1. What is a Microprocessor?

A microprocessor is a programmable, logic-based CPU built on a single chip. It fetches,

decodes, and executes instructions from memory to perform various tasks.

2. What is Instruction Set?

An instruction set is a group of commands that a microprocessor can understand and

execute. These instructions control the processor's operation and define what tasks it
can perform.

3. What is Bandwidth?

Bandwidth refers to the number of bits the processor can handle in one operation. For
example, an 8-bit processor processes 8 bits at a time.

4. What is Clock Speed?

Clock speed determines how fast a processor executes instructions and is measured in
MHz or GHz. A higher clock speed means faster performance.

5. Features of Intel 80386:

Intel 80386 is a 32-bit microprocessor that supports multitasking and virtual memory. It
introduced protected mode, paging, and advanced memory management features.

6. What is Logical Address?

A logical address in 8086 is a combination of segment and offset written as

segment:offset. It helps the processor locate data or code within its memory segments.

7. What is Effective Address?

Effective Address is the offset calculated by combining base, index, and a constant. It's
the actual memory location accessed in an instruction like mov ax, [bx + si + 10].

8. What is Physical Address?

Physical address is the real address in memory calculated using: Physical Address =
Segment * 10h + Offset. It points to the exact location in RAM.

9. What are the Flags in 80386?

80386 has flags like Carry, Zero, Sign, Overflow, Direction, Interrupt, etc. These indicate
the result of operations and help control the execution flow.

10. What are Flag Registers?

Flag registers store the status flags after arithmetic or logic operations. They help the
processor make decisions based on previous instruction results.

11. What happens when HLT instruction is executed?

HLT puts the microprocessor into a halt state and stops instruction execution. During
this, buses are tri-stated until the next interrupt or reset.

12. What is Program Counter?

The program counter holds the address of the next instruction to execute. It
automatically increments to point to the next instruction after each fetch.

13. What is 1st/2nd/3rd/4th Generation Processor?

These refer to the technology and bit size: 1st (PMOS, 4-bit), 2nd (NMOS, 8-bit), 3rd
(HMOS, 16-bit), and 4th (HCMOS, 32-bit). Each generation brought better speed and
performance.

14. Name processor lines of two major manufacturers:

Intel: Pentium (II, III, 4), Celeron, Itanium 2.

AMD: Athlon, Duron, Opteron.

15. Have you studied buses? What types?

Yes, there are three types:

 • Address Bus: Sends memory addresses (unidirectional).

• Data Bus: Transfers data (bidirectional).

• Control Bus: Sends control signals like read/write.

16. Maximum Clock Frequency in 80386:

The maximum clock frequency of Intel 80386 was up to 40 MHz. It varied by model and
system design.

17. What is Maskable Interrupt?

A maskable interrupt can be turned off (disabled) by the programmer using instructions.
These are usually less critical.

18. What is Non-Maskable Interrupt?

This type of interrupt cannot be disabled by the user. It is used for urgent events like
hardware failures.

19. Functional Units in 80386:

80386 has units like the Bus Interface Unit (BIU), Execution Unit (EU), and Paging Unit.
These handle instruction fetch, execution, and memory management.

20. Segment Registers in 80386:

80386 uses CS (Code Segment), DS (Data Segment), SS (Stack Segment), ES, FS, and
GS. They help manage memory by dividing it into segments.

21. What does EU (Execution Unit) do?

The EU executes instructions and handles arithmetic/logic operations. It gets data from
BIU and stores results in general registers.

22. What are the types of Addressing Modes?

Types include Immediate, Direct, Indirect, Register, Indexed, and Based. These define
how the operand's location is specified in instructions.

23. Segment Registers & Their Uses:

• CS: Holds code segment address

• DS: Holds data segment

• SS: Stack operations

• ES: Extra data storage

24. What are Data Copy/Transfer Instructions?

Instructions like MOV, PUSH, POP, IN, OUT transfer data between registers, memory,
and ports.

25. What are Machine Control Instructions?

These include NOP (No operation), HLT (Halt), WAIT (Wait), LOCK (Lock bus). They
control processor behavior.

26. What are Flag Manipulation Instructions?

They directly change flag register values:

• CLD: Clear Direction Flag

• STD: Set Direction Flag

• CLI: Clear Interrupt

• STI: Set Interrupt

27. What are String Instructions?

Used to process strings in memory.

