MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CE 4528 – RAILWAY ENGINEERING

Assist.Prof.Dr. Salih Serkan ARTAGAN

[email protected]
 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Department of Civil Engineering

Railways are the supreme torch illuminating a country

with the light of civilization and welfare

TCDD Annual Activity Report, 2019 TCDD 2016-2020 Annual Statistics

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Content of the Course

• Introduction to Railway Engineering
• Development of railway in the world and in Turkey
• Railway terminology and categorization of railways & their administration types
• Railway vehicle classes
• Railway route (alignment) and geometric characteristics of railway lines
• Gauges (track gauge, loading gauge, structure gauge)
• Railway gradient (vertical slope)
• Curves (horizontal and vertical curves)
• Superelevation (cant)
• Railway cross-section elements and rolling stock characteristics
• Infrastructure and superstructure elements
• Catenary line
• Railway Planning, Design, Construction & Maintenance
• Ballastless Track (Slab-Track Technology)
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Slab-track compared to ballasted track (conventional
track)

Selected Topics & Future Trends

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Reference Books (English)

https://www.railengineer.co.uk/
All visuals are taken from various internet sources
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Reference Books (Turkish)

Demiryolu Mühendisliği Karayolu – Demiryolu Demiryolu Mühendisliği

Mühendisliği
Dr. Veysel ARLI Prof. Dr. Güngör Evren
Prof. Dr. Mehmet Orhan Yrd. Doç. Dr. Selim DÜndar

All visuals are taken from various internet sources

 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Department of Civil Engineering

Evolution of the Transportation

In the primitive days, people were only walking and running or carried by other people/animals
Goods were carried as head loads or in carts (drawn by men or animals).

the fundamental innovations (milestones) in the development of transportation included

• the discovery of the wheel (about 3000 B.C.),

• navigation (about 3000 B.C. in Nile river in Egypt, about 2000 B.C. in the sea by Phoenicians),

• the railway (19th century; 1804, starting with Trevithick's steam locomotive)

• the automobile (19th century; 1885, the world's first practical automobile by Karl Benz)
• and the airplane (20th century; 1904, Wright brothers)
• Space era? interstellar transportation? Infant steps now but we will see how it might
rapidly be upgraded with the contribution of AI..
Profillidis VA (2006) Railway management and engineering. Ashgate, Farnham
Chandra S, Agarwal MM, Railway Engineering (2007) Oxford University Press
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Transportation
Modes

Land Water Air

Pipelines
Transport Transport Transport

Highways Sea/Ocean

Railways Rivers/Channels

All visuals are taken from various internet sources

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
RAILWAY DEVELOPMENT, 2003 AREMA

What is a railway?
Definition 1:
A railway can be defined as an engineered structure consisting of two metal guiding rails on which railway cars (wagons)
are pulled by a locomotive or self-propelled.

Definition 2:
A railway/railroad consists of two steel rails which are held a fixed distance apart on a railbed. Vehicles, guided and
supported by flanged steel wheels and connected into trains, are propelled as a means of transportation (John Armstrong).

fixed distance is called Special wheelset locomotive

track gauge called bogie All visuals are taken from various internet sources
 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Department of Civil Engineering

The main characteristic is the guided movement of the wheel by the track through a metal-to-metal contact.

wheel

rail

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fhrS74gOYsM&ab_channel=Animechanics
 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Department of Civil Engineering

the railway tranpostation mode; by comparison with other transport modes;

such as air that offers 3 degrees of freedom of movement (longitudinal, lateral, and vertical) at
relatively high cost,

and highway and waterway that offers 2 degrees of freedom of movement (longitudinal and lateral) at
moderate cost,

the rail mode is constrained to a single degree of freedom of movement (longitudinal) by its guideway,
back and forth on a predetermined, inflexible route.

Dave van der Meulen and Fienie Möller, Railways in Renaissance — Review of Achievements and Reflection on Prospects” ed. Krzysztof Zboinski, Railway Research - Selected Topics on Development,
Safety and Technology, IntechOpen eBook (PDF): Rijeka, 2019, ISBN 978-953-51-6648-1, http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/59893
All visuals are taken from various internet sources
 Contribution of railways to the society
Towns and cities, and even
The history of railways is It not only brings the
villages which are placed at
closely linked with goods and people but
the intersection of railways
civilization. also the culture.
became richer in every aspect.

