INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY

TASK.

Discuss with relevant illustrations the different definitions of the term

philosophy.

THE NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY.

MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY & EDUCATION

 There is no single agreed definition to the term philosophy.

 Definitions differ according to the philosophers or authors.

THE ETYMOLOGICAL DEFINITIONS.

Etymology means defining a term using its language roots

 The term is derived from a Greek word which itself was made up of

two words, mainly:

i. Philia-meaning love.

ii. Sophia- meaning all knowledge.

 When the two are put together they from Philosophia meaning love

of knowledge or wisdom.

 People get knowledge through asking questions and trying to

provide the answers.

 Philosophical inquiry is therefore the search for complete truth or

quest for ultimate reality.

 Limpman (1991) says philosophy is an inquiry based on logical

reasoning.

 Gwarinda (1985) defined philosophy as an academic discipline

characterized by logical, consistent and systematic thinking so that

conclusions that are reached are sound, coherent and consistent.

  It is argued that philosophy is something intermediate between

science and theology.

 Like theology it consists of speculations on matter.

 Like philosophy it appeals to reason and validation.

Therefore, etymologically Philosophy means love of wisdom

This tells us something about the nature of philosophy, but not much,
because many disciplines seek wisdom. Since times immemorial there
have been various pursuits for unfolding the mystery of the universe, birth
and death, sorrow and joy. Various ages have produced different thoughts
throwing light upon the mystic region. The ultimate truth is yet to be
found out. This eternal quest for truth lends the origin of philosophy. A
love of wisdom is the essence for any philosophical investigation.
On the standard way of telling the story, humanity's first systematic
inquiries took place, within a mythological or religious framework: wisdom
ultimately was to be derived from sacred traditions and from individuals
thought to possess privileged access to a supernatural realm, whose own
access to wisdom, in turn, generally was not questioned. However,
starting in die sixth century BCE, there appeared in ancient Greece a
series of thinkers whose inquiries were comparatively secular (see "The
Milesians and the Origin of Philosophy"). Presumably, these thinkers
conducted their inquiries through reason and observation, rather than
through tradition or revelation. These thinkers were the first philosophers.
Although this picture is admittedly simplistic, the basic distinction has
stuck: Philosophy in its most primeval form is considered nothing less than
secular inquiry itself.
The subject of philosophical inquiry is the reality itself. There are different
schools of Philosophy depending on the answers they seek, to the
question of reality. It is the search for understanding of man, nature and
the universe. There are different branches of Philosophy; Epistemology,
Metaphysics, etc. There are different fields of Philosophy such as
Educational Philosophy, Social Philosophy, Political Philosophy,
Economics Philosophy etc. There are also different Philosophical
approaches such as Idealism, Naturalism, Pragmatism. Existentialism, and
so on.
Comprehensive/ Conceptual meaning of Philosophy
Conceptual meaning; means understanding a term by its nature or
what it involves
Conceptually, Philosophy is a discipline that seeks to understand the
underlying principles of all reality, knowledge and values. It considers
issues that are highly general and fundament.

Meaning of Education
There are two groups of thoughts on the etymological meaning of
education. The first group believe that word education is derived from a
Latin word “educare” - means to "bring up", “to train”, “to form”, “to
create”, to mold etc.
Therefore, education means a process of training useful knowledge,
skills, values and attitudes of an individual.
On the other hand, the second group of thinkers asserts that the word
education comes from a Latin word “educere” which means to "bring out",
"bring forth what is within", "bring out potential" and "to lead".
Therefore, education means a process of leading out useful knowledge,
skills, values and attitudes of an individual.
Education in the largest sense is any act or experience that has a
formative effect on the mind, character or physical ability of an individual.
In its technical sense, education is the process by which society
deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills and values from
one generation to another.
In ancient Greece, Socrates argued that education was about drawing out
what was already within the student. (As many of you know, the word
education comes from the Latin educere meaning "to lead out.") At the
same time, the Sophists, a group of itinerant teachers, promised to give
students the necessary knowledge and skills to gain positions with the
city-state. Thus, we see that there are different views and understandings
of the meaning of the term education. In the modern times it has acquired
two different shades of meaning namely:
1) An institutional instruction, given to students in school colleges
formally; and
2) Pedagogical science, studied by the student of education.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHILOSOPHY

It is comprehensive; Philosophy of Education is a second order

discipline. It is not interested in finality, specificity, actuality or finality but

seeks for general principle and truth.

It is rational. Philosophy of Education involves reasoning

Philosophy is skeptical. It proceeds from doubt

It is objective. Philosophy does not rely on bias or subjective impression.

Philosophy is critical. Philosophers do not take things for granted but

have to critically think about them.

CATEGORIES OF PHILOSOPHY.

1. THE COMMON/POPULAR NOTION OF PHILOSOPHY

 It refers to a layman’s understanding of philosophy.

 It is one world view, assumptions, beliefs and principles one has

about his behaviour.

 It is the way one understands reality about self, community and

about the society as whole.

2. THE PROFESSIONAL/ACADEMIC STANCE.

 In this stance, philosophy is viewed as an academic discipline.

  It is characterized by logical, consistent and systematic thinking

over fundamental issues.

 The aim of this thinking is to arrive at conclusions that are sound,

coherent and consistent.

 A student of philosophy becomes a critical, reflective, disciplined,

rigorous and a logical thinker on fundamental issues facing

humanity.

 The main tool for the rigorous philosophical activity is reasoning

and logical reasoning.

 In this sense philosophy is divided into four main broad

categories which have been called philosophical branches or

perspectives.

