10-12N-1C2m-2
Here,
m = Mass of an electron = 9.1  10-31 kg
e = 1.6  10-19C

0 = Permittivity of free space 2 (1) 2  (6.62  10−34 ) 2  8.85  10−12

 T1 =
2.18  106   9.1 10−31  (1.6  10−19 )2
= 8.85  10-12N- 1
C2m-2
 T1 = 15.27  10−17
h = Planck’s constant = 6.6  10 -34
Js  T1 = 1.527  10−16 s
(1.6 10−19 )2
 1 = For level n2 = 2, we can write the orbital period as;
2  8.85 10−12  6.62  10−34
 1 = 0.0218 108 2r2
T2 =
2
 1 = 2.18  106 m / s
Here,
For level n2 = 2, we can write the relation for the n 22 h 2 0
corresponding orbital speed as; r2 = Radius of the orbit in n2 =
me 2
e2 2 (2) 2  (6.62 10−34 )2  8.85 10−12
2 =  T1 =
n 2 e 0 h 1.09 106   9.110−31  (1.6 10−19 ) 2
= 1.22 10−15 s
(1.16 10−19 )2
 2 = And for the level n3 = 3, we can write the orbital
2  2  8.85 10−12  6.62 10−34 2r3
  2 = 1.09 106 m / s period as; T3 =
3
And, for n3 = 3, we can write the relation for the Here,
corresponding orbital speed as; n 33 h 2 0
r3 = Radius of the orbit in n3 = n 3 =
me2
e2
3 = 2 (3) 2  (6.62 10−34 ) 2  8.85 10 −12
n 3 2 0 h =
7.27 105   9.110−31  (1.6 10−19 ) 2
(1.16  10−19 )2 = 4.12 10−15 s
 3 =
3  2  8.85  10−12  6.62  10−34 Hence, the orbital periods in the levels n = 1, 2 and
  3 = 7.27  105 m / s 3 are 1.527  10-16 s, 1.22  10-15 s and 4.12  10-15
s respectively.
Clearly, the speeds of the electron in a hydrogen
atom in the levels n = 1, 2 and 3 are 2.18  106 m/s,
1.09  106 m/s and 7.27  103 m/s respectively.
(b) Consider T1 to be the orbital period of the electron
when it is in level n1 = 1.
22 MODERN PHYSICS

Example-6 The binding energy of this nucleus could be given

as, Ebl = mc2
The radius of the innermost electron orbit of a
hydrogen atom is 5.3×10–11 m. What are the radii Where, c = Speed of light
of the n = 2 and n = 3 orbits?
 MeV 
[NCERT]  E bl = 0.528461 931.5  2   c 2
 c 
Sol. Provided that the innermost radius, r1 = 5.3  10-11  E b1 = 492.26 MeV
m. Let r2 be the radius of the orbit at n = 2. It is
Now, we have the average binding energy per
related to the radius of the innermost orbit as;
nucleon to be,
r2 = (n)2r1
492.26
B.E = = 8.79 MeV
 r2 = (2)2  5.3  10-11 = 2.1  10-10 m 56
Similarly, for n = 3; Also, atomic mass of 209
Bi, m2 = 208.980388u
83

r3 = (n)2r1
We know that, 209
83 Bi nucleus has 83 protons and
 r2 = (3)  5.3  10
2 -11
= 4.77  10 -10
m 209 – 83 = 126 neutrons

Clearly, the radii of the n = 2 and n = 3 orbits are Where,

2.1  10-10 m 4.77  10-10 m respectively.
Mass of a proton, mH = 1.007825 u
Example-7
Mass of a neutron, mn = 1.008665u
Obtain the binding energy of the nuclei
m’ = 83  1.007825 + 126  1.008665 –
56 209
26 Fe and 83 Bi
in units of MeV from the following
208.980388
data:
 m’ = 83.649475 + 127.091790 – 208980388
26 Fe) = 55.934939 u m(83 Bi) = 208.980388 u
m(56 209

 MeV 
[NCERT] Eb2 = m’c2 = 1.760877  931.5  2   c2
 c 
Sol. We are given the following:
 Eb2 = 1640.26 MeV
Atomic mass of 56
26 Fe, m1 = 55.934939u
Average binding energy per nucleon is found to be
Hence, the mass defect of the nucleus would be, 1640.26
= = 7.848MeV
m = 26  mH + 30  mn – m1 209
Where, Mass of a proton, mH = 1.007825u Hence, the average binding energy per nucleon is
found to be 7.848 MeV.
Mass of a neutron, mn = 1.008665u
Example-8
Substituting these values into the above equation,
we get, Write nuclear reaction equations for

m = 26  1.007825 + 30  1.008665 – 55.934939 (i)  − decay of 226

88 Ra (ii)  − decay of 242
94 Pu

 m = 26.20345 + 30.25995 – 55.934939 (iii) − − decay of 15

32
P (iv) − − decay of 210
Bi
83

 m = 0.528461u (v) + − decay of 11 (vi) + − decay of 97

6 C 43 Tc

But we have, 1u = 931.5 MeV/c2

[NCERT]
m = 0.528461  931.5 MeV/c2 226 220
Sol. (a) 88 Ra and (b) 86 Rn
MODERN PHYSICS 23

Given Q value = [226.02540 – (222.01750 +

m( 226
Ra) = 226.02540 u. 4.002603)]uc2
88

m( 220
86 Rn) = 222.01750 u. Q value = 0.005297 uc2
222
m ( 86 Rn) = 220.01137 u. But we know, l u = 931.5 MeV/c2
m( 216
Po) = 216.00189 u.
84
 Q = 0.005297  931.5  4.94 MeV
(b) 242
94 Pu → 238
92 U +42 He Kinetic energy of the  particle

(c) 32
P→ 32
S + e− +   mass number after decay 
Q
15 16
=
 Mass number before decay 
(d) 210
83 B→ 210
84 Po + e− + 
222
(e) 11
6 C → 11 +
5 B+ e +
 K.E =  4.94 = 4.85MeV
226
+
(f) 97
43 Tc → 97
42 Mo + e +  Hence, the Kinetic energy of the alpha
particle found to be 4.85 MeV.
(g) 120
54 Xe + e+ → 120
53 I + 
(b) We know that, Alpha particle decay of
220
Example-9 86 Rn could be given as,

Find the Q-value and the kinetic energy of the 220

Rn →84
216
Po +42 He
emitted α-particle in the α-decay of 86

226 220 We are also given,

(a) 88 Ra and (b) 86 Ag
220
Mass of 86 Rn =220.01137 u
226
Given m( 88 Ra) = 226.02540 u,
222
m( 86 Rn) = 222.01750 u, Mass of 216
84 Po = 216.00189 u
m( 222
86 Rn) = 220.01150 u,
Now, Q value could be given as,
m( 222
84 Po) = 216.00189 u.
Q – Value could be given as
[NCERT]
Q – value = [220.01137 – (216.00189 + 4.00260)]
Sol. (a) We know that,  931.5  641 MeV
26
Alpha particle decay of 88 Ra emits a
Now, we have the kinetic energy as,
helium nucleus. As a result, its mass
number reduces to 222 = (226-4)  220 − 4 
and its atomic number reduces to 86 K.E  =    6.41 = 6.29 MeV
 220 
= (22 - 2). This is shown in the following
nuclear reaction : The kinetic energy of the alpha particle is found to
Q – value of emitted  - particle = (Sum be 6.29 MeV
of initial mass – Sum of final mass) c2
Example-10
It is also given that :
How long can an electric lamp of 100W be kept
226
m(88 Ra) = 226.02540 u glowing by fusion of 2.0 kg of deuterium? Take
220
m(88 Rn) = 220.01137 u the fusion reaction as
m( 42 He) = 4.002603u [NCERT]

On substituting these values into the above Sol. The fusion reaction is given to be :
equation, 2
1 H +12 H →32 He + n + 3.27 MeV
24 MODERN PHYSICS

Amount of deuterium, m = 2kg (i) The threshold frequency is the frequency of incident
light at which kinetic energy of ejected
1 mole, i.e., 2 g of deuterium contains 6.023  1023 photoelectron is zero.
atoms. From fig. threshold frequency
14
2.0 kg of deuterium contains v0 = 4.5 × 10 Hz
6.023 1023 (ii) Work function, W = hv0
 2000 = 6.023 1026 atoms. –34 14
2 = 6.6 × 10 × 4.5 × 10 joule
6.6 10−34  4.5 1014
It could be inferred from the given reaction that = eV
when two atoms of deuterium fuse, 3.27 MeV
1.6 10−19
energy is released. = 1.85 eV

Therefore, the total energy per nucleus released in Example-12

the fusion reaction would be:
By how much would the stopping potential for a given
3.27 photosensitive surface go up if the frequency of the
E=  6.023 1026 MeV incident radiations were to be increased from 4 × 10
15
2 15
3.27 Hz to 8 × 10 Hz ?
=  6.023 1026 1.6 10 −19 106
2
E = 1.576 1014 J Sol. Stopping potential VS is given by
h W
eVS = hv – W VS = v−
Power of the electric lamp is given tobe, P = 100 W e e
15
= 100 J/s, that is, the energy consumed by the lamp when v1 = 4 × 10 Hz, Vs = VS (say) 1
per second is 100J. 15
when v2 = 8 × 10 Hz, Vs = VS (say) 2
Now, the total time for which the electric lamp
h W
glows could be calculated as,  VS1 = v1 −
e e

1.576 1014 1.576 1014 h

VS 2 = v2 −
W
t= =
100 100  60  60  24  365 e e
h
 t  4.9 104 years Subtracting VS 2 − VS1 = (v2 − v1)
e

Hence, the total time for which the electric lamp 6.4 10−34 15 15
= (8 × 10 – 4 × 10 )
glows is found to be 4.9  104 years. 1.6 10−19

Example-11 = 16 volt.
Example-13
For photoelectric effect in sodium, the figure shows Define the term work function of a metal. The
the plot of cut-off voltage versus frequency of incident threshold frequency of a metal is f0. When the light of
radiation. Calculate (i) threshold frequency (ii) work
function for sodium. frequency 2f0 is incident on the metal plate, the
Sol. maximum velocity of electrons emitted is v1. When the
frequency of the incident radiation is increased to 5
f0, the maximum velocity of electrons emitted is v2.
Find the ratio of v1 to v2.

Sol. Work function: The work function of a metal is defined

as the minimum energy required to free an electron
from its surface binding.
1 2
Einstein’s photoelectric equation is hv = hv0 + mv
2
In first case v = 2f0, v0 = f0, v = v1
MODERN PHYSICS 25

1 1 If the incident frequency is slightly reduced, what

 h2f0 = hf0 + mv12  mv12
2 2 will happen to the photoelectron emission in the two
= hf0 ...(1) cases ?
In second case, v = 5f0, v0 = f0, v = v2
Sol. (i) For surface P, Ek = 0, so energy of photon
1 2 1 2
 h(5f0) = hf0 + mv2  mv2  = work function
2 2
–34 15
= 4hf0 ...(2) i.e., hv = W = hv0 = 6.6 × 10 × 10
2 –19
  = 6.6 × 10 joule
Dividing  v1  = 1  v1 = 1 .
 v2  4 v2 2 (ii) For surface Q, the photoelectrons have the
Example-14 same kinetic energy, so Einstein’s
Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of a neutron of equation
kinetic energy 150 eV. mass of neutron hv = W + Ek,
–27
= 1.67 × 10 kg work function of Q is less than that of P
h –19
Sol. e Broglie wavelength  = W < 6.6 × 10 joule
2mEK i.e., surface P has higher work function
Here than surface Q (i) As frequency of
–19 –17 incident radiation is reduced
EK = 150 eV = 150 × 1.6 × 10 J = 2.4 × 10 J slightly, energy of photon will become less
6.6310−34 than work function of P, but will be
 = m more than the work function Q,
[2 1.67 10−27  2.4 10−17 ]
hence surface P will show no
–12
= 2.335 × 10 m photoelectric emission, while surface Q
= 0.02335 Å. will show photoelectric emission ;
but the kinetic energy of photoelectrons
from surface Q will be lower than initial
Example-15
value.
An electron and an alpha particle have the same de Example-17
Broglie wavelength associated with them. How are
their kinetic energies related to each other ? The work function of cesium metal is 2.14 eV.
14
When light of frequency 6 × 10 Hz is incident on
the metal surface, photoemission of electrons
Sol. Given electron = 
occurs. What is the
de Broglie wavelength associated with a particle of
(a) maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons
mass m and energy E is
(b) stopping potential and
h
= (c) maximum speed of emitted electrons ?
2mE
Given 0 = 2.14 eV, v = 6 × 10 Hz
14
h h
Sol.
 =
2me E e 2m E  (a) Maximum kinetic energy of emitted electron
–34
Ek = hv – 0 = 6.63 × 10
14
× 6 × 10 –2.14 × 1.6 ×
Example-16 –19
10
15
Radiations of frequency 10 Hz are incident on two –19 0.54 10 −19
= 0.54 × 10 J= eV = 0.34 eV
photosensitive surfaces P and Q. 1.6 10 −19
Following observations are made (b) Stopping potential v0 is given by
(i) for surface P, photoemission occurs but
E k 0.34eV
photoelectrons have zero kinetic energy. Ek = eV0 V0 = = = 0.34 V
(ii) for surface Q, photoemission occurs and the e e
photoelectrons have some kinetic energy. (c) The maximum speed of the emitted
Which of these has a higher work function ? photoelectrons is v.
Hence, the relation for kinetic energy can
be written as,
26 MODERN PHYSICS

1 h 6.63 10 −34

K = mv 2 p= = –25
= 6.63 × 10 kg ms
–1

2  1.00 10 −9
m = 9.1 ×10–31 Kg is the mass of electron.
 v 2 = 2K / m c h
(b) Energy of photon, E = hv = h. = c
 v = 3.323 105 m/s = 332.3Km/s  
–25 8 –17
= pc = 6.63 × 10 × 3 × 10 J = 19.89 × 10 J
Example-18 −17
In an experiment of photoelectric effect, the slope 19.89 10 3
= eV = 1.24 × 10 eV = 1.24 keV
of cut-off voltage versus frequency of incident light 1.6 10 −19
–15
is found to be 4.12 × 10 Vs. Calculate the value
of Planck’s constant. 1 2 p2
(c) Kinetic energy of electron Ek = mev =
2 2m e
Sol. Einstein’s photoelectric equation is Ek = hv – 0
(6.63 10 −25 ) 2
or eV0 = hv – 0 = J
2  9.110 −31
h 
or V0 = v− 0 –19 2.42 10 −19
e e = 2.42 × 10 J= eV = 1.51 eV
1.6 10 −19
h
Clearly, slope of V0 – v curve is .
e Example-21
h –15 –15 The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is –13.6 eV
Give = 4.12 × 10 V – s  h = 4.12 × 10 e
e (i) What is the kinetic energy of an electron in the
joule second second excited state ?
–15 –19 –34
= 4.12 × 10 × 1.6 × 10 = 6.59 × 10 Js (ii) If the electron jumps to the ground state from the
second excited state, calculate the wavelength of
Example-19 the spectral line emitted.
Sol. The energy levels of H-atom are given by
Calculate the (a) momentum and (b) de Broglie
Rhc 13.6
wavelength of the electrons accelerated through a En − = − 2 eV
potential difference of 56 V. n2 n
(i) For second excited state n = 3
–31
Sol. For electron, mass m = 9.1 × 10 kg 13.6 13.6
 E3 = − 2 eV = − eV = −1.51eV
(a) Momentum p = 2mE k = 2meV (3) 9
th
−31
= 2  9.110 1.6 10−19  56 = 4.04 × Kinetic energy of electron in n state is
–24 –1
K3 = – E3 = + 1.51 eV
10 kg ms (ii) The wavelength of emitted radiation from second
(b) de Broglie wavelength excited state (n = 3) to ground state (n = 1) is given
h 6.63 10 −34 by
= =
p 4.04 10 −24 hc
= E3 – E1 = – 1.51 eV + 13.6 eV = 12.09 eV
= 1.64 × 10
–10
m = 0.164 nm 
hc 6.626 10−34  3108
 = = m
12.09 eV 12.09 1.6 10−19
Example-20
–7
An electron and a photon, each has a wavelength of = 1.027 × 10 m = 102.7 nm
1.00 nm. Find Example-22
The energy level diagram of an element is given
(a) their momenta alongside. Identify, by doing necessary calculations,
(b) the energy of the photon and which transition corresponds to the emission of a
(c) the kinetic energy of electron. spectral line of wavelength 102.7 nm.

–9
Sol. Given  = 1.00 nm = 1.00 × 10 m
(a) Momenta of electron and photon are equal ;
given by
MODERN PHYSICS 27

Number of atoms in 1 g sample of

23
1
U is N = 6.023 × 10 × .
238
log e 2
Activity of sample A = N = ×N
T1/ 2
 0.6931  23
=  7 
× 6.023 × 10 ×
hc 6.6 10−34  3 108
 4.5 10  3.1510 
9
Sol. E = = J
 102.7 10−9 4
= 1.237 × 10 becquerel.
6.6 10−34  3108
= eV Example-25
102.7 10−9 1.6 10−19
66  3000
40
Calculate the binding energy per nucleon Ca
= = 12.04 eV
20

1027 16 nucleus.

[Given : m (40 Ca) ] = 39.962589 u
Now, E = |-13.6-(-1.50) E = | – 13.6 – (– 1.50) | 20

= 12.1 eV mn (mass of a neutron) = 1.008665 u

Hence, transition shown by arrow D corresponds to mp (mass of a proton) = 1.007825 u
emission of  = 102.7 nm. 2
1 u = 931 MeV/c ]
40
Example-23 Sol. Total Binding energy of 20
Ca nucleus
A radioactive isotope has a half-life of 5 years.
= 20mp + 20 mn – M ( Ca) 40

After how much time is its activity reduced to 20

3.125% of its original activity ? = 20 × 1.007825 + 20 × 1.008665 – 39.962589

n
= 0.367211 u = 0.367211 × 931 MeV = 341.87 Mev
R 1
Sol. We know =  341.87
R0 2 Binding energy per nucleus =
40
MeV/nucleon
= 8.55 MeV/nucleon
R 3.125
Given = 3.125% = Example-26
R0 100

n n 5 n A heavy nucleus X of mass number 240 and

3.125  1  1 1 1 1
 =   or =   or   =   binding energy per nucleon 7.6 MeV is split into
100  2  32  2  2 2 two fragments Y and Z of mass numbers 110 and
130. The binding 89/energy per nucleon in Y and
n=5 Z is 8.5 MeV per nucleon. Calculate the energy Q
released per fission in MeV.
Given T = 5 years
2 2
Sol. Energy released Q = (MY + MZ)C – MX C
t
As n = = 8.5 (110 + 130) MeV – 7.6 × 240 MeV
T
= (8.5 – 7.6) × 240 MeV
t = 0.9 × 240 MeV = 2.16 MeV
 =5
T Example-27
or t = 5 × 5 = 25 years How does the size of a nucleus depend on its mass
number? Hence explain why the density of nuclear
Example-24 matter is independent of the size of nucleus.
U against -decay is 4.5 × 10
238 9
The half-life of 92 Sol. The radius (size) R of nucleus is related to its mass
years. Calculate the activity of 1 g sample of U. number (A) as
1/3 –15
9 9 7 R = R0A where R0 = 1.1 × 10 m
Sol. T1/2 = 4.5 × 10 years = 4.5 × 10 × 3.15 × 10 seconds
28 MODERN PHYSICS

If m is the average mass of a nucleon, then mass of h h

nucleus = mA, where A is mass number = =
mv 3mkT
Volume of nucleus =
H m He THe  m He THe 8
4 3 4 4 = = H = =
R = (R 0 A1/3 )3 = R 30 A  He m H TH  He m H TH 3
3 3 3
Density of nucleus,
Example-30
mass mA m 3m
N = = = =
R 30 4R 0 Calculate the nearest distance of approach of an -
3
volume 4 4
R 30 A
3 3 particle of energy 2.5 MeV being scattered by a gold
Clearly nuclear density N is independent of mass nucleus (Z = 79).
number A. Sol. The electrostatic potential at a distance x due to
nucleus is given by Ze/40x, where Ze is the charge
Example-28
on the nucleus.
Explain why the energy distribution is of –rays The P.E. of an -particle when it is at a distance x from
continuous. the nucleus is given by
Ze 2Ze 2
Sol. During -decay, a neutron is converted into a proton 2e =
7 with the emission of a -particle with an 4 0 x (4 0 x)
antineutrino 2e being the charge on -particle.
1
0n ⎯⎯
→ 1p1 + −10 + v Since the -particle momentarily stops when its initial
K.E. is completely changed into P.E. here, hence
The energy produced in this decay is shared by -
particle and antineutrino; therefore -particle may 1 2 2Ze 2 2Ze2  1 
mv = or x=  
have varying amount of energy starting from zero to 2 40 x 40  mv 2 / 2 
a certain maximum value.
1
Now energy of -particle = mv 2 = 2.5 MeV
2
Example-29
6 –19
= 2.5 × 10 × 1.6 × 10 J
Find the ratio of de Broglie wavelength of –13
molecules of hydrogen and helium which are at = 2.5 × 1.6 × 10 J
temperatures 27°C and 127°C respectively. Substituting the values, we get
h 2  79  2.56 10−38  9 109
Sol. de Broglie wavelength is given by  = x= −13
–14
= 9.101 × 10 m.
mv 2.5 1.6 10
Root-mean-square velocity of a gas particle at the
given temperature (T) is given as,
1 3
mv 2 = kT
2 2
3kT
v=
m
where k = Boltzmann’s constant and m = mass of the
gas particle and T = temperature of the gas in K.
mv = 3mkT
MODERN PHYSICS 29

EXERCISE-1: Basic Objective Questions

Photons 7. If the kinetic energy of a free electron doubles, its
1. A photocell is illuminated by a small bright source de–Broglie wavelength changes by the factor
placed 1 m away. When the same source of light is
1 1
placed at m away, the number of electrons (a) (b) 2
2 2
emitted by photocathode would. 1
(a) Decrease by a factor of 4 (c) (d) 2
2
(b) Increase by a factor of 4
8. The following particles are moving with the same
(c) Decrease by a factor of 2
velocity, then maximum de–Broglie wavelength
(d) Increase by a factor of 2
will be for
2. Monochromatic light of wavelength 667 nm is
(a) proton (b) –particle
produced by a helium neon laser. The power
(c) neutron (d) –particle
emitted is 9 mW. The number of photons arriving
9. The energy of a photon of light is 3 eV. Then the
per second on the average at a target irradiated by
wavelength of photon is nearly
this beam is
(a) 4125 nm (b) 412.5 nm
(a) 9 × 1017 (b) 3 × 1016
(c) 41250 nm (d) 4 nm
(c) 9 × 1015 (d) 3 × 1019
10. The wavelength associated with an electron,
Matter Waves
accelerated through a potential difference of 100 V,
3. The de Broglie wavelength of a particle of mass m
is of the order of
moving with a kinetic energy E is
(a) 1000 Å (b) 100 Å
h h (c) 10.5 Å (d) 1.2 Å
(a) (b)
2mE 2mE 11. A particle of mass 1 mg has the same wavelength
as an electron moving with a velocity of 3 × 106
h h
(c) (d) ms–1. The velocity of the particle is (mass of
2mE 2mE electron = 9.1 × 10–31 kg)
4. Momentum of a photon of wavelength  is (a) 2.7 × 10–18 ms–1 (b) 9 × 10–2 ms–1
–31 –1
(a) h (b) zero (c) 3 × 10 ms (d) 2.7 × 10–21 ms–1
 12. The momentum of a photon of an electromagnetic
(c) h (d) h radiation is 3.3 × 10–29 kg-ms–1. What is the
c c frequency of the associated waves?
5. The de-Broglie wavelength of a molecule of (h = 6.6 × 10–34 J-s, c = 3 × 108 ms–1)
thermal energy kBT (kB = Boltzmann constant and (a) 1.5 × 1013 Hz (b) 7.5 × 1012 Hz
T = absolute temperature), is (c) 6.0 × 10 Hz
13
(d) 3.0 × 103 Hz
13. If the kinetic energy of the particle is increased to
h h
(a)  = (b) 16 times its previous value, the percentage change
2mk B T 2mk B T in the de-Broglie wavelength of the particle is:
h (a) 60 (b) 50
(c) h 2mk B T (d) (c) 25 (d) 75
2
4m k 2B T 2 14. The momentum of a photon of energy 1 MeV in kg
6. Doubly ionized helium atoms and hydrogen ions m/s, will be
are accelerated from rest through the same potential (a) 0.33 × 106 (b) 7 × 10–24
drop. The ratio of the final velocities of the helium (c) 10 –22
(d) 5 × 10–22
and the hydrogen ions is 15. A particle of mass M at rest decays into two
1 particles of masses m1 and m2, having nonzero
(a) (b) 2
2 velocities. The ratio of the de Broglie wavelengths
1 of the particles, 1/2is
(c) (d) 2
2 m1 m2
(a) (b)
m2 m1
30 MODERN PHYSICS

m2 (a) Assumes that the angular momentum of

(c) 1:1 (d) electrons is quantized
m1
(b) Uses Einstein’s photoelectric equation
Atomic Structure and its History (c) Predicts continuous emission spectra for atoms
16. The existence of a positively charged nucleus in an (d) Predicts the same emission spectra for all types
atom was first suggested by the experiment of of atoms
(a) J J Thomson (b) E Rutherford 24. The ratio of the energies of the hydrogen atom in
(c) Chadwick (d) Hahn and Strassman the first to the second excited state
17. The Rutherford -particle experiment shows that (a) 4 : 1 (b) 1 : 4
most of the -particles pass through almost (c) 4 : 9 (d) 9 : 4
undeflected while some are scattered through large
25. The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is – 13.6
angles. What information does it give about the
eV. When its electron is in the first excited state, its
structure of the atom?
excitation energy is
(a) Atom is hollow
(a) 3.4 eV (b) 6.8 eV
(b) The whole mass of the atom is concentrated in a
(c) 10.2 eV (d) zero
small centre called nucleus 2+
26. Energy required for the electron excitation in Li
(c) Nucleus is positively charged
from the first to the third Bohr orbit is
(d) All the above
(a) 36.3 eV (b) 108.8 eV
1 2
18. An alpha nucleus of energy mv bombards a (c) 122.4 eV (d) 12.1 eV
2 27. The ionization energy of hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV.
heavy nuclear target of charge Ze. Then the Following Bohr’s theory, the energy corresponding
distance of closest approach for the alpha nucleus to a transition between 3rd and 4th orbit is
will be proportional to (a) 3.40 eV (b) 1.51 eV
2
(a) v (b) 1/m (c) 0.85 eV (d) 0.66 eV
1 1 28. In Bohr’s model, the atomic radius of the first orbit
(c) 4 (d)
v Ze is r0 , then the radius of the third orbit is
19. In a Rutherford scattering experiment, when a (a) r0/9 (b) r0
projectile of charge Z1 and mass M1 approaches a (c) 9r0 (d) 3r0
target nucleus of charge Z2 and mass M2, the 29. The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is –13.6
distance of closest approach is r0. The energy of the eV. When its electron is in the first excited state, its
projectile is excitation energy is
(a) directly proportional to M1 × M2 (a) 3.4 eV (b) 6.8 eV
(b) directly proportional to Z1 Z2 (c) 10.2 eV (d) zero
(c) inversely proportional to Z1 30. In terms of Bohr radius a0, the radius of the second
(d) directly proportional to mass M1 Bohr orbit of a hydrogen atom is given by
20. An –particle of energy 5 MeV is scattered (a) 4a0 (b) 8a0
through 180° by a fixed uranium nucleus. The
(c) 2 a0 (d) 2a0
distance of the closet approach is of the order of
–10 31. To explain his theory, Bohr used
(a) 1 Å (b) 10 cm
–12 –15 (a) Conservation of linear momentum
(c) 10 cm (d) 10 cm
(b) Quantization of angular momentum
Bohr's Atomic Model
(c) Conservation of quantum frequency
21. The total energy of electron in the ground state of
(d) Conservation of energy
hydrogen atom is –13.6 eV. The kinetic energy of
an electron in the first excited state is
(a) 3.4 eV (b) 6.8 eV 32. According to Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom, for
(c) 13.6 eV (d) 1.7 eV the electron in the nth allowed orbit the
22. The spectral series of the hydrogen atom that lies in I. linear momentum is proportional to 1/n.
the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum II. radius is proportional to n.
(a) Paschen (b) Balmer
III. kinetic energy is proportional to 1/n 2 .
(c) Lyman (d) Brackett
23. The Bohr model of atoms IV. angular momentum is proportional to n.
MODERN PHYSICS 31

