⃝Francis

c Oketch

Lecture 6

3 Conic sections
A conic section, also called conic, is obtained by intersecting a double-napped right circular cone with
a plane. By varying the position of the plane, we obtain a circle, a parabola, an ellipse, or a hyperbola.
A conic section takes the general form

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 +. Dx + Ey + F = 0 ,

where A, B, C, D, E and F are constants. In particular, if A = C ̸= 0 and B = 0, we obtain a circle.

3.1 The Circle

A circle is the locus of a point which moves such that its distance from a fixed point is constant. The
fixed point is called the center of the circle The distance from the point is called the radius.

3.1.1 Equation of a circle

Consider a circle with center C(h, k) and radius r, as shown below.

Let P (x, y) be a general point on the circle.

From the definition of the √ circle, the radius
is given by r = CP = (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 .
Squaring both sides yields the general equation
of the circle, in standard form, as

(x − h)2 + (y. − k)2 = r2

In particular, the equation of a circle with center at the origin and radius r is x2 + y 2 = r2 .

→ Note: if the equation of a circle is given in the form x2 + y 2 + Ax + By + C = 0, then the center
and the radius can be obtained by completing the squares.

Example(s):
1. Find the equation of the circle with center C(1,-2) and radius r = 7 units.

Solution
The standard equation has the form (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 . Since h = 1, k = −2 and r = 7,
the equation becomes (x − 1)2 + (y + 2)2 = 49.

2. Find the center and radius of the circle defined by x2 + y 2 − 4x + 10y − 2 = 0.

Solution
Completing the squares, we get

(x2 − 4x + p) + (y 2 + 10y + q) = 2 + p + q
( )2 ( )2
−4 10
where p = = 4 and q = = 25. Thus, the equation becomes
2 2

(x − 2)2 + (y + 5)2 = 31
√
Hence the center is C(2,-5) and the radius is 31.

35
3.1 The Circle ⃝Francis
c Oketch

3. Find the equation of the circle passing through the three points (4,7), (5,6) and (1,8).

Solution
Let the center of the circle be C(h, k), radius be r and (x, y) be a general point on the circle.
The standard equation has the form (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 . Since the given points lie on the
circle, they must satisfy the equation of the circle.

 Using point (4,7), we have x = 4, y = 7. Therefore, the equation becomes

(4 − h)2 + (7 − k)2 = r2 ⇒ h2 + k 2 − 8h − 14k + 65 = r2 (i)

 Using point (5,6), we have x = 5, y = 6. Therefore, the equation becomes

(5 − h)2 + (6 − k)2 = r2 ⇒ h2 + k 2 − 10h − 12k + 61 = r2 (ii)

 Using point (1,8), we have x = 1, y = 8. Therefore, the equation becomes

(1 − h)2 + (8 − k)2 = r2 ⇒ h2 + k 2 − 2h − 16k + 65 = r2 (iii)

Eliminating r2 between equation (i) and (ii), we get 2h − 2k + 4 = 0 (∗).

Eliminating r between equation (i) and (iii), we get −6h + 2k = 0
2 (∗∗).
Eliminating k between equation (∗) and (∗∗), we get −4h + 4 = 0. Therefore,

h = 1, k = 3 and r2 = (4 − h)2 + (7 − k)2 = 25

Hence, the equation is (x − 1)2 + (y − 3)2 = 25.

4. A circle passes through points (2,3) and (4,5) and its center is on the line 2x + 3y = 5. Find the
equation of the circle.

Solution
Let the center of the circle be C(h, k), radius be r and (x, y) be a general point on the circle.
The standard equation has the form (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 . Since the given points lie on the
circle, they must satisfy the equation of the circle.

 Using point (2,3), we have x = 2, y = 3. Therefore, the equation becomes

(2 − h)2 + (3 − k)2 = r2 ⇒ h2 + k 2 − 4h − 6k + 13 = r2 (i)

 Using point (4,5), we have x = 4, y = 5. Therefore, the equation becomes

(4 − h)2 + (5 − k)2 = r2 ⇒ h2 + k 2 − 8h − 10k + 41 = r2 (ii)

 Since the center C(h, k) lies on the line 2x + 3y = 5, we have x = h, y = k. Therefore,

2h + 3k = 5 (∗)

Eliminating r2 between equation (i) and (ii), we get 4h + 4k − 28 = 0 (∗∗).

