1/12/25

Class D
Electricity &
Magnetism
Lesson 8
Bellingham Academy

Quiz
In the figure, a metal spherical shell with charge q = 5.00𝜇𝐶 and radius r = 3.00cm is concentric
with a larger metal spherical shell with charge Q = 15.00𝜇𝐶 and radius R = 6.00cm.
(a) What is the potential difference between the shells? If we connect the shells with a wire,
what then is the charge on
(b) the smaller shell and (c) the larger shell?
(a) Model: the 2 spherical charge distributions generate E and V in the 3D space with
spherical symmetry.
Visual: According to Gauss’s law, the E field between the 2 spheres is due to q only.
!"
We always start from the derivative equation 𝐸 = − 𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸𝑑𝑟
!#
$ $
𝑞 𝑞 1 $ 𝑞 1 1 1 1
∆𝑉 = − 6 𝐸𝑑𝑟 = − 6 𝑑𝑟 = | = − = 9.0×10' ×5×10() − = −7.5×10*𝑉
# # 4𝜋𝜀%𝑟 & 4𝜋𝜀% 𝑟 # 4𝜋𝜀% 𝑅 𝑟 0.06 0.03

The inner sphere has 7.5×10*𝑉 higher potential than the outer sphere.

(b) When two shells are connected, there is zero potential difference between 2 shells. This means
the field between them is zero. According to Gauss’s law, the charge on the small sphere is zero.

(c) All charges flow from small shell to the large shell. In reality, free electrons flow form large shell to neutralize
the small shell. So, the charge in the large shell is 20.00𝜇𝐶

BTW, this is how a Van der Graaf generator works.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 2

1
 1/12/25

Summary
1. Equipotential surface is formed by adjacent points that have
the same electric potential.

2. Calculate potential by electric field: potential

difference between any two points i and f in an electric
,
field can be obtained as ∆𝑉 = − ∫+ 𝐸 B 𝑑𝑠
3. Calculate electric field by potential: for the 1-dimensional
!"
problem where field 𝐸 is parallel to displacement 𝑠,⃗ 𝐸=− .
!-

4. In 3D situation, electric field is the gradient of potential in the space.

1" 1" 1" I
𝐸 = 𝐸. 𝚤̂ + 𝐸/ 𝚥̂ + 𝐸0 𝑘I = −( 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘); 𝐸 = −∇𝑉(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
1. 1/ 10

5. Kirchhoff’s loop law: The sum of all the potential differences

encountered while moving around a loop or closed path is zero.

6. A surface of a charged conductor in static equilibrium is a physical

equipotential surface. Exterior field is perpendicular to the surface.
And sharp corners have largest field strength.
7. Nonelectric process is needed to create charge separation and
to be the source of potential difference.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 3

Lesson 8: Capacitance

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 4

2
 1/12/25

Separation of Charges
1. If two electrodes that have been charged to ±𝑄. Their net
charge is zero, but we have to do some work to separated
positive and negative charges to create a potential energy.

2. Consequently, we successfully create a potential difference ∆V between

the electrodes. This could be handy for electronic applications. For
example, when we connect 2 electrode with a conducting wire, there will
be a current flow between them.

3. ∆𝑉 = −𝐸∆𝑥, and E is always proportional to charge Q. It seems plausible that ∆V is directly proportional to
Q. In other words, as we add ± charges to both electrodes the potential difference increases.

4. If we keep adding the charges, the potential could be so high that electrons could be pull out of air
molecules. When air becomes conductive there will be air discharge paths to neutralize the 2 electrodes.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 5

Capacitance
1. Potential goes higher as more charge is stored into the electrodes is like
water level goes high as more water is stored in a bucket; or like
temperature goes high if more heat flows into a substance.

2. In the case of increased water volume and increased water level (assume
bucket has vertical walls) the ratio of water volume change and water
∆"
height increase, = 𝐴, is the cross-section area; In the case of thermal
∆#
∆$
energy change and temperature increase (∆𝐸 = 𝑄 = 𝑐𝑚∆𝑇), the ratio is =
∆%
𝑐𝑚, and c is defined as heat capacity per unit mass.
& 𝑄
3. Similarly, we can define electric capacitance as the ratio of 𝐶=
∆"! ∆𝑉'

4. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad, named in honor of Michael Faraday.

