Section 2.
1 — Rates of Change
Motion along a straight line:
s = position of object on the line = s(t): function of time
t = time
s(t2 ) s(t1 ) s
Average velocity over [t1 , t2 ] = =
t2 t1 t
s = change in position,
s = change in time
Instantaneous velocity
Fix a time t0 . How fast is the object travelling at this instant?
Let v (t0 ) = instantaneous velocity at t0 ,
and vave = average velocity over the time interval [t0 , t].
s(t) s(t0 )
v (t0 ) = lim vave = lim
t!t0 t!t0 t t0
lim vave = the value that vave approaches as t gets closer and
t!t0
closer to t0 .
Example: A ball falls from a height of 100 ft. Approximate its
speed 2 sec. after being relased.
t 0 1 1.5 1.9 1.99 1.999 2
s 100 84 64 42.24 36.638 36.06399 36
s = height (ft.)
t = time (sec.) (observed data)
Solution:
Averarage velocity
time interval t (sec.) s (ft.) t/ s (ft./sec.)
[1,2] 1 84 36 = 48 48/1 = 48
[1.5,2] .5 64 36 = 28 28/.05 = 56
[1.9,2] .1 42.24 36 = 6.24 6.24/.1 = 62.4
[1.99,2] .01 36.638 36 = .638 .638/.01 = 63.8
[1.999,2] .001 36.06399 36 = .06399 .06399/.001 = 63.99
s s
lim = lim = 64 ft./sec.
t!2 t t!0 t
is the speed as the data is showing.
Example: The volume of water in a tank is given by
t
V (t) = 1 e where
V = Volume in cubic meters,
t = time in seconds.
At what rate is the volume increasing when t = 5 sec.?
Estimate numerically!
Solution: First approximation t = .1 sec.
V V (5.1) V (5) .993903 .993262
= = = .00641 m3 /sec.
t .1 .1
Improved approximation t = .001 sec.
V V (5.001) V (5) .99326879 .99326205
= = = .00674 m3 /sec.
t .1 .001
(Exact value is e 5 = .006737 . . . as we’ll see later.)
Graphical interpretation of average and instantaneous
velocity
s s(t) s(t0 )
vave = =
t t t0
= slope of “secant” line to graph,
s
v (t0 ) = lim
t!t0 t
= slope of the tangent line to the curve at the point (t0 , s(t0 )).
Section 2.2 — The Concept of Limit
lim f (x) = “limit as x approaches a of f (x)”
x!a
:= the value that f (x) approaches as x gets closer and closer to a
Notes: 1) x is allowed to approach a from the right or left, but x
is not allowed to equal a.
2) In order for the limit to exist you must get the same value
approaching from the left or the right.
a) lim = 1;
x!2
b) lim = D.N.E. (left and right limits are di↵erent);
x!1
c) lim = 1 (x never reaches 4).
x!4
How to make this definition rigorous?
Definition: Suppose that f (x) is defined on some open interval
containing a (but possibly not at a). We say
lim f (x) = L
x!a
if for any (tiny) positive number " (epsilon) we have
|f (x) L| < "
provided x is sufficiently close to a.
“Sufficiently close” means there exists, a (tiny) positive number
(delta) such that if |x a| < then |f (x) L| < ".
You will not be asked to do a "- proof in this class.
One-sided limits:
lim f (x) = “limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the right”
x!a+
lim f (x) = “limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the left”
x!a
a) lim = 1 (x < 1);
x!1
b) lim+ = 2 (x > 1);
x!1
c) lim = 1 (x < 2);
x!2
d) lim = 1 (x < 4, x never reaches 4).
x!4
Numerical determination of limits
Example: Evaluate lim+ (1 + x)1/x .
x!0
Solution: Set up table on calculator
y= y1 = (1 + x) ^ (1/x)
2nd TBLSET Indpnt ASK
2nd TABLE
(Since x ! 0+ we evaluate f(x) at small positive values of x
approaching 0.)
x y1
.1 2.59374
.01 2.70481
.001 2.71692
.0001 2.71814
.00001 2.71827
lim+ (1 + x)1/x = e = 2.7182818 . . .
x!0
1
Example: Evaluate the limit lim+ sin x numerically
x!0
Solution:
x sin x1
.1 .54402
.01 .50636
.001 .82688
.0001 .30561
.00001 .035748
No obvious limit. Let us investigate the graph of sin x1 .
We note that sin x1 = 0 for x1 = ⇡, 2⇡, 3⇡, 4⇡, . . .
, x = ⇡1 , 2⇡
1 1
, 3⇡ 1
, 4⇡ , . . ..
Thus the graph oscillates for x ! 0+ infinitely many times:
1
lim+ sin x D.N.E.
x!0
Example: Investigate the limits numerically:
2x + 3 2x + 3
lim 2 and lim+ 2
x!2 x 4 x!2 x 4
Solution: Let y = (2x + 3)/(x 2 4). Make tables:
x y x y
1.9 17.44 2.1 17.56
1.99 174.9 2.01 175.1
1.999 1750 2.001 1750
2x + 3 2x + 3
lim = 1 (D.N.E.) lim+ = +1 (D.N.E.)
x!2 x2 4 x!2 x2 4
Here, the graph has a vertical asymptote:
