College of Science and Technology
CST Royal University of Bhutan
UNIT V: GEAR AND SCREW
THREAD MEASUREMENTS
Module Tutor: Ms. Ambika Rimal
Assistant Lecturer
Mechanical Engineering Department
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Thought for the Day
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Learning Objectives
By the end of the unit, students will be able to:
• Identify and describe the various forms of gear teeth and different types of gears
• Understand the fundamental terminology and geometric parameters of gears
• Explain the various methods used for measuring gear tooth thickness
• Describe techniques for measuring tooth profile and its accuracy
• Understand pitch measurement concepts and methods for gears
• Apply knowledge of gear metrology for quality inspection purposes
• Identify and classify the major types of errors that occur in spur gears during manufacturing
• Understand how each type of error affects gear performance and motion transmission
• Recognize the importance of error detection and measurement in ensuring proper gear
function
• Determine appropriate inspection methods for different types of gear errors
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Gears and screw threads
Gears are critical components in transmission systems requiring precise measurement for efficient
operation.
Imperfections in gears cause vibrations, noise, and power loss, highlighting the importance of accurate
inspection methods.
Similarly, threaded components must meet strict quality standards to ensure interchangeability across
different manufacturing environments. The geometric complexity of screw threads necessitates
specialized measurement approaches to validate their dimensional accuracy
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Forms of Gear Teeth
The most common forms of gear teeth are:
1.Involute - The most preferred tooth profile in gears, formed by portions of a pair of
opposed involutes
2.Cycloidal - Another form of gear tooth profile, though less common than involute
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Types of Gear
Different types of gears are used in engineering practices:
1.Spur Gears :
1. Simplest of all gears
2. Teeth are cut on the periphery and parallel to the axis of the gear
3. Used to transmit power and motion between parallel shafts
Fig: Spur gear
2.Helical Gears
1. Teeth are cut along the periphery at an angle to the axis of the gear
2. Each tooth has a helical or spiral form
3. Can deliver higher torque as more teeth mesh at any given time
4. Can transmit motion between parallel or non-parallel shafts
Fig: Helical gear
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3. Herringbone Gears
1. Have two sets of helical teeth side by side
2. One set is right-hand helical and the other is left-hand helical
Fig: Herringbone Gears
4. Worm and Worm Gears
1. Worm is similar to a screw with single or multiple start threads forming the teeth
2. Worm drives the worm gear or worm wheel
3. Axes of worm and worm gear are at right angles to each other
Fig: Worm and worm Gears
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5. Bevel Gears
1. Used to connect shafts at any desired angle
2. Shafts may lie in the same plane or in different planes
Fig: Bevel gear
6. Hypoid Gears
1. Similar to bevel gears but axes of connecting shafts do not intersect
2. Carry curved teeth
3. Stronger than common types of bevel gears and quiet-running
4. Mainly used in automobile rear axle drives
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Gear Tooth Terminology
The key terminologies associated with gears are :
1. Base Circle: The circle from which the involute form is generated. Only the base circle of a gear is fixed
and unalterable.
2. Outside Circle (Addendum Circle): Marks the maximum diameter of the gear up to which the involute
form extends. It is also the diameter of the blank from which the gear is cut.
3. Pitch Circle: The imaginary circle on which lies the centers of the pitch cylinders of two mating gears.
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Root Circle: The circle corresponding to the minimum diameter of the gear profile. The involute profile is limited
only up to the base circle of a spur gear.
Addendum: The radial distance between the addendum circle and the pitch circle.
Dedendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the root circle.
Face: The portion of tooth lying between the addendum circle and the pitch circle.
Flank: The portion of tooth lying between the pitch circle and the dedendum circle.
Circular Pitch: The distance between corresponding points of adjacent teeth measured along the pitch circle.
Diametrical Pitch: The number of teeth per unit diameter of the pitch circle.
Module: The metric standard for pitch. It is the linear distance (in millimeters) that each tooth would occupy if
spaced along the pitch diameter. If the pitch circle diameter is D and the number of teeth is N, then module m =
D/N.
Tooth Thickness: The arc distance measured along the pitch circle from its intercept with one flank to that with the
other flank of the same tooth.
Base Pitch: The distance measured around the base circle from the origin of the involute on the tooth to the origin
of a similar involute on the next tooth.
Base pitch = Base circumference/Number of teeth
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Gear Tooth Measurement
1. Tooth Thickness Measurement
Tooth thickness is a critical parameter in gear inspection, as it ensures proper meshing and
power transmission between gears. Two primary methods are used to measure tooth thickness:
the gear tooth calliper method and the tooth span micrometer method.