One farad is defined as 1farad = 1F = 1C/V
5. We can also see that the amount of charge on a capacitor that has been
charged to a voltage ∆𝑉' is 𝐶∆𝑉'
𝑄 = 𝐶∆𝑉'

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 6

3
 1/12/25

Capacitor
1. Capacitor can be formed from any two electrodes.

2. The electrodes of a capacitor always have equal but opposite

charges (zero net charge), and the Q appearing in equations is the
magnitude (always positive) of this amount of charge.

3. One farad is an enormous amount of capacitance. Practical

capacitors are usually measured in units of microfarads (𝜇𝐹),
nanofarads (1 𝑛𝐹 = 10()𝐹). or picofarads (1 𝑝𝐹 = 10(*+𝐹).

4. To take advantage of symmetries, we’d like to make the 2 electrodes

to be parallel plates, coaxial cylinders, and concentric spherical shells.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 7

Calculating the Capacitance: Parallel-Plate Capacitor

,
1. ∆V is directly proportional to Q for any capacitor. The ratio of
∆-"
∆"
depends on the geometry of the design. This is similar to = 𝐴.
∆#

2. Our goal here is to calculate the capacitance of a capacitor

once we know its geometry and charge distribution.
&
To figure out the capacitance 𝐶 = ∆" , we need to find ∆V. first.
!

The general procedure of finding 𝐶 is:

(1) Get the charge distribution on the electrodes;

(2) Calculate the electric field E using Gauss’ law;

/" 0
(3) Calculate the potential difference ∆𝑉' between the electrodes using 𝐸 = − /0 , and ∆𝑉 = − ∫0 $ 𝐸𝑑𝑟
#

&
(4) Using 𝐶 = to get the capacitance.
∆"!

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 8

4
 1/12/25

Electric field inside a parallel-plate capacitor

1. Assume charges are +Q and –Q, the area of the plates is A, distance between
the 2 plates is d, which is small compared with dimensions of area A, So the
electric field, E, between the plates is uniform.
1
2a. From Gauss’s law we can get the field due to one plate is 𝐸 = (I hope everyone still can derive this)
+2%

2b. Or we can draw a Gaussian surface as shown, then this surface encloses a charge of q=Q; From Gauss’s
&
law we can get the field is 𝐸3 = .
2% 4

/" &
3. 𝐸 = − , Uniform field, ∆𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑 = 𝑑
/5 2% 4

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 9

Capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor

Magnitude of electrical potential difference between the 2 plates is:
𝑄
∆𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑 = 𝑑
𝐴𝜀6

𝑄 𝑄 𝜀6𝐴
𝐶= = = ε0 = 8.85 × 10 − 12 C2/ N • m2, is
∆𝑉' 𝑄 𝑑
𝑑 permittivity of vacuum.
𝐴𝜀6

As we apply a voltage ∆𝑉 across the 2 parallel plates, there will be charge moving onto the plates. The
amount of charge Q stored depends on the physical dimensions of the plates (A and d), as well as the
permittivity of vacuum 𝜀6. 𝑄 = 𝐶∆𝑉. The higher potential we can apply, the more charge Q we can store.

Note: The capacitance is a purely geometric property of the electrodes, depending only on their surface area and spacing.

Capacitors of other shapes will have different formulas for their capacitance, but all will depend entirely on geometry.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 10

10

5
 1/12/25

Example: Charging a capacitor

The spacing between the plates of a 1.0 𝜇𝐹 capacitor is 0.050 mm.
a. What is the surface area of the plates?
b. How much charge is on the plates if this capacitor is charged to 1.5 V?

(a) 𝜀6𝐴 𝐶𝑑 1.0×10(7𝐹×0.05×10(8𝑚

𝐶= 𝐴= = = 5.6 𝑚+
𝑑 𝜀6 8.85×10(*+𝐶 +/𝑁𝑚+

(b) 𝑄 = 𝐶∆𝑉 = 1.0×10(7𝐹 × 1.5𝑉 = 1.5×10(7 𝐶 = 1.5𝜇𝐶

Note: The surface area needed to construct a 1.0 𝜇𝐹 capacitor (a fairly typical value)
is ridiculously enormous. We’ll see later how the area can be reduced by inserting an
insulator between the capacitor plates.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 11

11

Example
A 10 nanofarad parallel-plate capacitor holds a charge of magnitude 50 µC on each
plate. What is the potential difference between the plates? If the plates happen to be
separated by a distance of 0.2mm, what is the area of each plates?

