PRELIMINARY BIOLOGY

SUMMARY NOTES

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PRELIMINARY BIOLOGY 1
Module 1: Cells as the Basis of Life 2
Cell Structure 1.1 - What distinguishes one cell from another? 2
Cell Function 1.2 - How do cells coordinate activities within their internal environment and the
external environment? 7
Module 2: Organisation of Living Things 14
Organisation of Cells 2.1 - How are cells arranged in a multicellular organism? 14
Nutrient and Gas Requirements 2.2 - What is the difference in nutrient and gas requirements
between autotrophs and heterotrophs? 16
Transport 2.3 - How does the composition of the transport medium change as it moves around
an organism? 25
Module 3: Biological Diversity 28
Effects of the Environment on Organisms 3.1 - How do environmental pressures promote a
change in species diversity and abundance? 28
Adaptations 3.2 - How do adaptations increase the organism’s ability to survive? 30
Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection 3.3 - What is the relationship between evolution and
biodiversity? 32
Evolution – the Evidence 3.4 - What is the evidence that supports the Theory of Evolution by
Natural Selection? 35
Module 4: Ecosystem Dynamics 38
Population Dynamics 4.1 - What effect can one species have on the other species in a
community? 38
 Module 1: Cells as the Basis of Life

Cell Structure 1.1 - What distinguishes one cell from another?

1.1.1.a – Investigate different cellular structures, including examining a variety of prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells

Plant Cell Both Animal Cell

Cell Wall Cell membrane Centrioles

Chloroplasts Cytoplasm Lysosomes

Large, permanent vacuole Cytoskeleton

Nucleus

Mitochondria

Endoplasmic reticulum

Golgi body

Ribosomes

Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

➔ Always unicellular ➔ Can be unicellular (protists), but are mostly multicellular
➔ DNA/genetic material is stored in the ➔ Over 100 to 10,000 times larger than prokaryotic cells
nucleoid ➔ Much more complex
➔ Have no membrane-bound organelles ➔ Has membrane-bound organelles
➔ Smaller than eukaryotic cells ➔ Larger than prokaryotic cells
➔ Features: cytoplasm, ribosomes, cell ➔ Features: cytoplasm, ribosomes, cell membrane, etc.
membrane, most have a cell wall. ➔ DNA is stored in the nucleus
➔ Examples: bacteria and archaea. ➔ Examples: animals, plants, fungi, algae and protozoans.
➔ ‘Primitive’: hasn’t changed/evolved since ➔ Range in size from 10 to 100 micrometres.
a long time – simple. Complexity of Eukaryotic Cells :
➔ Range of cell size: range in diameter ➔ Eukaryotic cells can grow many times larger than
from 0.1 to 0.5 micrometres. prokaryotic cells and are much more complex.
1.1.1.b – Describe a range of technologies that are used to determine a cell’s structure and function

Microscopes

Robert Hooke was the first to determine the structure of organisms and he termed it ‘cella’ – leading to
the term cell.

● Magnification is an increase in size of an image.

● Resolution refers to how clear the object is.

Light Microscope Electron Microscope

How it works Light passes through a Uses an electron beam instead of light and
condenser lens, then through electromagnets instead of glass lenses.
the thin object.

Magnification Up to 1500 X depending on Up to 1500000 times

lens used.

Resolution Max. 200 nm (nanometres) Approx. 2 nm

(the higher, the less clear)

Advantages Both living and non-living Gives greater magnification. Better resolution.
specimens can be viewed. Reveals structures at a subcellular level.
Cheaper, lighter, more Increased knowledge of their internal
compact. structure. Features as small as one
ten-billionth of a metre can be seen.

Disadvantages The best light microscopes will Expensive, maintenance costs. Large in size
only be able to distinguish two and bulky. Many different components.
separate structures if the Specimen is complicated to prepare. Living
distance between them is 200 tissue cannot be viewed.
nm or more.

1.1.2.a – investigate a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structures, including but not limited to:
drawing scaled diagrams of a variety of cells

Microscope Calculations
Drawing Scaled Diagrams

● Title
● Pencil ● 2D
● Use up space provided ● No shading
● Proportionate ● Label all structures ; straight, no
● Magnification ( Eye Piece X Objective crossing over
Lens )

Scale = Actual size of specimen / Size of drawing

Total Magnification = Eye Piece Lens x Objective

Lens

1.1.2.b – Comparing and contrasting different cell organelles and arrangements

Summarised on Quizlet

1.1.2.c – Modelling the structure and function of the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane
Fluid Mosaic Membrane
Key Terms –

Hydrophobic – repels with water through

Hydrophilic – mix well with water Semi Permeable – allowing certain

substances to pass through
Permeable - allows liquids or gases to pass

Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)

Function: It acts as a barrier between the cytoplasm and outside environment of the cell. It allows
only certain substances to pass (nutrients) while keeping others out (pathogens). This is called
selective permeability or semi-permeability.

All cells and organelles have the same structure for the membrane.

Membrane is described as a fluid mosaic model due to the mixture (mosaic) and movement (fluid) of
different components (phospholipids, proteins, glycoproteins and glycolipids).

Phospholipid

➢ The main composition of the membrane is made of phospholipids.

➢ These phospholipids align as a bilayer (two layers of a repeating molecule) with the:
➢ Head on the outside of the membrane
➢ Tail on the inside of the membrane
➢ Phospholipids have properties that ensure certain molecules can pass easily. These are:
➢ Head – hydrophilic (loves water) and polar (charge)
➢ Tail – hydrophobic (hates water) and non-polar (no charge)
➢ This arrangement prevents substances from passing too easily.

Cholesterol

● Cell membrane has the texture of vegetable oil at room temperature.