Choose the correct option from the codes given (a) Its kinetic energy increases and its potential
below and total energy decreases
(b) Its kinetic energy decreases, potential energy
(a) I, III and IV (b) only I
increases and its total energy remains the same
(c) I and II (d) only III
33. Energy E of a hydrogen atom with principal (c) Its kinetic and total energy decreases and its
−13.6 potential energy increases
quantum number n is given by E = eV. The (d) Its kinetic, potential and total energy decreases
n 2+
energy of a photon ejected when the electron jumps 42. A hydrogen atom and a Li ion are both in the
from n = 3 state to n = 2 state of hydrogen, is second excited state. If LH and LLi are their
approximately respective electronic angular momenta, and E H and
(a) 1.5 eV (b) 0.85 eV ELi their respective energies, then
(c) 3.4 eV (d) 1.9 eV (a) LH>LLi and |EH| > |ELi|
34. Which of the following transitions in hydrogen
(b) LH = LLi and |EH| < |ELi|
atoms emit photons of highest frequency?
(c) LH = LLi and |EH| > |ELi|
(a) n = 2 to n = 6 (b) n = 6 to n = 2
(c) n = 2 to n = 1 (d) n = 1 to n = 2 (d) LH<LLi and |EH| < |ELi|
35. If 13.6 eV energy is required to ionize the 43. Ionization potential of hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV.
hydrogen atom, then the energy required to remove Hydrogen atoms in the ground state are excited by
an electron from n = 2 is monochromatic radiation of photon energy 12.1
(a) 10.2 eV (b) zero eV. According to Bohr’s theory, the spectral lines
(c) 3.4 eV (d) 6.8 eV emitted by hydrogen will be
36. Which of the following transitions gives photon of (a) two (b) three
maximum energy? (c) four (d) one
(a) n = 1 to n = 2 (b) n = 2 to n = 1 44. An electron makes transition inside a hydrogen
(c) n = 2 to n = 6 (d) n = 6 to n = 2 atom. The orbital angular momentum of the
37. Find the ratio of ionization energy of Bohr’s electron may change by
hydrogen atom and hydrogen-like lithium atom. h
(a) h (b)
(a) 1/9 (b) 7/9 
(c) 1/3 (d) none of the above
h h
38. The state of the triply ionized beryllium (Be3+) that (c) (d)
8 4
has the same orbital radius as that of the ground
45. In Bohr’s Model of hydrogen atom. The ratio
state of hydrogen is
between the period of revolution of an electron in
(a) 4 (b) 1
orbit of n = 1 to the period of revolution of the
(c) 2 (d) 3
electron in the orbit n = 2
39. The transition from the state n = 3 to n = 1 in a
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 2 : 1
hydrogen like atom results in ultraviolet radiation.
(c) 1 : 4 (d) 1 : 8
Infrared radiation will be obtained in the transition
46. The ionization energy of the electron in the
from
hydrogen atom in its ground state is 13.6 eV. The
(a) 4 → 3 (b) 2 → 1
atoms are excited to higher energy levels to emit
(c) 3 → 2 (d) 4 → 2 radiations of 6 wavelengths. Maximum wavelength
40. Ratio of longest wavelengths corresponding to of emitted radiation corresponds to the transition
Lyman and Balmer series in hydrogen spectrum is : between
(a) n =3 to n = 2 states (b) n = 3 to n = 1 states
9 5 (c) n = 2 to n = 1 states (d) n = 4 to n = 3 states
(a) (b)
31 27 47. Electron in hydrogen atom first jumps from third
3 7 excited state to second excited state and then from
(c) (d)
23 29 second excited to the first excited state. The ratio of
41. The electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transition the wavelength 1 : 2 emitted in the two cases is:
from an excited state to the ground state. Which of 20 7
the following statement is true? (a) (b)
7 5
32 MODERN PHYSICS

27 27 55. The energy levels of the hydrogen spectrum is

(c) (d)
20 5 shown in figure. There are some transitions A, B, C,
48. Hydrogen atoms are excited from ground state of D and E. Transition A, B and C respectively
the principal quantum number 4. Then the number represent
of spectral lines observed will be
(a) 3 (b) 6
(c) 5 (d) 2
49. Consider an electron in the nth orbit of a hydrogen
atom in the Bohr model. The circumference of the
orbit can be expressed in terms of de-Broglie
wavelength  of that electron as
(a) (0.529) n (b) n
(c) (13.6)  (b) n
50. An electron jumps from the 4th orbit to the 2nd orbit (a) First member of Lyman series, third spectral
of hydrogen atom. Given the Rydberg’s constant R
line of Balmer series and the second spectral
= 105 cm–1. The frequency in Hz of the emitted line of Paschen series
radiation will be (b) Ionization potential of hydrogen, second
3 3
(a) 105 (b) 1015 spectral line of Balmer series and third spectral
16 16 line of Paschen series
9 3 (c) Series limit of Lyman series, third spectral line
(c) 1015 (d)  10
15

16 4 of Balmer series and second spectral line of

51. A ground-state electron (in a hydrogen atom) Paschen series
absorb a photon of energy 3E0. How much kinetic (d) Series limit of Lyman series, second spectral
energy does the electron now have? ( E0 is the line of Balmer series and third spectral line of
energy in the ground state of electron Paschen series
(a) E0 (b) 2E0 56. An energy of 24.6 eV is required to remove one of
(c) 3E0 (d) 4 E0 the electrons from a neutral helium atom. The
energy (in eV) required to remove both the
52. The ratio of areas between the electron orbits for
electrons from a neutral helium atom is
the first excited state to the ground state for the
(a) 79.0 (b) 51.8
hydrogen atom is
(c) 49.2 (d) 38.2
(a) 2 : 1 (b) 4 : 1
Photoelectric Effect
(c) 8 : 1 (d) 16 : 1
57. The photoelectric work function for a metal surface
53. An electron in the hydrogen atom jumps from
is 4.125 eV. The cut-off wavelength for this surface
excited state n to the ground state. The wavelength
is
so emitted illuminates a photosensitive material
(a) 4125 Å (b) 3000 Å
having work function 2.75 eV. If the stopping
(c) 6000 Å (d) 2062.5 Å
potential of the photoelectron is 10 V, then the
58. Einstein’s work on photoelectric effect gives
value of n is
support to
(a) 5 (b) 2
(a) E = mc2 (b) E = h
(c) 3 (d) 4
1 2 h
54. An electrons of a stationary hydrogen atom passes (c) h = mv (d) E =
from the fifth energy level to the ground level. The 2 
velocity that the atom acquired as a result of 59. Sodium and copper have work functions 2.3 eV
photons emission will be: and 4.5 eV respectively. Then the ratio of their
24 24 h R threshold wavelengths is nearest to
(a) (b) (a) 1 : 2 (b) 4 : 1
25h R 25m
(c) 2 : 1 (d) 1 : 4
25h R 25m
(c) (d) 60. The work function of a metal is 4 eV. For the
24 m 24 h R emission of photoelectrons of zero velocity from
(m is the mass of the electron, R, Rydberg constant the metal surface, the wavelength of the incident
and h, Plank’s constant) radiation should be
MODERN PHYSICS 33

(a) 1700 Å (b) 2700 Å 67. The threshold frequency for photoelectric effect on
(c) 3100 Å (d) 5900 Å sodium corresponds to a wavelength of 5000 Å. Its
61. When light of wavelength 300 nm (nanometer) work function is
falls on a photoelectric emitter, photoelectrons are (a) 4 × 10–19 J (b) 1 J
liberated. For another emitter, however, light of (c) 2 × 10–19 J (d) 3 × 10–19 J
600 nm wavelength is sufficient for creating 68. Ultraviolet radiation of 6.2 eV falls on an
photoemission, what is the ratio of the work aluminium surface. KE of fastest electron emitted
functions of the two emitters? is (work function = 4.2eV)
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 2 : 1 (a) 3.2 × 10–21 J (b) 3.2 × 10–19 J
–25
(c) 4 : 1 (d) 1 : 4 (c) 7 × 10 J (d) 9 × 10–32 J
62. The work function of a substance is 4.0 eV. The 69. Which one of the following is true in photoelectric
longest wavelength of light that can cause emission
photoelectron emission from this substance is (a) Photoelectric current is directly proportional
approximately to the amplitude of light of a given frequency
(a) 540 nm (b) 400 nm (b) Photoelectric current is directly proportional
(c) 310 nm (d) 220 nm to the intensity of light of a given frequency
63. Light of two different frequencies whose photons at moderate intensities
have energies 1 eV and 2.5 eV successively (c) Above the threshold frequency, the maximum
illuminate a metal of work function 0.5 eV. The K.E. of photoelectrons is inversely
ratio of the maximum speeds of the emitted
proportional to the frequency of incident light
electrons will be
(d) The threshold frequency depends upon the
(a) 1 : 5 (b) 1 : 4
wavelength of incident light
(c) 1 : 2 (d) 1 : 1
64. Number of ejected photoelectrons increases with 70. Photoelectric works function of a metal is 1 eV,
increase light of wavelength  = 3000 Å falls on its. The
(a) in intensity of light photoelectrons come out with velocity
(b) in wavelength of light (a) 10 m/s (b) 102 m/s
(c) in frequency of light (c) 10 m/s
4
(d) 106 m/s
(d) Never 71. For photoelectric emission from certain metal the
65. According to Einstein’s photoelectric equation, the cutoff frequency is v . If radiation of frequency 2v
graph between the kinetic energy of photoelectrons impinges on the metal plate, the maximum possible
ejected and the frequency of incident radiations is velocity of the emitted electron will be (m is the
electron mass):
(a) 2 h / m (b) h / ( 2m )
(c) h / m (d) 2h / m
72. According to Einstein’s photoelectric equation, the
plot of the kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectrons from a metal versus the frequency
(a) (b)
of the incident radiation gives a straight line whose
slope
(a) Depends on the nature of the metal used
(b) Depends on the intensity of the radiation
(c) Depends both on the intensity of the radiation
and the metal used
(c) (d)
(d) Is the same for all metals and independent of
66. The threshold frequency for a photosensitive metal
14 14 the intensity of the radiation.
is 3.3 × 10 Hz. If light of frequency 8.2 × 10 Hz
is incident on this metal, the cut-off voltage for the 73. In photoelectric effect, the work function of a metal
photoelectric emission is nearly: is 3.5 eV. The emitted electrons can be stopped by
(a) 5V (b) 1V applying a potential of –1.2 V. Then
(c) 2V (d) 3 V (a) The energy of the incident photons in 4.7 eV
(b) the energy of the incident photons is 2.3 eV
34 MODERN PHYSICS

(c) if higher frequency photons be used, the (c) fa = fb and Ia  Ib (d) fb = fc and Ib = Ic
photoelectric current will rise 79. The stopping potential V for photoelectric emission
(d) when the energy of photons is 3.5 eV, the from a metal surface is plotted along Y-axis and
photoelectric current will be maximum frequency  of incident light along X-axis. A
74. The work functions for metals A, B, and C are straight line is obtained as shown. Planck’s
respectively 1.92 eV, 2.0 eV and 5 eV. According constant is given by
to Einstein’s equation, the metals which will emit
photoelectrons for a radiation of wavelength 4100
Å is/are
(a) none (b) A only
(c) A and B only (d) All the three metals
75. The value of stopping potential in the following
diagram

(a) Slope of the line

(b) Product of slope of the line and charge on the
electron
(c) Product of intercept along Y-axis and mass of
(a) – 4V (b) – 3 V the electron
(c) – 2V (d) – 1 V
(d) Product of slope and mass of electron
76. The cathode of a photoelectric cell is changed such
80. A light source is at a distance d from a
that the work function changes from W1 to W2
photoelectric cell, then the number of
(W2> W1). If the current before and after changes photoelectrons emitted from the cell is n. If the
are I1 and I2, all other conditions remaining distance of light source and cell is reduced to half,
unchanged, then then the number of photoelectrons emitted will
(assuming h > W2) become
(a) I1= I2 (b) I1< I2 (a) n/2 (b) 2n
(c) I1> I2 (d) I1< I2< 2I1 (c) 4 n (d) n
X-Rays
77. A 200 W sodium street lamp emits yellow light of
81. The X-ray beam coming from an X-ray tube will be
wavelength 0.6 m. Assuming it to be 25% (a) Monochromatic
efficient in converting electrical energy to light, the
(b) Having all wavelengths smaller than a certain
number of photons of yellow light it emits per
maximum wavelength
second is:
19 20 (c) Having all wavelengths larger than a certain
(a) 3 × 10 (b) 1.5 × 10
18 20 minimum wavelength
(c) 6 × 10 (d) 62 × 10
(d) Having all wavelengths lying between a
78. The figure show the variation of photocurrent with
minimum and maximum wavelength.
anode potential for a photosensitive surface for
three different radiations. Let Ia, Ib and Ic be the 82. The minimum wavelength of X-rays produced by
electrons accelerated by a potential difference of V
intensities and fa, fb and fc be the frequencies for the
volts is equal to
curves a, b and c respectively
eV eh
(a) (b)
hc cV
hc cV
(c) (d)
eV eh
83. Mosley measured the frequency (f) of the
characteristic X-rays from many metals of different
atomic number (Z) and represented his results by a
(a) fa = fb and Ia  Ib (b) fa = fc and Ia = Ic relation known as Mosley’s law. This law is (a, b
are constants)
MODERN PHYSICS 35

(a) f = a2 (Z – b)2 (b) Z = a2 (f – b)2 the wavelength of the K line is k. As the
(c) f = a (Z – b)
2 2
(d) f = a2 (Z – b)1/2 accelerating voltage is increased
84. The shortest wavelength of X-rays emitted from an
X-ray tube depends upon
(a) The current in the tube
(b) The voltage applied to the tube
(c) The nature of the gas in the tube
(d) The atomic number of the target material
85. The potential difference applied to an X-ray tube is
5 kV and the current through it is 3.2 mA. Then the
number of electrons striking the target per second
is (a) k – c increases (b) k – c decreases
16 16
(a) 2 × 10 (b) 5 × 10 (c) k increases (d) k decreases
17 15
(c) 1 × 10 (d) 4 × 10 92. Electrons with de-Broglie wavelength  fall on the
86. An X-ray tube is operated at 50 kV. The minimum target in an X-ray tube. The cut-off wavelength of
wavelength produced is the emitted X-ray is
(a) 0.5 Å (b) 0.75 Å
2mc2 2h
(c) 0.25 Å (d) 1 Å (a) 0 = (b)  0 =
87. The potential difference applied to an X-ray tube is h mc
increased. As a result, in the emitted radiation 2m c 
2 2 2
(c)  0 = (d) 0 = 
(a) The intensity increases h2
(b) The minimum wavelength increases 93. For production of characteristic KX-rays, the
(c) The intensity decreases electron transition is
(d) The minimum wavelength decreases (a) n = 2 to n = 1 (b) n = 3 to n = 2
88. Mosley’s law relates the frequencies of line X-rays (c) n = 3 to n = 1 (d) n = 4 to n = 2
with the following characteristics of the target 94. Which one of the following statements is wrong in
element the context of X-rays generated from a X-ray tube?
(a) Its density (a) Wavelength of characteristic X-ray decreases
(b) Its atomic weight when the atomic number of the target
(c) Its atomic number increases.
(d) Interplanar spacing of the atomic planes
(b) Cut-off wavelength of the continuous X-rays
89. The characteristic X-ray radiation is emitted, when
depends on the atomic number of the target
(a) The electrons are accelerated to a fixed energy
(c) Intensity of the characteristic X-rays depends
(b) The source of electrons emits a monoenergetic
on the electric power given to the X-rays tube
beam
(d) Cut-off wavelength of the continuous X-rays
(c) The bombarding electrons knock out electrons
depends on the energy of the electrons in the
from the inner shell of the target atoms and one
X-ray tube.
of the outer electrons falls into this vacancy
95. The KX-rays emission line of tungsten occurs at
(d) The valence electrons in the target atoms are
removed as a result of the collision  = 0.021 nm. The energy difference between K
90. X-rays are produced in an X-ray tube operating at a and L levels in this atom is about
given accelerating voltage. The wavelength of the (a) 0.51 MeV (b) 1.2 MeV
continuous X-ray has values from (c) 59 keV (d) 13.6 eV
(a) 0 to 
Atomic Nuclei and its Properties
(b) min to  where min> 0
96. Density D of nuclear matter varies with nucleon
(c) 0 to max where max< number A as
(d) min to max where 0 <min< max< (a) D A3 (b) D  A2
91. The intensity of X-rays from a Coolidge tube is (c) D  A (d) D  A0
plotted against wavelength  as shown in the 97. The ratio of the radii of the nuclei 13Al27 and 52Te125
figure. The minimum wavelength found is c and is approximately
(a) 6 : 10 (b) 13 : 52
36 MODERN PHYSICS

(c) 40 : 177 (d) 14 : 73 neutron respectively and BE the binding energy (in
98. The net force between two nucleons 1 fm apart is MeV), then
F1 if both are protons, F2 if both are neutrons, and (a) BE = [m (A, Z) – Zmp – (A – Z) mn] c2
F3 if one is a neutron, and the other is a proton. (b) BE = [Zmp + (A – Z) mn – m (A, Z)] c2
(a) F1 < F2 < F3 (b) F2 < F1 < F3 (c) BE = [Zmp + Amn – m (A, Z)] c2
(c) F1 < F2 = F3 (d) F1 = F2 < F3
(d) Be = m (A, Z) – Zmp – (A – Z) mn
99. In 88Ra226 nucleus, there are
(a) 138 protons and 88 neutrons 109. During a nuclear fusion reaction,
(b) 138 neutrons and 88 protons (a) a heavy nucleus breaks into two fragments by
(c) 226 protons and 88 electrons itself
(d) 226 neutrons and 138 electrons (b) a light nucleus bombarded by thermal neutrons
100. The nuclei 6C13 and 7N14 can be described as breaks up
(a) isotones (b) isobars (c) a heavy nucleus bombarded by thermal
(c) isotopes of carbon (d) isotopes of nitrogen neutrons breaks up
101. The nuclei of which one of the following pairs of (d) two light nuclei combine to give a heavier
nuclei are isotones. nucleus and possibly other products.
(a) 34Se74, 31Ga71 (b) 42Mo92, 40Zr92 110. Binding energy per nucleon plot against the mass
(c) 38Sr84, 38Sr86 (d) 20Ca40, 16S32 number for stable nuclei is shown in the figure.
102. mp and mn are masses of proton and neutron Which curve is correct?
respectively. An element of mass m has Z protons
and N neutrons, then
(a) m > Zmp + Nmn
(b) m = Zmp + Nmn
(c) m < Zmp + Nmn
(d) m may be greater than, less than or equal to
Zmp + Nmn, depending on nature of element (a) A (b) B
103. The mass number of He is 4 and that for sulphur is (c) C (d) D
32. The radius of sulphur nucleus is larger than that 111. mp denotes the mass of a proton and mn that of a
of helium, by….. times neutron. A given nucleus of binding energy BE,
(a) 8 (b) 4 contains Z protons and N neutrons. The mass m (N,
(c) 2 (d) 8 Z) of the nucleus is given by
104. The binding energy per nucleon for the parent (a) m (N, Z) = Nmn + Zmp – BEc2
nucleus is E1 and that for the daughter nuclei is E2. (b) m (N, Z) = Nmn + Zmp + BEc2
Then (c) m (N, Z) = Nmn + Zmp – BE/c2
(a) E1 > E2 (b) E2 > E1
(d) m (N, Z) = Nmn + Zmp + BE/c2
(c) E1 > 2E2 (b) E2 = 2 E1
105. The binding energy per nucleon is maximum in 112. The mass of proton is 1.0073 u and that of neutron
case of is 1.0087 u (u = atomic mass unit) The binding
(a) 2He4 `(b) 26Fe56 energy of 2He4 is (mass of helium nucleus = 4.0015
(c) 56Ba 141
(d) 92U235 u)
(a) 28.4 MeV (b) 0.061 u
106. The stable nucleus that has a radius half that of Fe56
(c) 0.0305 J (d) 0.0305 erg
is
Given, mass of helium nucleus 4.0015 u.
(a) Li7 (b) Na21
113. If the binding energy per nucleon in 3Li7 and 2He4
(c) S 16
(d) Ca40
107. Solar energy is due to nuclei are respectively 5.60 MeV and 7.06 MeV,
(a) fusion reaction (b) fission reaction then the energy of proton in the reaction
3 Li + p → 2He2
7 4
(c) combustion reaction (d) chemical reaction is
108. A nucleus AZ X has mass represented by m (A, Z). (a) 28.6 MeV (d) 2.4 MeV
(c) 8.4 MeV (d) 17.28 MeV
If mp and mn denotes the mass of proton and
MODERN PHYSICS 37

114. Consider the fission reaction (c) 75 (d) 72

236
92 U ⎯⎯
→ X +Y +n+n i.e. two nuclei of same
117 117 123. Li nucleus has three protons and four neutrons.
Mass of Li nucleus is 7.016005 amu. Mass of
mass number 117 are found plus two neutrons. The proton is 1.007277 amu. and mass of neutron is
binding energy per nucleon of X and Y is 8.5 MeV 1.008665 amu. Mass defect of lithium nucleus is
whereas of U236 is 7.6 MeV. The total energy amu is
liberated is (a) 0.04048 amu (b) 0.4050 amu
(a) 2000 MeV (b) 200 MeV (c) 0.04052 amu (d) 0.04055 amu
(c) 20 MeV (d) 2 MeV 124. The function of a moderator in a nuclear reactor is
115. If a star can convert all the He nuclei completely (a) absorb the dangerous gamma radiation
into oxygen nuclei, the energy released per oxygen
(b) react with the nuclear fuel to release energy
nucleus is [Mass of He nucleus is 4.0026 amu and
(c) provide neutrons to the fission process
mass of Oxygen nucleus is 15.9994 amu]
(d) slow down fast neutrons so as to have greater
(a) 7.6 MeV (b) 56.12 MeV
(c) 10.24 MeV (d) 23.9 MeV probability for nuclear fission to occur
116. The order of magnitude of density of uranium
–27
125. The binding energy per nucleon of deuteron ( H)
2
1
nucleus is, (mp = 1.67 × 10 kg)
20 –3 17 –3
and helium nucleus ( 4
2 He ) is 1.1 MeV and 7 MeV
(a) 10 kg m (b) 10 kg m
14 –3 11 –3 respectively. If two deuteron nuclei react to form a
(c) 10 kg m (d) 10 kg m
single helium, nucleus then the energy released is
117. The mass m of a uranium nucleus varies with its
(a) 13.9 MeV (b) 26.9 MeV
volume V as
(c) 23.6 MeV (d) 19.2 MeV
1
(b) m 
126. Complete the reaction
(a) m V
V n + 92U235→ Ba144 + ...... + 3 n
(c) m  V (d) m  V 2 (a) 36Kr89 (b) 36Kr90
91
118. A certain mass of Hydrogen is changed to Helium (c) 36Kr (d) 36Kr92
by the process of fusion. The mass defect in fusion 127. Complete the equation for the following fission
process:
reaction is 0.02866 . The energy liberated per
nucleon is: (given l = 931 MeV) 92 U235 + 0 n1 ⎯⎯
→ 38Sr 90 + ......
(a) 13.35 MeV (b) 2.67 MeV (a) 54X143 + 30n1 (b) 54X145
(c) 26.7 MeV (d) 6.675 MeV (c) 57Xe 142
(d) 54Xe142 + 0n1
119. The Binding energy per nucleon of 37 Li and 42 He 128. The above is a plot of binding energy per nucleon
nuclei are 5.60 MeV and 7.06 MeV, respectively. Eb, against the nuclear mass M; A, B, C, D, E, F
In the nuclear reaction 37 Li + 11H → 42He + 42He + Q, correspond to different nuclei. Consider four
the value of energy Q released is: reactions:
(a) 8.4 MeV (b) 17.3 MeV (i) A + B → C +  (ii) C → A + B + 
(c) 19.6 MeV (d) –2.4 MeV (iii) D + E → F +  and (iv) F → D + E + 
120. In the reaction 1 H + 1 H → 42 He + 10 n, if the binding
2 3

energies of 12 H , 13 H and 42 He are respectively a, b

and c (in MeV), then the energy (in MeV) released
in this reaction is
(a) c + a – b (b) c – a – b
(c) a + b + c (d) a + b – c
Where  is the energy released? In which reactions
121. The volume occupied by an atom is greater than the
is  positive?
volume of the nucleus by factor of about
(a) (i) and (iv) (b) (i) and (iii)
(a) 1010 (b) 1015
(c) (ii) and (iv) (d) (ii) and (iii)
(c) 101 (d) 105
Radioactivity
122. The radius of germanium (Ge) nuclide is measured
129. The decay constant of a radioactive sample is .
to be twice the radius of 94 Be . The number of
The half-life and mean-life of the sample are
nucleons in Ge are (respectively) given by:
(a) 73 (b) 74
38 MODERN PHYSICS

