Chapter 7
Universal Testing Machine
Introduction
There are variety of terms in the industry that are used to refer to a Universal testing Machine
or UTM. Most common are “tensile tester”, “compression tester” and “bend tester”. There
are also UTM’s that have been stripped of capabilities or marketed to a specific sector
which have led to the development of specialized names such as “texture analyzer” for
food, “top load compression tester” for packaging and pipe, and “peel tester” for
adhesives, tapes, and labels.
Today, a UTM can perform all of these tests and more. A UTM is a great multi-purpose
instrument for an Research and Development (R&D) lab or Quality Control department.
1. UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE
A Universal testing machine (UTM) is used to test the mechanical properties (tension,
compression etc.) of a given test specimen by exerting tensile, compressive or
transverse stresses. The machine has been named so because of the wide range of
tests it can perform over different kind of materials. Different tests like peel test, flexural
test, tension test, bend test, friction test, spring test etc. can be performed with the
help of UTM.
2. COMPONENTS OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE AND ITS FUNCTIONS
1 LOADING UNIT
The arrangement of the test specimen and the exertion of the load is held in the
loading unit. It consists of the following components :
a) Load Frame
The load frame of a universal testing machine can be made either by single
support or by double support. The load Frame consists of a table (where the
specimen is placed for the compression test), upper crosshead, and lower
crosshead.
b) Upper Crosshead and Lower Crosshead
The upper crosshead is used to clamp one end of the test specimen. The lower
crosshead in the load frame is the movable crosshead whose screws can be
loosened for height adjustment and tightened. Both the crossheads have a
tapered slot at the center. This slot has a pair of racked jaws that is intended to
grip and hold the tensile test specimen.
c) Elongation Scale
The relative movement of the lower and upper table is measured by an
elongation scale which is provided along with the loading unit.
2 CONTROL UNIT
The main components of the control unit in a universal testing machine are :
a) Hydraulic Power Unit
This unit consists of an oil pump that provides non-pulsating oil flow into the
main cylinder of the load unit. This flow helps in the smooth application of
load on the specimen. The oil pump in a hydraulic power unit is run by an
electric motor and sump.
b) Load Measuring Unit
This unit has a
pendulum dynamometer unit that
has a small cylinder with a piston
which moves with the non-pulsating
oil flow. The pendulum is connected
to the piston by pivot lever. The
pivot lever deflects based on the
load applied to the specimen. This
deflection is converted to the load
pointer and displays as the load on
the dial.
The range of load application can
be adjusted by means of a knob in
the load measuring unit (0-100 kN;
0250 kN; 0-500 kN and 0-1000 kN).
The accuracy of measuring unit
controls the overall accuracy of the
machine.
c) Control Devices
The control devices can be electric or hydraulic. Electric control devices make
use of switches to move the crossheads and switch on/off the unit. A hydraulic
control device consists of two valves, Right Control Valve and Left Control
Valve or Release Valve. A right control valve is used to apply load on the
specimen. The left control valve is used to release the load application.
3. FUNCTIONS OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE
The main functions of UTM are to test the mechanical properties of materials. UTM can
be used to test a wide variety of materials like concrete, steel, cables, springs, steel
wires and chains, slings, links, rope, winches, steel ropes, etc.
The standard tests performed by UTM are:
3.1. TENSILE TEST
Tension test is performed on mild steel, tor steel and high tensile steel to determine
the properties like Young's modulus, ultimate strength, and the percentage
elongation. In the tension test, a steel rod is subjected to tension load by the means
of a Universal testing machine (UTM).
Procedure for Tension Test on Steel Rod
1) Preparation of Specimen:
Initially, the steel rod specimen is cleaned and gauge length is marked on it. The
gauge length is calculated by the formula 5.65√A. The gauge length can be
marked on the specimen by punching tool.
2) Range Calculation:
A tensile stress value is assumed for which the maximum expected load capacity
of the rod is calculated. From this, the range is calculated and this range is set in
the [Link] working stress = 140N/mm² Factor of safety = 3.i.e Ultimate
stress = 140x3 = 420N/mm². Ultimate load = 420 x area of c\s. From the ultimate
load, range to be used can be fixed.
3) Placing the Specimen:
The handle is operated such that the specimen firmly fits to the top base. The left
valve is kept in a fully closed position and the right valve in a normal open
position. Open the right valve and close it after the lower table is slightly lifted.
Adjust the load pointer to zero with the zero adjusting knobs. By operating the
handle, lift the lower crosshead chuck up and grip firmly the lower part of the
specimen. Once the specimen is placed, the jaws are locked.
4) Placing Extensometer:
Fix the extensometer on the specimen and set the reading to zero.
5) Load Application:
Turn the right control valve slowly to open position to get the desired loading rate.
When the specimen is under load, slowly unclamp the locking handle. Note the
extension at a convenient load increment. Extensometer must be removed
before reaching the yield point. The right valve is used to apply the load and the
left valve is used to release the load on the specimen.
6) Important Load Points:
With the increase in load at some point, the load pointer remains stationary. Load
corresponding to this indicates the yield point. With further increase in load, the
pointer goes backward and specimen breaks. The load before this breaking is
the ultimate load. The load at the breaking of the specimen is called as the
breaking load.