The availability of travelling

easily to the neighborhood
opened new horizons on
the views and minds of the
people.

Chandra S, Agarwal MM, Railway Engineering (2007) Oxford University Press

All visuals are taken from various internet sources
 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Department of Civil Engineering

History of railways
Railways, in their present form, made their appearance at the beginning of the 19th century in British mines.

In 1804, Trevithick's steam locomotive was invented; but the first registered movement was in 1825.
In 1825, George Stephenson’s steam locomotive, “Locomotion Number 1” carried a 90 ton load consisting of 36 wagons
carrying more than 500 passengers and some freight at a sustained speed of 12 mph along the Stockton and Darlington
Railway in northern England. This was the first registered/witnessed movement of a railway vehicle. It is regarded as the
beginning date of railways.

The first railway lines began operating in most European countries around 1830s. As a result, railway networks
attained maximum density at the beginning of the 20th century. CHAPTER 1 RAILWAY DEVELOPMENT, 2003 AREMA
All visuals are taken from various internet sources
 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Department of Civil Engineering
 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Department of Civil Engineering
 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Department of Civil Engineering
 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Department of Civil Engineering

The history of the Turkish Railways

The history of the railways within our present national borders begins with the privilege of the 130 km İzmir-Aydın Railway
line on 23 September 1856. This year (1856) is commonly regarded as the foundation date of TCDD.

Our Republic inherited the 4.136 kilometres of railways that was constructed in the years between 1856 and 1923.

During the time of Great Leader Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, a mobilization for railways was called for and approximately 3.000
km of railways were constructed, 80% of which were in the eastern region, where geographical conditions were harsh.
Until 1950, an additional railway network of 3.764 kilometres was achieved. It was regarded as a modernization project with
all its social aspects and contributions to the regions.

However, unfortunately the rush for railways slowed down after 1950. Between 1951 and 2003, a total of only 945
kilometres of railway could be constructed, with just a very weak average of 18 kilometres per year.

TCDD Annual Activity Report, 2019

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
Freight Transportation
Change in Modal Share of Freight Transportation
Freight Transportation Modal Shares (1950-2011)
Between 1950 and 2011

Dalkılıç, G. “High Speed Rail Development In Turkey: Government Policy, Investments And Users Perspective “, Master Thesis, METU, 2014
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
Passenger Transportation
Passenger Transportation Modal Shares (1950-2011) Change in Modal Share of Passenger Transportation
Between 1950 and 2011

Dalkılıç, G. “High Speed Rail Development In Turkey: Government Policy, Investments And Users Perspective “, Master Thesis, METU, 2014
 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Department of Civil Engineering
The history of the Turkish Railways
As a result, the railways could not even maintain its current system, its transport share decreased to 2% for passenger
and to 4% for the freight transport; thereby a road-oriented, unhealthy transportation system emerged.

After 2003, the transport policy has changed, and railway projects were considered as the prioritized infrastructure projects
again.

Now, Turkey became the 8th High Speed Rail (HSR) operating country in the world and 6th in Europe, and Turkish high
speed railway lines increased to 1.241 kilometres.

TCDD Annual Activity Report, 2022

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_rail_transport_network_size
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_rail_transport_network_size
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Department of Civil Engineering

TRACTIVE FORCES in choronological order: STEAM, DIESEL, ELECTRIFIED

A steam locomotive is a rail vehicle that provides the force to move itself and other vehicles by means of
the expansion of steam. It is fuelled by burning combustible material (usually coal, oil or, rarely, wood)
to heat water in the locomotive's boiler to the point when it becomes gaseous and its volume increases 1,700
times.
Functionally, it is a steam engine on wheels.

Steam-powered engines had achieved impressive performances in 19th century :

All visuals are taken from various internet sources

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_locomotive
 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Department of Civil Engineering

A diesel locomotive is a type An electric locomotive is a locomotive powered

of railway locomotive in which the prime by electricity from overhead lines, a third rail or on-board
mover is a diesel engine energy storage such as a battery or a supercapacitor.