(a) 1/ and (ln 2)/ (b) (ln 2)/ and 1/
(c) 1/ and  (ln 2) (d)  (ln 2) and 1/
130. Curie is a unit of
(a) energy of gamma rays
(a) (b)
(b) half-life
(c) radioactivity
(d) intensity of gamma rays
131. A sample of radioactive elements contains 4 × 10 10
active nuclei. If half-life of element is 10 days, then
the number of decayed nuclei after 30 days is (c) (d)
(a) 0.5 × 1010 (b) 2 × 1010 141. The half-life period of a radioactive substance is 5
(c) 3.5 × 10 10
(d) 1 × 1010 min. The amount of substance decayed in 20 min.
132. In a given reaction will be
(a) 93.75% (b) 75%
Z XA ⎯⎯ → Z−1K A−4 ⎯⎯
→ Z+1YA ⎯⎯ → Z−1K 4−A
(c) 25% (d) 6.25%
Radioactive radiations are emitted in the sequence 142. The half-life of 215 At is 100 s. The time taken
of for the radioactivity of a sample of 215 At to decay
(a)    (b)   
1
(c)    (d)    to th of its initial value is
133. A free neutron decays into a proton, an electron and
16
(a) a beta particle (b) an alpha particle (a) 400 s (b) 6.3 s
(c) an antineutrino (d) a neutrino (c) 40 s (d) 300 s
134. A nuclear decay is expressed as 143. The most penetrating radiation out of the following
C ⎯⎯
11
→ 5B +  + X
11 + is
(a) –rays (b) –particles
6

Then the unknown particle X is

(c) –rays (d) X–rays
(a) neutron (b) antineutrino
(c) proton (d) neutrino 144. Consider  particles,  particles and -rays each
135. Which of the following is positively charged? having an energy of 0.5 MeV. In increasing order
of penetrating powers, the radiations are
(a) –particle (b) –particle
(a)      (b)     
(c) –rays (d) X–rays
136. The equation; (c)      (d)     
145. Which of the following cannot be emitted by
411 H → 42 He2+ + 2e− + 26 MeV
radioactive substances during their decay?
represents (a) Protons
(a) –decay (b) –decay (b) Neutrinos
(c) fusion (d) fission (c) Helium nuclei
137. A nuclear reaction given by (d) Electrons
ZX
A
→ Z+1YA + −1e0 + v represents 146. A nuclear transformation is denoted by
(a) fusion (b) fission X ( n,  ) → 37 Li . The nucleus of element X is
(c) –decay (d) –decay 12 10
138. A nucleus nXm emits one  and two –particles. (a) 6 C (b) 5 B
9 11
The resulting nucleus is (c) 5 B (d) 4 Be
(a) nXm–4 (b) n–2Ym–4
147. When deuterium is bombarded on 8O16 nucleus, an
(c) n–4Zm–4 (d) None of these
–particle is emitted, then the product nucleus is
139. In the nuclear decay given below (a) 7N13 (b) 5B10
A
Z X ⎯⎯ → AZ−−14 B* ⎯⎯
→ z+A1Y ⎯⎯ → AZ−−14 B, (c) 4Be 9
(d) 7N14
the particles emitted in the sequence are 148. The nucleus 6C12 absorbs an energetic neutron and
(a)    (b)    emits a beta particle (). The resulting nucleus is
(c)    (d)    (a) 7N14 (b) 7N13
140. The graph between the instantaneous concentration (c) 5B13 (d) 6C13
(N) of a radioactive element and time (t) is
MODERN PHYSICS 39

131 131
149. The half-life of I is 8 days. Given a sample of I 156. Radioactive element decays to form a stable
at time t = 0, we can assert that  dN 
nuclide, then the rate of decay of reactant  
(a) no nucleus will decay before t = 4 days  dt 
(b) no nucleus will decay before t = 8 days will vary with time (t) as shown in figure
(c) all nuclei will decay before t = 16 days
(d) a given nucleus may decay any time after t = 0.
150. If N0 is the original mass of the substance of half-
life period t1/2 = 5yr, then the amount of substance
left after 15 yr., is
N N
(a) 0 (b) 0 (a) (b
8 16
N0 N
(c) (d) 0
2 4
22
151. Ne nucleus, after absorbing energy, decays into
two -particles and an unknown nucleus. The
unknown nucleus is (c) (d)
(a) Nitrogen (b) carbon 157. Half-lives of two radioactive substances A and B
(c) Boron (d) oxygen are respectively 20 minutes and 40 minutes.
152. What is the respective number of  and –particles Initially the samples of A and B have equal number
emitted in the following radioactive decay of nuclei. After 80 minutes, the ratio of remaining
numbers of A and B nuclei is
200
X90 ⎯⎯
→ 168Y80 ?
(a) 1 : 16 (b) 4 : 1
(a) 6 and 8 (b) 6 and 6 (c) 1 : 4 (d) 1 : 1
(c) 8 and 8 (d) 8 and 6 158. The half-life of radium is about 1600 years. Of 100
153. A radioactive nucleus (initial mass number A and g of radium existing now, 25 g will remain
atomic number Z) emits 3 –particles and 2 unchanged after
positrons. The ratio of number of neutrons to that (a) 2400 yrs (b) 3200 yrs
of protons in the final nucleus will be (c) 4800 yrs (d) 6400 yrs
159. C14 has half-life 5700 years. At the end of 11400
A − Z−8 A−Z−4 years, the actual amount left is
(a) (b)
Z−4 Z−8 (a) 0.5 of original amount
(b) 0.25 of original amount
A − Z − 12 A−Z−4
(c) (d) (c) 0.125 of original amount
Z−4 Z−2 (d) none of the above
154. A radioactive nucleus undergoes a series of decay 160. A radioactive sample with a half-life of 1 month
according to the scheme has the label: ‘Activity = 2 microcurie on 1–8–
   
A ⎯⎯→ A1 ⎯⎯→ A 2 ⎯⎯→ A 3 ⎯⎯→ A4 1991’. What would be its activity two months
If the mass number and atomic number of A are earlier?
180 and 72 respectively, then what are these (a) 1.0 microcurie (b) 0.5 microcurie
number for A4 (c) 4 microcurie (d) 8 microcurie
(a) 172 and 69 (b) 174 and 70 161. Half-life period of a radioactive substance is 6 h.
(c) 176 and 69 (d) 176 and 70 After 24 h activity is 0.01 C, what was the initial
155. After 280 days, the activity of a radioactive sample activity?
is 6000 dps. The activity reduces to 3000 dps after (a) 0.04 C (b) 0.08 C
another 140 days. The initial activity of the sample (c) 0.24 C (d) 0.16 C
in dps is: 162. A radioactive sample at any instant has its
(a) 6000 (b) 9000 disintegration rate 5000 disintegrations/min. After
(c) 3000 (d) 24000 5 min, the rate is 1250 disintegrations/ min. Then,
the decay constant (per minute) is
(a) 0.4 ln 2 (b) 0.2 ln 2
(c) 0.1 ln 2 (d) 0.8 ln 2
40 MODERN PHYSICS

66
163. Starting with a sample of pure Cu, 7/8 of it decays 168. The activity of a radioactive sample is measured as
into Zn in 15 min. The corresponding half-life is 9750 counts/min at t = 0 and as 975 counts/min at
(a) 10 min (b) 15 min t = 5 min. The decay constant is approximately
1 (a) 0.922/min (b) 0.691/min
(c) 5 min (d) 7 min (c) 0.461/min (d) 0.230/min
2
23 169. Two radioactive materials X1 and X2 have decay
164. The half life of the isotope 11Na is 15 hrs. How
th constants 5 and  respectively. If initially they
7 have the same number of nuclei, then the ratio of
much time does it take for   of a sample of
8 1
the number of nuclei of X1 to that of X2 will be
this isotope to decay? e
(a) 75 hrs (b) 65 hrs after a time
(c) 55 hrs (d) 45 hrs 1
165. Two radioactive substances A and B have decay (a)  (b) 
2
constants 5 and  respectively. At t = 0 they have
1 e
the same number of nuclei. The ratio of number of (c) (d)
2 4 
1 170. A mixture consists of two radioactive materials A1
nuclei of A to those of B will be   after a time
e and A2 with half-life of 20 s and 10 s respectively.
interval Initially the mixture has 40 g of A1 and 160 g of A2.
1
(a) (b) 4 The amount of the two in the mixture will become
4
equal after
1
(c) 2 (d) (a) 40 s (b) 60 s
2
(c) 80 s (d) 20 s
166. Rn decays into Po by emitting an –particle with
half-life of 4 days. A sample contains 6.4 × 1010
atoms of Rn. After 12 days, the number of atoms of
Rn left in the sample will be
(a) 3.2 × 1010 (b) 0.53 × 1010
10
(c) 2.1 × 10 (d) 0.8 × 1010
167. A freshly prepared radioactive source of half-life 2
hours emits radiation of intensity which is 64 times
the permissible safe level. The minimum time after
which it would be possible to work safely with the
source is
(a) 6 hours (b) 12 hours
(c) 24 hours (d) 128 hours
MODERN PHYSICS 41

EXERCISE-2: Previous Year Questions

1. Which of the following postulates of the Bohr 6. A radioactive nucleus of mass number A, initially
model led to the quantization of energy of the at rest, emits an a-particle with a speed v. The
hydrogen atom? recoil speed of the daughter nucleus will be
[J&K CET 2011] [J&K CET 2011]
(a) The electron goes around the nucleus in circular 2v 2v
(a) (b)
orbits A−4 A+ 4
(b) The angular momentum of the electron can only 4v 4v
be an integral multiple of h/2π. (c) (d)
A−4 A+ 4
(c) The magnitude of the linear momentum of the
7. The radius of the smallest electron orbit in
electron is quantized.
hydrogen like ion is (0.51 × 10–10 / 4) m, then it is
(d) Quantization of energy is itself a postulate of
the Bohr model. [Manipal 2012]
+
(a) hydrogen atom (b) H
2. The wavelength of the first line of Lyman series for
(c) Li2+ (d) Be3+
H- atom is equal to that of the second line of
Balmer series for a H-like ion. The atomic number 8. A count rate metre shows a count of 240/min from
Z of H-like ion is a given radioactive source. One hour later, the
metre shows a count rate of 30/min. The half-life of
[CBSE AIPMT 2011]
the source is [Manipal 2012]
(a) 4 (b) 1
(a) 80 min (b) 120 min
(c) 2 (d) 3
(c) 20 min (d) 30 min
3. The de-Broglie wavelength λ of an electron
9. If the momentum of an electron is changed by p,
accelerated through a potential V (in volt) is
then the de-Broglie wavelength associated with it
[J&K CET 2011] changes by 0.5%. The initial momentum of
1.227 0.1227 electron will be
(a) nm (b) nm
V V [CBSE AIPMT 2012]
0.01227 0.1227 (a) 200p (b) 400p
(c) nm (d) Å
V V (c) p/200 (d) 100p
4. When an electron in hydrogen atom is excited from 10. The half-life of a radioactive isotope X is 20 yr. It
its 4th to 5th stationary orbit, the change in angular decays to another element Y which is stable. The
momentum of electron is (Planck’s constant, h = two elements X and Y were found to be in the ratio
6.6 × 10–34. J-s) 1 : 7 in a sample of a given rock. The age of the
[CBSE AIPMT 2011] rock is estimated to be
(a) 4.16 × 10–34. J-s (b) 3.32 × 10–34. J-s [NEET 2013]
(c) 1.05 × 10–34. J-s (d) None of these (a) 40 yr (b) 60 yr
(c) 80 yr (d) 100 yr
5. When two nuclei (with A = 8) join to form a
heavier nucleus, the Binding Energy (BE) per 11. A radioactive element has half-life period of 600
nucleon of the heavier nuclei is yr, what amount will remain in 3000 yr?
[DUMET 2011] [UP CPMT, KCET 2013]
(a) more than the BE per nucleon of the lighter 1 1
(a) (b)
nuclei 9 27
(b) same as the BE per nucleon of the lighter nuclei 1 1
(c) (d)
(c) less than the BE per nucleon of the lighter nu 6 8
(d) double the BE per nucleon of the lighter nuclei
42 MODERN PHYSICS

12. The mother and daughter elements, with emission

of γ-rays are
[AIIMS 2013]
(a) isotopes (b) isobars
(a) (b)
(c) isomers (d) isodiapheres
13. In a sample of radioactive material, what
percentage of the initial number of active nuclei
will decay during one mean life?
[KCET 2013] (c) (d)
(a) 37% (b) 50%
(c) 63% (d) 69.3% 20. Electrons of mass m with de-Broglie wavelength 
fall on the target in an X–ray tube. The cutoff
14. After 300 days, the activity of a radioactive sample wavelength (0) of the emitted X–ray is
is 5000 dps (disintegration per second). The [NEET 2016]
activity becomes 2500 dps after another 150 days. 2h 2m2c23
The initial activity of the sample (in dps) is (a)  0 = (b) 0 =
mc h2
[Kerala CEE 2014] 2mc 2
(a) 20000 (b) 10000 (c) 0 =  (d)  0 =
h
(c) 7000 (d) 25000
21. Photons with energy 5 eV are incident on a cathode
(e) 15000 C in a photoelectric cell. The maximum energy of
15. For the stability of any nucleus emitted photoelectrons is 2 eV. When photons of
energy 6 eV are incident on C, no photoelectrons
[KCET 2014]
will reach the anode A, if the stopping potential of
(a) binding energy per nucleon will be more A relative to C is [NEET 2016]
(b) binding energy per nucleon will be less (a) +4 V (b) –1 V
(c) number of electrons will be more (c) –3 V (d) +3 V
(d) None of the above 22. Planck’s constant (h), speed of light in vacuum (c)
and Newton’s gravitational constant (G) are three
16. Hydrogen atom in ground state is excited by a
fundamental constants. Which of the following
monochromatic radiation of λ = 975 Å. Number of combinations of these has the dimension of length?
spectral lines in the resulting spectrum emitted will [NEET 2016]
be hG hc
(a) 5/2 (b)
[CBSE AIPMT 2014] c G
(a) 3 (b) 2
Gc hG
(c) 6 (d) 10 (c) 3/ 2
(d) 3/2
h c
17. What is the de-Broglie wavelength of the electron 23. If an electron in a hydrogen atom jumps from the 3rd
accelerated through a potential difference of 100 orbit to the 2nd orbit, it emits a photon of
V? wavelength . When it jumps from the 4th orbit to
[KCET 2014] the 3rd orbit, the corresponding wavelength of the
photon will be
(a) 12.27 Å (b) 1.227 Å
[NEET 2016]
(c) 0.1227 Å (d) 0.0011227 Å 9 20
18. Consider 3rd orbit of He+ (Helium), using non- (a)  (b) 
16 7
relativistic approach, the speed of electron in this
20 16
orbit will be (c)  (d) 
[given K = 9 × 109 constant, Z = 2 and h (Planck’s 13 25
Constant) = 6.6 × 10–34 Js] [NEET 2015] 24. The half-life of a radioactive substance is 30
(a) 3.0×108 m/s (b) 2.92×106 m/s minutes. The time (in minutes) taken between 40%
(c) 1.46×106 m/s (d) 0.73×106 m/s decay and 85% decay of the same radioactive
19. Which of the following figures represent the substance is [NEET 2016]
variation of particle momentum and the associated (a) 30 (b) 45
de-Broglie wavelength? [NEET 2015] (c) 60 (d) 15
MODERN PHYSICS 43

25. Suppose the charge of a proton and an electron differ wavelength initially, then its de-Broglie wavelength
slightly. One of them is –e, the other (e + e ). If the at time t is:
net of electrostatic force and gravitational force [NEET 2018]
between two hydrogen atoms placed at a distance d  eE 0 
(much greater than atomic size) apart is zero, then (a) 0t (b)  0 1 + 
e is of the order of [Given mass of hydrogen mH  mV0 
= 1.67 × 10–27 kg] [NEET 2017] 0
(c) (d) 0
(a) 10-37 C (b)10-47 C  eE 0 
(c) 10-20 C (d) 10-23 C 1 + t
 mV0 
26. The wavelength λ of a photon and the de-Broglie
33. When the light of frequency 20 (where 0 is
wavelength of an electron has the same value. Find
threshold frequency), is incident on a metal plate,
the ratio of energy of photon to the kinetic energy the maximum velocity of electrons emitted is v1.
of electron in terms of mass m, speed of light When the frequency of the incident radiation is
c and Planck’s constant (h). increased to 50, the maximum velocity of electrons
[JIPMER 2017] emitted from the same plate is v2. The ratio of v1 to
(a)  mc / h (b) hmc /  v2 is: [NEET 2018]
(c) 2hmc /  (d) 2 mc / h (a) 4 : 1 (b) 1 : 4
27. The ratio of wavelengths of the last line of Balmer (c) 1 : 2 (d) 2 : 1
series and the last line of Lyman series is : 34. -particle consists of [NEET 2019]
[NEET 2017] (a) 2 electrons, 2 protons and 2 neutrons
(a) 4 (b) 0.5 (b) 2 electrons and 4 protons only
(c) 2 (d) 1 (c) 2 protons only
28. The photoelectric threshold wavelength of silver is (d) 2 protons and 2 neutrons only
3250 × 10–10m. The velocity of the electron ejected 35. The total energy of an electron in an atom in an orbit
from a silver surface by ultraviolet light of is – 3.4 eV. Its kinetic and potential energies are,
wavelength 2536 × 10–10 m is: respectively: [NEET 2019]
(Given h = 4.14 × 10–15 eVs and c = 3 × 108 ms–1) (a) -3.4 eV, - 6.8 eV (b) 3.4 eV, -6.8 eV
[NEET 2017] (c) 3.4 eV, 3.4 eV (d) -3.4 eV, - 3.4 eV
(a)  61  103 ms-1 (b)  0.3  106 ms-1 36. Modern treatment method P.E.T. is based on-
[AIIMS 2019]
(c)  6  105 ms-1 (d)  0.6  106 ms-1
(a) proton emission (b) positron emission
29. The de-Broglie wavelength of a neutron in thermal
equilibrium with heavy water at a temperature T (c) – emission (d) particle emission
(Kelvin) and mass m, is: [NEET 2017] 37. Energy of electron (in eV) in 2nd orbit of He+ ion?
[AIIMS 2019]
2h 2h
(a) (b) (a) –10.6 eV (b) –13.6 eV
3mkT mkT (c) –15.6 eV (d) –25.6 eV
h h 38. In hydrogen atom find magnetic field at center in
(c) (d) ground. State if Bohr's radius is r0 = 5 × 10–11 m.
mkT 3mkT
30. The ratio of kinetic energy to the total energy of an [AIIMS 2019]
electron in a Bohr orbit of the hydrogen atom, is: (a) 15.20 T (b) 10.90 T
[NEET 2018] (c) 13.95 T (d) 20.00 T
(a) 2 : -1 (b) 1 : -1 39. Number of visible lines in Balmer series.
(c) 1 : 1 (d) 1 : - 2 [AIIMS 2019]
31. For a radioactive material, half-life is 10 minutes. If (a) 2 (b) 4
initially there are 600 number of nuclei, the time (c) 3 (d) 5
taken (in minutes) for the disintegration of 450 40. An electron is moving in a circle of radius 2m with
nuclei is speed 4 m/s. Find the acceleration of the electron:
[NEET 2018] [NEET 2019]
(a) 30 (b) 10 (a) 8 m/s2 (b) 4 m/s2
(c) 20 (d) 15 (c) 16 m/s2 (d) 10 m/s2
32. An electron of mass m with an initial velocity 41. A sample which has half-life of 1033 year. If initial
→  →  number of nuclei of the sample is 26×1024. Then find
V = v0 i(v0  0) enters an electric field E = E 0 i out the number of nuclei decayed in 1 year.
(E0 = constant > 0) at t = 0. If 0 is its de-Broglie [AIIMS 2019]
(a) 1.82 × 10–7 (b) 182 × 10–7
44 MODERN PHYSICS

(c) 18.2 × 10–7 (d) 1820 × 10–7 101

(a) 36 Kr
103
(b) 36 Kr
42. At which excited state of Be3+ radius of e– will be
144 91
same as H atoms and electron in ground state. (c) 56 Ba (d) 40 Zr
[AIIMS 2019]
51. Light with an average flux of 20 W / cm 2 falls
(a) 1 (b) 2
on a non-reflecting surface at normal incidence
(c) 3 (d) 4
having surface area 20 cm 2 . The energy received by
43. An electron is accelerated through a potential the surface during time span of 1 minute is:
difference of 10,000 V. Its de Broglie wavelength is [NEET 2020]
(nearly): (me = 9 × 10–31 kg) [NEET 2019] (a) 24×103 J (b) 48×103 J
(a) 12.2 × 10–12 m (b) 12.2 × 10–14 m (c) 10×103 J (d) 12×103 J
(c) 12.2 nm (d) 12.2 × 10–13 m 52. A radioactive nucleus
A
X undergoes spontaneous
Z
44. A electron collides elastically with H-like atom and
excites it from ground state to n = 3. Find out the decay in the sequence
Z X →Z −1 B →Z −3 C →Z − 2 D,
A
energy transfer to H-like atom [AIIMS 2019] Atomic number
(a) 12.1 eV (b) 10.2 eV of element X. The possible decay particles in the
(c) 12.75 eV (d) 10 eV sequence are:
45. The de-Broglie wavelength of electron in 3rd orbit of [NEET 2021]
He+1 ion is approximately [AIIMS 2019]
(a) + , , − (b) − , , +
(a) 2Aº (b) 3Aº
(c) 4Aº (d) 5Aº (c) , − , + (d) , + , −
46. An electron is accelerated from rest through a 53. The number of photons per second on an average
potential difference of V volt. If the de Broglie emitted by the source of monochromatic light of
wavelength of the electron is 1.227 ×10 −2 nm, the wavelength 600 nm, when it delivers the power of
potential difference is: [NEET 2020] 3.3 x 10-3 watt will be : (h = 6.6 x 10-34 Js)
(a) 103 V (b) 104 V [NEET 2021]
(c) 10 V (d) 102 V (a) 1016 (b) 1015
47. For which one of the following, Bohr model is not
(c) 1018 (d) 1017
valid? [NEET 2020]
54. A nucleus with mass number 240 breaks into two
(a) Deuteron atom
fragments each of mass number 120, the binding
(b) Singly ionized neon atom (Ne+ )
energy per nucleon of unfragmented nuclei is 7.6
(c) Hydrogen atom MeV while that of fragments is 8.5 MeV. The total
(d) Singly ionized helium atom (He+ ) gain in the Binding Energy in the process is :
48. Light of frequency 1.5 times the threshold frequency [NEET 2021]
is incident on a photosensitive material. What will (a) 804 MeV (b) 216 MeV
be the photoelectric current if the frequency is (c) 0.9 MeV (d) 9.4 MeV
halved and intensity is doubled? [NEET 2020] 55. A half-life of a radioactive nuclide is 100 hours.
(a) one-fourth (b) zero
The fraction of original activity that will
(c) doubled (d) four times
remain after 150 hours would be:
49. The energy required to break one bond in DNA is
[NEET 2021]
10 −20 J . This value in eV is nearly : [NEET 2020]
(a) 0.06 (b) 0.006 2 2
(a) (b)
(c) 6 (d) 0.6 3 3 2
235 1
50. When a uranium isotope 92 U is bombarded with
(c) (d)
1
a neutron, it generates 89
Kr, three neutrons and: 2 2 2
36

[NEET 2020]
MODERN PHYSICS 45

EXERCISE-3: Achiever’s Section

1. In a radioactive material the activity at time t1 is R1 7. A radioactive sample S1 having an activity of 5Ci
and at a later time t2, it is R2. If the decay constant has twice the number of nuclei as another sample
of the material is , then S2 which has an activity 10 Ci. The half lives of S1
− ( t − t )  ( t −t )
(a) R1 = R 2 e 1 2 (b) R1 = R 2 e 1 2 and S2 can be
(a) 20 years and 5 years, respectively
 t2 
(c) R1 = R 2   (d) R1 = R2 (b) 20 years and 10 years, respectively
 t1  (c) 10 years each
2. Hydrogen (1H1), Deuterium (1H2), singly ionized (d) 5 years each
8. Two radioactive nuclei P and Q in a given sample
Helium (2He4)+ and doubly ionized lithium (3Li6)+ +
decay into a stable nucleus R. At time t = 0,
all have one electron around the nucleus. Consider number of P species are 4N0 and that of Q are N0.
an electron transition from n = 2 to n = 1. If the
Half-life of P (for conversion to R) is 1 minute
wave lengths of emitted radiation are
whereas that of Q is 2 minutes. Initially there are
1 ,  , 3 and 4 respectively then approximately no nuclei of R present in the sample. When
which one of the following is correct ? number of nuclei of P and Q are equal the
number of nuclei of R present in the sample would
(a) 1 = 22 = 23 = 4 be :
(b) 1 = 2 = 43 = 94 5N 0
(a) (b) 2 N0
2
(c) 1 = 22 = 33 = 44
9N 0
(d) 41 = 22 = 23 = 4 (c) 3 N0 (d)
2
3. Atomic weight of boron is 10.81 and it has two 9. The half-life of a radioactive isotope ‘X’ is 20
isotopes
10
5 B and 11
5 B . Then, the ratio of atoms of years. It decays to another element ‘Y’ which
10 11
is stable. The two elements ‘X’ and ‘Y’ were found
5 B and 5 B in nature would be to be in the ratio 1 : 7 in a sample of a given rock.
(a) 19 : 81 (b) 10 : 11 The age of rock is estimated to be:
(c) 15 : 16 (d) 81 : 19 (a) 100 years (b) 40 years
4. Energy released in the fission of a single 92U235 (c) 60 years (d) 80 years
nucleus is 200 MeV. The fission rate of a 92U235 10. A radio isotope ‘X’ with a half-life 1.4 × 109 years
filled reactor operating at a power level of 5 W is decays to ‘Y’ which is stable. A sample of the rock
(a) 1.56 × 10–10 s–1 (b) 1.56 × 1014 s–1 from a cave was found to contain ‘X’ and ‘Y’ in
(c) 1.56 × 10 s–16 –1
(d) 1.56 × 10–17 s–1 the ratio 1 : 7. The age of the rock is :
5. A nucleus ruptures into two nuclear parts, which (a) 4.20 × 109 years (b) 8.40 × 109 years
have their velocity ratio equal to 2: 1. What will be (c) 1.96 × 10 years
9
(d) 3.92 × 109 years
the ratio of their nuclear size (nuclear radius)? 11. If Cu is the wavelength of K X-ray line of copper
(a) 21/3 : 1 (b) 1 : 21/3 (atomic number 29) and Mo is the wavelength of
(c) 3 : 1
1/2
(d) 1 : 31/2 the K X-ray line of molybdenum (atomic number
6. In the nuclear fusion reaction, 42), then the ratio Cu/Mo is close to
2
1 H + 13 H ⎯⎯
→ 24 He + n (a) 1.99 (b) 2.14
given that the repulsive potential energy between (c) 0.50 (d) 0.48
–14 12. A 5 W source emits monochromatic light of
the two nuclei is 7.7 × 10 J, the temperature at
which the gases must be heated to initiate the wavelength 5000 Å. When placed 0.5 m away, it
reaction is nearly [Boltzmann’s constant k = 1.38 × liberates photoelectrons from a photosensitive
–23
10 J/K] metallic surface. When the source is moved to a
7 5 distance of 1.0 m, the number of photoelectrons
(a) 10 K (b) 10 K
3 9 liberated will be reduced by a factor of
(c) 10 K (d) 10 K
(a) 4 (b) 8
(c) 16 (d) 2
46 MODERN PHYSICS