THE BRANCHES/PERSPECTIVES OF PHILOSOPHY.

1. METAPHYSICS.

 Meta-means beyond. This perspective deals with the nature of

reality.

 The study transcends ordinary experiences and focuses on abstract

issues.

2. EPISTEMOLOGY.

 This is a theory of knowledge.

 It is a study that questions the nature of knowledge, the sources of

knowledge and the process of knowing.

 It asks questions such as “What is it to know”, “what is the

difference between knowing and believing”, “how is knowledge

 acquired”, “what are the sources of knowledge”, ‘is knowledge

universal or culture specific’, ‘is knowledge objective or subjective’.

3. AXIOLOGY.

 It deals with the theory of values.

 It is divided into two:

a) ETHICS- deals with issues of morality which is an evaluation of right

and wrong, good and bad, correct and incorrect.

b) AESTHETICS-focuses on the appreciation of beauty and art. It

questions whether there are universal, objective standards for

measuring what is artful and beautiful.

4. LOGIC (THEORY OF REASONING).

 It studies the structure and principles of a sound argument.

 Basically, there are two reasoning structures which are:

a) DEDUCTIVE REASONING.

 The argument moves from a general premise to particular

instances.

b) INDUCTIVE REASONING.

 The argument moves from a particular instance to a general

premise.
 PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION.
 According to Osman and Cravers (1986) philosophy of education is
the application of philosophical ideas to educational problems and
about the educational practices leading to refinement of
philosophical ideas.
 Langford (1968) asserts that philosophy of education aims at the
acquisition of informed decisions about educational problems by
educators.
 Generally, philosophy of education questions the assumptions,
beliefs and view-points about the nature, goals and functions of
education.
 The following questions are of interest to philosophy of education.
1. What are some of the assumptions that we often hold about
education.
2. Are these assumptions true?
3. What is the purpose of education?
4. Is education for character building?
5. Are our children receiving quality education?
6. Should education have aims?
7. What subject matter/content should be taught in schools?
8. Who should choose the content to be leant in schools?
9. In a multi-cultural society, from whose culture should the content
be chosen?
10. What is worthwhile knowledge?

Therefore we can define Philosophy of Education as the application of

methods, techniques and general principles of Philosophy in investigating
problems of formal school/ education.
FUNCTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
1. Philosophy involves thinking things through on one's own rather
than taking statements and recommendation for granted. So, Philosophy
helps teachers to become more aware of the implications of various issues
involved in education.
2. Philosophy gives weight to the validity of arguments than to
authority of a person arguing a case, it will encourage the teachers to look
at educational problems more critically, avoiding confusion that personal
interests and prejudiced emotions usually introduce into educational
discussion, (clarity, reasonableness, consistent)
3. Philosophy has a humbling effect on those who pursue it, it
encourages flexible attitudes and acceptable of new methods, initiations
of new activities and development of fresh ideals.
4. Philosophy of Education offers personal intellectual education for
teachers. Since it's task to stimulate the intellectual interests of students,
the teacher himself must be intellectual curious.
5. Philosophy helps in making educational beliefs or assumptions clear,
logical or justified. (Logically connected, consistent and coherent) because
Philosophy has analytical function of translating grammatically misleading
expressions into their correct logical form, hence linguistic analysis.
6. Philosophy of Education helps a teacher to acknowledge axiology as
a branch of Philosophy, this branch helps to shape professional teachers.
7. Philosophy of Education helps curriculum designers to develop it
accordingly e.g. subjects taught are graded according age of learners.
BRANCHES/ PRINCIPLE PROBLEMS/CONTENT/ SUBJECT MATTER OF
PHILOSOPHY

The content of Philosophy is made up of four broad areas which canvas

the limits of understanding. The main branches of Philosophy include:

(1) Metaphysics,

(2) Epistemology

(3) Axiology

(4) Logic.

It's the role of these branches in education that we shall be examining in

the next series of lectures. We shall look at the major three branches.
Philosophers are engaged in the search for truth as they take a

comprehensive view by questioning fundamental conditions underline

human life.

 While factual questions are straightforward, philosophical questions

are debatable and have many varied possible answers.

CONCLUSION.

 Philosophy is the inquiry into the principles of knowledge, reality

and values that constitute wisdom.

 Philosophy is not about providing answers but about asking the

right questions.

 In their effort to answer different questions, philosophers have

presented different ways of thinking which have it made possible

to classify them into different schools of thought (philosophies)

such as: Naturalism, pragmatism, idealism, realism,

existentialism among others.

REFERENCES.

Akinpelu, J, A (1981) An introduction to Philosophy of Education. London:

McMillan.

P Barker, R, E (1986) Philosophies of Education: An Introductory Course.

Harare: College Press.

Gwarinda, T, C (1985) Socialism and Education. Harare: College Press.

Limpman, M (1991) Thinking In Education: New York: Cambridge

University Press.

Chandra S. S., R. Sharma, Rejendra K (2002) "Philosophy of Education."

New Delhi, Allantic publishers.
1) Chakraborty A. K. (2003)." Principles and Practices of
Education."
2) Meerut, Lai Book Depot.
3) Gupta S. (2005). "Education in Emerging India. Teachers’ role in
Society." New Delhi, Shipra Publication.
4) Seetharamu, A. S. (1989). Philosophy of Education. New Delhi, '
Ashish Publishing House.
5) Taneja, V. R. (2000). "Educational Thought and Practice." New Delhi,
SSterling.