Overhead (catenary systems)

3rd rail systems

All visuals are taken from various internet sources https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_locomotive

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_locomotive
 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Department of Civil Engineering

The development of railways has been stimulated by the general economic activity, which makes clear
three economic cycles at world level, A, B & C

Evolution of Railway
by centuries and
decades within
economic cycles

Profillidis VA (2006) Railway management and engineering. Ashgate, Farnham

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Advancements in railway technology

• Hence, we come to the era of high-speed trains operating at 250÷320 km/h (a

speed of 574.8 km/h was attained by French high-speed trains in 2001 in test runs)
• These are the aerotrain and the magnetic levitation systems, or maglevs, which,
in test runs, have attained speeds of 430 km/h for the aerotrain in 1974 and 581
km/h for the maglev in 2003.
• Since 2004, magnetic levitation systems have been applied and operate at a
design speed of 431 km/h.

Profillidis VA (2006) Railway management and engineering. Ashgate, Farnham

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Aerotrain

Magnetic levitation
(Mag-Lev)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AhrdVoGw_Ks&ab_channel=SoloSoloTravel
All visuals are taken from various internet sources Profillidis VA (2006) Railway management and engineering. Ashgate, Farnham
 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Department of Civil Engineering
Advancements in railway technology
In addition to Aerotrain and Mag-lev;

• Hyperloop: Although not yet implemented on a large scale, the concept of the Hyperloop, a high-speed
transportation system using pressurized capsules in low-pressure tubes, has gained attention and investment. Several
companies are working on prototype projects. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S5fOWB6SNqs&ab_channel=BusinessInsider

• Predictive Maintenance: Sensors, Data analytics, Machine learning

• Autonomous Trains: No driver, Automated control, Safety enhancement
• Energy-Efficient Systems: Regenerative braking, Lightweight materials, Energy recovery
• Digital Signaling and Control Systems: Positive Train Control (PTC), European Train Control System (ETCS),
Real-time communication

• Augmented Reality for Maintenance: Real-time information, Maintenance guidance, Inspection support
• 3D Printing for Parts Manufacturing: Additive manufacturing, Customized components, Inspection support
• Green Initiatives: Renewable Energy, Eco-freindly materials, Carbon emission reduction
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Railway is an integrated system composed of the following elements

• Infrastructure and superstructure

• Rolling Stock (all kinds of railway vehicles including railway wagons and locomotives)
• Signaling, electrification and telecommunications systems
• Train traffic management systems
• Fixed facilities where transportation service is provided
• Administrative units that provide the continuation of the service
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Railway is a multi-disciplinary system

(Rails, Fasteners, Sleepers, and ballast, subgrade (formation) and drainage)

Railway Engineering - Unit1 Railway Systems (Part 1) – Mark Taylor All visuals are taken from various internet sources
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Rail transport, especially due to its advantages over the other modes of transport, provides a
transportation model that attracts increasing attention in the recent periods.

The advantages can be listed as follows: There are also certain disadvantages
 Higher load carrying capacity
 A safer transportation mode
• Huge capital requirement
 Lower environmental pollution • Lack of flexibility, lack of door to door & rural service,
 Lower transportation cost booking formalities
• Monopoly risk, underutilized capacity
 Ease in energy supply • Unsuitable for short distances and small cargo
 Provides public welfare and employment
opportunities
 Dependable, better organized and high speed
over long distances
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/geography/transportation/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-railway-transport/42134
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

RAILWAY SYSTEM TYPES: According to the transportation systems

Railway systems, in its most general definition, are systems carrying cargo and
passengers moving dependent on a fixed path.
According to the railway transport distance and related traffic group; they can be classified into 3 groups

1.Intercity (long distance) railways (Conventional, speed and high-speed railways)

2.Suburban railways, (Also known as “Commuter” & “inner city”) (Banliyö hattı in Turkish)

3.Urban or metropolitan railways (tramway, metro, etc.,)

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

1.Intercity (long distance) railways in Turkey

• Conventional transportation (traditional) railways: Speed up to 160 km/h operated

between cities; light and heavy cargo transportation, as well as passenger
transportation
• Speed Trains: Speed between 160-250 km/h and only passenger transportation
• High-Speed Trains: Speed up to and over 250 km/h and only also for passenger
transportation
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Suburban, Commuter railways

Commuter railway (Banliyo), or suburban rail, is a passenger rail transport service that primarily
operates within a metropolitan area, connecting commuters to a central city from
adjacent suburbs or commuter towns.