1/3 1/2
13. When the energy of the incident radiation is (a) 2 : 1 (b) 1 : 3
increased by 20%, the kinetic energy of the 1/2
(c) 3 : 1 (d) 1 : 2
1/3

photoelectrons emitted from a metal surface 18. Binding energy per nucleon versus mass number
increased from 0.5 eV to 0.8 eV. The work curve for nuclei is shown in the figure. W, X, Y
function of the metal is and Z are four nuclei indicated on the curve. The
(a) 1.3 eV (b) 1.5 eV process that would release energy is
(c) 0.65 eV (d) 1.0 eV
14. If in hydrogen atom, radius of n th Bohr orbit is rn,
frequency of revolution of electron in n th orbit is fn
choose the correct option

(a)

(a) Y → 2Z (b) W → X + Z
(c) W → 2Y (d) X → Y + Z
19. The half-life of a radioactive nucleus is 50 days.
(b) The time interval (t2 – t1) between the time t2 when
2/3 of it has decayed and the time t1 when 1/3 of its
had decayed is:
(a) 15 days (b) 30 days
(c) 50 days (d) 60 days
20. The mean lives of a radio-active substances are
(c)
1620 years and 405 years for –emission and –
(d) Both (a) and (b)
emission respectively. Find Out the time during
15. The largest wavelength in the ultraviolet region of
which three-fourth of a sample will decay if it is
the hydrogen spectrum is 122 nm. The smallest
decaying both by –emission and –emission
wavelength in the infrared region of the hydrogen
spectrum (to the nearest integer) is simultaneously.
(a) 324 years (b) 449 years
(a) 802 nm (b) 823 nm
(c) 480 years (d) 425 years
(c) 1882 nm (d) 1648 nm
21. Photoelectric effect experiments are performed
16. Suppose an electron is attracted towards the origin
using three different metal plates p, q, and r having
by a force k/r, where k is a constant and r is the
distance of the electron from the origin. By work function p = 2.0 eV. q = 2.5 eV and r = 3.0
applying Bohr model to this system, the radius of eV, respectively. A light beam containing
th
the n orbital of the electron is found to be rn and wavelengths of 550 nm, 450 nm and 350 nm with
equal intensities illuminates each of the plates. The
the kinetic energy of the electron to be Tn. Then
correct I-V graph for the experiment is
which of the following is true.
1
(a) Tn  2 , rn  n 2
n
(b) Tn is independent of n, rn  n
1
(c) Tn  , rn  n
n (a)
1
(d) Tn  , rn  n 2
n
17. A nucleus disintegrates into two nuclear parts
which have their velocities in the ratio 2 : 1. The
ratio of their nuclear sizes will be
MODERN PHYSICS 47

26. Assertion: Electron capture occurs more than

positron emission in a heavy nucleus.
Reason: In a heavy nucleus, electrons are
relatively close to nucleus.
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, and
(b) Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion.
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but
Reason is not the correct explanation of
Assertion
(c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect
(d) Both Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
(c)
27. Mass spectrometric analysis of potassium and
argon atoms in a moon rock sample shows that the
ratio of the number of (stable) 40Ar atoms present
to the number of (radioactive) 40K atoms is 10.3.
Assume that all the argon atoms were produced by
the decay of potassium atoms, with a half-life of
(d) 1.25 × 109 yr. How old is the rock?
22. A nuclear explosive is designed to deliver 1MW (a) 2.95 × 1011 yr (b) 2.95 × 109 yr
9
power in the form of heat energy. If the explosion (c) 4.37 × 10 yr (d) 4.37 × 1011 yr
is designed with nuclear fuel consisting of U235 to 1
run a reactor at this power level for one year, then 28. The fossil bone has a C14 : C12 ratio, which is  
16 
the amount of fuel needed is (take, energy per
of that in a living animal bone. If the half-life of
fission is 200 MeV) 14
C is 5730 yr, then the age of the fossil bone is
(a) 1 kg (b) 0.01 kg
(a) 11460 yr (b) 17190 yr
(c) 3.84 kg (d) 0.384 kg
(c) 22920 yr (d) 45840 yr
23. A luminous body radiates energy at a rate
29. Assertion: Cobalt-60 is useful in cancer therapy.
3 1028 J/s, then loss of the mass of the body per Reason: Cobalt-60 is source of γ-radiations
second is capable of killing cancerous cell.
(a) 2 103 kg/s (b) 3 104 kg/s (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and
(c) 4 1011 kg/s (d) 5 105 kg/s Reason is the explanation of Assertion.
24. Assertion: The mass of β-particles when they are (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but
emitted is higher than the mass of electrons Reason is not the correct explanation of
obtained by other means. Assertion.
Reason: β-particle and electron, both are similar (c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
particles
(d) Both Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and
Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion. 30. n the Bohr’s model of a hydrogen atom, the
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but centripetal force is furnished by the Coulomb
Reason is not the correct explanation of attraction between the proton and the electron. If a 0
Assertion. is the radius of the ground state orbit, m is the
mass, e is the charge on electron and ε 0 is the
(c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
(d) Both Assertion and Reason are incorrect. permittivity of free space, the speed of the electron
is
25. A nucleus at rest breaks into two nuclear parts
e
which have their velocities ratio equal to 2 : 1. (a) (b) zero
What will be the ratio of their radii of the nuclei? 0 a 0 m
(a) 21/3 : 1 (b) 1 : 21/3 40 a 0 m
3/2
(c) 2 : 1 (d) 1 : 23/2 (c) 40 a 0 m (d)
e
48 MODERN PHYSICS

Notes:

Find Answer key and Detailed Solutions at the end of this book

MODERN PHYSICS
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS 49

SEMICONDUCTORS AND
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
Chapter 11
50 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Semiconductors
and Communication Systems
1. Semiconductors 1.3 Band theory
1.1 Introduction to Semiconductor In case of a single isolated atom, there are single energy
levels in case of solids, the atoms are arranged in a systematic
Materials space lattice and hence the atom are greatly influenced by
When the electrons are liberated on breaking the covalent neighbouring atoms. The closeness of atoms results in the
bonds, they move randomly through the crystal lattice. intermixing of electrons of neighbouring atoms of course, for
When an electric field is applied, these free electrons have a the valence electrons in the outermost shells which are not
steady drift opposite to the direction of applied field. This strongly bounded by nucleus. Due to intermixing the number
of permissible energy levels increases or there are significant
constitute the electric current. When a covalent bond is
changes in the energy levels. Hence in case of a solid, instead
broken, a hole is created. For one electron set free, one hole
of single energy levels associated with the single atom, there
is created. Thus, thermal energy creates an electron-hole
will be bands of energy levels.
pairs.
Hence, there are as many holes as free electrons. These 1.4 Valence Band, Conduction Band &
holes move through the crystal lattice in a random fashion Forbidden Energy Gap
like liberated electrons. When an external electric field is
applied, the holes drift in the direction of applied field. Thus The band formed by a series of energy levels containing the
they constitute electric current. valence electrons is known as valence band. The valence
band may be defined as a band which is occupied by the
There is a strong tendency of semiconductor crystal to form
valence electrons or a band having highest occupied band
a covalent bonds. Therefore, a hole attracts an electron from
energy.
the neighbouring atom. Now a valence electron from nearby
The conduction band may also be defined as the lowest
covalent bond comes to fill in the hole at A. This results in a
unfilled energy band. The separation between conduction
creation of hole at B. The hole has thus effectively shifted band and valence band is known as forbidden energy gap.
from A to B. This hole moves from B to C from C to D and so There is no allowed energy state in this gap and hence no
on. electron can stay in the forbidden energy gap.
This movement of the hole in the absence of an applied field
is random. But when an electric field is applied, the hole
1.5 Insulators, Semiconductors and
drifts along the applied field. Conductors
1.2 Carrier Generation and Recombination On the basis of forbidden energy band, the insulators,
semiconductors and conductors are described as follows:
The electrons and holes are generated in pairs. The free
electrons and holes move randomly within the crystal lattice. 1.5.1 Insulators
In such a random motion, there is always a possibility that a In case of insulators, the forbidden energy band is very wide,
free electron may have an encounter with a hole. When a due to this electrons cannot jump from valence band to
free electron meets a hole, they recombine to re-establish the conduction band. In insulators the valence electrons are
covalent bond. In the process of recombination, both the bounded very tightly to their parent atoms. So , if there is
free electron and hole are destroyed and results in the release increase in temperature it enables some electrons to go into
of energy in the form of heat. The energy so released, may in the conduction band.
turn be re-absorbed by another electron to break its covalent As, energy required is very high, hence, electron jump is
bond. In this way a new electron hole pair is created. almost impossible.
Thus the process of breaking of covalent bonds and
recombination of electrons and holes take place
simultaneously. When the temperature is increased, the rate
of generation of electrons and holes. This is turn increases,
the densities of electrons and hole increases. As a result,
the conductivity of semiconductor increases or resistivity
decreases. This is the reason that semiconductors have
negative temperature coefficient of resistance. Fig. 11.1

SCAN CODE
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 51

1.5.2 Semiconductors 1.6 Types of Semiconductors

In semiconductors, the forbidden band is very small.
Germanium and silicon are the examples of semiconductors.
A semiconductor material is one whose electrical properties
lies between insulators and good conductors. Even if small
amount of energy is supplied, the electrons can easily jump
from valence band to the conduction band. For example,
when the temperature is increased the forbidden band is
decreased so that some electrons are liberated into the
conduction band.
Hence, semiconducotrs behave as conductors at elevated
temperatures.

Fig. 11.4
1.6.1 Intrinsic Semiconductor
A semiconductor which is pure and contains no impurity is
known as an intrinsic semiconductor. In an intrinsic
semiconductor, the number of free electrons and holes are
Fig. 11.2 equal. Common examples of intrinsic semiconductors are pure
germanium and silicon.
1.5.3 Conductors 1.6.2 Extrinsic Semiconductors
In case of conductors, there is no forbidden energy gap
Electrons and holes can be generated in a semiconductor
also the valence energy gap and conduction band overlap
crystal with heat energy or light energy. But in these cases,
each other. Here plenty of free electrons are available for
the conductivity remains very low. The efficient and
electric conduction. A slight potential difference across the
convenient method of generating free electrons and holes is
conductor can cause the free electrons to constitute electric
to add a very small amount of selected impurity inside the
current. The most important point in conductors is that due
crystal. The impurity to be added is of the order of 100 ppm
to the absence of forbidden band, there is no structure to
(parts per million). The process of addition of a very small
establish holes. The total current in conductors is simply
amount of impurity into an intrinsic semiconductor is called
the flow of electrons.
doping. The impurity atoms are called dopants. The
semiconductor containing impurity atoms is known as impure
or doped or extrinsic semiconductor..
The impurity atoms are added to the semiconductor in its
molten state.
The pure semiconductor is bombarded by ions of impurity
atoms. When the semiconductor crystal containing the
impurity atoms is heated, the impurity atoms diffuse into the
host crystal. Usually, the doping material is either pentavalent
atoms (bismuth, antimony, phosphorous, arsenic which has
five valence electrons). Trivalent atoms (aluminium, gallium,
indium, boron which have three valence electrons). The
Fig. 11.3 pentavalent doping atom is known as donor atom since it
donates one electron to the conduction band of the pure
semiconductor. The trivalent atom is called an acceptor atom
because it accepts one electron from the pure semiconductor
atom.

SCAN CODE
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
52 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

N–Type Extrinsic Semiconductor  In P-type semiconductor materials, the majority carriers

When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a are positive holes while minority carriers are the electrons.
pure semiconductor crystal during the crystal growth, the  The P–type semiconductor remains electrically neutral
resulting crystal is called as N-type extrinsic semiconductor. as the number of mobile holes under all conditions
In case of N-type semiconductor, the following points should remains equal to the number of acceptors.
be remembered
 In N-type semiconductor, the electrons are the majority
charge carriers while positive holes are minority charge
carriers.
 Although N-type semiconductor has excess of electrons
but it is electrically neutral. This is due to the fact that
electrons are created by the addition of neutral
pentavalent impurity atoms to the semiconductor i.e.,
there is no addition of either negative changes or positive
charges.
Fig. 11.7

Fig. 11.5
Fig. 11.8
1.6.3 Semiconductor Current
Current flow in a semiconductor arises from the motion of
charge carriers in both the conduction and valence bands.
The mobile charges in the conduction band are electrons
and those in the valence band are holes. The current is in
general made up of two components, drift current and
diffusion current, although in certain instances one or other
of these two· components may predominate. Drift current
occurs in the presence of an electric field which, as a result of
the force it causes to act on each charge carrier, produces a
net motion of positively charged carriers in the same sense
Fig. 11.6 as the field, and negatively charged carriers in the opposite
P–Type Extrinsic Semiconductor sense.

When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure i  i e  i b  n1eAvd1  n 2 eAvd 2

crystal during the crystal growth, the resulting crystal is called
a P-type extrinsic semiconductor. 1.6.4 Mobility
In case of P-type semiconductor, the following points should The term mobility in electronics refers to the ability to move.
be remembered Mobility of electron In semiconductors gives the idea of the
movement of the electrons in the semiconductor materials. in

SCAN CODE
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 53

this article, we are going to discuss the mobility of electro ns For an intrinsic semiconductor, the concentration of electrons
and holes in the semiconductors and conductors. in the conduction band is equal to the concentration of holes
in the valence band.
Formula of Mobility of charge carriers
We may denote,
Let, after applying an external electric field E, the charge
carriers get the drift velocity V. Then the formula for the ni : intrinsic electron concentration
mobility of the charge carriers is mu = V/E pi : intrinsic hole concentration
This is the formula of mobility of charges like free electrons, However,
holes, ions, etc.
ni = pi
Unit of Mobility
Simply, ni : intrinsic carrier concentration, which refers to
The SI unit of drift velocity is m/s and the SI unit of the either the intrinsic electron or hole concentration
electric field is V/m.
Commonly accepted values of ni at T = 300°K
Mobility of Electron in Semiconductor and Conductor
10 –3
Free electrons move in the conduction band. The mobility of Silicon 1.5×10 cm
6 –3
the electron is the drift velocity of the electron in presence of Gallium arsenide 1.8×10 cm
a unit amount of electric field. We can get the mobility of 13 –3
Germanium 2.4×10 cm
electrons both in conductors and semiconductors. The value
of Electron mobility is different in different materials. b) Extrinsic Semiconductor
2 The doing process can greatly alter the electrical
Material Mobility of electron in cm /V.s characteristics of the semiconductor.
Metals (Al, Cu, Au, Ag) Oct-50 This doped semiconductor is called an extrinsic material.
Crystalline Sillicon 1400 n-Type Semiconductor (negatively charged electron by
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) 35000000 adding donor)
p-Type Semiconductor (positively charged hole by adding
Mobility of Holes in Semiconductor
acceptor)
As we all know , there is no hole in a conductor. So, hole c) Mass-Action Law
mobility is applicable only for semiconductor. Mobility of n0 : thermal-equilibrium concentration of electron in extrinic
holes is the ability of movement of holes in the semiconductor p0 : thermal-equilibrium concentration of holes in extrinic
in presence of an external electric field. The value of the n0p0 = n12 = f(T)
mobility of holes in crystalline silicon is 450 cm2/V.s (function of temperature)
Mobility of free Electron greater than the Mobility of Hole; The product of n0 and p0 is always a constant for a given
Holes are not physical objects. They are the absence of semiconductor material at a given temperature.
electrons. So, the movement of holes is nothing but the ni in = thermal equilibrium concentration of charges in intrinsic
movement of electrons in the opposite direction. semi-conductor.
Now, free electrons move in the conduction band and the 2. P-N Junction Diode
holes move in the valance band. The binding force of the
nucleus on free electrons is smaller than that on the holes (or When a P-type material is intimately joined to N-type, a P-N
valence electrons) in the valence band as the valence band junction is formed. In fact, merely-joining the two pieces a P-
as the valence band is closer to the nucleus. Hence, the free N junction cannot be formed because the surface films and
electrons in the conduction band require a smaller electric other irregularities produce major discontinuity in the crystal
field to move compared to the holes at the valence band. structure. Therefore a P-N junction is formed from a piece of
Therefore, the mobility of free electrons in conduction band semiconductor (say germanium) by diffusing P-type material
is greater than that of holes at valence band. to one half side and N-type material to other half side.When
P-type crystal is placed in contact with N-type crystal so as
1.6.5 Carrier Concentration to form one piece, the assembly so obtained is called P-N
a) Intrinsic Semiconductors junction diode.
-pure single-crystal material

SCAN CODE
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
54 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Fig. 11.9
Fig. 11.11
2.1 Types of Junction Diodes This condition represents the low resistance path through
the PN junction allowing very large currents to flow through
P-N Junction diode under forward Bias
the diode with only a small increase in bias voltage. The
When a diode is connected in a forward bias condition, a
actual potential difference across the junction or diode is
negative voltage is applied to the N-type material and a
kept constant by the action of the depletion layer at approxi-
positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this mately 0.3v for germanium and approximately 0.7v for silicon
external voltage becomes greater than the value of the junction diodes.
potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for
germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be overcome Since the diode can conduct “infinite” current above this
and current will start to flow. knee point as it effectively becomes a short circuit, therefore
This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels resistors are used in series with the diode to limit its current
electrons towards the junction giving them the energy to flow. Exceeding its maximum forward current specification
cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the causes the device to dissipate more power in the form of heat
opposite direction towards the junction by the positive than it was designed for resulting in a very quick failure of
voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of zero current the device.
flowing up to this voltage point, called the “knee” on the Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode
static curves and then a high current flow through the diode
with little increase in the external voltage as shown below.
Reduction in the Depletion Layer due to Forward Bias

Fig. 11.12
The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction
diode results in the depletion layer becoming very thin and
narrow which represents a low impedance path through the
junction thereby allowing high currents to flow. The point at
which this sudden increase in current takes place is
represented on the static I-V characteristics curve above as
the “knee” point.
Fig. 11.10

SCAN CODE
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 55

P-N Junction diode under reverse Bias One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the
When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a diode is increased to a sufficiently high enough value, it will
positive voltage is applied to the N-type material and a cause the diode’s PN junction to overheat and fail due to the
negative voltage is applied to the P-type material. avalanche effect around the junction. This may cause the
The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts diode to become shorted and will result in the flow of maximum
electrons towards the positive electrode and away from the circuit current, and this shown as a step downward slope in
junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also attracted the reverse static characteristics curve below.
away from the junction towards the negative electrode. Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode
The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to
a lack of electrons and holes and presents a high impedance
path, almost an insulator and a high potential barrier is created
across the junction thus preventing current from flowing
through the semiconductor material.
Increase in the Depletion Layer due to Reverse Bias

Fig. 11.15
Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in
voltage stabilising circuits where a series limiting resistor is
used with the diode to limit this reverse breakdown current
to a preset maximum value thereby producing a fixed voltage
output across the diode. These types of diodes are commonly
known as Zener Diodes.
I-V characteristics
Fig. 11.13

Fig. 11.14
This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN
junction and practically zero current flows through the
junction diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a Fig. 11.16
very small reverse leakage current does flow through the
junction which can normally be measured in micro-amperes,
( µA ).

SCAN CODE
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
56 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

3. Diodes as Rectifiers 3.2 Full Wave Rectifier

An electronic device which converts a.c. power into d.c. A rectifier which rectifies both halves of a.c. input is called
power is called a rectifier. full wave rectifier.
3.1 Half Wave Rectifier Principle
Principle Junction Diode offers low resistive path when forward biased
Junction diode offers low resistive path when forward biased and high resistive path when reverse biased.
and high resistive path when reverse biased.
Arrangement
Arrangement
The a.c. supply is fed across the primary coil (P) of step
The a.c. supply is fed across the primary coil (P) of step
down transformer. The two ends of S–coil (secondary) of
down transformer. The secondary coil ‘S’ of transformer is
transformer are connected to P-section of junction diodes D1
connected to the junction diode and load resistance RL. The
output d.c. voltage is obtained across RL. and D2. A load resistance RL is connected across the n–
sections of two diodes and central tapping of secondary
Theory
coil. The d.c. output is obtained across secondary.
Suppose that during first half of a.c. input cycle the junction
diode get forward biased. The conventional current will flow Theory
in the direction of arrow heads. Suppose that during first half of input cycle upper end of s-
coil is at +ve potential. The junction diode D1 gets forward
biased, while D2 gets reverse biased. The conventional
current due to D1 will flow along path of full arrows.
When second half of input cycle comes, the condition will
be exactly reversed. Now the junction diode D2 will conduct
and the conventional current will flow along path of dotted
arrows. Since current during both the half cycles flows from
right to left through load resistance RL, the output during
both the half cycles will be of same nature.
Fig. 11.17
The right end of RL is at +ve potential w.r.t. left end. Thus in
The upper end of RL will be at +ve potential w.r.t. the lower full wave rectifier, the output is continuous.
end. The magnitude of output across RL during first half at
any instant will be proportional to magnitude of current
through RL, which in turn is proportional to magnitude of
forward bias and which ultimately depends upon the value
of a.c. input at that time.

Fig. 11.18
Thus output across RL will vary in accordance with a.c. input.
During second half, junction diode get reverse biased and
hence no output will be obtained. Thus a discontinuous Fig. 11.19
supply is obtained. NOTE:
NOTE: Here Frequency of Output signal is double to frequency of
Here Frequency of Output signal is equal to frequency of input signal
input signal

SCAN CODE
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 57

4. Special Purpose P-N Junction is called the valence band electron. When external energy is
applied across the valence band, the electrons get easily
Diodes moved from one band to another.
When the reverse bias is applied across the diode and when
In the section, we shall discuss some devices which are
the Zener voltage is equal to that of the supplied voltage, the
basically junction diodes but are developed for different
diode starts conducting in the direction of reverse bias. The
applications.
Zener diode voltage is the particular voltage at which the
4.1 Zener Diode depletion region vanishes completely.
A Zener diode is a semiconductor device which makes the The intensity of the electric field increases across the
current flow in the forward or in the backward direction. The depletion region when the reverse bias is applied across the
diode usually consists of a p-n junction which is heavily diode. Hence, the electrons are free to move from the valence
doped. The diode is designed to conduct the flow of current band of the P-type semiconductor material to the conduction
in the reverse direction after reaching a specified voltage. band of the N-type semiconductor material. This movement
The Zener diode has a reverse-breakdown voltage at which of electrons decreases the barrier between p type and n type
the diode starts conductivity electric current, and remains materials. Once the depletion region vanishes completely,
continuous in the reverse-bias mode. The voltage drop across the diode starts conducting current in the reverse bias
the diode always remains constant irrespective of the applied direction.
voltage, and this feature of the Zener diode makes it suitable VI Characteristics of Zener Diode
for voltage regulation.
The VI characteristics of the Zener diode is described through
Zener Diode Circuit Diagram
the graph, mentioned in the figure below. This shows that
the Zener diode behaves like an ordinary diode when it is
connected in forward bias. But when the reverse voltage is
applied across the Zener diode, such that the reverse voltage
rises beyond the predetermined rating, breakdown occurs
on the Zener diode.
The electric current starts to flow in the reverse direction at
the breakdown voltage of the Zener diode. The graph
represents that the Zener diode has resistance. Further, it is
shown that the graph of Zener breakdown is not exactly
vertical. The voltage across the Zener diode is represented
Fig. 11.20
by the equation given by.
The above figure is the circuit diagram of Zener diode. The
Zener diode has its application in reverse biasing. In reverse V = VZ + IZRZ
biasing the P-type material of the diode is connected with
the negative terminal of the supply, and the n-type material is
connected with the positive terminal of the supply. The diode
consists of a very thin depletion region as it is made up of
heavily doped semiconductor material.
Zener Diode Working
In a Zener diode, high-level impurities are added to the
semiconductor material to make it more conductive. Due to
the presence of these impurities, the depletion region of the
diode becomes very thin. The intensity of the electric field is
increased across the depletion region, due to heavy doping
even if a small voltage is applied.
When no biasing is applied across the Zener diode, the Fig. 11.21
electrons accumulate in the valence band of the p-type
semiconductor material and no current flow occurs through
the diode. The band in which the valence electrons are present

SCAN CODE
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
58 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Applications of Zener Diode gap (Eg) of the semiconductor, then electron-hole pairs
are generated due to the absorption of photons. The
The major use of Zener diode is in industrial and commercial diode is fabricated such that the generation of e-h pairs
applications. These are some of the important applications takes place in or near the depletion region of the diode.
of the Zener diode.
Due to electric field of the junction, electrons and holes
As Voltage Stabilizer – The Zener diode is used for voltage are separated before they recombine. The direction of
regulation. It converts the fluctuating voltage of the source the electric field is such that electrons reach n-side and
to a constant voltage and supplies it to the load. The Zener holes reach p-side. Electrons are collected on n-side and
diode is always connected in parallel with the load, and it holes are collected on p-side giving rise to an emf. When
maintains a constant voltage VZ, thus stabilizing the voltage. an external load is connected, current flows. The magni-
For Meter Protection – In multimeters, the Zener diode is tude of the photocurrent depends on the intensity of
used to control the movement of the meter against any incident light (photocurrent is proportional to incident
accidental overloads. The multimeter is connected in parallel light intensity).
with the Zener diode. When the overload occurs across the It is easter to observe the change in the current with
diode, the major amount of current passes through the diode, change in the light intensity, if a reverse bias is ap-
and in this way, the diode protects the meter from damage. plied. Thus photodiode can be used as a photodetector
For Wave Shaping – A sine wave is converted into a square to detect optical signals. The circuit diagram used for
wave by using the Zener diode. This is done by connecting the measurement of I-V characteristics of a photodiode
two Zener Diodes in series with the resistance of the circuit. is shown in Fig. 11.21 and typical I-V characteristics in
It should be noted that the diode must be connected back to Fig. 11.22
back and in the opposite direction to each other.