● Provides stability between phospholipids by ensuring there is the optimal distance. This ensures
small and non-polar molecules can pass easily.
Components of Membrane

Component Function Diagram

Phospholipid Forms a bilayer which creates a barrier between

the intracellular and extracellular environment
of the cell

Cholesterol Provides stability by ensuring there is optimal

distance between phospholipids

Proteins Gate/channel – provides a pathway for large

and polar molecules to pass

Carrier - uses ATP to pass molecules through

against concentration gradient
(sugars and amino acids)

Carbohydrates Binds to proteins (glycoprotein - carbohydrates)

or lipids (glycolipid - fatty acid chain).
Allows cells to recognise each other - knowing
which cells are unknown/foreign (immune
system)

Other Key Terms:

Integral protein – penetrates through lipid bilayer

Peripheral protein – loosely bound to surface. Eg. glycolipid.

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) = Energy
Cell Function 1.2 - How do cells coordinate activities within their internal environment and
the external environment?

1.2.1.a – Investigate the way in which materials can move into and out of cells, including but not limited
to: conducting a practical investigation modelling diffusion and osmosis

Diffusion

➢ Particles moving passively from a region of high concentration to low concentration until it has reached
equilibrium.
➢ Along the Concentration Gradient - moves with the flow
➢ Against the Concentration Gradient - moves against the flow
➢ The speed of diffusion can depend on the: concentration (high=rapid), temperature (hot=rapid), membrane
(thin=rapid).
➢ Does not need a semi-permeable membrane to happen.
➢ Diffusion in Plants: requires water for photosynthesis, when the soil has moisture, water moves into the root
cells. Wilting occurs when they are dehydrated.

Osmosis

➢ Osmosis is diffusion but is only the movement of water particles across a membrane.
➢ Needs a semi-permeable membrane for it to happen.
➢ Because some substances (solute) cannot cross the membrane, water (solvent) will move to equalise the two
solutions.
➢ Tonicity — hypotonic: less concentrated solute so water will flow out, hypertonic: more concentration so
water will move into the cell, isotonic: normal concentration
➢ Osmosis in plant cells: The movement of water during osmosis does not need to have a difference in solute
concentration. If there is a concentration gradient between the semi-permeable membrane, water will move
to equalise.
➢ Osmosis in animal cells: animal cells don’t have a cell wall so they will either swell and burst if water osmosis
in, or shrink if too much leaves.
1.2.1.b – Examining the roles of active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis

Active Transport

★ The movement of molecules from a region of low concentration to a region of high

concentration with the requirement of energy (ATP).
★ This is managed by a carrier protein.
★ This movement is AGAINST the concentration gradient.
★ Only used by the cell for VERY large molecules

Endocytosis and Exocytosis are used when particles that are too large to move through the cell
membrane to enter or leave a cell by either diffusion or active transport.

1.2.1.c – Relating the exchange of materials across membranes to the surface-area-to-volume ratio,
concentration gradients and characteristics of the materials being exchanged

Importance of Cell Size

★ Small = better
★ Surface Area: Length x Height x 6
★ Volume: Length x Height x Depth
★ SA:V ratio is used to compare how much SA there is to volume.
★ SA:V trend: The surface area to volume ratio decreases as the cell size increases. Eg. as cell size doubles, SA:V
ratio is reduced 50%
★ Importance: As a cell gets larger, its SA:V decreases which means the volume is much larger than its
membrane (SA). This is an issue because cells need enough membrane for efficient diffusion. If diffusion
takes too long, it cannot sustain chemical reactions.
★ To avoid slow diffusion, change shape to increase SA, therefore increase SA:V, or divide through mitosis to
remain small.
Other Factors Impacting Exchange of Materials
❖ Chemical factors
❖ Physical factors
❖ Concentration gradient
❖ SA:V ratio

1.2.2 – Investigate cell requirements, including but not limited to:

– suitable forms of energy, including light energy and chemical energy in complex molecules
– matter, including gases, simple nutrients and ions
– removal of wastes

Importance of Energy

★ Cells need energy to function

★ Carry out important life processes
★ Grow and reproduce
★ Maintain internal structures such as organelles
★ Respond/adapt to environments

Chemical Reactions
 Molecules Needed by The Cell
Organic Molecules Inorganic Molecules

Mainly contains carbon Lacks carbon

Used in the structure of cells or is a form of stored Involved in chemical reactions to produce energy
energy

Eg. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids Eg. water, gases, ions

1.2.3 – Investigate the biochemical processes of photosynthesis, cell respiration and the removal of
cellular products and wastes in eukaryotic cells

Photosynthesis: The process of converting light energy into stored energy stored as glucose.

~ Occurs in the Chloroplast

Cellular Respiration: The process of breaking down glucose to produce energy (in the form of
ATP) through a general chemical reaction, in the presence or absence of oxygen.
 Aerobic Respiration (requires and uses oxygen)

Stage Process ATP

Glycolysis Enzymes split glucose into two pyruvate Costs 2, Produces 4.

—> in cytoplasm molecules. This produces hydrogen atoms (H+), Makes 2
carried along NADH.

Kreb's Cycle Pyruvate molecules are converted to acetyl coA Makes 2

—> in mitochondria which produces NADH and releases CO2.

Electron Transport Chain In the ATP synthase, hydrogen atoms are carried Makes 32
—> in mitochondria by the NADH and released. O2 and H+ combines
to create water and ATP molecules. TOTAL = 36 ATP

Anaerobic Respiration (does not require oxygen)

In Animals:

In Yeast: (alcohol fermentation)

1.2.4 – Conduct a practical investigation to model the action of enzymes in cells

★ Enzymes are made of protein and are catalysts which speed up chemical reactions.
★ They are necessary for all living organisms to maintain metabolism at a fast rate to sustain life.
★ This is achieved by breaking down or synthesising nutrients and metabolic wastes.
★ Enzymes are specific to one particular substrate.
★ The product is made from the substrate and is released.
★ Enzymes are not used up and can perform again.