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Gear Tooth Calliper
Construction: The gear tooth calliper consists of two vernier scales:
✓ Horizontal Scale: Measures the chordal thickness of the gear tooth.
✓ Vertical Scale: Sets the position of a sliding blade to the addendum height of the gear tooth.
The blade is adjusted to the addendum height, and the anvils of the calliper are brought into contact with the
gear teeth to measure the chordal thickness.
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Procedure:
1. Calculate the chordal thickness (gc) and chordal height (hc) using the formulas:
where d is the pitch circle diameter,
z is the number of teeth,
m is the module.
2. Set the vertical scale to the calculated chordal height (hc ).
3. Place the calliper on the gear such that the blade contacts the top of the tooth and the anvils touch the flanks.
4. Read the chordal thickness from the horizontal scale.
Advantages:
• Simple and widely used.
• Provides direct measurement of chordal thickness.
Limitations:
• Accuracy depends on the correct setting of the blade height.
• Sensitive to profile variations and runout errors.
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2. Tooth Span Micrometer Method (Base Tangent Method)
Principle
This method measures the span width across a fixed number of teeth using a micrometer. It is based on the
property of involute gears where the distance between two opposed involutes remains constant regardless of their
position on the gear.
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Procedure
1. Calculate the theoretical span width (Ws) using the formula:
Where, S is the number of teeth spanned,
N is the total number of teeth
ϕ is the pressure angle.
2. Set the micrometer to the calculated Ws value.
3. Place the micrometer flanges on the gear teeth such that they contact the flanks at the pitch line.
4. The micrometer reading gives the actual span width, which is compared to the theoretical value to determine errors.
Advantages:
• More accurate than the gear calliper method.
• Independent of the position of the micrometer flanges on the teeth.
Limitations:
• Requires precise calculation of the span width.
• Not suitable for gears with very small or very large numbers of teeth.
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Measurement of Tooth Profile
The tooth profile of a gear, typically an involute curve, must be accurately measured to ensure smooth meshing
and minimal noise. Two common methods are used: the first principle method (using a dividing head and
height gauge) and the profile-measuring machine method.
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1. First principle method ( Dividing head and height gauge)
Principle:
The involute profile is generated by unwrapping a string from the base circle. The height of points on
the involute curve is measured relative to the base circle.
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Procedure:
1. Mount the gear on a dividing head and tailstock.
2. Set the height gauge to zero at a reference point (e.g., the start of the involute).
3. Rotate the gear in small increments (e.g., 1° or 1') and measure the vertical displacement (hn) of the involute
at each angle (ϕn) using the height gauge.
4. Compare the measured values with the theoretical values calculated using:
where rb is the base circle radius.
5. Tabulate the errors (ϵn=h′n−hn) to assess profile deviations.
Advantages:
• Simple and cost-effective.
• Suitable for small-scale inspections.
Limitations:
• Time-consuming for high-precision measurements.
• Requires manual calculations and careful alignment.
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Table: Readings of dividing head
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Profile-Measuring Machine Method
Principle: A specialized gear-measuring machine traces the involute profile using a spring-loaded probe and
records deviations electronically.
Procedure:
1. Mount the gear on an arbor in the machine.
2. Position the probe at the origin of the involute (0° roll angle).
3. Rotate the gear while the probe traces the tooth flank.
4. Deviations from the true involute are amplified and recorded on a chart or digital display.
5. The machine can measure multiple teeth and provide a graphical representation of profile errors.
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Advantages:
• High accuracy and repeatability.
• Automated data recording and analysis.
Limitations:
• Expensive equipment.
• Requires skilled operation.
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Gear Pitch Measurement
Pitch errors in gears can lead to uneven motion transmission and noise. Two instruments are commonly used:
1. Pitch-Measuring Instrument
Construction: Consists of a fixed finger and a movable finger connected to a dial indicator. The fingers are set to
corresponding points on adjacent teeth along the pitch circle.
Procedure:
1. Position the fixed finger on one tooth flank.
2. Adjust the movable finger to the corresponding point on the adjacent tooth.
3. The dial indicator displays the pitch variation between the teeth.
4. Repeat for multiple teeth to assess single pitch errors and accumulated pitch errors.
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Advantages:
• Simple and portable.
• Provides direct readings of pitch variations.
Limitations:
• Readings can be influenced by profile errors and gear runout.
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2. Pitch-Checking Instrument
Construction: Similar to a dividing head, with a fixed anvil and a movable feeler connected to a dial indicator.
Procedure:
1. Place the instrument on the gear with supports resting on the tooth crests.
2. Butt one tooth flank against the fixed anvil.
3. The movable feeler senses the next tooth flank, and the dial indicator shows the pitch error.
4. Calculate adjacent pitch error and accumulated pitch error from the readings.
Advantages:
• Suitable for both small and large gears.