Eliminating h between equation (∗) and (∗∗), we get 2k + 18 = 0. Therefore,

k = −9, h = 16 and r2 = (2 − h)2 + (3 − k)2 = 340

Hence, the equation is (x − 16)2 + (y + 9)2 = 340.

Exercise:

1. Find the equation of a circle with center C(3, −2) and passes through the point (-1,1). [ans:
(x − 3)2 + (y + 2)2 = 25]

36
3.1 The Circle ⃝Francis
c Oketch

2. Find the center and radius of the circle defined by.

(a) x2 + y 2 + 12x − 6y − 7 = 0
(b) x2 + y 2 − 10x − 6y + 34 = 0
(c) 2x2 + 2y 2 + 7x + 6y + 12 = 0

3. Find the equation of the circle through the given points.

(a) (5,2), (2,1) and (1,6) [ans: x2 + y 2 − 5.5x − 7.5y + 13.5 = 0]

(b) (1,2), (3,-4) and (5,-6) [ans: (x − 11)2 + (y − 2)2 = 100]
(c) (2,3), (6,1) and (4,-3)
(d) (-1,2), (3,4) and (2,-1)
(e) (1,1), (2,-1) and (3,2)

4. Find the equation of the circle whose diameter is the line joining the points given.

(a) (2,2) and (7,9)

(b) (6,8) and (12,1)
(c) (-3,1) and (-1,-1)
(d) (8,4) and (2,9)
(e) (7,10) and (21,3)

3.1.2 Distance from a point to a circle

Consider point P1 (a1 , b1 ) outside the circle with center C(h, k) and radius r. Let B1 be a point on the
circle such that it lies on the line segment P1 C, as shown below.
The distance from P1 (a1 , b1 ) to the circle is P1 B1
which is obtained as
√
dP1 B1 = P1 C−B1 C = (a1 − h)2 + (b1 − k)2 −r

Consider another point P2 (a2 , b2 ) inside the

circle lying on the line segment CB2 . The
distance from P2 (a2 , b2 ) to the circle is P2 B2
which is obtained as
√
dP2 B2 = CB2 −CP2 = r− (a2 − h)2 + (b2 − k)2

In general, the distance d from point P (a, b) to a circle with center C(h, k) and radius r is
√
d= (a − h)2 .+ (b − k)2 − r

with d positive if P is outside the circle, negative if P is inside the circle, and zero if P is on the circle.

Example(s):

1. Find the distance from the point P(5,8) to the circle x2 + y 2 + 2x + 6y + 3 = 0 and state whether
the point is outside, inside or on the circle.

Solution
Standard form of the equation of the circle is obtained by completing the squares to get

(x + 1)2 + (y + 3)2 = 7

37
3.1 The Circle ⃝Francis
c Oketch

√
Therefore, the circle has center C(-1,-3) and radius r = 7. Hence, the distance from point
P(5,8) to the circle is
√ √ √ √
d= (5 − −1)2 + (8 − −3)2 − 7 = 157 − 7 = 9.88

Since d is positive, the given point is outside the circle.

Exercise:

1. Find the distance from the point to the circle and state whether the point lies outside, inside or
on the circle.

(a) P(8,7) to the circle x2 + y 2 + 12x − 5y + 3 = 0.

(b) P(4,-3) to the circle x2 + y 2 − 6x + 6y + 5 = 0.
(c) P(-7,6) to the circle 3x2 + 3y 2 + 6x − 5y − 1 = 0.
(d) P(1,1) to the circle 2x2 + 2y 2 − 1 = 0.
(e) P(-6,10) to the circle x2 + y 2 + 16x + 20y + 126 = 0.

3.1.3 Tangent, secant, chord and normal

 Secant - is a line through the circle intersecting with the circle at two points.

 Chord - is a line segment joining any two points on a circle. The chord through the center is
called a diameter of the circle.

 Tangent - is a line that has only a single point of contact P with a circle.

 Normal - is a line through P which is perpendicular to the tangent at P. The normal will always
pass through the center of the circle.

 Equation of the tangent

The equation of the tangent to a circle through a given point P (x1 , y1 ) can be obtained if the center
C(h, k) of the circle is known. The tangent will be perpendicular to the normal which passes through
the given point P on the circle.