1 . METAPHYSICS
Etymologically, the word "Metaphysics" comes from, two Greek words i.e.
"meta" which means 'after or beyond' and “plusis or physiche" which
means "Nature". The full expression "Metaphysics" means reality that
comes after the physical or the natural world. In the works of Aristotle,
such questions were dealt with after his physical or material
considerations hence 'Metaphysics'. This branch of Philosophy seeks
explanations about reality in the abstract world which comprises noumena
beings like the soul, spirit, the mind, and God. It enquires into their
nature, function, purpose, destiny and their interaction with the physical
world. The fundamental question therefore is WHAT CAN WE KNOW about
reality?

Traditionally, Metaphysics has been divided into: Cosmology, Theodicy,

and Ontology. Let us briefly explain each of them, hoping thereby to give
an introductory account of the most difficult and most controversial
branch of technical Philosophy.

a) Cosmology .is the study of the universe or cosmos. The early

Greek philosophers were interested in explaining rationally the
origin and nature, of the universe. At the time there existed many
myths, about the universe, similar to the ones found in African
traditional societies. These myths, or cosmogonies, as they were
known, needed to be examined rationally, ie. Philosophically and
scientifically. Till today Philosophical Cosmology is, due to its
speculative character, part of Metaphysics.
(b) Theodicy; It was developed gradually out of Cosmology; it is closely
related to Theology, being the rational investigation of the super-natural,
i.e. of religious concepts and Reliefs. Theodicy is "not a very common
term. Philosophers today prefer to speak of Natural

Theology and of Pure Metaphysics.

Theodicy is also known at times as the Philosophy of Religion, deals

obviously with religious matters, such as the nature of religious belief, the
meaning of the supernatural, the existence of God, etc.
The second, Pure Metaphysics, goes beyond the strictly religious sphere
and inquiries into the ultimate meaning of 'Being', be it God, an Absolute
Spirit, or the supra-sensible which cannot be directly perceived but which
can be thought of, so some Philosophers maintain, in a tentative or
speculative manner.
c) 0ntoloy; It is the philosophical study of 'being', of whatever is. %C
According to Philosophers all things, both living and nonliving, have one
thing in common: being. Despite this common element, all things or
beings participate in "being" in different ways; accordingly, minerals are
different from plants, animals are different from human beings. To
examine the meaning of being is the primary task of Ontology. Recently
the Philosophy of man has developed out of Ontology as an area of
specialization which concentrates on man,that is the meaning of human
existence, of being human.
Guiding question
What is the etymological meaning of the term Metaphysics?

COMPONENTS OF REALITY
There are three components of reality of interest to Metaphysicians;
The nature of God
The nature of Man
The nature of the Universe

The nature of God;

About the nature of God, Philosophers pose a question “is God is a reality
or a concoction to man’s mind to only escape from the reality?”

On the nature of God, Philosophers came up with varied views:

i) Theism: Ultimate reality is a personal God who is more than the
cosmos but within whom and through whom cosmos exist.

ii) Atheism: This view holds that there is no ultimate reality in or behind
cosmos in form of a person or spirit. God does not exist. This position
however, is self-contradictory in that you cannot negate what you have
not affirmed.

(iii) Deism: God exists but is quit apart and disinterested in human beings
and physical world though he created both and is author of the natural
and moral laws, ktiftoy)
(iv) Evolution: God emerged and evolved in the universe. He is simply
the end to which universe is tending but never started it.

(v) Polytheism; Ultimate reality is plural. There is more than one God

The nature of Man

Philosophers look at the nature of man in three different categories i.e
 The basic essential nature of man
 The basic moral nature of man
 The basic action nature of man

The basic essential nature of man

a. Idealism:
This is a school which has its genesis in the Philosophies of iterates
469-399BC and Plato 428-347 BC. It maintains that the entire universe
is in the mind of the Knower.
Idealists believe that Man is dual in nature a n d m a d e up o f b o d y
a n d soul. Man is just small part of a large universal idea and man's origin
and destiny is divine
NB: Education should be that which trains, man's mind (Moral and
intellectual education)

b. Naturalism :
Naturalists believe that man is an offspring of nature and has oneness
with nature (This is known as ecological naturalism). They maintain that
man is a physical being, he is above all other things in nature and he is
born empty (tabula rasa) and its nature which creates its impact on him.
(Philosophers within this tradition are Jean Jacque Rousseau, Herbert
Spencer, etc)
B: Education should be conducted within nature
c. Pragmatism:
Pragmatists maintain that man is a bio-social, insightful and goal-
oriented being. Man is neither free nor determined by his environment,
 man is basically interactive with his environment (Reality is person -
environment centered). Philosophers within this paradigm include
Charles Sanders Pierce, James William, and John Dewey
NB: Education should be generally connected to his personal experience

d. Existentialism:

Existentialists maintain that man is an accident in nature who has to

exert his will on the identification of his essence to determine his position
in a hostile and meaningless universe, man is a sum total of his actions,
he is self-determined and each man is an individual of his own.
Philosophers within this school of thought include SorenKierkegaard
1813-1885, Friedrick Nietzsche 1844-1900 and Edmund Hussel 1885-
1938, etc
NB: Education therefore should equip men with essential skills, attitude
and knowledge to cope with changing environment

Guiding Question: Make brief notes on the essential nature of man

The basic moral nature of man

Different Philosophers had varied views on the basic essential nature of

man;
a. Idealism;
Idealists believe that man is negative at birth because of the original sin
of Adam and Eve with the sapient.