Examples: MOVSB, MOVSW, CMPS, SCAS, LODS, STOS.

28. Parts of 80386 Architecture:

Main parts:

• BIU (Bus Interface Unit)

• EU (Execution Unit)

• Control Unit

• Paging and Segmentation Unit

29. What is an Interrupt?

An interrupt pauses current execution to handle special tasks. After execution, control
returns to the main program.

30. What is Opcode?

Opcode is the part of an instruction that tells the processor what operation to perform.

31. What is Operand?

Operand is the data or memory location on which the operation is performed.

32. Difference between JMP and CALL?

JMP jumps permanently to another instruction. CALL jumps but also stores the return
address to come back after execution.

33. What is Polling?

Polling is when the processor keeps checking if a device needs attention. It’s used to
manage input/output devices.

34. What is a Microcontroller and Microcomputer?

• Microcontroller: CPU + memory + I/O on one chip.

• Microcomputer: A complete computer system using a microprocessor as CPU.

35. What is an Assembler?

Assembler converts assembly language into machine code. It also checks for syntax
errors.

36. Define Variable:

A variable is a named memory location to store data. It refers to the first byte of the data
item.

37. Define Pipelining:

Pipelining overlaps instruction fetch and execution to speed up processing. It improves

performance by executing multiple instructions in stages.

38. What is HLDA?

HLDA (Hold Acknowledge) confirms that HOLD request is accepted. It is used in DMA
(Direct Memory Access) operations.

39. Explain “LEA”:

LEA (Load Effective Address) loads the memory address (not value) into a register. It’s
often used in pointer arithmetic.

40. Difference between Shift and Rotate:

Shift moves bits left/right and discards bits at the end. Rotate wraps bits around from
one end to the other.

41. Difference between JMP and JNC:

JMP is an unconditional jump. JNC (Jump if No Carry) is conditional and occurs only if
the carry flag is 0.

42. String Manipulation Commands:

MOVSB, MOVSW, CMPS, SCAS, LODS, STOS — used for operations on strings in
memory.
43. What are the 4 Segment Registers?

• CS (Code Segment)

• DS (Data Segment)

• SS (Stack Segment)

• ES (Extra Segment)

44. Use of READY Pin:

READY pin checks if a peripheral device is ready for data transfer. It helps synchronize
slow devices with the processor.

45. What is Assembly Language?

A low-level language using mnemonics (short codes) to represent machine instructions.

Easier to understand than binary code.

46. Machine Language vs Assembly Language:

• Machine language: Uses binary (0s and 1s).

• Assembly language: Uses mnemonics (human-readable).

47. Drawback of Machine & Assembly Language:

Both are machine-dependent, meaning programs written for one processor won’t work
directly on another.

48. Data Types of 80386:

80386 supports 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit data types. It can handle byte, word, and double
word operations.

49. What is a Bus?

A bus is a group of wires for data, address, and control signal transfer in the system.
50. Why Data Bus is Bi-Directional?

Because data needs to move both to and from the processor — read from memory and
write back after processing.

51. Why Address Bus is Unidirectional?

The processor only sends addresses (not receives), so the address bus is always one-
way.

52. What is Machine Cycle?

It’s the time taken to complete one operation like reading or writing. It consists of 3-6 T-
states.

53. Define T-State:

T-state is one clock period in a machine cycle. It’s the smallest unit of execution time.

54. Difference between Memory-Mapped I/O and I/O Mapped I/O:

• Memory-Mapped I/O: Uses memory addresses for I/O devices.

• I/O Mapped I/O: Uses separate address space for I/O devices.

55. What is a Port?

A port is a hardware interface used to transfer data between microprocessor and I/O
devices.

56. Need for Timing Diagram:

Timing diagrams show how signals change over time during operations. They're useful
for designing compatible hardware.

57. What is Software Interrupt?

A software interrupt is triggered by an instruction in the program. It executes an interrupt
service routine (ISR).

58. What is Hardware Interrupt?

Triggered by an external signal sent to the processor. Used by hardware devices to get
attention.

59. What is Synchronous Data Transfer?

Processor doesn’t check if the device is ready. It assumes the device is ready and
transfers data.

60. What is Asynchronous Data Transfer?

Processor sends a request and waits for the device to be ready. It then transfers data
after checking device status.