All visuals are taken from various internet sources

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Urban Rail Systems (Metropolitan Railways):

They can be categorized according to way and line characteristics, according to the
characteristics of the vehicles used, the administration type and their capacities.
Tram System
Light Rail System
Metro System (Subways)
Monorail
Rubber Wheeled Rail System
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

All visuals are taken from various internet sources

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

All visuals are taken from various internet sources

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

All visuals are taken from various internet sources

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Categorization of Railways: According to the construction characteristics of the track

Construction
Characteristics

Railway Line and its

Railway Design Tranportation
Track gauge Number of Lines position according
Speed Distance
to the ground

Conventional
Standard Gauge Intercity
Single-lined Railways On/above ground
(1435 mm) (Long-distance)
(<160 km/h)

Broad Gauge Speed railways Suburban

Double-lined Underground
(>1435 mm) (>160 &<250 km/h) (Commuter)

Narrow Gauge High-Speed Railways Urban

Multi-lined Bridges/Viaducts
(<1435 mm) (>= 250 km/h) (Metropolitan)
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Further Categorization of Railways

According to the According to the traction power

Ownership/Administration

Steam Diesel Electric

Public Private Mixed
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Railway vertical slope (Railway longitudinal gradient)

The ratio of the height difference between two different points of the railway track to the
horizontal distance is called the railway longitudinal gradient (vertical slope). In railways, the
slope value is expressed in thousandths (‰).

In other words;

Gradient
Any departure of track from the level (horizontal position) is known as grade or gradient. An up or rising
gradient is one when the track rises in the direction of movement, whereas a falling or down gradient is one
when the track falls in direction of the movement.

Purpose of providing gradient: (Why do we need gradient?)

1.To provide a uniform rate of rise or fall to the track.
2.To reduce the cost of earthwork.
3.To reach different stations at different elevations etc.
https://www.structuresinsider.com/post/what-are-the-different-types-of-gradients-used-on-railway-tracks
All visuals are taken from various internet sources
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Railway vertical slope (Railway longitudinal gradient)

Below map shows the top 20 steepest gradients in Turkey killing the total efficiency:

https://railturkey.org/2016/10/19/steepest-gradients-of-turkish-railways/ All visuals are taken from various internet sources

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Railway vertical slope (Railway longitudinal gradient)

The maximum acceptable design slope value in TCDD (State Railways Administration of
Türkiye) was determined as;

‰ 25 on conventional railway lines,

‰ 16 on speed & high-speed railway lines
and ‰ 2 on station lines.

All visuals are taken from various internet sources

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
Railway vertical slope (Railway longitudinal gradient)

Difference between elevations

Gradient=
Horizontal distance between the two points

All visuals are taken from various internet sources

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
Railway vertical slope (Railway longitudinal gradient)

Question 1
Question 1

Question 2

Question 2
"In a railway where the maximum slope allowed is equal to the slope of
high-speed train lines, how many meters would we descend (go down)
after traveling a 300 meters horizontal distance?"
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Railway vertical slope (Railway longitudinal gradient) – Example Calculations

Example1 / Örnek1:
Difference between elevations (İki nokta arasındaki yükseklik farkı)= 3 m.
Horizontal distance between the two points (iki nokta arasındaki yatay mesafe)= 500 m.
Example2 / Örnek2:
Difference between elevations (İki nokta arasındaki yükseklik farkı)= 7 m. Answers:
Horizontal distance between the two points (iki nokta arasındaki yatay mesafe)= 350 m. 1: %o 6
2: %o 20
Example3 / Örnek3: 3: %o 25
Difference between elevations (İki nokta arasındaki yükseklik farkı)= 15 m. 4: %o 16
Horizontal distance between the two points (iki nokta arasındaki yatay mesafe)= 600 m. 5: %o 0

Example4 / Örnek4:
Difference between elevations (İki nokta arasındaki yükseklik farkı)= 12 m.
Horizontal distance between the two points (iki nokta arasındaki yatay mesafe)= 750 m.
Example5 / Örnek5:
Difference between elevations (İki nokta arasındaki yükseklik farkı)= 0 m.
Horizontal distance between the two points (iki nokta arasındaki yatay mesafe)= 385 m.
 In rail transport, track gauge (in the U.S., alternatively track gage) is the
distance between the two rails of a railway track.

All vehicles on a rail network must have wheelsets that are compatible with
TRACK GAUGE the track gauge.