According to doctrine, man inherited evil since he is conceived under the

sinful condition for the fall of man.

b. Naturalism;
Naturalists assert that man is born good from the hands of nature, man is
good (from Jean Jacque Rousseau).
Everything directly from nature is good and children must be prevented
from the corrupting influence of the environment.
c. Realism;
Realists believe that at birth, the child’s innate nature is neutral, neither
good nor bad or evil.
According to Fredriech Herbert, the child’s mind is blank as a white sheet
of paper without any writing but on being born, the environment starts to
write experiences both positive and negative into.

The basic action nature of man

There are three theories put forward to explain the action nature of man;
 The determinism theory
 The free will theory
 The experimentalist theory

The determinism theory

According to this theory, man is not free to think, act or decide
independently. Man acts passively or reactively in accordance with the
stimuli from his environment.
According to Phenix, determination is a method of interpreting history
and Philosophy that puts man to a position inferior to his environment.

The free will theory

This theory asserts that though born in a deterministic world, man is free
to think and act independently. Man relates to his environment actively.
The Experimentalist theory
This theory states that man is neither free nor determined but he can and
often delay some of his responses long enough to reconstruct a total
response which can point away to a subsequent activity.

Universe (cosmos)

1- Phenomena and Noumena - the question is whether the universe is

purely physical or contains an abstract component (spiritual).
a. The "spatio-temporal" view of the naturalists and scientists who
uphold that, for a thing be said to exist, it must occupy space in a given
time, with physical properties of matter e.g. weight, color etc.
Hence this view holds that there is only the world of the phenomena (i.e.
the physical sensuous and tangible or material world).
This position has an effect on the subject matter in education. With such
abstract concepts like; peace, love, democracy, theological considerations
would be non-issues for study.

b) The "Spiritus-Mundi" view which holds that to exist means to be a

mind
or a spirit or to be dependent on the divine infinite spirit /mind. This view
emphasizes that there is only the world of noumena (a position of the
Idealists). It is argued that if the universe has a beginning there is a.
prima facie case for postulating something outside it, something non-
physical, which has no beginning, to account for it.

The problem of Permanence and Change;

The problem of permanence and change stems far back as the period of
the great ancient Philosophers, precisely before the greatest well-known
Philosopher Socrates. The pre-Socratics led by Thales were fascinated by
the seemingly permanent and yet perpetual change of things in the
universe. The world appeared permanent and yet was in constant flux all
the time e.g. growth of living things from infancy to maturity -During this
process some features are remain permanent (e.g. it remains same
person) others change (e.g. size height..etc). This led to the development
of different views on reality:

i) The view that reality is changing, changeable, except the law of

change. Nothing is permanent. (Relativism) This view was led by
Heraclitus a Greek Philosopher. He suggested that nothing is permanent,
everything changes, the only which does not change is the principle which
states that everything
ii) The view that reality is constant, fixed dependable. The
universe
has features which are permanent, (Absolutism). Reality is fixed, constant
and dependable changes. Parmenides argued that it is not true to make
concrete and definite proposals that the world is in a continues state of
flux or that everything changes. Reality is permanent, if we believe that
things change, they change from what? From nothing of from non being

iii) DemocrituSi another Greek philosopher came out with a

compromise to the controversy. To him the world manifested features
of permanence and features of change.

NB: Teachers ought to know which elements to be emphasized as

essential and meant to be permanent and which should change, in the
curriculum and moral order of the pupils e.g. cultural elements, respect,
decency, virginity....etc.

The Cosmological Problem

This problem is focused on the nature of the universe with special
emphasis on its origin and development. To this effect two views have
been advanced;

i. Evolutionism: this is the belief that the universe evolved of itself from
the
pre-mordial clouds of dust and continues to evolve qualitatively in
accordance with the strict laws of nature. This view has scientific
sympathies-and it has implication on religion. Morals, study subjects
and activity choice.
ii. Creationism: a belief that the universe is a direct art piece of the
almighty creative authority, who initiated its purpose and holds its
course in the reign of his fingers. This view has emphasis on
curriculum,
the education of the gentleman and the use of the Cain etc.
The implication of metaphysics to the student teacher
 The theory of being takes education and the curriculum as reality
which the teacher examines and implements.
 It is also concerned with the nature of both the teacher and the
learner and the role of each which the student must become aware
of
 It examines the nature of the environment and its influence / impact
on the process of education which a student teacher needs to
know /understand and utilize in his future teaching.
 Hence metaphysics deals with the Svhatness' of education which
helps the teacher to examine all he needs in teaching.
Relevance of Metaphysics to a teacher
 Theory of being covers the ontological aspect for a Ugandan
teacher.
 Metaphysics gives a teacher a chance to consider three areas of
existence that relate to education, namely nature of the educand,
nature of the environment and nature of God.
 Metaphysics provides the teacher with an opportunity of utilising the
environment
 Metaphysics deals with what ness so Metaphysics helps teachers to
give valid content and employ good methods of teaching.
 Acknowledgement of super natural existence brings about positive
effects on the leaners.
 Metaphysics examines the nature of the self, so it helps teachers to
know the nature of the educand.
 Metaphysics tends to stress the importance of education to society
to build a morally sound society.

EPISTEMOLOGY AND EDUCATION INTRODUCTION

In the last unit, we studied metaphysics as a branch of speculative

Philosophy. The relevance of Metaphysics to education was discussed and
we saw that man was the center theme in metaphysics and hence man is
seen as a metaphysical animal. Since man is considered the center point
in nature, there is the need for him to seek knowledge so as to know
himself properly and the world around him. The type of knowledge
required has thus formed the basis for this unit.

In the course of time, the human race has put together a stock of
knowledge whose truth has repeatedly been confirmed. To impact a
selection of this knowledge to the growing person is the school's most
important task. This makes the development of the intellect the primary-
concern of all educators.