1.2.5 – Investigate the effects of the environment on enzyme activity through the collection of primary
or secondary data

Impacts to Enzyme Activity

Denaturation is when the structure of an enzyme is permanently changed so that it is no longer

able to function.

Impact 1: Temperature
Enzymes operate best within body temperature 37 C.
The damage is irreversible.

Impact 2: pH
The pH of cells is near neutral at pH 8, thus, function optimally here.
Enzymes denature at extreme levels outside of its optimal pH conditions
The damage is irreversible.

Impact 3: Substrate Concentration

The higher the substrate concentration, the greater the enzyme reaction.
This will continue until all available enzymes are being used up.
This point is called 'saturation point.'
The damage is reversible as more enzymes can be added to increase the reaction rate.
 Module 2: Organisation of Living Things

Organisation of Cells 2.1 - How are cells arranged in a multicellular organism?

2.1.1.a – Compare the differences between unicellular, colonial and multicellular organisms by:
investigating structures at the level of the cell and organelle

Type of Organism Organisation Examples Division of Labour

Unicellular Made up of one Bacteria, The cell has no specialisation and conducts all
independent cell paramecium, amoeba tasks to function.

Colonial A colony of single-celled Volvox (algae), corals, Connected cells and depend on each other
organisms living together mosses

Multicellular An entire organism made Animals, plants, They all work together to perform different tasks.
of specialised cells insects The cells cannot survive on their own if
separated.

Division of Labour: Allows different functions to be carried out efficiently and at the same time.

➔ Organisms can ensure they carry out different functions more efficiently and at the same time
when the cells become differentiated to perform a specialised role.

2.1.1.b – Compare the differences between unicellular, colonial and multicellular organisms by: relating
structure of cells and cell specialisation to function

- The structure of a cell depends on its ability to perform a specific function. Cell differentiation and specialisation
produce cells with specific functions, and these cells have a certain shape/structure. This enables them to carry out
their function properly and successfully, necessary for their growth, repair and reproduction.

2.1.2 – Investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems and relate those functions
to cell differentiation and specialisation

Cell Specialisation and Differentiation

● Specialised cells are stem cells and are formed from spinal fluid or embryonic cells. They can also be found in the
brain or bone marrow.
● Cell specialisation is the process when cells become specialised to perform a particular function. This process
involves changes in cell structure and gene expression.
 ● Cell differentiation is the process when cells become different from each other regarding their structure and
function. It is the process of changing to form specialised cells.
● Cell specialisation is the process of cells becoming special, cell differentiation is the process of cells becoming
different.
● Both processes are significant for the proper functioning and growth of multicellular organisms.
● Stem cells are different from other cells in the body because they are undifferentiated. They can divide many
times over a long period.
● The structure and function of specialised cells in multicellular organisms are different even if they possess the
same genetic information because each cell uses the ones that are relevant to their own structure and function.
They become “switched on” and only use specific parts of the genetic information.
● Specialised cells rely on each other to carry out functions they cannot by communicating and coordinating well
with each other.

Tissue
– Collections of specialised cells working together to perform a function.
– Their structures are adapted to perform certain tasks in the body.

Types of Tissue

In Animal Cells In Plant Cells

~ Epithelial : Like skin. Barriers to injury and ~ Meristematic : Found at the tip of shoots or roots.
infection. Cube-shaped and small. Provide a constant supply of new
~ Connective : Has a matrix with cells. Has protein cells for roots/shoots to grow longer, taller and wider.
fibres collagen for strength and elastin for flexibility. ~ Dermal : Like epithelial tissue. Protects the plant tissue.
~ Nervous : Tentacle neurons and long body. Protects from damage. Controls interactions. Epidermal layer
Specialised for communication/receiving messages. reduces water loss.
~ Muscle : Long fibres for stretching and ~ Vascular : Transports substances around the plant. Xylem
contraction. Three main types are skeletal, cardiac and phloem.
and smooth muscle fibres. ~ Ground : All the other tissue that is not vascular or dermal.
Provides support, may store food and water.
 2.1.3 – Justify the hierarchical structural organisation of organelles, cells, tissues, organs, systems and
organisms

Organelle -> Cell -> Tissue -> Organ -> Organ System -> Organism

Nutrient and Gas Requirements 2.2 - What is the difference in nutrient and gas requirements
between autotrophs and heterotrophs?

2.2.1 – investigate the structure of autotrophs through the examination of a variety of materials, for
example:
– dissected plant materials
– microscopic structures
– using a range of imaging technologies to determine plant structure

Organisms

Autotrophs (Self-feeders) Heterotrophs (Feeds on others)

Photoautotrophs - Chemoautotrophs - uses Animals - Saprotrophs -

uses light and carbon to inorganic compounds as a relies on glucose for energy are decomposers that gain
produce their own food. Eg. source of energy. Eg. energy from dead organic
bacteria, plants. bacteria, archaea material. Eg. fungi
 Structure of Photoautotrophs

Vascular System Root System Shoot System

A transport system to move substances Anchors plant in the soil. Absorbs sunlight for
around the plant and provide structural Absorbs water (passive) and minerals photosynthesis (has
support (xylem). (active). chloroplast).
Xylem transport water and inorganic Branching root systems increase surface Produces glucose for plant
substances. area for a small SA:V ratio. This ensures growth. Controls gas
Phloem transport sucrose (organic absorption is efficient. exchange.
substances). Has stomata.

Stoma
Pore structures that allow oxygen and carbon dioxide to move in and out (gas exchange). Found in the epidermis.
Made of two guard cells that swell to open, controlling how much water is lost. Keeping it open causes water loss.
Change in Size of Stomata During Day:
They are open during the morning to maximise sunlight intake while temperatures are also low. They
decrease in size to avoid water loss/dehydration during the hottest times of the day.