𝑄
𝐶= 𝑄 50×10(7𝐶
∆𝑉' ∆𝑉 = = = 5000𝑉
𝐶 10×10()𝐹

𝜀6𝐴 𝐶𝑑 10×10()𝐹×0.2×10(8𝑚
𝐶= 𝐴= = = 0.23𝑚+
𝑑 𝜀6 8.85×10(*+𝐶 +/𝑁𝑚+

*
Note: 1. we can get 𝜀6 from 𝑘 = = 9×10) 𝑁𝑚+/𝐶 +
9:2%

& 2% 4
2. 𝐶 = is definition. It is true to all capacitors. 𝐶 = is only true to parallel-plate capacitors.
∆"! /

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 12

12

6
 1/12/25

Calculating the Capacitance: - coaxial capacitor

A long cable consists of a solid conducting cylinder of radius a, which carries a
linear charge density of +l, concentric with an outer cylindrical shell of radius b,
which carries a linear charge density of –l. This is a coaxial cable. Determine the
capacitance of the cable.

(1) The linear charge density on the inner rod is +l.

(2) From Gauss’s law in previous lesson we got the electric field outside a charged cylindrical rod is
𝜆 Also, from Gauss’s law we know that the presence of the outer shell
𝐸=
2𝜋𝜀6𝑟 does not affect the electric field between the core and shell.
/"
(3) 𝐸 = − ; 𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸𝑑𝑟
/0
A A 𝜆 𝜆 𝜆 𝑏 𝜆 𝑏
𝑉;<= − 𝑉>? = − I 𝐸𝑑𝑟 = − I 𝑑𝑟 = − 𝑙𝑛𝑟|A@ = − ln ∆𝑉 = 𝑉>? − 𝑉;<= = ln
@ @ 2𝜋𝜀6𝑟 2𝜋𝜀6 2𝜋𝜀6 𝑎 2𝜋𝜀6 𝑎
& BC +:2% B
(4) For a length l of the cable, 𝐶 = = & * = *
∆" DE DE+
'() % +

Again, it is only related to dimensions, a, b, l and 𝜀6

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 13

13

Calculating the Capacitance: - spherical capacitor

A spherical conducting shell of radius a, which carries a charge of +Q, is concentric
with an outer spherical shell of radius b, which carries a charge of –Q. What is the
capacitance of this spherical capacitor?

(1) The charge on the inner sphere is +Q.

* &
(2) Using Gauss’s law, the field between the inner shell and outer shell is 𝐸 =
9:2% 0'
/"
(3) 𝐸 = − ; 𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸𝑑𝑟
/0

A A 1 𝑄 𝑄 1 A 𝑄 1 1 𝑄 1 1
𝑉;<= − 𝑉>? = − I 𝐸𝑑𝑟 = − I 𝑑𝑟 = | = ( − ) 𝑉>? − 𝑉;<= = ( − )
@ @ 4𝜋𝜀6 𝑟 + 4𝜋𝜀6 𝑟 @ 4𝜋𝜀6 𝑏 𝑎 4𝜋𝜀6 𝑎 𝑏

& & 9:26 9:26 @A

(4) 𝐶 = = 2 7 7 = 7 7 =
∆" ( ( ) ( A(@
3456 8 9 8 9

Again, it is only related to dimensions, a, b, and 𝜀6

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 14

14

7
 1/12/25

Calculating the Capacitance: - an isolated sphere

An isolated conducting sphere of radius R carries a charge of +Q.

What is the capacitance of this sphere?

We can assign a capacitance to a single isolated spherical conductor of radius R by

assuming that the “missing plate” is a conducting spherical shell of infinite radius.

This is a special spherical capacitor when b = ∞

9:2%
Then the capacitance 𝐶 = , , = 4𝜋𝜀6𝑅
(
- .

* &
From its potential 𝑉 =
9:2% H

& & &

We can also get 𝐶 = "(" = " = , 0 = 4𝜋𝜀6𝑅
.
/() % -

Note: all capacitances we derived involve the constant 𝜀6 multiplied by a

quantity that has the dimensions of a length.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 15

15

Example
For capacitors charged by the same battery, does the charge stored by the capacitor
increase, decrease, or remain the same in each of the following situations?
(a) The plate separation of a parallel-plate capacitor is increased.
(b) The radius of the inner cylinder of a cylindrical capacitor is increased.
(c) The radius of the outer spherical shell of a spherical capacitor is increased.