As shown in figure below, once the load crosses the ultimate stress (ultimate load)
necking starts to form in the steel rod. Necking is a large reduction caused in the
crosssectional area of the steel rod.
[Link] of Steel Rod Under Tension Load
Close the right control valve and take out the broken piece. Open the left
control valve to pump the oil back. Maximum capacity of the specimen can
be seen against the red pointer. Measure the diameter of the specimen at
the neck. Change in length is obtained from reading recorded from
extensometer. Therefore, Strain = Change in length/Original Length Stress at
different values of strains is also determined as, Stress = Load /Area; With
different values of stress and corresponding strains, the stress-strain graph is
plotted.
3.2. COMPRESSION TEST
The exact opposite of a tensile test. This is where you compress an object between
two level plates until a certain load or distance has been reached or the product
breaks. The typical measurements are the maximum force sustained before
breakage (compressive force), or load at displacement (i.e. 55 pounds at 1”
compression), or displacement at load (i.e. 0.28” of compression at 20 pounds of
force).
3.3. ADHESION TESTS
The bond strength (adhesion) test is performed with the UTM Machine to check the
adhesive force between the two layers of any material.
Final result for the Bond test is measured in the form of ‘average force’; here graph
is checked at the end of the test, if the graph gives out uniform force, then it is
concluded that adhesive is properly applied to the test material/structure and if
any peaks/troughs are observed in graph then it is concluded that the adhesive
has not been applied uniformly to the test material.
3.4. PULL-OUT TESTS
The fundamental principle behind pull out testing is that the test equipment
designed to a specific geometry will produce results (pull-out forces) that closely
correlate to the compressive strength of concrete. This correlation is achieved by
measuring the force required to pull a steel disc or ring, embedded in fresh
concrete, against a circular counter pressure placed on the concrete surface
concentric with the disc/ring.
Types of Pull Out Tests:
Depending upon the placement of disc/ring in he fresh concrete, pull out test can
be divided into 2 types:
1) OK Test:
The LOK-TEST system is used to obtain a
reliable estimate of the in-place strength of
concrete in newly cast structures in
accordance with the pullout test method
described in ASTM C900, BS 1881:207, or EN
12504-3.
A steel disc, 25 mm in diameter at a depth of
25 mm, is pulled centrally against a 55 mm
diameter counter pressure ring bearing on
the surface. The force F required to pullout
the insert is measured. The concrete in the
strut between the disc and the counter
pressure ring is subjected to a compressive
load. Therefore the pullout force F is related
directly to the compressive strength.
LOK Test Process. H indicated the
highest pullout force.
2) CAPO test (Cut and Pull out Test)
The CAPO-TEST permits performing pullout tests
on existing structures without the need of
preinstalled inserts. CAPO-TEST provides a
pullout test system similar to the LOK-TEST
system for accurate on-site estimates of
compressive strength. Procedures for
performing postinstalled pullout tests, such as
CAPO-TEST, are included in ASTM C900 and EN
12504-3.
When selecting the location for a CAPO- TEST,
ensure that reinforcing bars are not within the
failure region. The surface at the test location is
ground using a planing tool and a 18.4 mm hole
is made perpendicular
to the surface using a diamond-studded core bit. A recess (slot) is routed in the hole
to a diameter of 25 mm and at a depth of 25 mm. A split ring is expanded in the
recess and pulled out using a pull machine reacting against a 55 mm diameter
counter pressure ring. As in the LOKTEST, the concrete in the strut between the
expanded ring and the counter pressure ring is in compression. Hence, the ultimate
pullout force F is related directly to compressive strength.
CAPO Test on Concrete Slab
3.5. BENDING TEST
3-Point bend or Bend test is done in compression mode in Universal Testing Machine
where a length of material is kept on support at 2 ends (the unsupported length is
defined as per standard) and a plunger will apply the pressure at the centre of the
material till the certain extension or till it breaks. Final results calculated are ‘Flexural
Modulus’.
3.6. OTHERS: Creep Test, Hysteresis Test, Cycle Tests
4. APPLICATIONS OF UTM
Universal Testing Machine can be used and applied to perform tests on the following
samples:
1. Rope
2. Steel Rope
3. Winches
4. Steel Wire
5. Electrical Wire
6. Webbing
7. Spring
8. Slings
9. Cable
10. Nylon Rope
11. Links
12. Chain
13. Steel Chain
k=1-^n√cn/co
cm=co(1-k)^m
d=k(cm-1)
Co-Dm= Cm
SOYD=n/2 (n+1)
Dm=r/s(Co-Cn)
dn=2(n-m+1)/n(n+1)
k=1-^n√cn/co
cm=co(1-k)^m
d=k(cm-1)
Co-Dm= Cm
SOYD=n/2 (n+1)
Dm=r/s(Co-Cn)
dn=2(n-m+1)/n(n+1)
k=1-^n√cn/co
cm=co(1-k)^m
d=k(cm-1)
Co-Dm= Cm
SOYD=n/2 (n+1)
Dm=r/s(Co-Cn)
dn=2(n-m+1)/n(n+1)
k=1-^n√cn/co
cm=co(1-k)^m
d=k(cm-1)
Co-Dm= Cm
SOYD=n/2 (n+1)
Dm=r/s(Co-Cn)
dn=2(n-m+1)/n(n+1)