Example(s):

1. Find the equation of the tangent to the circle with center C(2,5) at point P(6,3) on the circle.

Solution
The slope of the normal that passes through point P(6,3) is

∆y 5−3 2 1
m1 = = = =−
∆x 2−6 −4 2
Since tangent and normal are perpendicular, therefore, the slope of the tangent at P is
−1
m2 = =2
m1
Let R(x, y) be any other point on the tangent. Then, the equation of tangent at point P is
y−3
=2 ⇒ 2x − y = 9
x−6

38
3.1 The Circle ⃝Francis
c Oketch

2. Find the equation of the tangent to the circle x2 + y 2 + 10x − 6y − 66 = 0 at the point(3,-3).

Solution
By completing the squares, the given circle has the standard form

(x + 5)2 + (y − 3)2 = 100

Thus, the center is C(-5,3). The slope of the normal that passes through point P(3,-3) is
∆y −3 − 3 −6 3
m1 = = = =−
∆x 3 − −5 8 4
Since tangent and normal are perpendicular, therefore, the slope of the tangent at P is
−1 4
m2 = =
m1 3
Let R(x, y) be any other point on the tangent. Then, the equation of tangent at point P is
y+3 4
= ⇒ 4x − 3y = 21
x−3 3

Exercise:
1. Find the tangent to the circle at the point P (7,12) if the circle has center C (4,8). [ans:
3x + 4y = 69]

2. The equation of a circle is given by x2 + y 2 = 10. Verify that y = 3x + 10 is the tangent to the
circle. [hint: solve simultaneously to show that point of contact is one, ans: point of contact is
(-3,1)]
 Tangent to a circle from a given point

Let point P1 (x1 , y1 ) be a point outside the circle with center C(h, k) and radius r. Let points
D1 (m1 , n1 ) and D2 (m2 , n2 ) be the points on the circle such that the lines through P1 D1 and P1 D2
are tangents to the circle. The problem is to determine the coordinates of points D1 and D2 .

→ Note: The chord through

D1 and D2 is called the chord
of contact of tangents from
the point P1 with respect to
the given circle.

Example(s):
1. Find the points on the circle x2 + y 2 + 12x + 4y + 15 = 0 through which the tangents from the
point P(1,-3) pass. Also find the equation of the chord of contact and the tangents.

Solution
By completing the squares, the given circle has the standard form

(x + 6)2 + (y + 2)2 = 25

39
3.1 The Circle ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Thus, the center is C(-6,-2). Let D(m, n) be a point on the circle. The slope of the tangent
through P and D is
∆y −3 − n
m2 = =
∆x 1−m
The slope of the normal through C and D is
∆y −2 − n
m1 = =
∆x −6 − m
 Since the tangent and normal and perpendicular, we have m1 m2 = −1, i.e.,
( )( )
−3 − n −2 − n
= −1 ⇒ m2 + n2 + 5m + 5n = 0 (i)
1−m −6 − m

 Since point D(m, n) lies on the circle x2 + y 2 + 12x + 4y + 15 = 0, we have

m2 + n2 + 12m + 4n + 15 = 0 (ii)

Subtracting equation (i) from (ii) yields

7m − n + 15 = 0 (iii)

Eliminating n between equations (ii) and (iii), we get

m2 + (7m + 15)2 + 12m + 4(7m + 15) + 15 = 0 ⇒ m2 + 5m + 6 = 0

Solving for m yields m = −2 ⇒ n = 1 or m = −3 ⇒ n = −6. Therefore, the tangent

points are D1 (−2, 1) and D1 (−3, −6). The equation of the chord through the two tangent points
is 7x − y + 15 = 0. The equation of the two tangents are 3x − 4y − 15 = 0 and 4x + 3y + 5 = 0.

Exercise:
1. Find the equation of the tangents to the given circle from the given external point.

(a) x2 + y 2 − 25 = 0 and P(7,1) [ans: 3x + 4y − 25 = 0 and 4x − 3y − 25 = 0]

(b) x2 + y2 − 6x − 8y = 0 and P(2,11) [ans: 3x + 4y − 50 = 0 and 4x − 3y + 25 = 0]
(c) 3x2 + 3y 2 + 2x + 4y − 6 = 0 and P(5,-3)

2. Find the length of a tangent drawn from the indicated point to the point of contact with the
given circle.

(a) P(5,6); x2 + y 2 = 12. [ans: 7 units]

(b) P(2,8); x2 + y2 + 4x − 10y + 20 = 0.
(c) P(5,6); x2 + y2 − 6x + 10y + 14 = 0.

3.1.4 Intersection of two circles

Consider the two circles x2 + y 2 + A1 x + B1 y + C1 = 0 and x2 + y 2 + A2 x + B2 y + C2 = 0. At the
points of intersection both equations are satisfied and therefore

x2 + y 2 + A1 x + B1 y + C1 = x2 + y 2 + A2 x + B2 y + C2

Simplifying gives the equation of a line

Ax + By + C = 0,

where A = A1 − A2 , B = B1 − B2 and C = C1 − C2 are constants. The points of intersection lie on

this line. Making y the subject and substituting in any of the circle equations and solving will give
the coordinates of the points of intersection.

Example(s):

40
3.1 The Circle ⃝Francis
c Oketch

1. Find the points of intersection of the circles x2 + y 2 + 5x + 5y = 0 and x2 + y 2 + 12x + 4y + 15 = 0.

Solution
Equating the two equations gives the linear equation 7x − y + 15 = 0. Making y the subject
yields y = 7x + 15. Substituting in the first equation we get the quadratic equation

x2 + (7x + 15)2 + 5x + 5 (7x + 15) = 0 ⇒ x2 + 5x + 6 = 0

Solving for x yields x = −2 ⇒ y = 1 or x = −3 ⇒ y = −6. Therefore, the two circles

intersect at points (-2,1) and (-3,-6).

3.1.5 Orthogonal circles

Consider two intersecting circles with centers C1 and C2 and radii r1 and r2 , respectively. The circles
are said to be orthogonal if their respective tangents at the points of intersection are perpendicular to
each other. From the diagram below,

Triangle C1 P C2 is right-angled since the two tangents

are perpendicular. Using Pythagoras theorem, we
have
C1 C2 =. r12 + r22
2

Hence, two circles are orthogonal if the square of the

distance between their centers is equal to the sum of
squares of their radii.

Example(s):

1. Show that the circles x2 + y 2 + 6x − 4y − 12 = 0 and x2 + y 2 − 20x − 4y − 40 = 0 are orthogonal.

Solution
The circles have the standard forms (x + 3)2 + (y − 2)2 = 25 and (x − 10)
√ + (y − 2) = 144,
2 2

respectively. Thus, the first circle has center

√ C1 (−3, 2) and radius r1 = 25 = 5. The second
circle has center C2 (10, 2) and radius r1 = 144 = 12. The distance between the centers is
√
d= (10 − −3)2 + (2 − 2)2 = 13

Also,
r12 + r22 = 52 + 122 = 169
Since d2 = r12 + r22 , the given circles are orthogonal.

41
3.2 The Parabola ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Lecture 7

3.2 The Parabola

A parabola is the set of all points in a plane equidistant from a fixed point F (the focus) and a fixed
line l (the directrix) that lie in the plane.

We shall assume that F is not on l, for this would

result in a line. If P is a point in the plane and P ′
is the point on l determined by a line through P that
is perpendicular to l, then, by the preceding definition,
P is on the parabola if and only if the distances d(P, F )
and d(P, P ′ ) are equal.
The axis of the parabola is the line through F that is
perpendicular to the directrix.
The vertex of the parabola is the point V on the axis
halfway from F to l. The vertex is the point on the
parabola that is closest to the directrix.

3.2.1 Equation of parabola with horizontal or vertical axis of symmetry

To obtain a simple equation for a parabola, place the

y-axis along the axis of the parabola, with the origin at
the vertex V . In this case, the focus F has coordinates
(0, p) for some real number p ̸= 0 (called the focal
length), and the equation of the directrix is y = −p.
(The figure shows the case p > 0.)
By the distance formula, a point P (x, y) is on the
graph of the parabola if and only if d(P, F ) = d(P, P ′ )
- that is, if
√ √
(x − 0)2 + (y − p)2 = (x − x)2 + (y + p)2

We square both sides and simplify to get:

1 2
x2 = 4py .
or, equivalently, y= x
4p

→ Note:

 |p| is the distance between the focus F and the vertex V , or the distance between the directrix
l and the vertex V .