It is perhaps in the area of Epistemology, or the theory of knowledge

which is a branch of speculative philosophy that the relevance of
Philosophy for education and especially [or classroom teaching and
learning activity is most- noticeable. In fact, the search for Knowledge and
truth is the most common task of both Philosophy and Education.

In this Unit therefore, we shall expose you to Epistemology and its

relevance to education.

WHAT IS EPISTEMOLOGY'

The word epistemology is a derivation from two Greek words. Episteme,

meaning knowledge, and logos, meaning study.

Literally; therefore, it means the study of knowledge. More commonly,

however, it is known as the theory of knowledge by which we mean the
branch of Philosophy which is concerned with posing, reflecting and
examining questions related to knowledge or knowing. [
Epistemology is a discipline when attempts to establish the meaning and
justification of facts which are provided by other disciplines. In the
attempt to establish truth in knowledge, it examines the end to which
knowledge is put.
Guiding question.
What do you understand by the expression "Epistemology tries to
examine the meaning and justification of facts?
EPISTEMOLOGY AND EDUCATION

The question we may need to ask ourselves is why do we study

Epistemology? The fast answer is that since the business of education is
concerned with imparting knowledge, as teachers, we need to be clear
over what knowledge is and bow it is related or different from beliefs and
opinions. As we get to appreciate the conceptual differences between
knowledge and these related terms. It will help us to determine what we
expect from student.

Secondly, if the central task of education is imparting knowledge, teachers

will greatly improve on their methods of teaching once they understand
the different sources of knowledge. Furthermore, since as it will be found,
no type or source of knowledge is perfect and a combination of several
improve our grasps of what knowledge is. Teachers may apply this in their
teaching by always employing more than one method where possible.

SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE

(a)Empiricism (Empirical knowledge)

According to Empiricists dependable knowledge is obtained when we use

our senses. This is the type of knowledge we obtain through observation
of things around us, through our senses and through personal experiences
from actions in which we are' involved. This is a very
important type of knowledge and it is very- much valued in today's world
of science and technology

But do senses alone furnish us with knowledge, as scientists would hold?

It must be noted that the senses alone without the cooperation of reason
cannot furnish us with knowledge. Until reason interprets them and gives
them meaning, they are simply raw data without meaning. For example,
the direct object of the sense of sight is simply colour, when we look, we
can only see colour.

(b) Reason (Rational knowledge)

This is the knowledge derived by reasoning that is not by observation, but

by inferring, knowledge from what we already know. Given some
hypothesis or premise, we can go ahead to deduce a number of
conclusions that must necessarily follow. For example, given the premise
that a man is a bachelor, it follows as of necessity, that he is not married
the hallmark of this type of knowledge is that the conclusions being
inferred must logically follow from what went before.

NB: Rationalism demands of us to include in the curriculum, subjects that

will develop the rational faculties like Mathematics. In terms of
methodology, teachers should be encouraged to give students
opportunity to think for themselves rather than being told everything.

(Revelation (Revealed knowledge)

This is the characteristic of religions, especially the revealed ones. The

religions which most of us are familiar with are Christianity and Islam,
through the Bible and Quaran. This type of knowledge was revealed to be
prophets of these religions
(d) Intuition (Intuitive knowledge)

It is knowledge that is acquired directly by an immediate insight and

awareness without reasoning or going through the process of reasoning. It
comes as a flash into the mind.

It can come in form of inventive intuition when in a flash; a certain bright

idea comes to our mind as a kind of vision. Musicians and artists do enjoy
such intention occasionally, and the result is beautiful piece of artwork or
music. It comes simply and suddenly as an insight. Intuition involves
telepathy and dreams
The educational value of this is that as teachers, we should always
encourage our students to always listen to their inner voice or flash of
ideas. Putting these down and trying to prove them either empirically or
rationally should be the next step.

(e)Authority (Authoritative Knowledge)

According to this source valid and dependable knowledge is obtained

when we consult j authorities /expertise text books, pamphlets,
academicians, etc. it is the commonest source of knowledge in schools.
The limitation of this source is that with time authoritative knowledge gets
obsolete, hence there is need to update notes

CONDITIONS OF KNOWLEDGE

What constitutes Knowledge? In an attempt to. answer the question as to

what constitute knowledge A.J. Ayer (1955) gave three condition of
knowledge as follows;

1. What one said to know be true.

2. The one be sure of it (ability to justify).
3. That one should have the right to be sure.
The words that stand distinct in Avers conditions of knowledge are:
certainty, and justification for knowledge. Knowing is being in the
appropriate position to certify or give one's authority or warrant to the
truth of what is said to be known. The man who has a true opinion is the
man who has the right to be sure. I know, therefore, is related to I
guarantee. Similarly, Austin (1961) says;

If you say you know something, the most immediate challenges take the
form of asking: Are you in a position to know? That is, you must undertake
to show not merely you are sure of it, but that it is within your cognizance.

What is the implication of this? The implication of this is that a person who
knows has cause to be sure, certain, and to guarantee what is known. To
know is stronger than to believe or hold an opinion. This is because
knowledge enlarges and enriches one's idea, choices, alternatives and
initiatives to make an action deliberately.

From the foregoing, it is clear that belief is not the same as knowledge
because knowledge must be based on conclusive evidence and it must be
certain. Belief, in contrast, is not based on conclusive evidence. For
instance, if I hear over the radio that someone is dead, I cannot say that I
know that the person has died. I can only say that I want to believe that he
is dead, since I heard that over the radio, since my evidence is the news
broadcast from the radio.