Since many different track gauges exist worldwide, gauge differences often
present a barrier to wider operation on railway networks (Interoperability).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Track_gauge
All visuals are taken from various internet sources
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Railway Track gauge (Ekartman=Demiryolu Hat Açıklığı)

Beforehand, wagons were pulled by horses, and 1435 mm is quite close to the width of a horse’s backside.

Track gauge is a trade-off between maneuverability and load capacity

-Narrow gauge allows for tighter radii and the cost is less

whereas

-Wide gauge allows for more stable and larger load and the cost is higher

All visuals are taken from various internet sources

The gauge of a railroad track is defined as the distance between the inner faces of the two rails. This distance is measured
14 millimeters below the running gauge. Interestingly, there are 10 standard track gauges worldwide: 500, 600, 750, 750,
762, 914, 1000, 1067, 1372, 1435, 1520, 1524, 1600, 1668, 1674 and 1676 millimeters. Why such a variety?

The world’s first gauge was 1422 mm, chosen by George Stephenson for the world’s first railroad line, between Stockton
and Darlington. The reason was that this was the separation between the wheels of the wagons in the first mine he had
worked, when the wagons were pulled by people and animals.

By 1846 the variety of track gauges in the UK was such that the British Parliament had to put things in order, dictating the
official track gauge as 1435 mm. In 1887 at the Berne Conference it was accepted as the international gauge. This gauge is
known as Stephenson gauge and is used on 60 percent of the world’s railways.

In addition to these historical issues, the various gauges are also the result of military considerations. When the world
was in the era of world wars, presenting a different gauge would allow enemy nations to avoid easy passage through the
territory. In the event of an invasion, the enemy could not use their own trains to mobilize their troops, because they
could not run on a different gauge.

https://blogingenieria.com/en/interesting-facts/railroad-track-
gauges
Another factor that has modified track gauges throughout history is the orographic factor. In mountainous areas where
trains had to make very tight turns, narrow gauges allowed for greater maneuverability of the trains, which also had to be
lighter. In countries with plains, wider track gauges and heavier and larger locomotives suited them better.

In addition to historical and military reasons, track gauges have also been influenced by economic factors. In some cases,
countries have opted for narrower track gauges as a way to reduce track construction and maintenance costs. For
example, the 1067 mm gauge, also known as Indian gauge, was adopted by the British Empire in India as a way to build a
more economical rail network compared to the standard gauge of 1435 mm. This decision had a lasting impact on India, as
Indian gauge became the standard for the country and is still used on most Indian railway lines today.
Track gauges have also evolved due to improvements in railway technology. Over time, new materials and track and train
designs have been developed that allow for more efficient and safer transportation. For example, the 1435 mm high-
speed gauge has become increasingly popular around the world due to its ability to carry passengers and freight at higher
speeds and with greater comfort compared to narrower gauges. In Europe, for example, most high-speed lines use the
standard gauge, while in Asia, where distances are longer, even wider gauges are used to allow higher speeds.
Finally, track gauges have also been influenced by national and regional policies. In some cases, countries have chosen to
adopt a standard gauge to facilitate interoperability and cross-border trade. In other situations, countries have chosen to
develop their own track gauges as a way to promote national industry and technological autonomy. For example, Russia
uses the 1520 mm gauge, also known as the Russian gauge, which is wider than the international standard of 1435 mm.
This decision was made in the 19th century as a way to prevent Western European locomotives from easily entering
Russian territory. Today, the Russian gauge is used on most railway lines in Russia and the countries of the former Soviet
Union.

https://blogingenieria.com/en/interesting-facts/railroad-track-
gauges
 Summary of reasons of
using different track gauges
• Historical issues
• Military considerations
• Orographic (mountainous regions/topography
conditions
• Economic considerations
• Improvements in railway technology
https://blogingenieria.com/en/interesting-facts/railroad-track-
gauges
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Railway Track gauge (Ekartman = Demiryolu Hat Açıklığı)

Wide

Narrow

Standard  60 % of the world railways uses

Standard gauge

All visuals are taken from various internet sources

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Railway track gauge distribution all over the world

Railway Engineering - Unit1 Railway Systems (Part 2) – Mark Taylor All visuals are taken from various internet sources
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Freight Trains

Railway Engineering - Unit1 Railway Systems (Part 2) – Mark Taylor All visuals are taken from various internet sources
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

All visuals are taken from various internet sources

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

A variable gauge system allows railway

vehicles in a train to travel across a
break of gauge caused by two railway
networks with differing track gauges.