• Provides comparative measurements.
Limitations:
• Requires careful alignment of the instrument.
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Gear Errors
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Gear errors
Gears are critical components in transmission systems, and their accuracy is essential for
efficient power transfer, minimal noise, and long service life. Errors in gear manufacturing can
lead to performance issues such as vibrations, chatter, and power loss. Below is a detailed
breakdown of common gear errors, their causes, and their implications.
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Gear Blank Runout Errors
Runout errors occur due to deviations in the gear blank's geometry before machining, such as
out-of-roundness or misalignment of the outer diameter (OD) and faces.
Causes:
• Inaccurate preliminary machining (turning, facing) of the gear blank.
• Improper mounting or clamping during machining.
Effects:
• Misalignment during gear meshing.
• Increased vibration and noise. Fig: Gear Runout error
• Reduced gear life due to uneven load distribution.
Measurement:
• Radial Runout: Measured using a dial indicator while rotating the gear.
• Face Runout: Checked by placing the dial indicator on the gear face.
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Gear Tooth Profile Errors
Deviations of the actual tooth profile from the ideal involute or cycloidal form.
Causes:
•Incorrect tool geometry or wear in gear-cutting tools (hobs, shapers).
•Improper machine settings during gear generation.
Effects:
•Positive Error: Leads to jamming or excessive friction between mating teeth.
•Negative Error: Causes backlash, reducing power transmission efficiency.
Measurement:
•Profile-Measuring Machines: Use a stylus to trace the tooth profile and compare it to the theoretical involute curve.
•Optical Projectors: Magnify the tooth profile for visual inspection.
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Gear Tooth Errors
Errors in tooth thickness or alignment of teeth relative to the gear axis.
Types:
• Tooth Thickness Error: Variation in the width of the tooth along the pitch circle.
• Tooth Alignment Error: Teeth are not parallel to the gear axis (misaligned).
Causes:
• Incorrect tool feed or depth during machining.
• Machine tool deflection or thermal expansion.
Effects:
• Uneven load distribution.
• Increased wear and noise.
Measurement:
• Gear Tooth Calliper: Measures chordal thickness at the pitch circle.
• Tooth Span Micrometer: Measures the base tangent length over multiple teeth.
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Pitch errors
Variations in the distance between corresponding points on adjacent teeth.
Types:
• Single Pitch Error: Error between two adjacent teeth.
• Accumulated Pitch Error: Sum of errors over multiple teeth.
Causes:
• Inaccurate indexing during gear cutting.
• Wear or backlash in the dividing mechanism of the gear-cutting machine.
Effects:
• Irregular motion transmission.
• Vibration and noise.
Measurement:
• Pitch-Measuring Instrument: Uses fixed and movable fingers to measure pitch variation.
• Pitch-Checking Instrument: Employs a dial indicator to compare actual pitch with theoretical values.
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Runout Errors (Pitch Circle Runout)
Eccentricity of the pitch circle relative to the gear's axis of rotation.
Causes:
• Misalignment of the gear blank during machining.
• Non-concentric mounting of the gear on its shaft.
Effects:
• Uneven meshing with mating gears.
• Cyclic loading leading to premature failure.
Measurement:
• Single-Probe Check: Uses a dial indicator to measure radial displacement.
• Two-Probe Check: Measures runout by comparing diametrically opposite teeth.
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Lead Errors
Deviation in the axial advance of the tooth profile (for helical gears) or misalignment of teeth
(for spur gears).
Causes:
• Incorrect helix angle setting during machining.
• Tool misalignment or machine tool errors.
Effects:
• Poor contact between mating teeth.
• Localized wear and reduced load capacity.
Measurement:
• Lead-Measuring Machine: Traces the tooth flank along the axis to detect deviations.
• Dial Indicator Method: Measures axial displacement over the gear face width.
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Assembly Errors
Errors introduced during gear mounting or alignment with mating gears.
Types:
• Centre Distance Error: Incorrect spacing between gear axes.
• Axes Misalignment: Non-parallel or skewed gear shafts.
Causes:
• Improper assembly tolerances.
• Deflections in the gearbox or mounting structure.
Effects:
• Backlash or binding.
• Increased noise and wear.
Measurement:
• Alignment Tools: Dial indicators, laser alignment systems.
• Composite Testing: Uses a master gear to check meshing behaviour (e.g., Parkinson Gear Tester).
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Screw Thread
Threads are essential for fastening and power transmission in mechanical systems. Understanding their
terminology is crucial for design, manufacturing, and inspection. Below are the key terms associated
with screw threads:
Screw Thread : A helical ridge formed on a cylindrical or conical surface, used to convert rotational
motion into linear motion or to fasten components.