2% 4
(a) 𝐶 = ; 𝑄 = 𝐶∆𝑉' Separation d increased, C reduced, Q reduced.
/
Or think V=Ed, if d is increased, we need less Q, hence less E to achieve same V
+:2% B
(b) C = * ; 𝑄 = 𝐶∆𝑉' a increased, C increased, Q increased.
DE+

Or think dV=-Edr, if a increased, separation is narrower, we need more Q, hence higher E to achieve same V
9:2%
(c) C = , , ; 𝑄 = 𝐶∆𝑉' b increased, C reduced, Q reduced.
(
+ *

Or think dV=-Edr, if b increased, separation is wider, we need less Q, hence weaker E to achieve same V

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 16

16

8
 1/12/25

Charging a capacitor
1. First, we need a battery or a power supply, which provides a constant voltage, V.

2. Figure (a) shows the two plates of a capacitor shortly after two conducting wires
have connected them to the two terminals of a battery.

3. As soon as the connection is completed, electrons of the negative end of the

battery will flow to the bottom plate of the capacitor. This in turn through induction
will push electrons of the top plate goes to the positive end of the battery. Hence a
small amount of charge is built up in the capacitor.

4. The capacitor voltage ∆VC steadily increases as the charge separation continues. It
is this work done by the battery that charges the capacitor.

5. But as long as ∆𝑉: < ∆𝑉;<= , electrons will keep flowing to build up the charge in
the capacitor until VC=V as in Figure b. The repulsive force on new electrons
eventually gets so large that no more electrons can arrive.

6. Now the capacitor is fully charged. In future chapter we’ll analyze how
long the charging process takes, but it is typically less than a nanosecond
for a capacitor connected directly to a battery with copper wires.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 17

17

A Fully Charged Capacitor

1. As ∆𝑉: 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 ∆𝑉;<= , the driving force on the electrons decreases. So, the
built up of the charges, as well as the built up of the ∆𝑉: slows down.

2. Once the capacitor is fully charged, with no charges moving in the wires, the
positive capacitor plate, the upper wire, and the positive terminal of the battery form
a single conductor in electrostatic equilibrium. So is the bottom half of the circuit.

3. We know any two points in a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium are at the

same potential. Thus, the positive plate of a fully charged capacitor is at the same
potential as the positive terminal of the battery. So is the negative plate and
negative terminal.

4. Therefore, The potential difference ∆VC between the capacitor plates exactly
matches the potential difference ∆Vbat between the battery terminals.

5. A capacitor attached to a battery charges until ∆VC = ∆Vbat. Once the capacitor is
charged, you can disconnect it from the battery; it will maintain this charge and
potential difference until and unless something—a current—allows positive charge to
move back to the negative plate.

6. An ideal capacitor in vacuum would stay charged forever.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 18

18

9
 1/12/25

Combination of capacitors in parallel

1. The terms “parallel capacitors” and “parallel-plate capacitor” do not
describe the same thing.
2. A collection of capacitors are said to be in parallel if they share the same
potential difference.

3. Any combination of capacitors can be represented by a single equivalent

capacitance

4. We demonstrate how to find equivalent capacitance with the two parallel

capacitors C1 and C2

DV is same as ∆𝑉' . The charge on 2 capacitors are 𝑄* = 𝐶*∆𝑉' 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄+ = 𝐶+∆𝑉'

Altogether, the battery charges a total charge of 𝑄 = 𝑄* + 𝑄+ = (𝐶* + 𝐶+)∆𝑉'

By definition, the capacitance of this equivalent capacitor is

𝑄 𝑄* + 𝑄+
𝐶I = = = 𝐶* + 𝐶+ In general, 𝐶I = ∑> 𝐶>
∆𝑉' ∆𝑉'

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 19

19

Combination of capacitors in series

1. A collection of capacitors can be connected in series as shown in the figure.
2. We demonstrate how to find equivalent capacitance with the two series
capacitors C1 and C2
3. Due to induction, when -Q is deposit onto bottom plate of C2, it will push
equal amount of negative charge out of top plate of C2 towards bottom plate
of C1. So, when system reaches equilibrium the charges on all the plates will
have same magnitude, Q.
4. The potential differences across the two capacitors are
∆𝑉* = 𝑄/𝐶* ∆𝑉+ = 𝑄/𝐶+
5. The total potential difference across both capacitors is ∆𝑉' = ∆𝑉* + ∆𝑉+