For through-operation, a train must be

equipped with special bogies holding
variable gauge wheelsets containing a
variable gauge axle (VGA).

The gauge is altered by driving the train through a gauge changer or

gauge changing facility. In effect, the track widens or narrows.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qwNl-g_91GE
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

All visuals are taken from various internet sources

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

All visuals are taken from various internet sources

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Other requirements in addition to track gauge

In addition to track gauge, we must also consider;

• the size of the vehicles using the railway

(loading gauge)
• the size of the structures around the track
• (structure gauge)

Selected Topics in the Vehicle Design Gauging, Petr Voltr

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Selected Topics in the Vehicle Design Gauging, Petr Voltr

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Selected Topics in the Vehicle Design Gauging, Petr Voltr

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Selected Topics in the Vehicle Design Gauging, Petr Voltr

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Structure Gauge & Loading Gauge

In order to ensure safe movement of a railway
vehicle along the track, we must avoid collisions
of the vehicle with fixed infrastructure objects
(buildings, platforms, signals, poles, masts) as
well as with vehicles on the neighboring track.

Standards therefore prescribe:

the limitation of cross-sectional vehicle
dimensions: loading gauge
and
the limitation of position of trackside objects –
structure gauge, which must be larger than
the loading gauge.

These limitations must be taken into account, not only in design

stage (design of vehicles and tracks) but also in operation (loading
of vehicles, maintenance of trackside vegetation). Selected Topics in the Vehicle Design Gauging, Petr Voltr
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Selected Topics in the Vehicle Design Gauging, Petr Voltr

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

All visuals are taken from various internet sources

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Cross-Section of Railways

Rail
Cut slope
Superstructure
Sleeper/Tie

Ballast Layer

Fill slope

Infrastructure
Alt Zemin tabakası /
Subgrade
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 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
Longitudinal Section of Railways
Rail and fittings

Superstructure
Sleeper/Tie

Ballast between sleepers (Crib ballast)

Ballast under sleepers

Geotextile
Sub-ballast

Infrastructure
Subgrade

Natural Formation
All visuals are taken from various
internet sources
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Infrastructure Elements:
Geotextile, Subballast, Subgrade, Natural Formation, Platform, Earthworks (Cut, Fill, Cut Slope, Fill Slope)
Tunnels, Bridges, Viaducts, Culverts, Underpasses, Overpasses, Retaining Walls and Fortification
Structures, etc.,

Superstructure Elements:
Rail, Rail Fittings, Sleepers, Ballast, Catenary (Overhead)

All visuals are taken from various internet sources

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
Cross-Section
The rails support and guide the train wheels.
The sleepers distribute the loads applied to the rails and keep them at
a constant spacing (maintaining track gauge).
The ballast consists usually of crushed stone. The ballast should ensure,
adequate load distribution, fast drainage of rainwater, and the
damping of most of the train vibrations.
Longitudinal-Section

The subballast consists of gravel and

exceptionally of sand. It protects the subgrade
top from the penetration of ballast stones,
distributes external loads and ensures the
quick drainage of rainwater.

The subgrade acts like a foundation of a

building.

Modern Railway Track, C.Esveld, Digital Edition 2014, Version 3.1 All visuals are taken from various internet sources
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
Principle of Load Transfer

σ=

Modern Railway Track, C.Esveld, Digital Edition 2014, Version 3.1 All visuals are taken from various internet sources
 Principle of Load Transfer
Stress decreasing direction

Wheel/Rail interface

Rail/Rail fittings interface

Rail fittings /Sleeper interface

Sleeper/ Ballast interface

Ballast/ Subgrade interface

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Directions of forces on the Rail

Vertical Forces

Lateral Forces Longitudinal Forces

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 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Rail (Definition and Functions)

Rail is the superstructure material made of cast steel
i) allowing the railway vehicles to move on it, ii) guiding the wheels and iii)
transfering the forces from the axles (wheels) to the sleepers.

The rail can be seen as the most important component of the track structure and has the following functions:
it accommodates the wheel loads (vertical loads) and distributes these loads over the sleepers or
supports;
it guides the wheel in a lateral direction, distributes any horizontal transverse forces (lateral forces)
on the rail head being transferred to and distributed over the sleepers and supports;
it provides a smooth-running surface and distributes accelerating and braking (longitudinal forces)
forces by means of adhesion;
it acts as an electrical conductor on an electrified line;
it conducts signal currents.