 If p > 0, the parabola opens upward. If p < 0, the parabola opens downward.
1 2
 If we interchange the roles of x and y, we obtain y 2 = 4px or, equivalently, x = y . This is
4p
the equation of the parabola with vertex at the origin, focus F (p, 0), and opening right if p > 0
or left if p < 0. The equation of the directrix is x = −p.

3.2.2 Standard equation of a parabola

In general,

 Parabola with vertex V (h, k) and axis of symmetry vertical:

42
3.2 The Parabola ⃝Francis
c Oketch

 Equation (x − h) =. 4p(y − k)
2

 Vertex (h, k).

 Focus F (h, k + p).
 Directrix y = k − p.
 Axis of symmetry x = h.

 Parabola with vertex V (h, k) and axis of symmetry horizontal:

 Equation (y − k) =. 4p(x − h)
2

 Vertex (h, k).

 Focus F (h + p, k).
 Directrix x = h − p.
 Axis of symmetry y = k.

Example(s):
1
1. Find the focus and directrix of the parabola y = − x2 , and sketch its graph.
6

Solution

The standard form of the given parabola is

x2 = −6y

The standard equation has the form x2 = 4py,

with 4p = −6 and hence the focal length
3
is p = − = −1.5. Thus, the parabola
2
opens downward and has focus F (0, −1.5). The
directrix is the horizontal line y = 1.5, which is
a distance 1.5 above V , as shown in the figure.

2. (a) Find an equation of a parabola that has vertex at the origin, opens right, and passes through
the point P (7, −3).
(b) Find the focus F of the parabola.

Solution

43
3.2 The Parabola ⃝Francis
c Oketch

(a) The required standard equation has the

form y 2 = 4px, for some number p which
we need to determine. Since P (7, −3) is on
the graph, then substituting 7 for x and −3
for y yields (−3)2 = 4p(7) so that the focal
9
length is p = . Hence, an equation for
28
9
the parabola is y 2 = x.
7
(b) The focus is a distance p to the right of the
vertex.
( )Thus, the focus F has coordinates
9
,0 .
28

3. Given the parabola (x − 3)2 = −6(y − 2), find the vertex, focus, directrix, axis and focal length.

Solution
Here, h = 3, k = 2 and 4p = −6 or, equivalently, the focal length is p = −1.5. Therefore, the
parabola opens downward and

i) The vertex V (h, k) is V (3, 2).

ii) The focus is F (h, k + p) = F (3, 0.5).
iii) The directrix is y = k − p = 3.5.
iv) The axis of symmetry is x = h = 3.

4. Discuss and sketch the graph of 2x = y 2 + 8y + 22.

Solution

The equation can be rewritten as

y 2 + 8y + = 2x − 22 +

Completing the square on the left yields y 2 +8y+

(4)2 = 2x − 22 + (4)2 ⇒ (y + 4)2 = 2(x − 3).
Here, h = 3, k = −4 and 4p = 2 or, equivalently,
the focal length is p = 0.5. Therefore,
i) The vertex V (h, k) is V (3, −4).
ii) The focus is F (h + p, k) = F (3.5, −4).
iii) The directrix is x = h − p = 2.5.
iv) The axis of symmetry is y = k = −4.

5. A parabola has vertex V (−4, 2) and directrix y = 5. Express the equation of the parabola in
the form y = ax2 + bx + c.

Solution

44
3.2 The Parabola ⃝Francis
c Oketch

The required equation has the standard form

(x − h)2 = 4p(y − k),

with h = −4 and k = 2 and with the focal length

p = −3, since V is 3 units below the directrix.
Substituting yields (x + 4)2 = 4(−3)(y − 2),
which on simplifying and rearranging gives
1 2 2 2
y=− x − x+
12 3 3

6. Find the equation of the parabola with directrix y = −2 and focus F (2, 5).

Solution
Since the axis is perpendicular to the directrix, the axis is parallel to the y-axis. Thus, the
required equation has the standard form
(x − h)2 = 4p(y − k)
with directrix y = k − p and focus F (h, k + p). Therefore, h = 2, k − p = −2 and k + p = 5.
Solving for k and p, we get k = 1.5, p = 3.5. Hence, the desired equation is
(x − 2)2 = 14(y − 1.5)