Zener Breakdown

The Zener breakdown occurs either due to the Zener

breakdown effect which occurs when the voltage is below
5.5 V or due to the impact of ionization which occurs above
5.5 V. Both of these mechanisms occur in the same circuit.
However, they have different temperature coefficients.
The impact effect has a positive temperature coefficient, while
the Zener effect has a negative temperature coefficient. The
two temperature effects occur at an equal voltage of around Fig. 11.22
5.5V and cancel out each other, thus making the zener diode
operate at 5.5V.

4.2 Optoelectronic Junction Devices

Optoelectronic junction devices are p-n junction devices in
which, carriers are generated by photons. Photodiodes, light
emitting diodes (LEDs) and solar cells are examples of
optoelectronic devices.
 Photodiodes used for detecting optical signal
(photodetectors).
 Light emitting diodes (LED) which convert electrical
energy into light.
 Photovoltaic devices which convert optical radiation into Fig. 11.23
electricity (solar cells).
 Photodiode: A Photodiode is again a special purpose p-
n junction diode fabricated with a transparent window
to allow light to fall on the diode. It is operated under
reverse bias. When the photodiode is illuminated with
light (photons) with energy (hv) greater than the enrgy

SCAN CODE
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 59

 LED: A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor

light source that emits light when current flows through 5. Transistors
it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with 5.1 Introduction to Transistors
electron holes, releasing energy in the form of photons.
It is three sectioned semiconductor, in which three sections
The color of the light (corresponding to the energy of
are combined so that the two at extreme ends have the same
the photons) is determined by the energy required for
type of majority carriers, while the section that separates
electrons to cross the band gap of the semiconductor.
them has the majority carriers in opposite nature. The three
White light is obtained by using multiple
sections of transistor are called emitter (E), Base (B), collector
semiconductors or a layer of light-emitting phosphor
(C).
on the semiconductor device.
LEDs have the following advantages over conventional Symbol :
incandescent low power lamps:
1. Low operational voltage and less power.
2. Fast action and no warm-up time required.
3. The bandwidth of emitted light is 100 Å to 500 Å or in
other words it is nearly (but not exactly) monochromatic.
4. Long life and ruggedness.
5. Fast on-off switching capability.
 Solar Cell: A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical Fig. 11.25
device that converts the energy of light directly into
electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is a physical 5.2 Working of Transistors
and chemical phenomenon. It is a form of photoelectric
cell, defined as a device whose electrical characteristics, Action of n-p-n Transistor
such as current, voltage, or resistance, vary when
exposed to light. Individual solar cell devices are often
the electrical building blocks of photovoltaic modules,
known colloquially as solar panels. The common single
junction silicon solar cell can produce a maximum open-
circuit voltage of approximately 0.5 volts to 0.6 volts.
Solar cells are described as being photovoltaic,
irrespective of whether the source is sunlight or an
artificial light. In addition to producing energy, they can
be used as a photodetector (for example infrared
detectors), detecting light or other electromagnetic
radiation near the visible range, or measuring light
Fig. 11.26
intensity.
Fig. shows that, the n-type emitter is forward biased by
The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires
connecting it to -ve pole of VEB (emmitter-base battery) and n-
type collector is reverse biased by connected it to +ve pole
of VCB (collector-base battery).
The majority carriers (e–) in emitter are repelled towards base
due to forward biase. The base contains holes as majority
carriers but their number density is small as it is doped very
lightly (5%) as compared to emitter and collector. Due to this
the probability of e– and hole combination in base is small.
Most of e– (95%) cross into collector region where they are
swept away by +ve terminal of battery VCB.
Fig. 11.24
Corresponding to each electron that is swept by collector, an
electron enters the emitter from -ve pole of collector – base
battery.
If Ie, Ib, Ic be emitter, base and collector current respectively
then using Kirchoff first law

SCAN CODE
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
60 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

(b) Amplifier circuit using p–n–p Transistor

Ie  I b  Ic

Action p–n–p Transistor

The p–type emitter is forward biased by connecting it to +ve
pole of emitter-base battery and p–type collector is reverse
biased by connected it to –ve pole of collector-base battery.
In this case, majority carriers in emitter i.e. holes are repelled
Fig. 11.29
towards base due to forward biased. As base is lightly doped,
1. When the positive half cycle of input a.c. signal voltage
it has low number density of e–. When hole enters base
comes, it supports the forward biasing of the emitter–base
region, then only 5% of e– and hole combination take place.
circuit. Due to this, the emitter current increases and
Most of the holes reach the collector and are swept away by
consequently the collector current increases.
–ve pole of VCB battery.
2. As Ic increases, the collector voltage Vc decreases.
3. Since the collector is connected to the negative terminal
of VCC battery of voltage VCB, therefore, the decrease in
collector voltage means the collector will become less
negative. This indicates that during positive half cycle of
input a.c. signal voltage, the output signal voltage at the
collector also varies through the positive half cycle.
4. During negative half cycle of input a.c. signal voltage, the
output signal voltage at the collector also varies through
Fig. 11.27 the negative half cycle. Thus in common base transitor
5.3 Transistors as Amplifiers amplifier circuit the input signal voltage and the output
collector voltage are in the same phase.
5.3.1 Common base Amplifier
In this base of the transistor is common to both emitter and 5.3.2 Common Emitter Amplifier
collector.  Amplifier circuit using n–p-n transitor
 Amplifier circuit using n-p-n transistor : The emitter
1. The input (emitter base) circuit is forward biased with
is forward biased using emitter base battery (VEB) & due
battery VBB of voltage VEB, and the output (collector-
to this, resistance of output circuit is large.
emitter) circuit is reversed biased with battery VCC of
voltage VCE. Due to this, the resistance of input circuit is
low and that of output circuit is high. Rc is a load resistance
connected in collector circuit.
2. When no a.c. signal voltage is applied to the input circuit
but emitter base circuit is closed let us consider, that Ie, Ib
Fig. 11.28
and Ic be the emitter current, base current and collector
Low input voltage is applied across emitter-base circuit. and
current respectively. Then according to Kirchhoff’s first
amplified signal is obtained across collector-base circuit. If
law Ie = Ib + Ic
Ie, Ib, Ic be the emitter, base and collector-current respectively
then,
Ie  Ib  Ic …(i)

When current Ic flows in collector circuit, a potential drop

IcRc occurs across the resistance connected in collector -
base circuit and base collector voltage will be
Fig. 11.30
Vcb  Vcc  Ic R c …(ii)

SCAN CODE
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 61

3. When the positive half cycle of input a.c. signal voltage 5.3.4 Current and Voltage Gain in Common
comes, it supports the forward biasing of the emitter-base
circuit. Due to this, the emitter current increases and
Emmiter Amplifier
consequently the collector current increases. As a result A.C. Current Gain : It is defined as the ratio of the change in
of which, the collector voltage Vc decreases. collector to the change in base current. It is denoted by  ac.
4. Since the collector is connected to the positive terminal of  Ic 
VCE battery, therefore decreases in collector voltage means Therefore,  ac =  I  [Vce = const.]
the collector will become less positive, which means  b v
negative with respect to initial value. This indicates that Its value is quite large as compared to 1 and lies between 15
during positive half cycle of input a.c. signal voltage, the to 50.
output signal voltage at the collector varies through a
negative half cycle. Voltage gain : It is the ratio of the change in output voltage to
the change in input voltage. It is denoted by A.
5. When negative half cycle of input a.c. signal voltage
comes, it opposes the forward biasing of emitter-base I c  R out 
I c R out

Av =
circuit, due to this the emitter current decreases and hence I b  R in I b R in
collector current decreases; consequently the collector
voltage Vc increases i.e., the collector becomes more Or Av =  ac × resistance gain.
positive. This indicate that during the negative half cycle
A.C. Power Gain : It is the ratio of the change in output
of input a.c. signal voltage, the output signal voltage varies
power to the change in input power.
through positive half cycle.

5.3.3 Current and Voltage Gain in Common Base change in output power I c  R out
2

A.C. Power Gain = =

Amplifier change in input power I b 2 R in
A.C. Current Gain : It is defined as the ratio of change in Or A.C. Power pain =  2ac × resistance gain.
collector current and the change in emitter current at constant
base to collect voltage. It is denoted by ac 5.3.5 Relation between  and 
For both the types of amplifier, we have ie = ib + ic
 I  Dividing both sides of the above equation by Ic, we get
 ac   c  [V = const.]
 CB
 I e  ie ib
 1
Voltage gain : It is defined as the ratio of change in output ic ic
voltage to the change in input voltage. It is denoted by Av.  1/ = (1/) + 1 or 1/ = (1/) 1 = (1)/
or  = / (1)
I c  R out I c R out 
Av =   Rearranging also gives another relation i.e.  
I e  R in I e R in  1

Or Av = AC × resistance gain,

6. Logic gates
6.1 Types of Signal
where Rout/Rin is called resistance gain.
 Analog Signals: Signals which varies continuously with
Power gain : It is defined as the ratio of change in output time is called analog signal. A typical analog signal is
power to the change in input power. Therefore, shown in figure. Circuit used for generating analog signal
is called analog electronic circuit.
change in output power

I c  R out
A.C. Power Gain =
change in input power I e  R in
I c2 Rout
 
I 2e Rin
2
Or A.C. Power gain = αac × resistance gain. Fig. 11.31

SCAN CODE
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
62 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Input Output
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
Fig. 11.32 1 1 1
 Digital Signals: Signals having either of the two levels,
AND Gate
0 or 1, are called digital signals.
In an AND gate there are two or more inputs and one output.
In Boolean algebra AND is represented by a dot (.).

Fig. 11.35
Truth Table

In put Output
A B Y
0 0 0
Fig. 11.33 0 1 0
1 0 0
6.2 Logic Gates
1 1 1
A digital circuit which either stops a signal or allows it to
pass through it is called a gate. A logic gate is an electronic NOT Gate
circuit which makes logical decisions. Logic gate has one or NOT gate is an electronic circuit which has one input and
more inputs but one output. Logic gates are the basic building one output. This circuit is so called because output is NOT
blocks for most of the digital systems. Variables used at the the same as input.
input and output are 1’s and 0’s. These are three basic logic
gates:
1. OR gate
2. AND gate Fig. 11.36
3. NOT gate.
Boolean expression for NOT gate is Y = A .
OR Gate
Truth Table:
OR gate is an electronic device that combines A and B to
In put Output
give Y as output. In this figure two inputs are A and B and
output is Y. In Boolean algebra OR is represented by +. A Y
0 1
1 0
NOR Gate

Fig. 11.34 A NOR gate has two or more inputs and one output. Actually
NOR gate is a NOT-OR gate. If a NOT gate is connected at
Truth Table : A truth table may be defined as the table which
the output of an OR gate, we get NOR gate as shown in
gives the output state for all possible input combinations.
figure and its truth table is shown as under in the table.
Logic operations of OR gate are given in its truth table for all
possible input combinations.

SCAN CODE
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 63

A B Y’ Y
0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
Fig. 11.37 1 0 1 0
Truth Table :
XOR Gate
A B Y Y
XOR gate (sometimes EOR, or EXOR and pronounced as
0 0 0 1 Exclusive OR) is a digital logic gate that gives a true (1 or
0 1 1 0 HIGH) output when the number of true inputs is odd. An
1 0 1 0 XOR gate implements an exclusive or from mathematical logic;
1 1 1 0 that is, a true output results if one, and only one, of the
inputs to the gate is true. If both inputs are false (0/LOW) or
Boolean expression for NOT gate is Y = A  B and it is read both are true, a false output results. XOR represents the
as Y equals A OR B negated. A NOR function is the reverse inequality function, i.e., the output
of OR function.

Fig. 11.40
Fig. 11.38
Input Outpout
Truth Table :
A B A XOR B
In put Output 0 0 0
A B Y 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

NAND Gate
A NAND gate has two or more inputs and one output.
Actually a NAND gate is a NOT–AND gate. If a NOT gate is
connected at the output of an AND gate, we get NAND gate
as shown in figure and its truth table is given in table.

Fig. 11.39

SCAN CODE
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
64 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Every communication system has three essential elements-

Communication Systems (i) transmitter (ii) medium/channel (iii) receiver
7. Introduction to Communication
Information Message Transmitter Transmitted
Systems
Received Message User of
Channel Receiver information
source signal signal signal signal

Communication means transmission of information. Everyone Noise

experiences the need to impart or recieve information

continuously in the surrounding and for this , we speak, Transmitter converts the message signal into an electric
listen,send message by a messenger, use coded signalling signal and transmits through channel. The receiver receives
methods through smoke or flags or beating of drum etc. and the transmitted signal and reconstructs the original message
these days we are using telephones, TV, radio, satellite signal to the end user. There are two basic modes of
communication etc. The aim of this chapter is to introduce communication: (i) point-to-point and (ii) broadcast.
the concepts of communication namely the mode of
In point-to-point communication mode, communication takes
communication, the need of modulation, production and
place over a link between a single transmitter and a receiver
detection of amplitude modulation.
as in telephony. In the broadcase mode, there are a large
Elements of a Communication System : number of receivers corresponding to a single transmitter.
Radio and television are most common examples of
braoadcast mode of communication. However the
communication system can be classified as follows :
Types of Communication Systems

On the basis of nature of On the basis of signal On the basis of On the basis of type
Information transmitted transmission Channel of modulation
1.
(1)
1. Speech Transmission 1.
(1)
1. Analog 1.
1. Line communication
(1) 1.
(1)
1. Continuous wave
(Radio) 2.
(2)
2. Digital 1.
a. Two wire Transmission
(a) 1.a.Modulation
modulation
1.
(2)
2. Picture Transmission 1.line
line 1.
(a)
a. Amplitude
(TV) 1.
(b)
b. Coaxial cable 1.b. Frequency
(b)
(3)
1.3. Fascimile Transmission 1.
(c)
c. Optical fibre 1.c. phase
(c)
(FAX) (2)
2. Space communication
1. 1.
(2)
2. Pulse Modulation
1.(4)
4. Data Transmission 1.
(a)
a. PAM PPM
(Internet)
1.
(b)
b. PTM

1.c. PCM PWM

(c)

7.1 Basic Terminologies Used in Electronic  Analog Signal: A continuously varying signal (Voltage
or Current) is called an analog signal. A decimal number
Communication Systems: with system base 10 is used to deal with analog signal.
 Transducer. Transducer is the device that converts one  Digital Signal: A signal that can have only discrete
form of energy into another. Microphone, photo detectors stepwise values is called a digital signal. A binary number
and piezoelectric sensors are types of transducer. They system with base 2 is used to deal with digital signals.
convert information into electrical signal.
 Signal: Signal is the information converted in electrical
form. Signals can be analog or digital. Sound and picture
signals inTV are analog.
It is defined as a single–valued function of time which
has a unique value at every instant of time.
Fig. 11.41

SCAN CODE
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 65

Fig. 11.43
Fig. 11.42
 Noise : There are unwanted signals that tend to disturb Use of repeater station to increase the range of
the transmission and processing of message signals. communication
The source of noise can be inside or outside the
system. 7.2 Types of Communication Systems
 Transmitter : A transmitter processes the incoming Based on physical infrastructure:
message signal to make it suitable for trans-mission
through a channel and subsequent reception. Based on physical infrastructure there are two types of
communication system:
 Receiver : A receiver extracts the desired message
signals from the received signals at the channel output.  Line communication system: Uses the existing
 Attenuation : It is the loss of strength of a signals while infrastructure of power lines to transfer data from one
propagating through a medium. It is like damping of point to another point.
oscillations.
 Radio Communication system: uses the infrastructure of
 Amplification : It is the process of increasing the radio waves to transfer the information from one point to
amplitude (and therefore the strength) of a signal using another point.
an electronic circuit called the amplifier. Amplification
is absolutely necessary to compensate for the There is a physical link, called a hardwire channel between
attenuation of the signal in communication systems. the transmitter and the receiver inline communication
systems.
 Range : It is the largest distance between the source
and the destination upto which the signal gets received Based on Signal specifications:
with sufficient strength.
Signal specifications that are used to decide the type of
 Bandwidth : It is the frequency range over which an
communication system are:
equipment operates or the portion of the spectrum oc-
 Nature of the baseband or information signal: Baseband
cupied by the signal.
signals is a technology which can access the signals with
 Modulation : The original low frequency message/
very low frequency and also near zero frequency and
information signal connot be transmitted to long dis-
based on the nature of the transmitted signal, the
tances. So, at the transmitter end, information contained
baseband signal can either be transmitted as it is without
in the low frequency message signal is superimposed
on a high frequency wave, which acts as a carrier of modulation or through a carrier signal with modulation.
the information. This process is known as modulation. Further, communication systems are divided into:
 Demodulation : The process of retrieval of original
 Analog communication systems: The Analog system
information from the carrier wave at the receiver end
conveys the information from the audio, video and
is termed as demodulation. This process is the reverse pictures between two points using the analogue signals.
of modulation. A sinusoidal signal is an example of an analogue
 Repeater : A repeater acts as a receiver and a trans- communication system.
mitter. A repeater picks up the signal which is comming  Digital communication systems: Digital communication
from the transmitter, amplifies and retransmits it with a has become very important in the age of the internet. It is
change in carrier frequency. Repeaters are necessary to a physical exchange of information between two point
extend the range of a communication system as shown discreetly. The information exchange happens through
in figure A communication satellite is basically a repeater digital signals.
station in space.

SCAN CODE
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
66 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

 Baseband communication system: Baseband Signal Frequency range Bandwidth

communication is the transfer of signals that are not required
amplified to higher frequencies. They help is transferring Speech 300 – 3100 Hz 3100 – 300
signals with near-frequency. = 2800 Hz
 Carrier communication system: Carrier communication Music High frequencies produced 20 kHz
by musical instrument
systems transfer the information especially voice
Audible range
messages and calls by improving the frequency much = 20 Hz – 20 kHz
higher than the actual rate. 4.2 MHz
Picture - 6 MHz
Out of four, a minimum of two types is needed to specify TV Contains both
and communication system. Thus, two groups are formed voice and picture
consisting of each of the two types such that at least one
of he types from each group is necessarily required to  Bandwidth for digital signal
specify a communication system. These groups can be Basically digital signals are rectanglar waves and these can
formed as: be splitted into a superposition of sinusoidal waves of
frequencies n0, 20, 30, 40, n0, where n is an integer ex-
 Analog/digital communication system
tending to infinity. This implies that the infinite band width
 Baseband/carrier communication system is required to reproduce the rectangular waves. However, for
practical purposes, higher harmonics are neglected for
To completely define any communication system, four out of
limiting the bandwidth.
the eight types are required. If any type is missing, then the
description of the communication system will be incomplete. Band width of Transmission Medium
Different types of transmission media offer different band
Wireless and Wired communication system
width in which some of are listed below
Wireless communication system use radio waves,
Frequency Bands
electromagnetic waves and infrared waves to communicate
Service Frequency range Remarks
from one point to another point and the wire communication
Wire Normally
system used wire, optical fibre which works on the 1 (most common :
750 MHz
operated below
(Bandwidth)
phenomenon of total internal reflection to communicate from Coaxial Cable) 18 GHz

one point to another point. Free space Few hundred kHz to

2
(radio waves) GHz
Wireless communication is further divided into satellite
(i) Standard AM
communication, ground wave communication, skywave and 540kHz -1600 kHz
broadcast
space wave communication. The satellite communication
(ii) FM 88-108 MHz
receives the signals from the earth and resends them bach to
another point on the earth with the help of a transponder. 54-72 MHz VHF (Very) high
76-88 MHz frequencies) TV
Wired communication is further divided into parallel wire, (iii) Television
174-216 MHz UHF (Ultra hight
twisted wire, optical fibre and coaxial wired communication. 420-890 MHz frequency) TV

Mobile to base
7.3 Bandwidth of Signals (iv) Cellular
mobile
896-901 MHz Station
840-935 MHz Base station to
radio
Different signals used in a comminication system such as mobile
voice, music, picture, computer data etc. all have different (v) Satellite 5.925-6.425 GHz Uplinking
Communication 3.7 - 4.2 GHz Downlinking
ranges of frequency. The difference of maximum and minimum
frequency in the range of each signal is called bandwidth One single
Optical 1THz-1000 THz optical fibre
of that signal. 3 communication (microwaves- offers
using fibres ultra violet) bandwidth > 100
Bandwidth can be of message signal as well as of transmis- GHz
sion medium.
 Bandwidth for analog signals
Bandwdith for some analog sinals are listed below :

SCAN CODE
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 67

8. Propagation of EM Waves 8.1 Ground Wave Propagation :

 The radio waves which travel through atmosphere
In case of radio waves communication, an antenna at the following the surface of earth are known as ground
transmitter radiates the electromagnetic waves waves or surface waves and their propagation is called
(em waves). The em waves travel through the space and ground wave propagation or surface wave propagation.
reach the receiving antenna at the other end. As the em wave  The ground wave transmission becomes weaker with
travels away from the transmitter, their strength keeps on increase in frequency because more absorption of
decreasing. Many factors influence the propagation of em ground waves takes place at higher frequency during
waves including the path they follow. The composition of propagation through atmosphere.
the earth's atmosphere also plays a vital role in the  The ground wave propagation is suitabel for low and
propagation of em waves, as summarised below. medium frequency i.e. upto 2 or 3 MHz only.
 The ground wave propagation is generally used for local
band broadcasting and is commonly called medium wave.
 The maximum range of ground or surface wave propa-
gation depends on two factors :
1. The frequency of the radio waves and
2. Power of the transmitter

Table 4: Layers of Atmosphere and their Interaction with the Propagating EM Waves

Atmospheric Height over earth's Exists during Frequencies most

stratum (layer) surface (approx) likely affected

1. Troposphere 10 km Day and night VHF (upto several GHz)

2. Ionosphere
(i) D (part of 65-75 km Day only Reflects LF, absorbs MF &
stratosphere) HF to some degree
(ii) E (part of 100 km Day only Helps surface waves,
stratosphere) reflects HF
(iii) F1 (Part of 170-190 km Daytime, merges Partially absorbs HF waves
Mesosphere) with F2 at night yet allowing them to reach F2
(iv) F2 300 km at night, Day and night Efficiently reflects HF waves
(Thermosphere) 250-400 km particularly at night
during daytime

8.2 Sky Wave Propagation: 8.3 Space Wave Propagation:

 The sky waves are the radio waves of frequency be-  The space waves are the radiowaves of very high
tween 2 MHz to 30 MHz. frequency (i.e. between 30 MHz. to 300 MHz or more).
 The ionoopheric layer acts as a reflector for a certain  the space waves can travel through atmosphere from
range of frequencies (3 to 30 MHz). Electromagnetic transmitter antenna to receiver antenna either derectly
waves of frequencies higher than 30 MHz penetrate the or after reflection from ground in the earth's troposphere
ionosphere and escape. region. That is why the space wave propagation is also
called as tropospherical propagation or line of sight
 The highest frequency of radiowaves which when sent
propagation.
straight (i.e. normally) towards the layer of ionosphere
gets refelcted from ionosphere and returns to the earth  The range of communication of space wave propagation
is called critical frequency. If is given by can be increased by increasing the heights of
fc = 9 (Nmax)1/2, where N is the number density of transmitting and receiving antenna.
electron/m3.
 If the transmitting antenna is at a height hT, then you
can show that the distance to the horizontal dT is given

SCAN CODE
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
68 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

sage signal into high frequency wave before

as d T  2Rh T , where R is the radius of the earth transmission. In doing so, we take the help of a high
frequency signal, which we already know now, is known
(approximately 6400 km). dT is also called the radio
as the carrier wave, and a process known as modulation
maximum line-of sight distance dm between the two
which attaches information to it. The carrier wave may
antennas having heights hT and hR above the earth is
be continuous (sinusoidal) or in the form of pulses, as
given by :
shown in figure.
Time period T 2
d M  2Rh T  2Rh R =
T
Amplitude

where hR is the height of receiving antenna. Time

(a)
9. Modulation of Signals
Fig. 11.44
9.1 Modulation
Pulse
 It is a process by which any electrical signal called input duration
baseband or modulating signal, is mounted onto another
Pulse
signal of high frequency which is known as carrier signal. Pulse
Pulse fall
amplitude
 It is defined as the process by which some characteristic rise
(called parameter) of carrier signal is varied in (b)
accordance with the instantaneous value of the
baseband signal. Fig. 11.45
 The signal which results from this process is known as
modulated signal. 9.3 Carrier Wave : Sinusoidal
9.2 Need for Modulation: A sinusoidal carrier wave can be represented as c(t) = ACsin
(ct + )
 To aviod interference:
where c(t) is the signal strength (voltage or current), AC is
If many modulating signals travel directly through the the amplitude, c (= 2fc) is the angular frequency and  is
same transmission channel, they will interfere with each the initial phase of the carrier wave. Thus, modulation can
other and result in distortion. be affected by varying, any of three parameters, viz Ac, c
 To design antennas of practicable size: and , of the carrier wave can as per the parameter of the
message or information signal. This results in three types
The minimum height of antenna (not of antenna tower) of modulation : (i) Amplitude modulation (AM) (ii) Frequency
should be l/4 where l is wavelength of modulating sig- modulation (FM) and (iii) Phase modulation (PM), as shown
nal. This minimum size becomes impracticable because in figure.
the frequency of the modulating signal can be upto 5
1
kHz which corresponds to a wavelength of 3 × 108/5 0 (a)
× 103 = 60 km. This will require an antenna of the -1
0 3
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
minimum height of /4 = 15 km. This size of an antenna 1
m(t) 0 (b)
is not practical. -1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
 Effective Power Radiated by an Antenna: cm(t)for AM 0
2
(c)
-2
A theoretical study of radiation from a linear antenna 10 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
(length l) shows that the power radiated is proportional cm(t)for FM 0 (d)
to (frequency)2 i.e.   /   . For a good transmission,
2
-1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
we need high powers and hence this also points out 1
to the need of using high frequency transmission. cm(t)for PM 0 (e)
-1
0 0.5 2 2.5 3
The above discussion suggests that there is a need for Time
translating the original low frequency baseband mes- Fig. 11.46