Modern Railway Track, C.Esveld, Digital Edition 2014, Version 3.1 All visuals are taken from various internet sources
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Rail Profile Types

(Vignole rail)

(Vignole rail)

Modern Railway Track, C.Esveld, Digital Edition 2014, Version 3.1 All visuals are taken from various internet sources
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Parts of the rail

Rail Head

Rail Web

Rail Foot

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 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Rail Profile

The rail foot also serves to fasten the rail either directly or indirectly to the sleeper.

Modern Railway Track, C.Esveld, Digital Edition 2014, Version 3.1 All visuals are taken from various internet sources
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Rail
Geometry of flat-bottom rail

Details of the rail head

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 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Numbers in
parenthesis
stand for
daily traffic
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

https://uic.org/ International Union of Railways

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Rail joints and welds

Joints and welds are used to form a connection between separate lengths of rail.
Geometrical deviations must be small enough to limit dynamic effects.
Strength and stiffness of joints and welds must be approximately that of the complete
rail.

The following options exist:

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 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Fishplates
Fishbolts and Nuts
 expansion reserve

Fish bolts

Nuts
Fishplate
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
Fish-plate joints

Fish-plated joints are used to connect rails in jointed track. The joint is made by means of fishplates
and fish bolts and nuts. Axial displacements as a result of changes in temperature must be
accommodated.

Fish bolts are mounted on the holes in the rail web

All visuals are taken from various internet sources
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

A Fish-plate joint
Cebireli conta bağlantısı
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Thermit weld
Thermit welds were developed to enable a good metallurgical weld to be made in the track using
relatively simple equipment.

The method makes use of a mixture of aluminium powder and iron oxide which at a high temperature
is converted to alumina and steel. (That’s why it can be called as alumina-thermit)

The heat released causes the temperature to rise to about 2500 °C.

The process, which for as far as the specific welding part is concerned lasts about 15 minutes, is
basically as follows:

reaction: 2Al + Fe2O3 -> Al2O3 + 2Fe + 850 kJ;

All visuals are taken from various internet sources

Continuous Welded Rail

Two essential conditions for establishment of CWR:

1. good track structure able to transmit thermal stress,

2. technology of rail welding.

1. increases safety and comfort of train rides,

2. cancels wheel impacts at rail joints,
3. decreases number of defects in track control
CWR establishment: system,
4. prolongs lifetime of rail and railway tyres,
5. decreases rail maintenance costs.

www.upce.cz
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Sleeper (Tie)
Sleepers (which are called ties in North America and elsewhere) are the track
components positioned between the rails and the ballast.

In ballasted track the rails rest on sleepers and together form the built-up portion of the
superstructure.

All visuals are taken from various internet sources

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Functions and requirements of sleepers

to provide support and fixing possibilities for the rail foot and
fastenings;

to sustain rail forces and transfer them as uniformly as possible to the
ballast bed;

to preserve track gauge and rail inclination;

to provide adequate electrical insulation between both rails;

to be resistant to mechanical influences and weathering over a long

time period.

All visuals are taken from various internet sources

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Types of sleepers
Brief chronology of sleepers

The first material used for sleepers was wood.

Its scarcity and sensitivity led to the introduction of steel sleepers around 1880, which
were widely used for a long time.

Since 1950, advances in concrete technology have led to the use of concrete sleepers,
which can be:
– twin-block reinforced-concrete sleepers,
– monoblock prestressed-concrete sleepers

All visuals are taken from various internet sources

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Types of sleepers
At the moment, timber (wood) and concrete sleepers, and to a limited extent steel sleepers, are used.

Wooden Metal
(Timber)

Concrete
Concrete
Twin-block
Mono-block

All visuals are taken from various internet sources

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Criteria for selection of the types of the sleepers

The choice of the most appropriate type of sleeper should be made for each track by a feasibility analysis,
which includes an evaluation and assessment of he following economic and technical factors:

All visuals are taken from various internet sources

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Timber (wooden) sleepers

The timber sleeper is prismatic in shape, 15 cm high and 25 cm wide. The length is 2.60 -2.70m and it weighs about 100
kg, which means that the timber sleeper can be replaced by hand.