By definition, the capacitance of this equivalent capacitor is

𝑄 1 ∆𝑉' ∆𝑉* + ∆𝑉+ 1 1
𝐶J = = = = + * *
∆𝑉' 𝐶J 𝑄 𝑄 𝐶* 𝐶+ In general, = ∑>
'1 '#

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 20

20

10
 1/12/25

Example

Rank in order, from largest to smallest, the equivalent capacitance (Ceq)a to (Ceq)d of
circuits a to d.

8×8 9
(a) 5𝜇𝐹 (b) 3 + 3 = 6𝜇𝐹 (c) 838 = 1.5𝜇𝐹 (d) 3 + + = 5𝜇𝐹

b>a=d>c

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 21

21

Energy Stored in a Capacitor

1. When a capacitor is being charged, the instantaneous value of the charge on the two
plates is ±𝑞, and at this instant, this charge separation has established a potential
difference ∆V = q/C between the two electrodes.

2. If additional charge dq is transferred from the negative to the positive electrode, the
battery’s charge escalator must do work to lift charge dq “uphill” to a higher potential.
Consequently, the potential energy of the system of “dq + capacitor” increases by
𝑞𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝑈 = 𝑑𝑞∆𝑉 =
𝐶
3. The total energy transferred from the battery to the capacitor is found by integrating
from the start of charging, when q = 0, until the end, when q = Q.

1 > 1 1 & > 𝑄&

𝑈= 6 𝑞𝑑𝑞 = 𝑞 |% =
𝐶 % 𝐶2 2𝐶

>
4. We already have C = ; So, we can have 3 ways to describe potential energy
∆"!
@ @ >'
stored in a capacitor. U = 𝑄∆𝑉: = 𝐶(∆𝑉: )&=
& & &:

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 22

22

11
 1/12/25

Energy Stored in a Capacitor

1. Thinking of in the beginning the 2 parallel plates are neutral. Then we start to take electrons one
by one out of the top plate and deliver them to bottom plate. This requires work done by an external
agent. And this is the reason that the capacitor stores energy.

2. For a known capacitor, its capacitance is fixed. Each time when charge is moved across the gap,
A
the potential difference between the 2 plates changes, V = .
:

3. This is means V changes dynamically and linearly with the charge q on the plates. Therefore, if the final potential
@
difference is V, and total charge is Q, the average potential is & 𝑉. Then the potential energy required to move Q across
@ @ @ >'
the gap is U = 𝑄𝑉<BC = 𝑄 𝑉 = 𝑄𝑉 = 𝐶𝑉 & = . Note: U is the area of the q-V diagram
& & & &:

@
This result reminds us the potential energy U = & 𝑘𝑥 & stored in a spring, and a charged capacitor really is analogous to a
stretched spring. A stretched spring holds the energy until we release it, then that potential energy is transformed into
kinetic energy. Likewise, a charged capacitor holds energy until we discharge it. Then the potential energy is transformed
into the kinetic energy of moving charges (the current).

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 23

23

Discharging a Capacitor

+
-
(a) (b)

A fully charged capacitor stores both charge and energy. If a wire is connected between the terminals of the capacitor
(figure b), the electrons will flow from the bottom negative plate into the top plate driven by the voltage ∆𝑉: .

As a result, the charge stored in the capacitor will be reduced. This will in turn reduce the ∆𝑉: . But as long as ∆𝑉: >0,
electron will keep flowing, even though its flow rate is getting slower because ∆𝑉: is decreasing.
In the end all the electrons in bottom plates meets the positive charge in the top
plate. The capacitor is fully discharged (or neutralized). Q=0 and ∆𝑉: = 0

A defibrillator has a large capacitor that can store 360 J of energy. This energy is released in
about 2 ms through two “paddles” pressed against the patient’s chest to reset a
malfunctional heart into a healthy rhythmic beat. The power is 360J/2ms=180kW.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 24

24

12
 1/12/25

The Energy in the Electric Field

The potential energy of a stretched spring is in the tension of the coils. If a charged
capacitor is analogous to a stretched spring, its energy is in the electric field!