Belief can pass into knowledge. What was formerly an object of belief can
become an object of knowledge. This happens when what was formerly
believed becomes justified. There were many beliefs, which became
either justified true knowledge or refuted as false through ample
evidence.

What are the implications of all the conditions of knowledge earlier

examined, for teaching and learning?

The first implication that readily comes to mind is the inculcation of a

strong knowledgebase, which can be proven, justified and which is true
and acceptable.
Secondly, the teacher should help the learner to distinguish between
knowledge and belief, Children and young adults hold many beliefs and
opinions which they can neither ascertain as the truth nor reach
conclusive evidence of such beliefs or opinions as to become objects of
knowledge. Teacher in the process of teaching could help learners to
overcome such problems through questioning and probing. Such
questions can trigger some thought processes and reflections on the part
of the learners which could lead to a reversal of such opinions or beliefs in
light of new evidence which are conclusive and justified. Thirdly, the
school stands out as the most formidable agency in the transmission of
specialized knowledge to the learners. This type of knowledge can be
distinguished from common knowledge of every day experience. Such
common knowledge includes, for instance, such knowledge as the sun
rises in the east and set in the west, or the knowledge of how to eat or
take bath. This type of knowledge does not require going to school as they
can be acquired through interaction, imitation and initiation. But the
knowledge of the "higher you go, the cooler it becomes, i.e. temperature
drops by 1°F after every 300 metres of ascent" is specialized knowledge.
It is this type of knowledge that requires the rigor of evidence, certainty
and justification and truth of what is claimed to have been known.
What are the implications of all the conditions of knowledge earlier
examined, for teaching and learning?

The first implication that readily comes to mind is the inculcation of a

strong knowledgebase, which can be proven, justified and which is true
and acceptable.
Secondly, the teacher should help the learner to distinguish between
knowledge and belief, Children and young adults hold many beliefs and
opinions which they can neither ascertain as the truth nor reach
conclusive evidence of such beliefs or opinions as to become objects of
knowledge. Teacher in the process of teaching could help learners to
overcome such problems through questioning and probing. Such
questions can trigger some thought processes and reflections on the part
of the learners which could lead to a reversal of such opinions or beliefs in
light of new evidence which are conclusive and justified. Thirdly, the
school stands out as the most formidable agency in the transmission of
specialized knowledge to the learners. This type of knowledge can be
distinguished from common knowledge of every day experience. Such
common knowledge includes, for instance, such knowledge as the sun
rises in the east and set in the west, or the knowledge of how to eat or
take bath. This type of knowledge does not require going to school as they
can be acquired through interaction, imitation and initiation. But the
knowledge of the "higher you go, the cooler it becomes, i.e. temperature
drops by 1°F after every 300 metres of ascent" is specialized knowledge.
It is this type of knowledge that requires the rigor of evidence, certainty
and justification and truth of what is claimed to have been known.

CRITERIA FOR KNOWLEDGE

Bamasaiye (1989) in her contribution to what constitutes Knowledge

enumerated five criteria for knowledge: Existence, Certainty, Validity,
veracity and utility. What does each of these terms convey in relation to
knowledge?

1. Existence: This means that knowledge should have existential

reference. In other words, what should constitute knowledge should be
that which exists. The geography teacher for instance teaching the
relief features of Africa should make reference to such features that
exists. If he makes reference to Kilimanjaro mountain, it is with the
understanding that Mount Kilimanjaro exists somewhere in Africa. What
does not exist should not constitute knowledge.
2. Certainty: This means that knowledge should be validly proved.
3. Validity: This means that knowledge should not be self-contradictory.
4. Veracity: This means knowledge expresses truth. Falsehood does not
constitute knowledge. It is the truth inherent in knowledge that makes
it reliable and certain.
5. Utility: This means that knowledge is either Useful in its direct benefit
to the knower or in its potential for creating further knowledge

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN KNOWLEDGE AND EDUCATION

Throughout this topic, we emphasized that knowledge transmission is the

chief and most important business of schools. Furthermore, we pointed
out that schools are the officially designed public institutions for the
transmission of specialized knowledge. Is knowledge the same as
education?
The answer is, knowledge is a condition for education, but it is not a
sufficient one. Knowledge is neutral, i.e. knowledge can be used either
positively or negatively by the possessor of knowledge.
Education on the other hand always implies a positive state of the
mind. To be worthwhile is what constitutes education. What is not
worthwhile is not education. Education always implies improvement,
betterment etc. many activities in life, including criminal activities like
armed robbery, pick pocketing, etc require use of knowledge.
Undoubtedly, these are typical examples of negative use of knowledge to
harm us. Such could be typical cases when we say that a person or
persons have the knowledge of advance fee fraud, but miseducated, or a
person who is undoubtedly knowledgeable, but morally bankrupt. One can
also be called an intellectual giant, but miseducated.

Since there are as many negative uses to which knowledge can be

applied, there are also many positive ways of using knowledge.
Knowledge becomes education where it is used positively for the
benefit of the individual and the larger society.

On the contrary, where knowledge is used to harm others and potentially

to do harm, it is not qualified to be called education. That is why a
knowledgeable person is not necessarily an educated person. Until the
knowledge is evaluated to be positive and worthwhile.

Relevance of Epistemology in Teacher Education

 Epistemology helps to employ good teaching methods like Socratic

Method of teaching, Discussion method etc. These methods reduce
on rote learning and boredom in class.
 The study of Epistemology helps teachers to employ good teaching
aids and practical during teaching - learning process.
 The study of Epistemology helps teachers to know the relevance
sources of knowledge like reason empiricism, authority to mention
but a few.
  Epistemology helps teacher to know the limitation of various
sources of knowledge, for example text book knowledge, pamphlet
knowledge gets obsolete with time.
 The Study of Epistemology helps teacher to provoke the thinking of
students during teaching - learning process.