The kinds of wood presently used for timber sleepers include

beech and oak from European trees, and azobé from tropical
ones. Pine tree timber has also been used in the past.

In underground tunnels, Australian jarrah hardwood sleepers

have been used extensively.

Wooden sleeper + baseplate

All visuals are taken from various internet sources

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Timber (wooden) sleepers

Advantages
The principal advantage of timber sleepers is flexibility and the resulting better load distribution.
Timber sleepers are accordingly recommended in the case of poor-quality subgrades.
Timber sleepers moreover provide good insulation and do not require special devices for signaling and
electric traction.
Finally, compared to concrete sleepers, timber sleepers are shorter in height.

Disadvantages
relatively short lifetime (1) chemical and physical disintegration of wood through exposure to alternate
wet and dry conditions, heat and dust, (2) attacks by fungi and insects)
comparatively higher cost in Europe, (though the situation is inverse in other parts of the world)
and their low transverse resistance (a result of their low weight), thus disabling high speeds on their tracks.

Lifetime
The lifetime of timber sleepers depends on the timber type used varies between 25-50 years
All visuals are taken from various internet sources
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Steel sleepers
The steel sleeper is an industrial product of simple construction.
It consists of a profile in the form of ∩.
Its ends are forged to provide anchoring in the ballast, so as to ensure transverse track stability.

All visuals are taken from various internet sources

 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Steel sleepers
Advantages
easily manufactured, installed, and maintained
keep the track gauge adequately constant for a long time.
their lifetime is relatively long (usually 50 years)
and after replacement they have still a certain value as scrap iron.

Disadvantages
Low transverse resistance, a fact disabling increased speeds on tracks with steel sleepers.
Their form makes longitudinal and transverse track positioning difficult (maintenance using tampers is a problem).
Steel sleepers are noisy, they require special insulating devices for signaling, and their maintenance is difficult.
Furthermore, steel sleepers are sensitive to chemical attacks and particularly vulnerable in lines close to industrial and
coastal areas
relatively high price

Lifetime
Steel sleeper lifetime ranges from 30 to 60 years with a mean value of 50 years
All visuals are taken from various internet sources
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Concrete sleepers
Advantages
• The advantage of the concrete sleeper is that climatic influences have little effect.
• heavy weight (200-300 kg), useful in connection with stability of Continuous Welded Railway (CWR) track;
• Its service life is expected to be significantly higher (provided fastenings are good or can be replaced easily) than in the
case of timber sleepers.
• It keeps track gauge within satisfactory tolerances
• It can be manufactured in any country and is less expensive than the timber sleeper in many countries.
• Great freedom of design and construction; relatively simple to manufacture.
• High transverse resistance
Disadvantages
• Concrete sleepers are susceptible to impact loads, especially in the 25-300 Hz frequency range.
• less elastic than wood. On poor subgrade or formation, pumping may occur;
• susceptible to corrugations and poor-quality welds;
• risk of damage from impacts (derailment, loading/unloading, tamping tines);
• dynamic loads and ballast stresses can be as much as 25% higher;
• residual value is negative.
All visuals are taken from various internet sources
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Concrete sleepers

Reinforced twin-block sleeper Prestressed mono-block sleeper

All visuals are taken from various internet sources

The advantages of the twin-block sleeper over the monoblock
sleeper are:
– well-defined bearing surfaces in the ballast bed;
– high lateral resistance in the ballast bed because of the double
number of surface areas.

The advantages of monoblock sleepers are:

– lower price;
– little susceptibility to cracking;
– can be pre-stressed.
 CE 4528 Faculty of Engineering
MUĞLA SITKI KOÇMAN UNIVERSITY
Railway Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Sleepers Packing

To ensure stability, it is desirable that the sleeper is only supported in the areas under the rails.
In the case of prismatic sleepers such as the timber sleeper and the mono-block concrete sleeper, this is achieved by
only packing this area and leaving the center portion free as depicted in Figure.
In the case of twin-block concrete sleepers, this is achieved by the actual structure.

It must be ensured that the sleeper does not rotate

under the rails as a result of the vertical load.

This can cause gauge to become narrower or to widen

and it changes rail inclination. This happens if the sleeper
is supported too close to the inside or outside as a result
of incorrect tamping.

All visuals are taken from various internet sources