SCAN CODE
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 69

Modulation of a carrier wave :

1. a sinusoidal carrier wave
2. a modulating signal :
3. amplitude modulatin :
4. Frequency modulation : and
5. Phase modulation

9.4 Carrier Wave Pulses:

Similarly, the significant characteristics of a pulse are : Pulse Fig. 11.47
Amplitude, Pulse duration or pulse Width, and pulse Position As long as the broadcast frequencies (carrier waves) are
(denoting the time of rise or fall of the pulse amplitude) sufficiently spaced out so that sidebands do not overlap,
Hence, different types of pulse modulation are (a) pulse different stations can operate without interfering with each
amplitude modulation (PAM), (b) Pulse duration modulation other.
(PDM) or pulse width modulation (PWM), and (c) Pulse
position modulation (PPM).  Production of Amplitude modulated Wave :
Ampitude modulation can be produced by a veriety of
10. Amplitude Modulation: methods. A conceptually simple method is shown in the block
diagram of figure.
In amplitude modulation the amplitude of the carrier is BANDPASS
varied in accordance with the information signals. Let m(t) x(t) SQUARE y(t) FILTER AM Wave
+
A m sin m t LAW DEVICE CENTRED
c(t) = Ac sinc t represent carrier wave and m(t) = Am sin (Modulating Singna) 2
AT c
c (t) Bx(t) + Cx(t)
m t represent the message or the modulating signal where A c sinct
m = 2fm is the angular frequency of the message signal. (carrier)
The modulated signal c m (t) can be written as Fig. 11.48
cm(t) = (Ac + Am sin mt) sin ct Here the modulating signal Am sin mt is added to the carrier
 A  signal Ac sin c t to produce the signal x (t). This signal x
 A c  1  m sin m t  sin c t ...(1) (t) = Am sin m t + Ac sinct is passed through a square
 Ac 
law device which is a non-linear device which produces an
Note that the modulated signal now contains the message output
signal & it can be written as :
y(t) = B x (t) + Cx2 (t) ...(4)
cm(t) = Ac sinct + µAc sinmt sinct ......(2)
where B and C are constants.
Here µ = Am/Ac is the modulation index
Thus, y(t) = BAm sinm t + BAc sin ct + C
In paractice, µ is kept < 1 to avoid distortion.
[Am2 sin2mt + Ac2sin2 ct + 2AmAc sinmt sinct] ...(5)
Using the trignomatric relation sinA sinB
CA 2m CA 2m
= (cos (A – B) – cos (A + B), we can write cm (t) of eq. (15.4) = BAm sinm t + BAc sin ct  A c2  cos 2m
2 2
as cm(t)
CA c2
t cos 2c t + CA m A c cos (c – m ) t – CA m A c
µA c µA c 2
= Ac sinct + cos(c – m) t – cos(c + m) t...(3) cos(c + m ) t ....(6)
2 2
where the trigonometric relations sin A = (1 – cos2A)/2 and
2
Here c – m and c + m are respectively called the called the
the relation for sinA sinB mentioned earlier are used.
lower side and upper side frequencies. The modulated signal
now consists of the carrier wave of frequency c plus two
In equation (6), there is a dc term C/2 (A2m  A2c ) and
sinusoidal waves each with a frequency slightly different
from, know as side bands. The frequency spectrum of the sinusoids of frequencies m, 2m, c – m and c + m. The
amplitude modulated signal is shown in figure : output of the band pass filter therefore is of the same form
as equation (3) and is therefore an AM wave.

SCAN CODE
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
70 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

It is to be mentioned that the modulated signal connot be Detection is the process of recovering the modulating signal
transmitted as such. The modulator is to be followed by a from the modulated carrier wave. We just saw that the
power amplifier which provides the necesary power and then modulated carrier wave contains the frequencies c and c
the modulated signal is fed to an antenna of appropriate size ± m. In order to obtain the original message signal m(t) of
for radiation as shown in figure. angular frequency m, a simple method is shown in the from
of a block diagram in figure.

Fig. 11.49
 Detection of Amplitude Modulated Wave :
Fig. 11.51
The transmitted message gets attenuated in propagating
through the channel. The receiving antenna is therefore to The modulated signal of the form given in (a) of above
be followed by an amplifier and a detector. In addition, to figure is passed through a rectifier to produce the output
facilitate further processing, the carrier frequency is usually shown in (b). This envelope of signal (b) is the message
changed to a lower frequency by what is called an signal In order to retrieve m(t), the signal is passed through
intermediate frequency (IF) stage preceding the detection. an envelope detector (which may consist of a simple RC
The detected signal may not be strong enough to be made circuit).
use of and hence in required to be amplified. A block diagram
of a typical receiver is shown in figure.

Fig. 11.50

SCAN CODE
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 71

NCERT Corner
Some Important Points to Remember

 Semiconductor Materials: when the electrons are liberated  Mobility: The term mobility in electronics refers to the ability
on breaking the covalent bonds, they move randomly to move. Mobility of electron In semiconductors gives the
through the crystal lattice. idea of the movement of the electrons in the semiconductor
When an electric field is applied, these free electrons have a materials. in this article, we are going to discuss the mobility
steady drift opposite to the direction of applied field. This of electro ns and holes in the semiconductors and conductors.
constitute the electric current. When a covalent bond is  Mass-Action Law:
broken, a hole is created. For one electron set free, one hole n0 : thermal-equilibrium concentration of electron in extrinsic
is created. Thus, thermal energy creates an electron-hole semiconductors
pairs.
p0 : thermal-equilibrium concentration of holes in extrinsic
Types of Semiconductors
semiconductors
n0p0 = n12 = f(T)
(function of temperature)
The product of n0 and p0 is always a constant for a given
semiconductor material at a given temperature.
n1 : is thermal-equilibrium concentration of charges in intrinsic
semiconductor
Ge, Si
 P-N junction diode: When a P-type material is intimately joined
P, As, Sb etc. Ga, B, ln, Al to N-type, a P-N junction is formed. In fact, merely-joining
the two pieces a P-N junction cannot be formed because the
 Band theory: In case of a single isolated atom, there are surface films and other irregularities produce major
single energy levels in case of solids, the atoms are arranged discontinuity in the crystal structure. Therefore a P-N junction
in a systematic space lattice and hence the atom are greatly is formed from a piece of semiconductor (say germanium) by
influenced by neighbouring atoms. The closeness of atoms diffusing P-type material to one half side and N-type material
results in the intermixing of electrons of neighbouring atoms to other half side.When P-type crystal is placed in contact
of course, for the valence electrons in the outermost shells with N-type crystal so as to form one piece, the assembly so
which are not strongly bounded by nucleus. Due to
obtained is called P-N junction diode.
intermixing the number of permissible energy levels increases
or there are significant changes in the energy levels. Hence  Rectifiers: An electronic device which converts a.c. power
in case of a solid, instead of single energy levels associated
into d.c. power is called a rectifier.
with the single atom, there will be bands of energy levels.
 Semiconductor Current: Current flow in a semiconductor Rectifiers can be of two types.
arises from the motion of charge carriers in both the 1. Half Wave Rectifiers
conduction and valence bands. The mobile charges in the
conduction band are electrons and those in the valence band 2. Full Wave Rectifiers
are holes. The current is in general made up of two  Zener diode: A Zener diode is a semiconductor device which
components, drift current and diffusion current, although in makes the current flow in the forward or in the backward
certain instances one or other of these two· components
direction. The diode usually consists of a p-n junction which
may predominate. Drift current occurs in the presence of an
is heavily doped. The diode is designed to conduct the flow
electric field which, as a result of the force it causes to act on
each charge carrier, produces a net motion of positively of current in the reverse direction after reaching a specified
charged carriers in the same sense as the field, and negatively voltage.
charged carriers in the opposite sense.
 Optoelectronic Junction Devices: Optoelectronic junction
devices are p-n junction devices in which, carriers are gener-
ated by photons. Photodiodes, light emitting diodes (LEDs)
and solar cells are examples of optoelectronic devices.

SCAN CODE
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
72 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

(i) Photodiodes used for detecting optical signal Communication means transmission of information. Every-
(photodetectors). one experiences the need to impart or recieve information
(ii) Light emitting diodes (LED) which convert electrical continuously in the surrounding and for this , we speak,
energy into light. listen,send message by a messenger, use coded signalling
methods through smoke or flags or beating of drum etc. and
(iii) Photovoltaic devices which convert optical radiation
these days we are using telephones, TV, radio, satellite com-
into electricity (solar cells).
munication etc. The aim of this chapter is to introduce the
 Transistors: It is three sectioned semiconductor, in which concepts of communication namely the mode of
three sections are combined so that the two at extreme ends communication, the need of modulation, production and
have the same type of majority carriers, while the section that detection of amplitude modulation.
separates them has the majority carriers in opposite nature.  Propagation of EM waves: In case of radio waves
The three sections of transistor are called emitter (E), Base
communication, an antenna at the transmitter radiates the
(B), collector (C).
electromagnetic waves (em waves). The em waves travel
Symbol : through the space and reach the receiving antenna at the
other end. As the em wave travels away from the transmitter,
their strength keeps on decreasing. Many factors influence
the propagation of em waves including the path they follow.
There can three types of Propagation
1. Ground Wave Propagation
2. Sky Wave Propagation
 Logic gates: A digital circuit which either stops a signal or 3. Space wave propagationOF SIGNALS
allows it to pass through it is called a gate. A logic gate is an
electronic circuit which makes logical decisions. Logic gate Modulation:
has one or more inputs but one output. Logic gates are the  It is a process by which any electrical signal called input
basic building blocks for most of the digital systems. Variables baseband or modulating signal, is mounted onto another
used at the input and output are 1’s and 0’s. These are three signal of high frequency which is known as carrier signal.
basic logic gates:
 It is defined as the process by which some characteristic
(i) OR gate (called parameter) of carrier signal is varied in
(ii) AND gate accordance with the instantaneous value of the
baseband signal.
(iii) NOT gate.
 The signal which results from this process is known as
modulated signal.

SCAN CODE
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 73

Solved Examples
Example 1
Find current passing through 2 and 4 resistance in the 12 – 0.7 
In this case, current, I =  2.26 mA
circuit shown in figure. 5 10–3 
 Output voltage,V0 = IR
= (2.26 × 10–3 ) × (5 × 103) = 11.3 V

Example 3
The current gain of a transistor in a common base
arrangement in 0.98. Find the change in collector current
corresponding to a change of 5.0 mA in emitter current.
What would be the change in base current ?
Sol. In the given circuit diode D1 is forward biased and D2 reverse
biased. Hence, D1 will conduct but D2 won’t. Therefore, Sol. Given,  = 0.98 and ie = 5.0 mA
current through 4  resistance will be zero while through 2
i c
From the definition of ,  
10 i e
 resistance current will be  5 A.
2 Change in collector current,
Example 2
ic = () (ie) = (0.98) (5.0) mA = 4.9 mA
(a) Calculate the value of V0 and i if the silicon and
Futher, change in base current, ib = ie – ic = 0.1 mA
germanium diode start conducting at 0.7 V and 0.3 V
respectively. Example 4
A transistor is connected in common emitter configuration.
The collector supply is 8 V and the voltage drop across a
resistor of 800  in the collector circuit is 0.5 V. If the
current gain factor () is 0.96, find the base current.

 0.96
Sol.     24
1   1  0.96
The collector current is,
Voltage drop across collector resistor
(b) If the Ge diode connection is now reversed, what will ic 
resistance
be the new values of v0 and i ?
Sol. As in the given circuit, 0.5
   0.625  10 3 A
800
Voltage, V = 12V
Resistance,R = 5 k ic
From the definition of  = i
b
12 – 0.3 11.7V
Current, I =   2.34 mA
5k  5  103  0.625  103
  26  10 –3 A
Output voltage V0 = RI = (5 × 103) × (2.34 × 10–3) = 11.7 V 24
When the connections of Ge diode are reversed, then
current will blow through silicon.
74 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Example 5 Example 8
In a common emitter amplifier, the load resistance of the How many AM broadcast stations can be accomodated in
output circuit is 500 times the resistance of the input circuit. a 100 kHz bandwidth if the highest frequency modultating
If  = 0.98, then find the voltage gain and power gain. a carriage is 5 kHz ?
R out Sol. Any station being modulated by a 5 kHz signal will produce
Sol. Given  = 0.98 and  500
R in and upper side frequency 5 kHz above its carrier and a
lower side frequency 5 kHz below its carrier, thereby
 0.98 requiring a bandwidth of 10 kHz. Thus,
   49
1   1  0.98 Number of stations accomodated
Total bandwidth 100
 R out    = 10
(i) Voltage gain = ()  R  = (49) (500) = 24500 Bandwidth per station 10
 in 
Example 9
2  R out  How many 500 kHz waves can be on a 10 km transmission
(ii) Power gain =     R  = (49) (500) = 1200500
2

 in  line simultaneously ?
Sol. Let  be the wavelength of 500 kHz signal. Then,
Example 6 c 3.0  108
  m  600 m
Write the truth table for the logical function D = (A OR B) f 5.0 106
AND B. The number of cycle on the line can be found from,
Sol. A OR B is a logical function, say it is equal to X, i.e.,
d 10 103
X = A OR B n   16.67
y 600
Now D = X AND B
Example 10
The corresponding truth table is as under.
A two wire transmission line has a capcitance of 20 pF/m
A B X= A OR B D = (A ORB) AND B and a characteristic impedance of 50.
1 0 1 0 (a) What is the inductance per metre of this cable ?
0 1 1 1 (b) Determine the impedence of an infinitely long section
0 0 0 0 of such cable.

1 1 1 1
Sol. (a) The characteristic impedance,

Example 7 Z  L/C
Convert the decimal number 10.625 into its binary 2
 L = (Z ) (C)
equivalent.
2 –12
Sol. Integral part is 10. It can be converted into its binary part by = (50) (20 × 10 ) H
using divide by 2 rule. = 0.05 H
 (10)10 – (1010)2 (b) The characteristic impedence of a transmission line is
Also, 0.625 × 2 = 1.250 the impedence that an infinite length of line would present
0.250 × 2 = 0.5 to a power supply at the input end of the line. Thus,
0.5 × 2 = 1
Z  Z0  50 
 (0.625)10 = (10)2
So, (10.625)10 = (1010.101)2
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 75

Example 11 Example 14
T.V. transmission tower at a paticular station has a height A piece of copper and the other of germanium are cooled
of 160 m. from the room temperature to 80 K, then which of the
(a) What is the coverage range ? following would be a correct statement
(b) How much population is covered by transmission, if (a) Resistance of each increases
the average population density around the tower is (b) Resistance of each decreases
2
1200 per km ?
(c) Resistance of copper increases while that of germanium
(c) By how much the height of tower be increased to
decreases
double its coverage range. Given, radius, radius of earth
= 6400 km ? (d) Resistance of copper decreases while that of germanium
increases
Sol. (a) Coverage range d = 2 Rh
Ans. (d)
 2  6400  103  160 m = 42.254 km Sol. With decrease in temperature resistance of copper
(b) Population covered = (population density) × (area decreases because metal has positive temperature
2
covered) = (1200) × (d ) coefficient of resistance and resistance of semi conductor
3 increases because temperature coefficient for semi
= 2400 × 3.14 × 6.4 × 10 × 0.16 = 77.17 lac
conductor is negative.
(c) Coverage range  h
Therefore coverage range can be doubled by making Example 15
A potential difference of 2V is applied between the opposite
height of the tower four times of 640 m. So, height of the
faces of a Ge crystal plate of area 1 cm2 and thickness 0.5 mm.
tower should be increased by 480 m.
If the concentration of electrons in Ge is 2  1019/m3 and
Example 12
m2
The core of an optical fibre is made of glass with refractive mobilities of electrons and holes are 0.36 and
volt  sec
index equal to 1.55 and clad has refractive index 1.51.
Calculate : m2
0.14 respectively, then the current flowing
(a) the critical angle for total internal reflection. volt  sec
(b) maximum acceptance angle at the air-core interface. through the plate will be

n  (a) 0.25 A (b) 0.45 A

Sol. (a) c  sin 1  2 
 n1  (c) 0.56 A (d) 0.64 A
Here, n1 = refractive index of core = 1.55 Ans. (d)
and n2 = refractive index of clad = 1.51 Sol.   ne (e  h )
 1.51 
 c  sin 1    55.8   2  1019  1.6  1019  (0.36  0.14)
 1.55 
(b) Maximum acceptance angle at the air-core interface   1.6 (  m)1

= sin
1
 n12  n 22   sin 1  1.55 2  1.51 2 
      = 20.4°

R
l
A
Example 13
0.5  103 25
Which one of the following is the weakest kind of bonding R 4
 
1.6  10 8
in solids
(a) Ionic (b) Metallic V 2 16
i    0.64 A
R 25 25
(c) Vander Waals (d) Covalent
8
Ans. (c)
Sol. Vander Waals forces between the solid is weakest.
76 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Example 16 Example 18
Which of the following energy band diagram shows the N- In the case of forward biasing of PN-junction, which one
type semiconductor of the following figures correctly depicts the direction of
flow of carriers

(a)

(b)

(c)

Ans. (b)
Sol.

(d)

Ans. (c)
Sol. In forward biasing both positive and negative carriers move
Example 17
towards the junction.
In a PN-junction diode Example 19
(a) The current in the reverse biased condition is generally A 2V battery is connected across the points A and B as
very small shown in the figure given below. Assuming that the
(b) The current in the reverse biased condition is small but resistance of each diode is zero in forward bias and infinity
the forward biased current is independent of the bias in reverse bias, the current supplied by the battery when
voltage its positive terminal is connected to A is

(c) The reverse biased current is strongly dependent on

the applied bias voltage
(d) The forward biased current is very small in comparison
to reverse biased current

Ans. (a)
Sol. In reverse biasing current is order of micro ampere which
(a) 0.2 A (b) 0.4 A
is generally very small.
(c) Zero (d) 0.1 A
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 77

Ans. (a) Example 21

Sol. In the given figures, which of the diodes are forward biased?
1. 2.

D1 is in forward biasing so offers zero resistance and D2 is

in reverse biasing so offers infinite resistance. 3. 4.

V 2
i   0.2 A
R 10
Example 20
The circuit shown in following figure contains two diode
D1 and D2 each with a forward resistance of 50 ohms and 5.
with infinite backward resistance. If the battery voltage is
6 V, the current through the 100 ohm resistance (in amperes) is

(a) 1, 2, 3 (b) 2, 4, 5
(c) 1, 3, 4 (d) 2, 3, 4
Ans. (b)
(a) Zero (b) 0.02 Sol.

(c) 0.03 (d) 0.036

Ans. (b)
Sol.

If p-type is connected to high voltage and n is connected

to low voltage then diode is in forward biased.
Example 22
The output current versus time curve of a rectifier is shown
in the figure. The average value of the output current in
this case is

Req = 150 + 100

Req = 250 

V 6 (a) 0 (b) i0/

i   0.024 A
R eq 250 (c) 2i0/ (d) i0
78 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Ans. (c) Example 24

Sol. If l1, l2, l3 are the lengths of the emitter, base and collector
T
of a transistor then
2
 i dt (a) l1 = l2 = l3 (b) l3< l2> l1
0
Iavg  T (c) l3< l1< l2 (d) l3> l1> l2
2
Ans. (d)
 dt
0 Sol. As collector is meant for collecting all the moving charge
T carriers, the collection process involves dissipation of heat
2 from the charge carriers. In order to dissipate the heat,
 I0 sin ( t) dt Collector is made with LARGE SURFACE AREA , which
Iavg  0 makes collector the larger than base and emitter. Base is
T
meant for passing the charge carrier from emitter to collector
2
involving no special activities , hence its the smallest
T
2I   cos  t  2 region
 0  
T   0 Example 25
  T   In the CB mode of a transistor, when the collector voltage
 cos 
2I0   2  cos 0º  is changed by 0.5 volt. The collector current changes by
   
T     0.05 mA. The output resistance will be
 
(a) 10 k (b) 20 k
2I0 (c) 5 k (d) 2.5 k
 [ cos   cos 0º ]
T Ans. (a)
2I 2I
 0 [1  1]  0 Sol. Vc  0.5 V
2 
Example 23 ic  0.05 mA
In a common emitter transistor, the current gain is 80. What
is the change in collector current, when the change in base Vc
R
current is 250 A i c
(a) 80  250 A (b) (250 – 80) A
(c) (250 + 80) A (d) 250/80 A 0.5
R
Ans. (a) 0.05 10 –3
Sol.
ic R  10 k

i b

i b  250  A

i c    i b

ic  80  250  A
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 79

EXERCISE – 1: Basic Objective Questions

Semiconductors (c) The charge carriers are electrons and holes in the
valence band at higher temperatures.
1. At absolute zero, Si acts as:
(d) The semiconductor is electrically neutral.
(a) non-metal (b) metal
9. At elevated temperature, few of covalent bonds of Si
(c) insulator (d) None of these
or Ge are broken and a vacancy in the bond is
2. A pure semiconductor behaves as a good conductor created. Effective charge of vacancy or hole is :
at: (a) positive (b) negative
(a) room temperature (b) low temperature (c) neutral
(c) high temperature (d) Both (b) and (c) (d) sometimes positive and sometimes negative
3. One serious drawback of semiconductor devices is, 10. Three semiconductors are arranged in the increasing
that: order of their energy gap as follows. The correct
(a) they are costly arrangement is:
(b) they pollute the environment (a) tellurium, germanium, silicon
(c) they do not last for long time (b) tellurium, silicon, germanium
(d) they cannot be used to withstand high voltage. (c) silicon, germanium, tellurium
4. By increasing the temperature, the specific resistance (d) silicon, tellurium, germanium
of a conductor and a semiconductor 11. At ordinary temperature, an increase in temperature
(a) increases for both (b) decreases for both increases the conductivity of:
(c) increases, decreases (d) decreases, increases (a) conductor (b) semiconductor
5. The difference in the variation of resistance with (c) insulator (d) alloy
temperature in a metal and a semiconductor arises 12. Energy required to break one bond in DNA is
essentially due to the difference in : approximately:
(a) type of bonding (a) ~ 1 eV (b) ~ 0.1 eV
(b) crystal structure (c) ~ 0.01 eV (d) ~ 2.1 eV
(c) scattering mechanism with temperature 13. Carbon, silicon and germanium atoms have four
(d) number of charge carriers with temperature valence electrons each. Their valence and conduction
6. Regarding a semiconductor which one of the bands are separated by energy band gaps represented
following is wrong? ( ) , (E )
by Eg
C g Si ( )
and Eg
Ge
respectively. Which one
(a) There are no free electrons at room temperature of the following relationships is true in their case?
(b) There are no free electrons at 0 K (a) (Eg)c > (Eg)Si (b) (Eg)C < (Eg)Si
(c) The number of free electrons increases with rise (c) (Eg)C = (Eg)Si (d) (Eg)C < (Eg)Ge
of temperature
14. A silicon specimen is made into a p-type
(d) The charge carriers are electrons and holes. semiconductor by doping, on an average, one Indium
7. A piece of copper and another of germanium are atom per 5×107 silicon atoms. If the number density
cooled from room temperature to 77K, the resistance of atoms in the silicon specimen is 5×1028 atoms/m3,
of then the number of acceptor atoms in silicon per
(a) copper increases and germanium decrease cubic centimeter is :
(b) each of them decreases (a) 2.5×1030 atoms/cm3 (b) 1.0×1013 atoms/cm3
(c) each of them increases (c) 1.0×1015 atoms/cm3 (d) 2.5×1036 atoms/cm3
(d) copper decreases and germanium increases
8. Identify the property which is not the characteristic 15. The probability of electrons to be found in the
for a semiconductor? conduction band of an intrinsic semiconductor at a
(a) At a very low temperature, it behave like an finite temperature:
insulator (a) decreases exponentially with increasing band gap.
(b) At higher temperature two types of charge carrier (b) increases exponentially with increasing band gap.
will cause conductivity. (c) decreases with increasing temperature.
80 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

(d) is independent of the temperature and the band (c) phosphorous and indium, respectively
gap. (d) aluminum and boron, respectively
16. A pure semiconductor at room temperature has 23. Which of the following statement is correct for an n-
(a) More electrons /m3 in its conduction band than type semiconductor?
holes /m3in its valence band (a) The donor level lies below the bottom of the
(b) More electrons /m3 in its conduction band than a conduction band
typical metal. (b) The donor level lies closely above the top of the
(c) More electrons /m3 in its valence band than at valence band
T = 0K (c) The donor level lies at the halfway mark of the
(d) None of the above. forbidden energy gap
17. Acceptor atoms introduced into a pure semiconductor (d) None of the above
at room temperature: 24. Which statement is correct?
(a) Increase the number of electrons in the conduction (a) n-type germanium is negatively charged, and p-
band type germanium is positively charged
(b) Increase the number of holes in the valence band (b) both n-type and p-type germanium are neutrals
(c) Lower the Fermi level. (c) n-type germanium is positively charged, and p-
(d) Increase the electrical resistivity. type germanium is negatively charged
18. An n-type and p-type silicon semiconductor can be (d) both n-type and p-type germanium are negatively
obtained by doping pure silicon with: charged
(a) sodium and magnesium, respectively
25. If ne is number density of electrons in conduction
(b) phosphorus and boron, respectively
band and nh is number density of holes in valence
(c) boron and phosphorus, respectively
band, then for an extrinsic semiconductor at room
(d) indium and sodium, respectively
19. In pure form, Ge or Si, a semiconductor is called: temperature, ( n i = number density of intrinsic pairs)

(a) intrinsic semiconductor, ne = nh = ni (a) n e = n i2 (b) n h = n i2

nh ne
(b) extrinsic semiconductor, ne = nh = ni
(c) n e n h = ni (d) n e + n h = n i
2 2

(c) doped semiconductor

26. When two semiconductors p- and n-type are brought
(d) None of the above into contact they form a p-n junction, which acts like
20. If I is total current through an intrinsic semiconductor a/an:
and Ie is electron current and Ih is hole current, then: (a) rectifier (b) amplifier
(c) conductor (d) oscillator
(a) Ie = I h (b) Ie = I 27. Donor type impurity is found in:
I Ih
(a) trivalent elements (b) pentavalent elements
(c) Ie – Ih = I (d) Ie + Ih = I (c) both of these (d) none of these
21. In equilibrium condition, the rate of generation of 28. In a semiconducting material, the mobilities of
electron-hole pairs: electrons and holes are e and h respectively.
(a) is more than rate of recombination of electron and Which of the following is true?
hole pairs
(b) is less than rate of recombination of electron and (a) e  h (b) e  h

(c) e = h (d) e  0; h  0
hole pairs
(c) equals to rate of recombination of electron and hole 29. A semiconductor doped with a donor impurity is:
pairs
(a) p-type (b) n-type
(d) is always zero
(c) n-p-n-type (d) p-n-p-type
22. An n-type and p-type silicon can be obtained by
30. The electrical conductivity of an intrinsic
doping pure silicon with:
semiconductor at 0 K is:
(a) arsenic and phosphorous, respectively
(a) less than that of an insulator
(b) indium and aluminum, respectively (b) is equal to zero
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 81

(c) is equal to infinity

38. The circuit shown in the figure contains two diodes D1
(d) more than that of an insulator
31. The gap between the valence and conduction bands and D2, each with a forward resistance of 50 and
of a certain semiconductor is 0.85 eV. When this with infinite backward resistance. If the battery
semiconductor is used to form a light emitting diode, voltage is 6V, the current through the 100 resistance
the wavelength of the light emitted. (in amperes) is:
–6
(a) is in a range above 1.5×10 m
–6
(b) is in a range below 1.5×10 m
–6
(c) is always 1.5×10 m
–6
(d) is in a range centered on 1.5×10 m.
32. Carbon is more resistive than germanium and silicon.
Then, order of energy gap is:
(a) C > Ge > Si (b) C > Si > Ge
(c) Si > Ge > C (d) C = Si = Ge
33. The forbidden energy gap in the energy bands of (a) zero (b) 0.02
germanium at room temperature is about: (c) 0.03 (d) 0.036
(a) 1.1 eV (b) 0.1 eV 39. Find VAB for the following circuit
(c) 0.67 eV (d) 6.7 eV
34. When n-type semiconductor is heated, the number of:
(a) electrons increases, holes decreases
(b) holes increases, electrons decreases
(c) electrons and holes increases equally
(d) electrons and holes remain same
35. When germanium is doped with phosphorus, the
doped material has:
(a) excess positive charge
(a) 10 V (b) 20 V
(b) excess negative charge
(c) 30 V (d) None of these
(c) more negative current carriers
40. Which of the following is NOT true when a reverse
(d) more positive current carriers
bias is applied to a p-n junction?
36. In a p-type semiconductor, the majority and minority
(a) Electrons flow from the p to the n side.
charge carriers are respectively,
(a) protons and electrons (b) electrons and protons (b) Holes flow from the p to the n side.
(c) electrons and holes (d) holes and electrons (c) the electric field in the depletion zone increases
37. When the conductivity of a semiconductor is only (d) The potential difference across the depletion zone
due to breaking of covalent bonds, the semiconductor increases
is called:
(a) intrinsic (b) extrinsic 41. The forward characteristic of p-n junction is shown in
(c) p-type (d) n-type the figure. What is the dynamical resistance of p-n
junction at 0.9 V?