AXIOLOGY AND EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

In Topic One you learnt that man is the only creature that receives
Education. Other lower animals are simply trained. In the same vein, it is
only in relation to man that we talk of values, ethics, aesthetics because
man is a valuing animal. He values certain things higher than others. He
cherishes, appreciates, wants, and desires of needs certain things.

MEANING OF AXIOLOGY

Axiology is the study of values. It is the branch of Philosophy that is

concerned with various criteria which underline the choices we make, or
with the factors, which affect our desires, interest, needs, like,
performance, (Enoch, 2001). etc.

Axiology is divided into two components. Ethics and Aesthetics.

Ethics is a normative science of human conduct. It describes the way

things ought to be. Ethics, deals with the norms of right conduct. The
concept of man reveals that man is a rational animal and is also capable
of human desire, emotions, attitudes and passions. Philosophers are
divided on whether morally is a function of reason of a function of
passions. While some hold that morality is a function of reason, others
maintain that morality is a function of passions. However, both rationality
and passions are essential ingredients of morality. Man is the only being
that combines rationality and passions, hence, moral sphere, is uniquely
human. What then is the purpose of ethics? SS

THE PURPOSE OF ETHICS

Ethics is the systematic study of the norms of human behavior. The

purpose of studying these norms is to ensure that human behavior
conforms to them. The study of ethics can be likened to the study of logic.
The study of logic does help one to think more correctly and avoids
fallacies the same applies to ethics. The study of ethics helps to elevate
One's moral standard. A training in ethics should enable us see the
defects in our own and other people's conduct It does not follow, however,
as of necessity that those who did not study Ethics might not attain a high
moral standard. Plato's famous saying that "Knowledge is virtue and
ignorance is vice" is worth here to support the importance of the study
of ethics for the upliftment of high moral standard. He who knows is more
likely disposed to doing the right thing than he who does not know.

Aesthetics deals with the norms of beauty. In other words; this branch of
Axiology is concerned with appreciating beauty in nature and art. It
attempts to evaluate the various criteria of beauty that is justification we
make for preferring a certain work of art to another (Enoh, 2001).

Ethics as we have seen earlier is concerned with study of human conduct,

human behavior and action. It is concerned with what is good as distinct
from what is bad, what is right and what is wrong" what is duty and what
is obligation? How are all these related to education? Firstly, let us begin
with the popular saying of Plato that: Knowledge is virtue and
ignorance is vice. We educate man to enable him understand the
positive and negative aspect of life and be responsible for choosing any.
This is because Socrates and Plato argue that evildoers are suffering from
ignorance. Knowledge helps to unveil us of darkness of ignorance
AESTHETICS AND EDUCATION
This component of Axioiogy attempts to evaluates the various criteria of
beauty that are out justification for preferring certain works of art to
others. How is this component of axiology applied opt education? As well
all know, our degree of appreciation of beauty differs from person to
person depending on the quality of perception of the individual.

AXIOLOGY AND EDUCATION

As we have seen earlier, Axiology is the study of value and value in

turn is what we want, cherish, desire, need, appreciate or our preference.

Viewed in this perspective, education is a value, both intrinsic and

extrinsic. Education is intrinsic because it is preferred rather than lack of
it. It is positive and implies a positive state of mind, it is commendatory.
To say that one is educated is to imply that one has attained high position
of honour and respect not for any material thing or instrumental thing.

Education is also a value extrinsic , when viewed for its material end. It
elevates one, gives recognition, prestige, provides avenue for social
mobility, status, fat salary and a host of material benefits associated with
education.

NB The most important however, is the intrinsic value of Education for

according to R.S Peters (1966) it is a worthwhile activity. The chief of most
fundamental function of education is to shape man by drawing out and
developing what is distinctively human in him. Education aims at the
perfection of the individual through the location, manifestation and
development of his potentialities as a human being.
Relevance of Axioiogy in Teacher Education
  Axiology helps in lesson planning i.e. it helps a teacher to know
what type of values, their activities and subjects are fostering in
their students e.g. a Mathematics teacher should ask why he is
teaching Mathematics.
 Axiology promotes professionalism in schools. Teachers need to be
decent, assiduous, exhibit fortitude, etc.
 The study of Aesthetics helps teachers to appreciate the
environment and work for its conservation.
 Axiology helps in Curriculum development i.e. what to include and
when to teach what nests in Axiology.
 Good seating arrangement in class rests on Axiology i.e. short
students in front and tall ones at the back.

Guiding question

1. Explain how the study of Axiology can help new millennium teachers in
their operations.

How do Metaphysics, Epistemology, Ethics and Aesthetics factor

into a Philosophy of education?
□ Metaphysics deals with the nature of reality, its origin, and its
structure. Metaphysical beliefs are reflected in curricular choices:
Should we study the natural world, or focus on spiritual or ideal forms?
□ Epistemology examines the nature and origin of human knowledge.
Epistemological beliefs influence teaching methods. "How we know" is
closely related to how we learn and therefore, how we should teach.
□ Ethics is the study of what is “good" or “bad" in human behavior,
thoughts, and feelings. What should we teach about 'good" and “bad,"
and should we teach that directly, or by modeling?
□ Aesthetics is concerned with the nature of beauty. What is of worth?
What works are deemed of value to be studied or emulated
Teacher-centered and Student-Centered Philosophies of
Education.
Teacher-centered philosophies tend to be more authoritarian and
conservative, and emphasize the values and knowledge that have
survived through time. The major teacher-centered philosophies of
education are essentialism and Perennialism.
Student-centered philosophies are more focused on individual needs,
contemporary relevance, and preparing students for a changing future.
School is seen as an institution that works with youth to improve society
or help students realize their individuality. Progressivism, social
deconstructionism, and existentialism place the learner at the center of
the educational process: Students and teachers work together on
determining what should be learned and how best to learn it.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHILOSOPHY OF TEACHING AND