Adaptive Structures in Leaves

2.2.2 – investigate the function of structures in a plant, including but not limited to:
– tracing the development and movement of the products of photosynthesis

RADIOISOTOPES

● Isotopes are atoms of the same element but have different atomic masses.
● The heavier the isotope is unstable due to extra weight (neutrons).
● To become stable, the isotope can release radiation. This is called a radioisotope as the release
of radiation is undergoing radioactive decay.

HALF-LIFE
 ● Scientists focus on the carbon radioisotopes as it is used by plants in carbon dioxide and to
produce glucose.
● Carbon has a long half-life. This means that it takes a very long time to undergo radioactive
decay. For this reason, it is easy to track the release of radiation as the carbon radioisotope
moves throughout the plant.

TECHNOLOGIES

Since radioisotopes can be used to trace their pathway, technologies such as nuclear imaging can be
used to detect their location.

Current technologies can also produce radioisotopes that are used for:

■ Carbon-14 is created to trace how glucose is developed in photosynthesis

■ Potassium is used to show how ions move in the root and throughout the plant
■ Phosphorus reveals how plants uptake fertilisers

2.2.4 – interpret a range of secondary-sourced information to evaluate processes, claims and conclusions
that have led scientists to develop hypotheses, theories and models about the structure and function of
plants, including but not limited to:
– photosynthesis

Structure of Phloem
 Source to Sink Theory

1. Glucose is produced in the source and is LOADED into the

companion cell as sucrose. The sucrose is now actively transported into
the phloem tube.

2. A conc gradient is made (high conc of sugar) and water (from the
xylem) moves by osmosis into the phloem tube.

3. At this area, pressure is high and water forces the sucrose to

move up and down the tube towards the sinks (it will move through the
companion cell).

4. UNLOADING the sugars into the sinks causes water to follow.

Concentration of sucrose becomes low which allows water to move
back into the xylem through osmosis. This reduces the pressure and
returns back to normal.

By having a source that always has HIGH CONC of sucrose and a

sink of LOW CONC of sucrose, there is always a distribution of
sucrose around the plant.

Movement of Sucrose

Glucose is converted to sucrose to be easily

transported.

● Translocation – movement of sucrose

● Source – where glucose is manufactured

(generally palisade cells)

● Sink – where sucrose is delivered for growth

 2.2.3 – investigate the gas exchange structures in animals and plants through the collection of primary
and secondary data and information, for example:
– microscopic structures: alveoli in mammals and leaf structure in plants
– macroscopic structures: respiratory systems in a range of animals

GAS EXCHANGE IN MAMMALS

Gas Exchange: Alveoli

- The alveoli are clusters of air sacs

- Capillaries surround the alveoli

Movement:
Carbon Dioxide Oxygen

Capillaries Deoxygenated Oxygenated

Colour Blue Red

Process Diffuses into alveoli Diffuses into capillaries

Concentration Gradient High in the capillary and low in Low in the capillary and high in
the alveoli the alveoli

Alveoli Adaptations

Adaptation Description Explanation

Increased Surface Area Has folding of thin interior lining Increases surface area whilst keeping volume low
enables diffusion to rapidly occur.

Has a thin lining in each Flattened cells that are in a single layer Facilitates efficient diffusion of gases across a very
alveolus small distance

Moist surface of all parts Air inside is saturated with water vapour Ensures that oxygen and carbon dioxide that
of the respiratory system and the mucus-lined epithelium reduces diffuse across the gaseous exchange surface are in
evaporation of the water a dissolved form to enhance diffusion efficiently

Numerous blood Closely surround the outside of each Ensures that all alveoli are in close contact with
capillaries alveolus the blood. Maintains concentration gradient.
GAS EXCHANGE IN OTHER ANIMALS

2.2.4 – interpret a range of secondary-sourced information to evaluate processes, claims and conclusions
that have led scientists to develop hypotheses, theories and models about the structure and function of
plants, including but not limited to:
– photosynthesis
– transpiration-cohesion-tension theory

Xylem Phloem

Function Transports water and ions Transports sugars and minerals

Location Centre Around the xylem

XYLEM

♢ Is vascular tissue that passively conducts water in an upwards direction

♢ At maturity, the cells die (lack a nucleus and cytoplasm)
 ♢ Adapted to efficiently deliver water
Conducting cells involve:
♢ Vessel Element – wider and connected by perforations (pores).
♢ Tracheid – thinner and have pitted walls

TRANSPIRATION-COHESION-TENSION THEORY

TRANSPIRATION

● Water and minerals enter through the roots, move upwards in the stem and exit from stomata.
This is driven by evaporation.
● Ensures all cells of the plant receive required substances for metabolic activities.
● The process of losing water from stomata is called transpiration.

EVIDENCE

⌘ Xylem are hollow and narrow – allows water to flow

⌘ Cohesive forces – water molecules align as they are polar. This allows them to be attracted to each
other, creating a stream.
⌘ Adhesive forces – water is attracted to the sides of xylem which allows them to maintain in it
⌘ Transpiration – with transpiration (evaporation of water from the sun), water is continually being lost
and will draw water upwards.
⌘ Concentration gradient - Water concentration is low outside the leaf and water concentration is high
inside the leaf. Water will move along the concentration gradient, creating another force driving the
upward movement.
2.2.5 – trace the digestion of foods in a mammalian digestive system, including:
– physical digestion
– chemical digestion
– absorption of nutrients, minerals and water
– elimination of solid waste

DIGESTION: Digestive System

Function: To break down food into nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats, lipids and proteins to be
absorbed into the bloodstream.

★ Physical Digestion: breaks down large food particles into smaller particles through grinding and
contractions.
★ Chemical Digestion: breaks down large particles into small molecules using enzymes.