P-N Junction Diode

82 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

(a) in forward biasing, the voltage across R is V

(b) In forward biasing, the voltage across R is 2V
(c) In reverse biasing, the voltage across R is V
(d) In reverse biasing, the voltage across R is 2V
(a) 130Ω (b) 100Ω
46. Which of these are correct?
(c) 50Ω (d) 30Ω
I. In forward biasing, holes from p-side crosses
42. Two ideal p-n junction diodes are connected in an junction and reach n-side.
electrical circuit with resistances to a battery of 12V
as shown in the figure. What will be the current II. In forward biasing, electrons from n-side crosses
flowing in the circuit? junction and reach p-side.
III. In n-side, holes are minority charge carriers.
IV. In p-side, electrons are minority charge carriers.
(a) I, II and III (b) I, III and IV
(c) II, III and IV (d) I, II, III and IV
47. Which is incorrect statement regarding reverse
saturation current in p-n junction diode?
(a) Reverse saturation current is also known as
(a) 0.2A (b) 1.7A leakage current
(c) 2A (d) 2.4A (b) Current doubles for every 100°C rise in
43. In forward biasing of the p-n junction, temperature
(a) the positive terminal of the battery in connected to (c) Current carriers are produced by thermal agitation
p-side and the depletion region becomes thin. (d) Current is due to minority carriers.
(b) the positive terminal of the battery is connected to 48. The cause of the potential barrier in a p-n diode is :
p -side and the depletion region becomes thick. (a) depletion of positive charges near the junction
(c) the positive terminal of the battery is connected to (b) concentration of positive charges near the
n-side and the depletion region becomes thin. junction
(d) the positive terminal of the battery is connected to (c) depletion of negative charges near the junction
n-side and the depletion region becomes thick. (d) concentration of positive and negative charges
44. Symbol of a p-n junction diode is an arrow, its near the junction
direction indicates: 49. In a p-n junction diode not connected to any circuit,
(a) the potential is the same everywhere
(b) the p-type side is at a higher potential than the n-
type side
(a) nothing its just a symbol (c) there is an electric field at the junction directed
(b) direction of flow of electrons from the n-type side to the p-type side.
(c) direction of conventional current when it is (d) there is an electric field at the junction directed
from the p-type side to the n-type side.
forward biased
50. Barrier potential of a p-n junction diode does not
(d) direction of electric field depend upon:
45. For the given circuit of ideal p-n junction diode, which (a) temperature (b) forward bias
of the following statement is correct?
(c) doping density (d) diode design
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 83

51. A Si and a Ge diode has identical physical (a) I and II (b) II and III
dimensions. The band gap is Larger in Si than that in (c) II and IV (d) II, III and IV
Ge. An identical reverse bias is applied across the
57. Which of the given statements are correct regarding
diodes.
unbiased p-n junction ?
(a) The reverse current in Ge is larger than that in Si
I. Drift and diffusion currents occur p to n-side.
(b) The reverse current in Si is larger than that in Ge
II. Initially, diffusion current is large and drift
(c) The reverse current is identical in the two diodes current is small.
(d) The relative magnitude of the reverse currents III. Finally, diffusion and drift current grow to be
cannot be determined from the given data only. equal in magnitude
52. In the given circuit, if the forward voltage drop for IV. Under equilibrium there is no net current across
the dipole is 0.5 V, the current is p-n junction plane.
(a) I and IV (b) I, II and III
(c) II, III and IV (d) All of these
58. In the reverse-biased p-n junction, the current is of
the order of :
(a) ampere (b) milliampere
(c) microampere (d) nanoampere
59. Reverse bias applied to a junction diode
(a) raises the potential barrier
(a) 3.4 mA (b) 2 mA (b) increases the majority carriers of current
(c) 2.5 mA (b) 3 mA (c) increases the minority carriers of current
53. If the forward voltage in a semiconductor diode is (d) lowers the potential barrier
doubled, the width of depletion layer : 60. A zener diode differs from a p-n junction that
(a) becomes zero (b) remains unchanged (a) zener diode is made from very lightly doped p-n
(c) decreases (d) increases junction
54. A forward biased diode is: (b) zener diode is made from a heavily doped p-n
junction
(c) zener diode is made from a metal piece
(d) zener diode is made from a heavily doped p-type
semiconductor
61. Rectifier is used to convert :
(a) electrical energy into mechanical energy
(b) heat energy into electrical energy
(c) high voltage into low voltage
(d) AC into DC
55. The depletion layer in the p-n junction region is 62. Dynamic resistance of a diode is given by :
caused by: V V
(a) drift of holes rd = rd = −
(a) I (b) I
(b) diffusion of charge carriers
Threshold voltage
(c) migration of impurity ions rd =
(d) drift of electrons (c) Current
56. Due to diffusion of electrons from n to p-side, Breakdown voltage
rd =
I. electron-hole combination across p-n junction (d) Current
occurs. 63. In a full-wave rectifier circuit operating from 50 Hz
II. an ionised acceptor is left in the p-region. mains frequency, what is the fundamental frequency
III. an ionised donor is left in the n-region. in the ripple:
IV. electrons of n-side comes to p-side and electron- (a) 50 Hz (b) 100 Hz
hole combination takes palce in p-side (c) 70 Hz (d) 25 Hz
Correct options are:
84 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

64. In a full wave rectifier, the rms value of AC change in the collector current when the base current
component of the waves changes by 6 mA is :
(a) equal to DC value (b) more than DC value (a) 6 mA (b) 4.8 mA
(c) less than DC value (d) zero (c) 24 mA (d) 8 mA
65. In half wave rectifier, the rms value of AC 70. An n-p-n transistor circuit is arranged as shown in
component of the wave is : figure. It is:
(a) equal to DC value (b) more than DC value
(c) less than DC value (d) zero
66. The emitter of transistor is doped the heaviest
because it:
(I) acts as a supplier of charges carriers.
(II) dissipates maximum power.
(III) has a large resistance.
(IV) has small resistance.
Which of the above statements are correct? (a) a common-base amplifier circuit
(a) I and IV (b) I, II and III (b) a common-emitter amplifier circuit
(c) I and III (d) None of these (c) a common-collector amplifier circuit
67. When a transistor is biased as follows: (d) none of the above
71. What is the voltage gain in a common-emitter
amplifier, where input resistance is 3  and load
resistance 24  ? (Take  = 0.6)
(a) 8.4 (b) 4.8
(c) 2.4 (d) 1.2
72. A transistor is used in common-emitter mode as an
amplifier. Then:
(a) the base-collector junction is forward biased
Then, it is said to be in : (b) the base-emitter junction is reverse biased
(a) solid state (b) active state (c) the input signal is connected in series with the
(c) inactive state (d) passive state voltage applied to the base-emitter junction
68. (d) the input signal is connected in series with the
voltage applied to the base-collector junction

73. In the case of constant  and  of transistor:

(a)   1 ,   1 (b)  = 

(c)   1 ,   1 (d)  = 1
74. A n-p-n transistor power amplifier in CE
configuration gives
(a) voltage amplification only
(b) currents amplification only
(c) both current and voltage amplification
In above transfer characteristics of an n-p-n transistor (d) only
in CE configuration; cut-off region, active region,
saturation region respectively, are : 75. The correct relationship between the two current
(a) II, III and I (b) III, I and II gains  and  in a transistor is:
(c) III, II and I (d) I, II and III  
69. For a transistor, the common base current = =
(a) +  (b) − 
amplification factor is 0.8. The transistor is
connected in common-emitter configuration. The
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 85

 +  10
= =
(c) +  (d)  (a) 3 (b) 13
(c) 1000 (d) None of these
76. n-p-n transistors are preferred to p-n-p transistors 84. What is the voltage gain in a common base
because: amplifier? where input resistance is 3Ω and load
(a) they have low cost resistance is 24 ? (Take  = 0.6 )
(b) they have low dissipation energy (a) 1.2 (b) 2.4
(c) they are capable of handling large power (c) 4.8 (d) 8.16
(d) electrons have high mobility than holes and hence 85. When n-p-n transistor is used as an amplifier, then:
high mobility of energy.
(a) electrons move from base to collector
77. A transistor having a  equal to 80 has a change in (b) holes move from emitter to base

base current of 250  amp, then the change in

(c) electrons move from collector to base
collector current is: (d) holes move from base to collector
86. The current gain for a transistor working as common
 280 
   amp base amplifier is 0.96. If the emitter current is 7.2
(a)  80  (b) (250 + 80)  amp mA, the base current will be :

(c) (250 – 80)  amp (d) 250 × 80  amp

(a) 0.42 mA (b) 0.49 mA
(c) 0.29 mA (d) 0.35 mA
78. The current gain of a transistor in common base
87. The value of current gain α of a transistor is 0.98.
mode is 0.995. The current gain of the same
transistor in common emitter mode is : The value of β will be:
(a) 490 (b) 4.9
(a) 197 (b) 201 (c) 59 (d) 49
(c) 198 (d) 199 88. If l1, l2, l3 are the lengths of the emitter, base and
79. The input resistance of a silicon transistor is 100 Ω. collector of a transistor, then:
Base current is changed by 40 μA, which results in a (a) l3<l2 <l1 (b) l1 = l2 = l3
change in collector current by 2 mA. This transistor (c) l3>l1 >l2 (d) l3 <l1 <l2
is used as a common emitter amplifier with a load 89. An n-p-n transistor conducts when:
resistance of 4 kΩ. The voltage gain of the amplifier
(a) collector is positive and emitter is at same
is:
potential as the base
(a) 1000 (b) 2000
(b) both collector and emitter are negative with
(c) 3000 (d) 4000 respect to the base
80. The current gain for a transistor working as common (c) both collector and emitter are positive with
base amplifier is 0.96. If the emitter current is 7.2 respect to the base
mA, then the base current is :
(d) collector is positive and emitter is negative with
(a) 0.29 mA (b) 0.35 mA respect to the base
(c) 0.39 mA (d) 0.43 mA 90. In the case of constants α and β of a transistor:
81. When the emitter current of a transistor is changed by (a) α = β (b) β < 1, α > 1
1 mA, its collector current changes by 0.990 mA.
(c) αβ = 1 (d) β > 1, α < 1
The common base short current gain α for the
transistor is: 91. In common-emitter transistor amplifier, the phase
difference between output voltage and input voltage
(a) 0.099 (b) 1.01
is :
(c) 1.001 (d) 0.990
(a) zero (b) 180°
82. A transistor has α = 0.95. The change in emitter
(c) 90° (d) 45°
current is 100 milliampere, then the change in the
collector current is : 92. In an n-p-n transistor the collector current is 24 mA.
If 80% of electrons reach collector, its base current in
(a) 95 mA (b) 99.05 mA
mA is:
(c) 100.95 mA (d) 100 mA
(a) 36 (b) 26
83. Three amplifiers each with a voltage gain of 10 are
(c) 16 (d) 6
connected in series. Then overall amplification is:
86 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

93. In a transistor in CE configuration, the ratio of power 100. In a negative logic, voltage representation the
gain to voltage gain is : following waveform corresponds to :
(a) α (b) β/α
(c) β × β (d) β

94. An amplifier has a voltage gain AV = 1000. The

voltage gain in dB is:
(a) 30 dB (b) 60 dB
(c) 3 dB (d) 20 dB
95. In a transistor the collector current is always less than
the emitter current because: (a) 0000000000 (b) 0101101000
(a) collector side is reverse biased and the emitter (c) 1111111111 (d) 1010010111
side is forward biased 101. The following circuit represents:
(b) a few electrons are lost in the base and only
remaining ones reach the collector
(c) collector being reverse biased, attracts less
electrons
(d) collector side is forward biased and emitter side is
reverse biased.
96. A p-n-p transistor is said to be in active region of (a) OR gate (b) XOR gate
operation, when: (c) AND gate (d) NAND gate
(a) both emitter junction and collector junction are 102. Which one of the following gates can be served as a
forward biased building block for any digital circuit?
(b) both emitter junction and collector junction are (a) NAND (b) NOT
reverse biased (c) AND (d) OR
(c) emitter junction is forward biased and collector 103. Identify the operation performed by the circuit given
junction is reverse biased. below:
(d) emitter junction is reverse biased and collector
junction is forward biased.
97. The minimum potential difference between the base
and emitter required to switch a silicon transistor ON,
is approximately:
(a) 1 V (b) 3 V
(c) 5 V (d) 4.2 V (a) NOT (b) AND
98. An oscillator is nothing but an amplifier with (c) OR (d) NAND
(a) positive feedback (b) negative feedback 104. The circuit given below represents which of the logic
operations?
(c) large gain (d) no feedback

Logic Gates
(a) AND (b) NOT
99. The following configuration of gate is equivalent to : (c) OR (d) NOR
105. In the given circuit, the output Y becomes zero for
the inputs:

(a) NAND (b) XOR

(a) A = 1, B = 0, C = 0 (b) A = 0, B = 1, C = 1
(c) OR (d) None of these
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 87

(c) A = 0, B = 0, C = 0 (d) A = 1, B = 1, C = 0
106. The following figure shows a logic gate circuit with
two inputs A and B and the output C. The voltage
wave forms of A, B and C are as shown below:
(a) AND (b) NOT
(c) OR (d) NOR
111. In the circuit below, A and B represent two inputs and
C represents the output.

The circuit represents

(a) NOR gate (b) AND gate
(c) NAND gate (d) OR gate
112. The output (X) of the logic circuit shown in figure will
be:

The logic circuit gate is:

(a) AND gate (b) NAND gate
(c) NOR gate (d) OR gate
107. Which logic gate is represented by the following (a) X = A + B (b) X = A.B,X = A.B
combination of logic gates ?
(c) X = A.B (d) X = AB

Introduction to Communication System

(a) OR (b) NAND
(c) AND (d) NOR 113. Major parts of a communication system are:
108. Select the outputs Y of the combination of gates (a) transmitter and receiver
shown below for inputs A = 1, B = 0; A = 1, B = 1 and
(b) receiver and communication channel
A = 0, B = 0 respectively.
(c) transmitter and communication channel
(d) transmitter, receiver and communication channel
114. Communication channel consists of :
(a) transmission line (b) optical fibre
(c) free space (d) all of these
(a) (0 1 1) (b) (0 0 1) 115. Audio frequency range is from :
(c) (1 0 1) (d) (1 0 0) (a) 20 Hz to 20 kHz (b) 200 Hz to 2000 Hz
109. Identify the operation performed by the circuit given (c) 2k Hz to 20 kHz (d) 20 kHz to 200 kHz
below: 116. Basic components of a transmitter are :
(a) message signal generator and antenna
(b) modulator and antenna
(c) signal generator and modulator
(d) message signal generator, modulator and antenna
(a) NOT (b) AND 117. Range of frequencies allotted for commercial FM
(c) OR (d) NAND radio broadcast is :
110. The circuit given below represents which of logic (a) 88 to 108 MHz (b) 88 to 108 kHz
operations? (c) 8 to 88 MHz (d) 8 to 88 kHz
88 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

118. The most commonly used two wire lines are : (d) None of the above
(a) parallel wire lines (b) twisted pair wire lines 125. The area of region covered by the TV broadcast by a
(c) co-axial wire lines (d) all of these TV tower of 100m height is: (radius of the earth = 6.4
119. A digital signal possesses: × 106 m)
(a) continuously varying values (a) 12.8 π × 108 km2 (b) 1.28 π × 103 km2
(b) only two discrete values (c) 0.64 π × 10 km
3 2 (d) 12.8 × 103 km2
(c) only four discrete values 126. The sky wave propagation is suitable for radio-wave
of frequency:
(d) none of the above
(a) upto 2 MHz
120. Modern communication systems are :
(a) analog circuits (b) digital circuits (b) from 2 MHz to 20 MHz
(c) from 2 MHz to 30 MHz
(c) combination of analog and digital
(d) from 2 MHz to 80 MHz
(d) none of the above
127. An antenna is of height 500 m. What will be its range
121. The principal used for the transmission of light signals
(Radius of earth is 6400 km)?
through the optical fiber is:
(a) 800 km (b) 100 km
(a) reflection (b) refraction
(c) 50 km (d) 80 km
(c) interference (d)total internal reflection
128. Refractive index of ionosphere is :
122. The time variations of signals are given as in A, B and
C. Point out the true statement from the following. (a) zero (b) more than one
(c) less than one (d) one
129. The ground wave propagation is suitable for radio
waves of frequency:
(a) upto 2 MHz
(b) from2MHz to 20MHz
(c) from 2 MHz to 30 Hz
(d) none of these
130. The electromagnetic waves of frequency 80 MHz to
200 MHz :
(a) can be reflected by troposphere
(b) can be reflected by ionosphere
(c) can be reflected by mesosphere
(d) cannot be reflected by any layer of earths
(a) A, B and C are analogue signals atmosphere
(b) A and B are analogue, but C is digital signal. 131. In satellite communication, the communication
(c) A and C are digital but B is analogue signal. satellite:
(d) A and C are analogue but B is digital signal. (a) acts as a reflector for a beam of modulated
microwave from transmitter sent directly towards
123. Which of the following device is full duplex
it
(a) Mobile phone (b) Walky-talky (b) acts as a reflector for signal reaching there,
(c) Loudspeaker (d) Radio without any change in frequency
(c) receives the coming modulated microwave signal,
Propagation of EM Waves amplifies it and returns it to earth at a different
frequency
(d) none of these
124. Electromagnetic waves with frequencies greater than 132. The maximum distance upto which TV transmission
the critical frequency of ionosphere cannot be used for from a TV tower of height h can be received is
communication using sky wave propagation, because: proportional to :
(a) the refractive index of the ionosphere becomes (a) h1/2 (b) h
very high for f>fc 3/2
(c) h (d) h2
(b) the refractive index of the ionosphere becomes
very low for f>fc
(c) the refractive index of the ionosphere becomes Modulation of Signals
very high for f<fc
133. Modulation is the process of superposing:
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 89

(a) low frequency audio signal on high frequency (d) none of the above
waves 141. If the maximum and minimum voltage of an AM
(b) low frequency radio signal on low frequency wave are Vmax and Vmin respectively then
audio waves modulation factor:
(c) high frequency radio signal on low frequency
Vmax Vmin
audio signal. m= m=
(a) Vmax + Vmin (b) Vmax + Vmin
(d) high frequency audio signal on low frequency
radio waves Vmax + Vmin Vmax − Vmin
m= m=
134. In frequency modulated wave (c) Vmax − Vmin (d) Vmax + Vmin
(a) frequency varies with time 142. The AM wave is equivalent to the summation of :
(b) amplitude varies with time (a) two sinusoidal waves (b) three sinusoidal wave
(c) both frequency and amplitude varies with time. (c) four sinusoidal waves (d) none
(d) both frequency and amplitude are time. 143. The process of recovering the audio signal from the
135. An oscillator is producing FM waves of frequency 2 modulated wave is known as :
kHz with a variation of 10 kHz. What is the (a) amplification (b) rectification
modulating index?
(c) modulation (d) demodulation
(a) 0.02 (b) 5.0
144. In frequency modulation:
(c) 0.67 (d) 1.5
(a) phase angle of the carrier wave is varied,
136. For effective modulation and transmission of amplitude is kept constant
message signal, which one of the following
(b) Phase angle of the carrier wave also varied.
conditions is true?
(c) amplitude of carrier wave may also be varied
(a) Frequency of message signal < frequency of
(d) phase angle of carrier wave is kept constant.
carrier wave
145. Demodulation is the:
(b) Frequency of message signal > frequency of
(a) process of decoupling of modulating wave from
carrier wave
the carrier wave, process of separating carrier
(c) Amplitude of message signal > amplitude of wave from the modulated wave
carrier wave (b) process of coupling modulated wave with
(d) Amplitude of message signal < amplitude of modulating
carrier wave (c) process of separating modulated wave from the
137. Modulation is the phenomenon of: carrier wave
(a) superimposing the audio frequency signal over a (d) process of combining the message signal with the
carrier wave carrier wave
(b) separating the audio frequency signal from the 146. For transmitting audio signal properly:
carrier wave (a) it is first superimposed on high frequency carrier
(c) separating carrier wave from the modulated wave wave
(d) any of (a), (b), or (c) (b) it is first superimposed on low frequency carrier
138. The modulating frequency is 5 kHz and the carrier wave
frequency is 100 kHz. What is the band width of AM (c) it is sent directly without superimposing on any
transmission? wave
(a) 105 kHz (b) 95 kHz (d) none of the above
(c) 2.5 kHz (d) 10 kHz 147. The types of modulation which are possible, are :
139. Why is it difficult to transmit audio signals directly? (a) one only (b) two only
(a) A very high antenna is needed for their (c) three only (d) none of these
propagation
(b) Audio signals have a very high frequency
(c) Audio signals can’t propagate independently
(d) Audio signals can’t propagate through air 148. The AM wave contains three frequencies viz ( f s is
140. Degree of modulation: the message signal frequency and f c is the carrier
(a) can take any value signal frequency):
(b) should be less than 100%
(c) should exceed 100%
90 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

fc fc + fs fc − fs 150. In frequency modulation the amount of frequency

, , deviation depends on the :
(a) 2 2 2
(a) frequency of audio signal
(b) 2 fc, 2( fc + fs), 2(fc – fs)
(b) amplitude of audio signal
(c) fc, ( fc + fs), (fc – fs)
(c) both the frequency and amplitude of audio signal
(d) fc, fc, fc
(d) none of the above
149. In AM waves, the amplitude of each side band
frequency is:
(a) Ec (b) mEc
mE c
(c) 2 (d) 2mEc
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 91

EXERCISE – 2: Previous Year Questions

1. If a small amount of antimony is added to Germanium (c)
Crystal [AIPMT 2011]
(a) The antimony becomes an acceptor atom
(b) There will be more free electrons than holes in the
semiconductor
(c) Its resistance is increased
(d) It becomes a p-type semiconductor
2. In the case of forward biasing of a p-n junction diode,
which one of the following figures correctly depicts
the direction of conventional current (indicated by an
arrow mark)? [AIPMT 2011]

(a) (d)

(b) 3. A transistor is operated in common emitter

configuration at VC = 2V Such that a change in the
base current from 100 A to 300 A produces a
change in the collector current from 10mA to 20mA.
The current gain is [AIPMT 2011]

(a) 75 (b) 100

(c) 25 (d) 50

4. Symbolic representation of four logic gates are shown

as [AIPMT 2011]

Pick out which ones are for AND, NAND and NOT
gates, respectively.
(a) (iii), (ii) and (i) (b) (iii), (ii) and (iv)
(c) (ii), (iv) and (iii) (d) (ii), (iv) and (iii)
5. Find the current in the circuit
92 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

resistance is 1k and the current amplification of the

transistor is 100, the input signal voltage is
[AIPMT 2012]
(a) 0.1V (b) 1.0V
(c) 1mV (d) 10mV
10. To get an output, Y = 1 in given circuit, which of the
following input will be correct? [AIPMT 2012]