TEACHING
STYLES
Philosophy guides the process of education in different ways. A teacher
approaching education philosophically needs to answer four basic
questions that guide the teaching learning process. They are:
1) What is the nature of the learner?
2) What is the nature of subject matter?
3) How should one use the subject matter to guide students towards
meaningful learning activities?
What behavior trend should one exhibit in order to carry out one's
philosophical position?
The answers to these questions only will help the teacher to identify a
series of preferences. An attempt to answer these questions is nothing but
philosophy of teaching.
1) Nature of the Learner: For the question about the nature of Learner,
It will be defined in terms of —LockeanG (passive) and —Platonic□
(active) LockeanG is a position because it was John Locke, in his Essay
Concerning Human Understanding, who first wrote about mind, is a tabula
rasa. He envisioned the operation of the mind as similar to a blank wax
tablet on which data taken in through the senses would make —
impressions.
Platonic Image is that of a teacher who has so much respect for what
the learner can contribute to the learning environment that he or she
definitely does not want them to — absorb□ prescribed subject matter, as
the teacher sees the subject matter. Under such circumstances learners
are viewed as the most important ingredient of the classroom
environment because they teach each other and their teacher about
problems which are meaningful to them. It is almost that learners
have the knowledge which is locked inside them which is released
through interaction. Platonic concept believes in the doctrine of
Reminiscence.
2) Nature of Subject Matter; The terms —Amorphous or
Structured are used to delineate extremes on the range of teacher's
view on the nature of subject matter. The term =amorphous label has
been reserved for rote learning, which emphasizes that each item to be
learned is equal in importance to every other item to be learned; hence
youngsters are not encouraged to find relationships among items to be
learned
The other extreme —structured we may expect to find a position
represented by those who have a realistic view of what the subject
matter. The term — Structured^ as used in this context, means that any
subject matter should be planned and students can find new information.
3). How should Subject matter guide students learning activities?
The two end points are —cognitive domain and —affective domain.
Cognitive Domain - fact, concept and generalization Affective Domain-
belief and value
Affective Domain. Most often we have students who bring with them not
very positive attitudes: students bring into the classroom attitudes which
influence the way they perceive facts, concepts and generalizations, in
such a situation the teacher has the task to guide the students
Cognitive Domain: Sometimes teachers are fortunate to have students
who bring with them positive attitudes towards the subject matter at
hand. In such situations the teachers 'role will be to help students think
critically

4). The Philosophical position of the teacher. (Authoritarian

teacher and non-authoritarian teacher)

Teacher need to be aware of the ^Philosophical Positions' that they take

and have taken while they enter into classrooms or plan to enter into
classrooms Philosophical positions affect the way they interact with
students and facilitate learning in learners individually or collectively.

When teachers encourage students to view subject matter only as experts

view it and accept only one right answer which all students are expected
to adopt and understand, this teacher is authoritarian

On the other hand, Non-authoritarian allows constructivist methods and

are against lecture method.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SCHOOL

In his speech on Founder’s Day celebration of Modern School, New Delhi,

on November 25, 1962, Zakir Hussain gave the following characteristics of
a good school.

a. Knowledge of individuality of each child: A proper understanding of

the individuality}' of each pupil should the prime concern of the
school and the teacher. The children come from different social and
family backgrounds, possesses different capabilities and tastes,
different likes and dislikes and different personalities. The school
and the teacher should make sincere attempts to understand these
5) Discuss the relationship between Philosophy of teaching and
Teaching styles and deal with them in such a way that the students
benefit fully from the school activities.
b. Understanding the stages of development: The second concern of
the school should be directing the school programmes in
consonance with the stages of development of the pupils.

c. All round development: Another characteristic feature of a good

school is that it devotes its efforts to the growth and development of
the whole personality of the pupil.

d. Purposeful activities: Education is a purposeful activity and the

programmes of the school should be leading to educationally
productive work.

e. Social and individual development: The school should aim at the

individual development as well as generating a sense of social
responsibility.

f. Self-education: the school should take initiative in enhancing the

process of self-learning in the pupils. In fact the best way to teach is to
help the learner how to learn i.e. learning to learn.

EXERCISE

1) What is the meaning of the term Philosophy?

2) Discuss and elucidate, "All educational questions are ultimately
questions of Philosophy"-Ross.
3) Why should a teacher study Philosophy of Education?
4) Define Education in your own words based on the various definitions of
Educational thinkers.
References

1) Chandra S. S., R. Sharma, Rejendra K (2002) "Philosophy of

Education." New Delhi, Allantic publishers.
2) Chakraborty A. K. (2003)." Principles and Practices of
Education."
3) Meerut, Lai Book Depot.
4) Gupta S. (2005). "Education in Emerging India. Teachers role in
Society." New Delhi, Shipra Publication.
5) Seetharamu, A. S. (1989). Philosophy of Education. New Delhi, '
Ashish Publishing House.
6) Taneja, V. R. (2000). "Educational Thought and Practice." New Delhi,
Sterling.