Structure Pathway Physical Chemical

2.2.6 – compare the nutrient and gas requirements of autotrophs and heterotrophs

AUTOTROPHS AND HETEROTROPHS REQUIREMENTS

Nutrient/Gas Requirements Autotrophs (plants) Heterotrophs (animals)

Oxygen Gas Produced in leaves by Used for gas exchange. Diffuses

photosynthesis. Diffuses across across respiratory surfaces.
cell membrane. Used for cellular (alveoli)
respiration

Carbon Dioxide Gas Diffuses into plant via stomata. Is a product of respiration.
Some produced by cellular Diffuses across the respiratory
respiration. Used to produce membrane.
glucose in photosynthesis.

Water Diffuses into roots and exits Waste product of metabolism.

leaves via transpiration. Split to Absorbed by large intestine.
produce H+ in photosynthesis.

Glucose Produced by photosynthesis. Obtained from food and

absorbed by villi in the small
intestine. Is passed into
bloodstream.

Lipids/Proteins Produced by plant from Obtained from food and

products of photosynthesis and absorbed by duodenum in small
absorbed minerals from soil. intestine.
Transport 2.3 - How does the composition of the transport medium change as it moves
around an organism?

2.3.1 – investigate transport systems in animals and plants by comparing structures and components
using physical and digital models, including but not limited to:
– macroscopic structures in plants and animals
– microscopic samples of blood, the cardiovascular system and plant vascular systems

MAMMALIAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

➢ Pumps blood around the body

➢ Has for chambers; left & right atriums, left & right ventricles
➢ Is a double pump
2.3.2 – investigate the exchange of gases between the internal and external environments of plants and
animals

2.3.3 – compare the structures and function of transport systems in animals and plants, including but
not limited to:
– vascular systems in plants and animals
– open and closed transport systems in animals

BLOOD VESSELS - carries blood around the body that supports nutrients, gases and wastes.

Arteries Veins Capillaries

Structure
Speed Fast Slower (still fast) Slow

Pressure High Lower (still high) Lowest

Valves No Yes: prevents backflow No

Wall Thick wall, lots of Thinner walls and few elastic fibres: Only one layer of
Composition muscle tissue: low blood pressure -> don’t need to cells; efficient
withstand pressure stretch/recoil. Internal diameter is diffusion of
and high elastic tissue. wider for easy blood flow. nutrients and gases.

Lumen Smaller cavity Larger cavity Small cavity

Function Carry blood away from Return blood to heart Exchange of

heart chemical substances
between cells and
bloodstream

OPEN AND CLOSED SYSTEMS

Single/Open Circulation Double/Closed Circulation

Heart is two-chambered with one atrium and one Heart is four-chambered with two atria and two
ventricle ventricles

Heart only transports deoxygenated blood Both, oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
circulate through the heart

Blood after oxygenation does not return to the Blood after oxygenation in lungs, comes back to
heart. Instead it continues its pathway to diffuse the heart and then is pumped to different body
into body tissues parts through systemic circulation

Blood flows in single pathway (less efficient) Blood flows in two pathways, i.e. pulmonary
circulation and systemic circulation (more
efficient as blood is simultaneously being
oxygenated and delivered)

Blood is mixed with interstitial fluid, creating an Blood vessels are contained and separate from
open system that makes blood flow at a low the interstitial fluid which causes blood to flow at
pressure (slow) a high pressure (fast)

Occurs in fish and insects Occurs in birds and mammals

2.3.4 – compare the changes in the composition of the transport medium as it moves around an
organism

Change in Blood Composition

Components of Blood

Red Blood Cell - Transport oxygen through haemoglobin.

- Has no nucleus to carry more haemoglobin.

White Blood Cell - Part of the immune system.

- Defend the body against foreign bodies.
- Are larger than RBC and less abundant.

Platelets - Clot blood at wounds by sticking to each other

Plasma - Yellow watery fluid

- Makes up the volume of the blood
- Carry dissolved substances
Module 3: Biological Diversity

Effects of the Environment on Organisms 3.1 - How do environmental pressures promote a

change in species diversity and abundance?

3.1.1 – predict the effects of selection pressures on organisms in ecosystems, including:

– biotic factors
– abiotic factors

Selection Pressures are factors which affect an organism’s ability to survive in a certain
environment.
● These can be biotic (living) or abiotic (non-living).
● These factors influence the evolution of a species
Evolve -> to change a species population overtime.

Biotic: LIVING factors that affect another organism or shapes the environment.
Eg. Predation, food availability, competition, disease, hunting.

Abiotic: NON-LIVING factors that affect organisms.

Eg. Temperature, light intensity, water, gases, soil pH, mineral content.

3.1.2 – investigate changes in a population of organisms due to selection pressures over time, for
example:
– cane toads in Australia
– prickly pear distribution in Australia

Changes in Populations

Population: consists of individuals of the same species living together and can reproduce with each
other.
Within a population, individuals of the same species can have a range of characteristics (traits).

NATURAL SELECTION

★ Selection pressures can alter populations due to natural selection.

★ Individuals who are most suited to the selection pressure and environment will survive and
reproduce. This process of selecting individuals is natural selection.

★ Overtime, there will be a change in the population. This is called evolution.

Cane Toads in Australia

○ Feed at night, so no known predators
○ Breed all year round
○ Will eat anything that fits their mouths (eg. frogs, birds, small mammals, reptiles).

➙ Red-bellied black snakes’ heads are getting smaller because the toad is its selection pressure
where the toad’s poison kills the snake.
➙ This only occurs in snakes with large heads who can fit the toad in its mouth.
➙ Small-headed snakes cannot open their jaws wide enough to eat large toads, thus have the
favoured trait and the population of snakes will eventually all have smaller heads due to natural
selection.
➙ Smaller-headed snakes will outnumber larger-headed snakes in cane-toad-abundant areas.
➙ ‘Toad adverse’ = advantageous as the species doesn’t eat the poisonous toad -> will have a
reproductive advantage.