For a parallel-plate capacitor in which the plates have area A and are separated by distance
D E
d. The potential difference across the capacitor is ∆𝑉: = 𝐸𝑑; The capacitance 𝐶 = % .
!

@ @D E @
The energy stored in the capacitor is U = 𝐶(∆𝑉: )&= % (𝐸𝑑)&= 𝜀%𝐸 &(𝐴𝑑)
& & ! &

The energy density in the capacitor is 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑈 1

𝑢F = = = 𝜀 𝐸&
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐴𝑑 2 %
@
We’ve derived the equation 𝑢F = 𝜀%𝐸 & for a parallel-plate capacitor, but it turns out to be the
&
correct expression for any electric field.
From this perspective, charging a capacitor stores energy in the capacitor’s electric field as the field grows
in strength. Later, when the capacitor is discharged, the energy is released as the field collapses.

We first introduced the electric field as a way to visualize how a long-range force operates. But if the field
can store energy, the field must be real, not merely a pictorial device.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 25

25

Dielectric Materials
How to increase capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor?
D%E >
Let’s look at the equation C = and definition C =
! ∆"

It is easy to think of increasing A or reducing d. But if A is too large

the device becomes bulky, while d cannot be too small because the
plates may touch. Besides, the too small d causes electric field E=V/d
too large. The air will discharge.
Then the last thing we can think of is to work on the 𝜀%. We know 𝜀% is the
permittivity of vacuum. While permittivity of air is very similar to 𝜀%. What if we can
increase its value by using some kind of insulating materials instead of air or vacuum?

As the “di” in dipole, dielectric means 2 layers of charged surfaces. Under electric
field insulating materials are polarized, which causes an induction of positive and
negative charges on the surface.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 26

26

13
 1/12/25

Dielectrics
1. If we insert dielectric material into a charged but disconnected capacitor. The
charge, Q is constant. But the potential difference, DVC will change.

2. Here is why: due to induction, the molecules of dielectric material will

polarize (see top chart). The polarization will create an induced electric field
𝐸+N!LKC! in opposite direction of the original field, E due to the 2 charged plates.

3. Now the total field in magnitude 𝐸-LM = E − 𝐸+N!LKC! = E/𝜅 (𝜅 is Greek letter kappa)

Then ∆𝑉G+=H !+CJCK=#+K = 𝐸-LM 𝑑 = 𝐸𝑑/𝜅 = Δ𝑉: /𝜅 so we have successfully reduced

potential difference Δ𝑉: , while holding same amount of charge Q!

𝑄 𝑄 𝜅𝜀6𝐴
𝐶L>=# />NBNO=0>O = = = 𝜅𝐶 =
∆𝑉L>=# />NBNO=0>O Δ𝑉' /𝜅 𝑑

𝜅 is called dielectric constant or relative permittivity.

And 𝜀 = 𝜅𝜀% is called permittivity of the dielectric material.

From the table we can see that dielectric materials can increase capacitance significantly.
Another benefit of insulating material is that we can make “d” smaller.

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 27

27

Summary
1. Two electrodes that have been charged to ±𝑄 separated by a distance
d is both a charge storage and energy storage device.
>
2. The charge-storage capability is defined as capacitance, 𝐶 = ∆"
!
3. Like water containers, capacitors can be designed in varies geometry.
O
4. To figure out the ratio of , we need to find ∆VQ of the known charge (Q) distribution.
∆P"

5. Charging and discharging a capacitor is a dynamic process, during which both charge and
>
voltage changes, while 𝐶 = stays same.
∆"!

6. Capacitor can be connected in parallel and in series, which

results in different single equivalent capacitance.
7. Potential energy is actually stored in a capacitor’s electric field
@
with density as 𝑢F = 𝜀%𝐸 &, which is true for any electric field.
&
8. Dielectric filler can effectively reduce
@
local electric field by , hence increases the
R
O
ratio of , the capacitance C.
∆P"

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 28

28

14
 1/12/25

Homework

(A) Watch YouTube (take notes)

1. Prof. Walter Lewin: MIT 8.02x - Lect 7 49’23”

(B) Review D7 answers, D8 handouts and Chapter 25 “Capacitance”

(C) Complete all the problems in the exercise D8

(D) Preview Chapter 26 “Current and Resistance, section 1-4”

Class D, Bellingham Academ y 29

29

15