[AIPMT 2012]
(a) 0.75 A (b) Zero
(c) 0.25 A (d) 0.5 A
6. In forward biasing of the p-n junction, A B C A B C
[AIPMT 2012] (a) 1 0 0 (b) 1 0 1
(a) The positive terminal of the battery is connected to A B C A B C
n-side and the depletion region becomes thin
(c) 1 1 0 (d) 0 1 0
(b) The positive terminal of the battery is connected to
n-side and the depletion region becomes thick 11. In a n-type semiconductor, which of the following
statement is true? [NEET 2013]
(c) The positive terminal of the battery is connected to
p-side and the depletion region becomes (a) Electrons are majority carriers and trivalent atoms
are dopants
(d) The positive terminal of the battery is connected to
p-side and the depletion region becomes thick (b) Electrons are minority carriers and pentavalent
atoms are dopants
7. The elements C and Si both have same lattice
structure, having 4 bonding electrons in each. (c) Holes are minority carriers and pentavalent atoms
However, C is insulator, whereas Si is intrinsic are dopants
semiconductor. This is because [AIPMT 2012] (d) Holes are majority carriers and trivalent atoms are
(a) In case of C, the valence band is not completely dopants
filled at absolute zero temperature 12. The output (X) of the logic circuit shown in figure:
(b) In case of C, the conduction band is partly filled
even at absolute zero temperature
(c) The four bonding electrons in the case of C lie in
[NEET 2013]
the second orbit, whereas in the case of Si, they lie
in the third orbit (a) X = A + B (b) X = A + B
(d) The four bonding electrons in the case of C lie in
the third orbit, whereas for Si, they lie in the fourth (c) X = A.B (d) X = A.B
orbit 13. In a common emitted (CE) amplifier having a voltage
gain G, the transistor used as transconductance 0.03
8. The input resistance of a silicon transistor is 100 . Its mho and current gain 25. If the above transistor is
base current is changed by 40 A, which resultant in a replaced with another one with transconductance 0.02
change in collector current by 2 mA. This transistor is mho and current gain 20, the voltage gain will be
used as a common emitter amplifier with a load
[NEET 2015]
resistance of 4. The voltage gain of the amplifier is
[AIPMT 2012] 2
(a) G (b) 1.5G
(a) 2000 (b) 3000 3
(c) 4000 (d) 1000 1 5
(c) G (d) G
9. In a CE transistor amplifier, the audio signal voltage 3 4
across the collector resistance of 2kis 2V. If the base
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 93

14. The barrier potential of p-n junction depends on:

(A) Type of semi-conductor material
(B) Amount of doping
(C) Temperature
Which one of the following is correct? [NEET 2014]
(a) (B) and (C) only (b) (A), (B) and (C)
(c) (A) and (B) only (d) (B) only
15. If in a p-n junction, a square input signal of 10 V is
applied, as shown. Then the output across RL will be (a) NOR (b) OR
[NEET 2015] (c) NAND (d) AND
17. A red LED emits light at 0.1 watt uniformly around it.
The amplitude of the electric field of the light at a
distance of 1 m from the diode is : [NEET 2015]
(a) 5.48 V/m (b) 7.75 V/m
(c) 1.73 V/m (d) 2.45 V/m
18. The given circuit has two ideal diodes connected as
(a)
shown in the figure below. The current flowing
through the resistance R1 will be [NEET 2016]

(b)

(a) 10.0 A (b) 1.43 A

(c) 3.13 A (d) 2.5 A
19. Consider the junction diode as ideal. The value of
current flowing through AB is : [NEET 2016]

(c)

−2
(a) 0 A (b) 10 A
−1 −3
(c) 10 A (d) 10 A
20. For CE transistor amplifier, the audio signal voltage
across the collector resistance of 2 kΩ is 4 V. If the
(d) current amplification factor of transistor is 100 and the
base resistance is 1 kΩ, then the input signal voltage is

[NEET 2016]
(a) 20 mV (b) 30 mV
(c) 15 mV (d) 10 mV
21. What is the output Y in the following circuit when all
16. Which logic gate is represented by the following the three inputs A, B, C are first 0 and then 1?
combination of logic gates? [NEET 2015] [NEET 2016]
94 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

(a) 0, 0 (b) 1, 0
(c)  =  2
2
(d) 1 = 1 + 1
(c) 1, 1 (d) 0, 1 1+   
22. To get output 1 for the following circuit, the correct 27. Which one of the following represents forward bias
choice for the input is : [NEET 2016] diode? [NEET 2017]

(a)

(a) A = 0, B = 1, C = 0 (b) A = 1, B = 0, C = 0 (b)

(c) A = 1, B = 1, C = 0 (d) A = 1, B = 0, C = 1
23. A npn transistor is connected in common emitter (c)
configuration in a given amplifier. A load resistance of
800Ω is connected in the collector circuit and the (d)
voltage drop across it is 0.8 V. If the current
amplification factor is 0.96 and the input resistance of 28.
the circuit is 192Ω, the voltage gain and the power gain The given electrical network is equivalent to:
of the amplifier will respectively be: [NEET 2017]
[NEET 2016]
(a) 4, 3.84 (b) 3.69, 3.84
(c) 4, 4 (d) 4, 3.69
24. Identify the semiconductor devices whose (a) NOR gate (b) NOT gate
characteristics are given below, in the order (a), (b), (c) AND gate (d) OR gate
(c), (d): [NEET 2016]
29. In a common emitter transistor amplifier the audio
(a) Zener diode, Simple diode, Light dependent signal voltage across the collector is 3V. The
resistance, Solar cell resistance of collector is 3kΩ. If current gain is 100 and
(b) Solar cell, Light dependent resistance, Zener the base resistance is 2kΩ, the voltage and power gain
diode, Simple diode of the amplifier is : [NEET 2017]
(c) Zener diode, Solar cell, Simple diode, Light (a) 150 and 15000 (b) 20 and 2000
dependent resistance (c) 200 and 1000 (d) 15 and 200
(d) Simple diode, Zener diode, Solar cell, Light 30. In a common emitter amplifier circuit using an n-p-n
dependent resistance transistor, the phase difference between the input and
25. If a, b, c d are inputs to a gate and x is its output, then, the output voltages will be : [NEET 2017]
as per the following time graph, the gate is: (a) 45° (b) 90°
[NEET 2016] (c) 135° (d) 180°
31. A particle is executing simple harmonic motion with a
time period T. At time t = 0, it is at its position of
equilibrium. The kinetic energy-time graph of the
particle will look like: [NEET 2017]

(a) AND (b) OR

(c) NAND (d) NOT
(a)
26. For a common emitter configuration, if a and b have
their usual meanings, the incorrect relationship
between a and b is : [NEET 2016]

(a)  =  (b)  = 
1−  1+ 
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 95

(d) 18 kHz -30 kHz

35. A carrier wave of peak voltage 14V is used for
transmitting a message signal. The peak voltage of
modulating given to achieve a modulation index of
80% will be: [NEET 2018]
(a) 7V (b) 28V
(c) 11.2V (d) 22.4V
(b) 36. For a p-type semiconductor, which of the following
statement is true? [NEET 2019]
(a) Holes are the majority carriers and trivalent atoms
are the dopants.
(b) Holes are the majority carriers and pentavalent
atoms are the dopants.
(c) Electrons are the majority carriers and pentavalent
atoms are the dopants.
(c)
(d) Electrons are the majority carriers and trivalent
atoms are the dopants.
37. The given transistor operates in saturation region then
what should the be value of VBB:
(Rout = 200 Ω, Rin = 100 KΩ, VCC = 3 volt, VBE = 0.7
volt, VCE = 0, β = 200) [NEET 2019]

(d)
32. The reading of the ammeter for a silicon diode in the
given circuit is: [NEET 2018]

(a) 4.1 volt (b) 7.5 volt

(c) 8.2 volt (d) 6.8 volt
38. The correct Boolean operation represented by the
circuit diagram drawn is : [NEET 2019]

(a) 11.5 mA (b) 13.5 mA

(c) 0 (d) 15 mA
33. The number of amplitude modulated broadcast
stations that can be accommodated in a 300kHz band
width for the highest modulating frequency 15 kHz
will be : [NEET 2018]
(a) 10 (b) 15
(c) 20 (d) 8
34. The carrier frequency of transmitter is provided by a

tank circuit of a coil of inductance 49 H and a

(a) OR (b) NAND
capacitance of 2.5 nF. It is modulated by an audio (c) NOR (d) AND
signal of 12 kHz. The frequency range occupied by
the side bands is : [NEET 2018]
(a) 13482 kHz – 13494 kHz 39. A semiconductor is damaged by a strong current, due
(b) 442 kHz – 466 kHz to : [NEET 2019]
(c) 63 kHz -75 kHz (a) lack of free electrons (b) decrease in electrons
96 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

(c) excess of electrons (d) either (a) or (b) (b) increase in forward current
40. For transistor action, which of the following (c) forward bias only
statements is correct? [NEET 2020] (d) reverse bias only
(a) Base, emitter and collector regions should
have similar size
and doping concentrations
(b) The base region must be very thin and lightly
doped. The emitter junction is forward biased and
collector junction reverse biased.
(c) Base, emitter and collector regions should have
same doping concentrations
(d) Both the emitter junction as well as the collector
junction are forward biased.
41. For the logic circuit shown, the truth table is

[NEET 2020]

A B Y A B Y
0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0
(a) 1 1 0 (b) 1 1 0
A B Y A B Y
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
(c) 1 1 1 (d) 1 1 1
42. The solids which have the negative temperature
coefficient of resistance are :
[NEET 2020]
(a) semiconductors only
(b) insulators and semiconductors
(c) metals
(d) insulators only
43. The increase in the width of the depletion region in a
p-n junction diode is due to: [NEET 2020]
(a) both forward bias and reverse bias
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 97

EXERCISE – 3: Achiever’s Section

1. A piece of copper and the other of germanium are
2.3m 2 / volt − sec and 0.01m 2 / volt − sec
cooled from the room temperature to 80 K, then
which of the following would be a correct statement respectively, then semiconductor is
(a) n-type and its resistivity is 0.34 ohm-metre
(a) Resistance of each increases (b) p-type and its resistivity is 0.034 ohm-metre
(b) Resistance of each decreases (c) n-type and its resistivity is 0.034 ohm-metre
(c) Resistance of copper increases while that of (d) p-type and its resistivity is 3.40 ohm-metre
germanium decreases 6. In the given figure, which of the diodes are forward
biased?
(d) Resistance of copper decreases while that of
germanium increases
2. The probability of electrons to be found in the
conduction band of an intrinsic semiconductor at a
finite temperature
(a) Decreases exponentially with increasing band gap
(b) Increases exponentially with increasing band gap
1.
(c) Decreases with increasing temperature
(d) Is independent of the temperature and the band
gap
3. A Ge specimen is doped with Al. The concentration
21 3
of acceptor atoms is 10 atoms / m . Given that the 2.
intrinsic concentration of electron hole pairs is , the
concentration of electrons in the specimen is
17 3 15 3
(a) 10 / m (b) 10 / m
3.
4 3 2 3
(c) 10 / m (d) 10 / m
4. A silicon specimen is made into a P-type semi-
conductor by doping, on an average, one Indium

atom per 5  10 silicon atoms. If the number density

7
4.
of atoms in the silicon specimen is 5  10 atoms / m
28 3

then the number of acceptor atoms in silicon per

cubic centimetre will be

(a) 2.5 10 atoms / cm

30 3
5.
(a) 1, 2, 3 (b) 2,
(b) 1.0 10 atoms / cm
13 3
4, 5
(c) 110 atoms / cm (c) 1, 3, 4 (d) 2, 3, 4
15 3

7. Different voltages are applied across a P-N junction

(d) 2.5 10 atoms / cm
36 3
and the currents are measured for each value. Which
5. In semiconductor the concentrations of electrons and of the following graphs is obtained between voltage
holes are 8 10 m and 5 10 m respectively. If and current
18 3 18 3

the mobilities of electrons and hole are

98 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

(a)
(a) 0.2 A (b) 0.4 A
(c) Zero (d) 0.1 A
9. In the circuit, if the forward voltage drop for the
diode is 0.5V, the current will be

(b)

(a) 3.4 mA (b) 2 mA

(c) 2.5 mA (d) 3 mA
10. Current in the circuit will be

(c)

(d)
5 5
8. A 2V battery is connected across the points A and B A A
(a) 40 (b) 50
as shown in the figure given below. Assuming that
the resistance of each diode is zero in forward bias 5 5
and infinity in reverse bias, the current supplied by A A
(c) 10 (d) 20
the battery when its positive terminal is connected to
A is 11. In the circuit given below, V(t) is the sinusoidal

voltage source, voltage drop VAB ( t ) across the

resistance R is
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 99

(b) iE = 9mA,iB = −1mA

(c) iE = 1mA,iB = 11mA

(d) iE = 11mA,iB = 1mA

17. In a common emitter transistor, the current gain is 80.
(a) Is half wave rectified What is the change in collector current, when the
(b) Is full wave rectified
change in base current is 250A
(c) Has the same peak value in the positive and
negative half cycles (a) 80  250A (b) ( 250 − 80 ) A
(d) Has different peak values during positive and
250
A
negative half cycle
(c) ( 250 + 80) A (d) 80
18. A common emitter amplifier is designed with NPN

12. When npn transistor is used as an amplifier transistor (  = 0.99 ) . The input impedance is 1K
(a) Electrons move from base to collector and load is 10K . The voltage gain will be
(b) Holes move from emitter to base
(a) 9.9 (b) 99
(c) Electrons move from collector to base
(c) 990 (d) 9900
(d) Holes move from base to emitter
19. An npn-transistor circuit is arranged as shown in
13. If  = 0.98 and current through emitter ie = 20 mA, figure. It is

the value of  is
(a) 4.9 (b) 49
(c) 96 (d) 9.6

14. For a common base configuration of pnp transistor

iC
= 0.98
iE then maximum current gain in common
emitter configuration will be
(a) A common base amplifier circuit
(a) 12 (b) 24
(b) A common emitter amplifier circuit
(c) 6 (d) 5
(c) A common collector amplifier circuit
15. If l1, l2, l3 are the lengths of the emitter, base and (d) Neither of the above
collector of a transistor then
20. For a transistor, in a common emitter arrangement,
(a) l1 = l2 = l3 (b) l3<l2>l1 the alternating current gain  is given by

(c) l3<l1<l2 (d) l3>l1>l2  ΔI   ΔI 

β=  C  β=  B 
16. In an npn transistor circuit, the collector current is 10 (a)  ΔI B  VC (b)  ΔI C  VC
mA. If 90% of the electrons emitted reach the
 ΔI   ΔI 
collector, the emitter current ( i E ) and base current β=  C 
ΔI
β=  E 
ΔI
(c)  E  VC (d)  C  VC
(iB ) are given by
21. For the given combination of gates, if the logic states
(a) iE = −1mA,iB = 9mA of inputs A, B, C are as follows A = B = C = 0 and A
= B = 1, C = 0 then the logic states of output D are
100 SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

(a) 0, 0 (b) 0, 1 27. An amplitude modulated wave is represented by the

(c) 1, 0 (d) 1, 1
expression m (
 = 5 (1 + 0.6cos6280t ) sin 211104 t )
22. This symbol represents volts. The minimum and maximum amplitudes of the
amplitude modulated wave are, respectively
3
V,5V
(a) 2 (b) 5V,8V
(c) 3V,5V (d) 2V,8V
(a) NOT gate (b) OR gate
28. An amplitude modulated signal is given by
(c) AND gate (d) NOR gate
23. Which gates is represented by this figure V(t) = 10 1 + 0.3cos ( 2.2 104 t ) sin ( 5.5 105 ) t 

Here t is in seconds. The sideband frequencies

(in kHz). Given  = 22 / 7

(a) NAND gate (b) AND gate (a) 1785 and 1715
(c) NOT gate (d) OR gate (b) 1715 and 1785
24. Figure gives a system of logic gates. From the study (c) 89.25 and 85.75
of truth table it can be found that to produce a high (d) 892.5 and 857.5
output (1) at R, we must have 29. The wavelength of the carrier waves in modern
optical fiber communication network is close to :
(a) 2400 nm (b) 1500 nm
(c) 600 nm (d) 900 nm
30. A message signal of frequency 100 MHz peak
voltage 100 V is used to execute amplitude
modulation on a carrier wave of frequency 300 GHz
and peak voltage 400 V. The modulation index and
(a) X = 0, Y = 1 (b) X = 1, Y = 1
the difference between the two sideband frequencies
(c) X = 1, Y = 0 (d) X = 0, Y = 0 respectively are:
25. A single of 5 kHz frequency is amplitude modulated
(a) 4&2 10 Hz (b) 4&110 Hz
8 8
on a carrier wave of frequency 2 MHz. The
frequency of the resultant single is/are:
(c) 0.25&110 Hz (d) 0.25&2 10 Hz
8 8

(a) 2 MHz only

(b) 2005 kHz, and 1995 kHz
(c) 2005 kHz, 200 kHz and 1995 kHz
(d) 2000 kHz and 1995 kHz
26. In amplitude modulation, sinusoidal carrier

frequency used is denoted by c and the signal

frequency is denoted by m . The bandwidth ( m )

of the signal is such that m  c . Which of the

following frequencies is not contained in the
modulated wave?

(a) m (b) c

(c) m + c (d) c − m
SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 101

Notes:

Find Answer key and Detailed Solutions at the end of this book

SEMICONDUCTOR AND COMMUNICATION

SYSTEM
102 ANSWER KEY

Answer Key
CHAPTER 10: MODERN PHYSICS
Exercise – 1: Basic Objective Questions

DIRECTION FOR USE

Scan the QR code and check detailed solution

1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (a) 89. (c) 90. (b) 91. (a) 92. (a)
5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (d) 93. (c) 94. (b) 95. (c) 96. (d)
9. (b) 10. (d) 11. (a) 12. (a) 97. (a) 98. (c) 99. (b) 100. (a)
13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (c) 16. (b) 101. (a) 102. (c) 103. (c) 104. (b)
17. (d) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (c) 105. (b) 106. (a) 107. (a) 108. (b)
21. (a) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (d) 109. (d) 110. (c) 111. (c) 112. (a)
25. (c) 26. (b) 27. (d) 28. (c) 113. (d) 114. (b) 115. (c) 116. (b)
29. (c) 30. (a) 31. (b) 32. (a) 117. (c) 118. (d) 119. (b) 120. (b)
33. (d) 34. (c) 35. (c) 36. (b) 121. (b) 122. (d) 123. (a) 124. (d)
37. (a) 38. (c) 39. (a) 40. (b) 125. (c) 126. (a) 127. (a) 128. (a)
41. (a) 42. (b) 43. (b) 44. (b) 129. (b) 130. (c) 131. (c) 132. (c)
45. (d) 46. (d) 47. (a) 48. (b) 133. (c) 134. (d) 135. (a) 136. (c)
49. (d) 50. (c) 51. (b) 52. (d) 137. (c) 138. (a) 139. (a) 140. (d)
53. (d) 54. (b) 55. (c) 56. (a) 141. (a) 142. (a) 143. (a) 144. (a)
57. (b) 58. (b) 59. (c) 60. (c) 145. (a) 146. (b) 147. (d) 148. (b)
61. (b) 62. (c) 63. (c) 64. (a) 149. (d) 150. (a) 151. (b) 152. (d)
65. (d) 66. (c) 67. (a) 68. (b) 153. (b) 154. (a) 155. (d) 156. (c)
69. (b) 70. (d) 71. (d) 72. (d) 157. (c) 158. (b) 159. (b) 160. (d)
73. (a) 74. (c) 75. (a) 76. (a) 161. (d) 162. (a) 163. (c) 164. (d)
77. (b) 78. (a) 79. (b) 80. (c) 165. (d) 166. (d) 167. (b) 168. (c)
81. (c) 82. (c) 83. (a) 84. (b) 169. (c) 170. (a)
85. (a) 86. (c) 87. (d) 88. (c)
ANSWER KEY 103

Exercise– 2: Previous Year Questions Exercise– 3: Achiever’s Section

DIRECTION FOR USE DIRECTION FOR USE

Scan the QR code and check detailed solutions Scan the QR code and check detailed solutions
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (c) 1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (b)
5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (c) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (d)
9. (a) 10. (b) 11. (d) 12. (c) 9. (c) 10. (a) 11. (b) 12. (a)
13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (a) 16. (a) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (b) 16. (b)
17. (d) 18. (c) 19. (c) 20. (d) 17. (d) 18. (c) 19. (c) 20. (b)
21. (c) 22. (d) 23. (b) 24. (c) 21. (a) 22. (d) 23. (c) 24. (b)
25. (a) 26. (d) 27. (a) 28. (c) 25. (b) 26. (d) 27. (c) 28. (c)
29. (d) 30. (b) 31. (c) 32. (c) 29. (a) 30. (c)
33. (c) 34. (d) 35. (b) 36. (b)
37. (c) 38. (c) 39. (b) 40. (a)
41. (c) 42. (a) 43. (a) 44. (a)
45. (d) 46. (d) 47. (b) 48. (b)
49. (a) 50. (c) 51. (a) 52. (a)
53. (a) 54. (b) 55. (d)
 104 ANSWER KEY

CHAPTER 11: SEMICONDUCTORS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Exercise – 1: Basic Objective Questions

DIRECTION FOR USE

Scan the QR code and check detailed solutions
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (c) 141. (d) 142. (b) 143. (d) 144. (a)
5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (c) 145. (a) 146. (a) 147. (c) 148. (c)
9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (b) 12. (a) 149. (c) 150. (b)
13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (a) 16. (d)
17. (b) 18. (b) 19. (a) 20. (d)
21. (c) 22. (c) 23. (a) 24. (b)
25. (c) 26. (a) 27. (b) 28. (a)
29. (b) 30. (b) 31. (b) 32. (b)
33. (c) 34. (c) 35. (c) 36. (d)
37. (a) 38. (b) 39. (a) 40. (b)
41. (c) 42. (c) 43. (a) 44. (c)
45. (a) 46. (d) 47. (b) 48. (d)
49. (c) 50. (d) 51. (c) 52. (a)
53. (c) 54. (d) 55. (b) 56. (d)
57. (c) 58. (c) 59. (a) 60. (b)
61. (d) 62. (a) 63. (b) 64. (b)
65. (b) 66. (a) 67. (b) 68. (d)
69. (c) 70. (b) 71. (b) 72. (c)
73. (c) 74. (c) 75. (c) 76. (d)
77. (d) 78. (d) 79. (b) 80. (a)
81. (d) 82. (a) 83. (c) 84. (c)
85. (a) 86. (c) 87. (d) 88. (c)
89. (d) 90. (d) 91. (b) 92. (d)
93. (d) 94. (b) 95. (b) 96. (c)
97. (a) 98. (a) 99. (b) 100. (d)
101. (b) 102. (a) 103. (b) 104. (a)
105. (d) 106. (a) 107. (c) 108. (d)
109. (b) 110. (a) 111. (d) 112. (b)
113. (d) 114. (d) 115. (a) 116. (d)
117. (a) 118. (d) 119. (b) 120. (b)
121. (d) 122. (d) 123. (a) 124. (a)
125. (b) 126. (c) 127. (d) 128. (c)
129. (a) 130. (d) 131. (c) 132. (a)
133. (a) 134. (a) 135. (b) 136. (a)
137. (a) 138. (d) 139. (a) 140. (b)
ANSWER KEY 105

Exercise – 2: Previous Year Questions Exercise – 3: Achiever’s Section

DIRECTION FOR USE DIRECTION FOR USE

Scan the QR code and check detailed solutions Scan the QR code and check detailed solutions
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (c) 1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (c)
5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8.(a) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (a)
9. (d) 10. (b) 11. (c) 12. (d) 9. (a) 10. (b) 11. (d) 12. (d)
13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (a) 16. (d) 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (d) 16. (d)
17. (d) 18. (d) 19. (b) 20. (a) 17. (a) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (a)
21. (b) 22. (d) 23. (a) 24. (d) 21. (d) 22. (a) 23. (a) 24. (c)
25. (b) 26. (a,c) 27. (c) 28. (a) 25. (c) 26. (a) 27. (d) 28. (c)
29. (a) 30. (d) 31. (c) 32. (a) 29. (b) 30. (d)
33. (a) 34. (b) 35. (c) 36. (a)
37. (c) 38. (b) 39. (c) 40. (b)
41. (c) 42. (b) 43. (d)
ANSWER KEY 106

MASTER INDEX .
VOLUME 1
Electrostatics
Capacitance
Current Electricity

VOLUME 2
Magnetic Effect of Current
Magnetism and Matter
Electromagnetic Induction
Alternating Current & Electromagnetic Waves

VOLUME 3
Ray Optics and Optical Instruments
Wave Optics

VOLUME 4
Modern Physics
Semiconductors and Communication system
 Creating Impact at Scale

65 Million+
Monthly
Youtube Views

49 Million+ 40+ Countries

Monthly Where Students
Web + App Visitors Take Live Classes

25 Million+ 26 Million+
Monthly Active Hours of
Users Live Learning

25 43
Parents
Happy
Trust
Students
Vedantu
MILLION+ MILLION+
 Our Results Speak for Us

JEE Main 2023

170
Vedantu Students
JEE Scored Above 99%ile

1000+ Vedantu Students Scored

Above 90%ile

JEE Advanced 2022 JEE Advanced 2021

2700+ Vedantu Students Cleared JEE Main in 2022

1500+ Vedantu Students Cleared JEE Adv. 2022 1500+ Vedantu Students Cleared JEE Adv. 2021

NEET (UG) 2022 NEET (UG) 2021

1000+ Vedantu Students Qualified NEET 2022 1172+ Vedantu Students Qualified NEET 2021

CBSE Class 12 ISC Class 12 CBSE Class 10

Annmary
Aatman Upreti Shreya Roshan Aastha N Raj Gitanjali Rajulal Shreya Nigam Khushi Arora Anshika Singha
Santhosh
98.4% 98.4% 98.0% 99.8% 98.4% 99.8% 99.6% 99.4%

ICSE Class 10

M.D.Sriya Varshil J Patel Mohammad Y Devika Sajeev Sakshi Semwal Aloki Upadhyay Ishita Surana Saumya Gupta

99.4% 97.4% 97.2% 97.2% 97.2% 99.4% 99.2% 99.2%

#HereForRealAchievers