Prickly Pear Distribution in Australia

■ An eradication program resulted in larvae of moths to eat its way through millions of prickly
pears. The moth provided a strong selection pressure (as predation) on the pears that quickly
reduced its numbers and spread of plants. Expands its species’ diversity.

Adaptations 3.2 - How do adaptations increase the organism’s ability to survive?

3.2.1 – conduct practical investigations, individually or in teams, or use secondary sources to examine
the adaptations of organisms that increase their ability to survive in their environment, including:
– Structural adaptations
– Physiological adaptations
– Behavioural adaptations

Adaptations
↳ An adaptation is a change that can improve the organism’s survivability.
↳ A population of species will have a variety of traits.
↳ Organisms within a population can have traits that are better suited in its environment.
↳ Traits that improve an organism’s ability to survive is an adaptation.

Type of Adaptation Description Example

Structural A physical change to an Fruit bat; long fingers that support its
organism’s body structure or wings. Allows bats to access different
shape that helps it survive. food sources.

Behavioural A change in behaviour/action Nocturnal creatures; eg. brushtail

that an organism takes on. possum hunts at night to avoid heat &
(It is a voluntary process) dehydration. Allows them to camouflage
and hunt for food without competing.

Physiological/Functional Internal processes or cellular Hormones make our heart beat faster so
features of an organism that muscles get more blood when we
enable them to survive better in exercise. Snake venom produced to
their environment. immobilise prey. Reptiles are cold
These are involuntary (occur blooded to cope with cold
without conscious thought). environments.

3.2.2 – investigate, through secondary sources, the observations and collection of data that were
obtained by Charles Darwin to support the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection, for example:
– finches of the Galapagos Islands
– Australian flora and fauna

EVOLUTION BY NATURAL SELECTION

Evolution: The idea that different kinds of living organisms are believed to have developed from earlier
forms. Evolution occurs when individuals in a population changes over time. This can lead to a new
species.

CHARLES DARWIN
→ Developed the theory of evolution.
 → Stated that traits that were most suited to the environment would survive and pass it on to the
next generations.
→ In other words, ‘survival of the fittest’
→ This means if the species did not have the traits suited to the environment, they probably won’t
survive to reproduce for the next generation (leading to possible extinction).

He spent a lot of time at the Galapagos Islands. He focused all this efforts on finches and collected them
as samples. The most curious fact he concluded as that each species had a different type of beak – size,
length and colour.

DARWIN’S FINCHES

The islands experienced seasons of drought (selection pressure that drove evolution).
● Before drought – variety of seeds
● During drought – smaller plants died, and only large plants survived. This left only larger and
tougher seeds available.

RESULTS FROM DARWIN’S STUDY

❖ Bigger beaks survived – had the physical capacity to open seeds

❖ Larger wingspan – could fly away from predators, search for more food sources, spend more
energy for thermoregulation (release heat to maintain body temperature)
❖ Smaller body – requires less energy to maintain

Suggested reasons:

● Geographical isolation and time – droughts caused the elimination of finches with smaller beaks
and wingspan due to natural selection.
● Over time, this variety of finches could outcompete as their traits are more adapted. Through
generations, these finches would have evolved.

Natural Selection causes Evolution

Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection 3.3 - What is the relationship between evolution and
biodiversity?

3.3.1 – explain biological diversity in terms of the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection by examining
the changes in and diversification of life since it first appeared on the Earth

BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

Diversity - Having variety

Biodiversity - The variety of living organisms with an ecosystem

↪ Genetic Diversity - number of different genes within a species

↪ Species Diversity - measure of different species
↪ Ecosystem Diversity - variation of different ecosystems in a region

GENETIC DIVERSITY

○ refers to the number of different genes within a species.

○ This allows it to adapt to changes in the environment

Example: Bacterial colonies

■ Rapidly reproduce through asexual reproduction
■ Allows them to thrive in large populations under certain conditions
■ Issue: Leads to low/no genetic diversity. Therefore, if they become threatened by selection
pressure, they will go extinct.

DIVERSITY ON EARTH
As earth changes, species that have genetic diversity will have the adaptations to thrive and pass it on to
offspring. Overtime, this leads to an evolution of a new species.
As a result, biodiversity increases. The biodiversity that exists on Earth (still increasing) is evidence that
species have previously adapted to suit the changing conditions (natural selection - evolution).

Key Ideas;

⟶ It is important to have High Biodiversity; ecosystems are healthier and balanced where every
plant and animal lives and works together.
⟶ It is important to have High Genetic Diversity; increases chances for populations to survive
environmental change.

3.3.2 – analyse how an accumulation of microevolutionary changes can drive evolutionary changes and
speciation over time, for example:
– evolution of the horse
– evolution of the platypus

SCALES OF EVOLUTION

➪ Microevolution: small changes in a population

➪ Macroevolution: large changes within a species

Evolution is always driven by:

⤑ Mutation: randomly develop new genes

⤑ Migration: new traits can be introduced
⤑ Genetic Drift: random event removes/favours traits
⤑ Natural Selection: adaptive traits

MICROEVOLUTION

● A change in gene frequency within a population

● Observed over short periods of time; from one generation to the next.
● These small changes build up over millions of years and can cause species to evolve (unable to
mate with existing species).
Example; use of pesticides can lead to the evolution of new species.
Example; humans overusing antibiotics to destroy harmful bacteria has led to antibiotic resistance.

MACROEVOLUTION

● The evolution of groups larger than an individual species. Focuses on looking at a species level.
 ● Observed over long periods of time; need to look at cladograms
● Connected by a common ancestor
● Difficult to trace back when the evolution occurred BUT it can be reconstructed by looking at
various evidence (geology, fossils, comparative embryology etc).