External Thread : A thread cut on the outer surface of a workpiece (e.g., bolts, screws).
Internal Thread : A thread cut on the inner surface of a workpiece (e.g., nuts, threaded holes).
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Terminology
Major Diameter (D): The largest diameter of an external thread (measured at the crests) or the smallest diameter of an
internal thread (measured at the roots).
Minor Diameter (d): The smallest diameter of an external thread (measured at the roots) or the largest diameter of an
internal thread (measured at the crests). Also called root diameter.
Pitch Diameter (Effective Diameter, E): The diameter of an imaginary cylinder where the widths of the thread and groove
are equal. Determines the fit between mating threads.
Pitch (P): The axial distance between corresponding points on adjacent threads.
Lead (L): The axial distance a screw advances in one complete revolution. For single-start threads, Lead = Pitch; for multi-
start threads, Lead = Pitch × No. of Starts.
Thread Angle (α): The included angle between the flanks of the thread (e.g., 60° for metric threads, 55° for Whitworth
threads).
Flank Angle: The angle between a thread flank and a perpendicular line to the thread axis.
Crest: The top surface of the thread.
Root: The bottom surface of the thread.
Helix Angle (ψ): The angle between the thread helix and a plane perpendicular to the thread axis.
Addendum: The radial distance from the pitch line to the crest (for external threads) or root (for internal threads).
Dedendum: The radial distance from the pitch line to the root (for external threads) or crest (for internal threads).
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Forms of Thread
Threads are helical ridges used for fastening or power transmission. Acme Thread
The form of a thread refers to its geometric profile in an axial section. • Profile: Trapezoidal with a 29° included angle.
Common thread forms include:
• Use: Power transmission (e.g., lead screws in machinery).
British Standard Whitworth (BSW)
Buttress Thread
• Profile: Rounded crests and roots with a 55° included
angle. • Profile: Asymmetric with one flank at 45° and the other
at 7°.
• Use: General-purpose fastening in British engineering.
• Use: Applications requiring high axial load in one
Unified Thread Standard (UTS) direction (e.g., vices).
• Profile: Flat crests and roots with a 60° included angle. Knuckle Thread
• Types: UNC (coarse), UNF (fine), UNEF (extra fine). • Profile: Rounded crests and roots.
• Use: Widely adopted in the US and internationally for • Use: Heavy-duty applications (e.g., railway couplings).
fasteners.
Metric Thread (ISO)
• Profile: Similar to UTS but with metric dimensions (60°
angle).
• Use: Standard in most countries for metric fasteners.
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Errors in Threads
Thread errors arise during manufacturing and affect functionality. Key errors include:
Pitch Errors
• Progressive Error: Linear increase in pitch due to incorrect tool-work velocity ratio (e.g., worn lead
screw).
• Periodic Error: Cyclic variation caused by gear train inaccuracies or axial play in the lead screw.
• Drunken Thread: Non-helical path despite correct pitch (localized helix distortion).
Flank Angle Errors
• Deviation from the specified angle (e.g., 60° for metric threads).
• Cause: Incorrect tool grinding or misalignment.
Major/Minor Diameter Errors
• Oversized or undersized diameters due to improper tool setting or wear.
Effective Diameter Errors
• Incorrect pitch diameter affects thread fit (too tight or loose).
Thread Form Errors
• Deviations from the ideal profile (e.g., flatness of crests/roots).
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Measurement of Minor Diameter
The minor diameter (root diameter) is critical for thread strength and
fit.
Measurement Methods:
• Floating Carriage Micrometer
• Uses V-pieces to contact thread roots.
• Comparative method: A setting cylinder is used to zero the micrometer, and
deviations are measured.
• Thread Micrometer
• Special anvils match thread profile for direct measurement.
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Measurement of Effective Diameter
The effective (pitch) diameter ensures proper thread engagement. Indirect methods like wire methods are
used.
Two-Wire Method
• Place two wires of diameter dd in thread grooves.
• Measure distance M over wires.
• Calculate effective diameter De:
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Three-Wire Method
• Place one wire on one flank and two on opposite flanks.
• Measure M and calculate De:
Advantages:
- Better accuracy due to stable wire alignment.
- Reduces errors from thread misalignment.
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Thread Measurement Tools
Bench Micrometer
• Measures major diameter with a fiducial indicator for controlled pressure.
Floating Carriage Micrometer
• For minor diameter using V-pieces.
Pitch-Measuring Machine
• Uses a stylus to trace pitch errors.
Considerations while measuring:
Wire Selection: Hardened steel wires with precise diameters.
Alignment: Ensure wires contact flanks without deformation.
Standards: Follow ASTM guidelines for wire methods to minimize errors.
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