Evolution of the Horse

★ Horses have become larger in size due to selection pressures (environment).
★ Have gained the ability to move faster through grasslands.
★ Have fewer toes; beneficial for running fast as they can stand on the tip of their toes, giving them
more momentum to run at an increased speed.
★ Bigger teeth with grinding surfaces for eating
★ A complete fossil record of the horse provides a unique insight into the past as it shows a
branching nature with many changes instead of a linear evolution with transitional forms. It
shows many migrations, changes in body size, trends.
★ Fetlock: strengthening ligament and essential for the reduction in the number of toes. Supports
its weight, allows for flexibility and extension.

Evolution of the Platypus

❖ THEORY 1: Genetic evidence shows that monotremes (platypus) split off first from an ancient
group of reptiles and have been evolving ever since. Then, marsupials and placental lines of
mammals branched off. SUPPORTED BY GENETIC EVIDENCE.
❖ THEORY 2: (less-favoured) Monotremes and marsupials split off from each other after their
common ancestor diverged from the line that led to placental mammals. SUPPORTED BY SOME
FOSSIL EVIDENCE BUT NOT BY GENETIC EVIDENCE CALCULATIONS.
❖ Selection pressure responsible for macroevolutionary changes in platypus:
weather/temperature, habitat/environment. Platypus was also isolated in Australia where the
environment was very harsh. As they can lay eggs, they were favoured as they did not have to
carry their young around with them (can roam free). Whereas mothers who have to carry their
young with them on their body die in harsh environments.

3.3.3 – explain, using examples, how Darwin and Wallace’s Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
accounts for:
– convergent evolution
– divergent evolution

CONVERGENT AND DIVERGENT EVOLUTION

Definition Example

Divergent Evolution When two different species share a Finches at the Galapagos
 common ancestor but have different Islands: The population evolved
characteristics from one another. into different species due to
the varying selection pressures
When the species diverge (evolve) into at each island.
different descendants, it is called
speciation.

Convergent When two different species do not share Sharks (fish) and dolphins
Evolution a common ancestor but have developed (mammals) are different
similar characteristics as traits were species but have similar
adapted to similar selection pressures. characteristics as they are both
adapted to the selection
This means the species evolved pressures in the aquatic
INDEPENDENTLY from each environment.
other.

3.3.4 – explain how punctuated equilibrium is different from the gradual process of natural selection

GRADUALISM AND PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM

Gradualism (Darwin) Punctuated Equilibrium (Stephen & Niles)

Small/gradual changes over time due to selective Evolution happens over periods of rapid change
pressures (punctuated) followed by periods of stasis
(equilibrium)
Many small changes are passed from each
generation to the next, resulting in large Species can evolve rapidly after an environmental
changes (leads to evolution of a new species) change, live for a period unchanged and then can
continue to survive or become extinct.
Can be observed in the fossil record
If environments are stable, there is no need for
However, lack of transitional forms (gaps in organisms to adapt (most species evolve after
fossil record) mass-extinction events).

Also supported by the fossil record and

abundant amount of evidence as well.

Answers the question of gaps in the fossil record

Both theories are accepted as valid explanations of macroevolution

Natural selection removes the less fit organisms Very little changes for long periods with periods
from the gene pool and the fit organisms increase of sudden rapid changes.
in population.
 The evolution is branched and the selection
This happens over a long amount of time and pressure can cause the evolution of more than
gradually shows changes in the species. one species.

The evolution is linear. Transitional fossils support this!

Transitional fossils should exist!

Fossil records are incomplete so it is difficult to demonstrate a complete

Evolution – the Evidence 3.4 - What is the evidence that supports the Theory of Evolution by
Natural Selection?

3.4.1.a – investigate, using secondary sources, evidence in support of Darwin and Wallace’s Theory of
Evolution by Natural Selection, including but not limited to:
– biochemical evidence, comparative anatomy, comparative embryology and biogeography

EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION

Type of Evidence Definition Process Example

Comparative The similarities and Analysing the structures Analogous structure: the
Anatomy differences in the and functions to wings of bats and birds
structures of species. determine how they look similar but they
↪ Homologous evolved. evolved differently.
↪ Analogous
↪ Vestigial

Comparative The study of an Understand how the Fish and human embryos
Embryology unborn animal or animals are similar and both have gill slits. Fish
human. if they develop similarly. develop gills but they
○ Fish, disappear in humans.
salamander,
tortoise,
chick, rabbit,
human

Biochemical The analysis of DNA or Scientists compare the The bat and crow both
Evidence amino acids (building DNA of two organisms: have wings and squirrels
blocks of DNA) to the more similar, the do not. One may believe
discover how closely more closely related the that bats and crows are
organisms are related. organisms. more closely related than
bats and squirrels but that
is wrong.
Humans are mostly
 related to monkeys, least
with sharks due to
location: mammals vs fish
environment.

Biogeography The study of the Looking at how Ratites and continental

geographical organisms evolve in drift: originated from a
distribution of different environments common ancestor on
organisms, both living and how they adapt to Gondwana, then evolved
and extinct. the selection pressures. differently as continents
Theory: for a new Studies how location drifted.
species to arise, a affects evolution despite
group of organisms originating from a single
must become isolated. ancestor.

3.4.1.b – investigate, using secondary sources, evidence in support of Darwin and Wallace’s Theory of
Evolution by Natural Selection, including but not limited to:
– techniques used to date fossils and the evidence produced

FOSSILS

A fossil may be:

★ the impression of it in the sediment (mold).
This looks like a cavity.
★ the filled in imprints from a mold fossil from minerals (cast).
This is the result of a mold fossil where minerals have filled in the empty cavity.
★ marks made by it during its lifetime (trace)

Techniques to determine the age of fossils:

➔ Relative Dating: Estimating the age by determining that fossils at the top of the rock layers are
younger than the lower fossils.
➔ Index Fossils: A fossil existing in a particular span of time or environment used to define
geological time or information of selection pressures. Is widespread in one layer.
➔ Absolute Dating: Calculates actual age of fossil using radioactive decay/dating.

3.4.2 – explain modern-day examples that demonstrate evolutionary change, for example:
– the cane toad
– antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria
 MODERN EXAMPLES OF EVOLUTION

Antibiotics
⤏ Medicine that targets and fights bacteria
⤏ Prevents bacteria’s movement so they cannot grow due to the inability to feed. Thus, eventually
dying.

How is antibiotic resistance an example of natural selection?

⤳ Bacterial populations have developed a spontaneous mutation causing bacteria to become
resistant towards the intention of antibiotics.
⤳ Effect of antibiotic resistance: eventually, all non-resistant bacteria will die and the resistant
bacteria will reproduce, become abundant in humans so the antibiotics will have no effect on us.
⤳ This is a clear example of natural selection, meaning ‘survival of the fittest,’ where the antibiotic
is the selection pressure and the bacteria that has a variation best suited to resisting the
antibiotic affecting their environment will continue to survive and reproduce.
⤳ Resistant bacteria has an advantage over non-resistant bacteria as the suitable gene will be
passed onto and inherited over generations.
⤳ As the resistant bacteria passes the trait onto their offspring, they will gradually become a
completely resistant generation.

Cane Toad
⤏ Are an invasive species due to their ability to rapidly reproduce, and poison.
⤏ Have been able to spread and increase in numbers as they can quickly move. The faster toads
survived so the species have adapted this trait and slower cane toads die out. Fast movement
allows them to invade new habitats and spread faster.
⤏ Cane toad’s poison is selection pressure for red-bellied black snakes. In areas where they coexist,
the snakes have smaller heads so they can’t eat the large, poisonous toads. This is because they
have adapted after previously eating the toad and dying.
⤏ The rapid evolution of cane toads can be used as modern evidence for evolution as scientists can
observe the microevolution in decades rather than millions of years. They can understand how
genetic traits evolve.

Module 4: Ecosystem Dynamics

Population Dynamics 4.1 - What effect can one species have on the other species in a
community?
4.1.1.a – investigate and determine relationships between biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem,
including:
– the impact of abiotic factors

IMPACT OF ABIOTIC FACTORS

An ecosystem is when living organisms interact with the physical environment (biotic & abiotic factors).
↪ Abiotic factors are unevenly distributed throughout an ecosystem. Based on the organisms’
needs, this will impact their abundance and distribution in the ecosystem.

Impact on Biota (organism)

Abiotic Factor Positive (+) Negative (-)

Temperature Does not change much in aquatic Can greatly impact terrestrial
environments -> minimal effect on organisms as temperatures vary ->
organisms require special adaptations to
tolerate changes

Availability of Water Most important resource -> carrying Only organisms with adaptations can
nutrients and dissolved gases for survive with minimal water, others
animals to survive, plants to will not be abundant in these regions
photosynthesise

Availability of Light Main source of energy -> allows Organisms are more abundant in
plants to photosynthesise, supports areas with light. Unevenly distributed
animals with released oxygen gas for depending on abundance.
respiration

4.1.1.b – investigate and determine relationships between biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem,
including:
– the impact of biotic factors, including predation, competition and symbiotic relationships

IMPACT OF BIOTIC FACTORS

1. Predation
When the predator obtains its food by killing and eating their prey.
Eg. gazelle and cheetah, venus flytrap and insects.

Prey-Predator Population Graph

 Key Features of this relationship:
● Follow the same pattern in crest and
trough
● Always a delay in predator numbers
● Prey numbers are always higher
(energy in food chain is always higher at
producer level)

2. Competition
When two or more organisms compete for the same resource (food, water, shelter, space, mate). It
forces species to succeed or fail.
Intraspecific: Members of the same species. Interspecific: Members of different species
When species compete, one species is usually better suited and will always have a higher population
than the other.

Competition is obvious in animals, however it is more subtle in plants.

Allelopathy occurs when a plant releases allelochemicals (non-nutrient substances originating from an
organism that affects the behaviour/welfare of an organism) to positively or negatively influence the
plants around it.
Eg. Pine trees release acidic allelochemicals when their leaves fall which prevents other plants from
growing near them as they are competing for space, soil and light.

3. Symbiosis
When two organisms live together in a close relationship that is beneficial to at least one of those
relationships.

⇨ Mutualism + +
⇨ Commensalism + o
⇨ Parasitism + -
⇨ Amensalism o -
⇨ Predation + -
⇨ Competition - -
 4. Disease
Any process that impacts the normal functioning of an organism (infectious/non-infectious).
In an ecosystem, the biggest threat comes from infectious diseases (pathogens - virus, bacteria, etc).
Eg. Tasmanian Devil Facial Tumour Disease: caused by a cluster of cancerous cells that is transmitted
between animals. They routinely fight each other so the disease spreads rapidly.

4.1.1.c – investigate and determine relationships between biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem,
including:
– the ecological niches occupied by species

NICHES

A habitat is a place where an organism makes its home, which meets all the environmental conditions it
needs to survive.
These include: shelter, water, food, mate (reproduce)

A niche is the role an organism plays in the ecosystem. These roles/behaviours include food, shelter,
water, mate.
Eg. Each member of a community gathers food in a unique way which reduces competition and
vulnerability in the species.

Organisms can share the same habitat but cannot share the same niche.

Competitive Exclusion
Is a principle that states: ‘Two species competing for the same niche cannot coexist.’
If they share the same niche, the better adapted species will survive and the other will decrease in
population.

Interpreting Niche Graphs

 ⇒ Species 1 and 2’s fundamental niche overlap meaning that both species are capable of using the
same niche.
⇒ The realised niche reveals that competition can cause a species to alter their niche so they can
both survive in the same ecosystem.

4.1.1.d – predicting consequences for populations in ecosystems due to predation, competition,

symbiosis and disease

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4.1.1.e – measuring populations of organisms using sampling techniques

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4.1.2 – explain a recent extinction event

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