Exercise:
1. Find the vertex, focus, and directrix of the parabola. Sketch its graph, showing the focus and
the directrix: (a) 20x = y 2 , (b) 2y 2 = −3x, (c) (x + 2)2 = −8(y − 1), (d) (y + 1)2 = −12(x + 2),
(e) y = x2 − 4x + 2, and (f) x2 + 20y = 10
2. Find an equation of the parabola that satisfies the given conditions.
(a) Focus F (2, 0), directrix x = −2
(b) Focus F (−3, −2), directrix y = 1
(c) Vertex V (3, −5), directrix x = 2
(d) Vertex V (−2, 3), directrix y = 5
(e) Vertex V (−1, 0), focus F (−4, 0)
(f) Vertex V (1, −2), focus F (1, 0)
(g) Vertex at the origin, symmetric to the y-axis, and passing through the point (2, −3).
(h) Vertex at (−3, 5), axis parallel to the x-axis, and passing through the point (5, 9).

3.2.3 Standard equation of a parabola with slant axis of symmetry

Let the focus of the parabola be F (a, b) and the equation of the directrix be Ax + By + C = 0. Let
P (x, y) be any point on the parabola.

From the ′
√ definition of parabola, we have FP = PP . Now,
FP = (x − a) + (y − b) . Also, the distance from point
2 2
Ax + By + C
P (x, y) to line Ax + By + C = 0 is PP′ = √ .
A2 + B 2
The general equation of the parabola is therefore given by

(Ax + By + C)2
(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 .=
A2 + B 2

45
3.2 The Parabola ⃝Francis
c Oketch

→ Note: this equation is useful when the directix and focus are known.

Example(s):

1. Find the equation of the parabola with directrix y = −2 and focus F (2, 5).

Solution
(Ax + By + C)2
The general equation has the form (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = with directrix Ax +
A2 + B 2
By + C = 0 and focus F (a, b). Given the directrix y + 2 = 0 and focus F (2, 5), we have
A = 0, B = 1, C = 2, a = 2, b = 5. Substituting yields

(x − 2)2 + (y − 5)2 = (y + 2)2

Expanding and simplifying yields the desired equation, in standard form, as

(x − 2)2 = 14(y − 1.5)

2. Find the equation of the parabola with directrix 3y = −4x + 2 and focus F (3, 4).

Solution
(Ax + By + C)2
The general equation of the parabola takes the form (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = with
A2 + B 2
directrix Ax + By + C = 0 and focus F (a, b). Given the directrix 4x + 3y − 2 = 0 and focus
F (3, 4), we have A = 4, B = 3, C = −2, a = 3, b = 4. Substituting yields

(4x + 3y − 2)2
(x − 3)2 + (y − 4)2 =
(4)2 + (3)2

Expanding and simplifying yields the desired equation as

9x2 − 24xy + 16y 2 − 134x − 188y + 621 = 0

Exercise:

1. Find the equation of the parabola whose focus and directrix are as given below.

(a) F(5,0), directrix x = −5.

(b) F(6,-2), directrix 3y = 8x − 4.

46
3.3 The Ellipse ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Lecture 8

3.3 The Ellipse

An ellipse is the set of all points in a plane, the sum of whose distances from two fixed points (the
foci) in the plane is a positive constant. The center of an ellipse is the midpoint of the line segment
joining the two foci.

3.3.1 Equation of ellipse with major axis horizontal or vertical

To determine the equation for the ellipse, we construct
a coordinate system so that the foci (F and F ′ ) for the
ellipse are located at points F (c, 0) and F ′ (−c, 0) for
c > 0, with the center of the ellipse at the origin.
Hence, c is the distance between the center and the
focus and the distance between F and F ′ is 2c. We
let P (x, y) be an arbitrary point on the ellipse. The
constant sum of the distances from P (x, y) to F (c, 0)
and from P (x, y) to F ′ (−c, 0) is denoted by 2a, which
is the length of the major axis. To obtain points that
are not on the x-axis, we must have 2a > 2c, i.e.,
a > c.

By definition of the ellipse, a point P (x, y) lies on the ellipse if and only if

dP F + dP F ′ = 2a

Using the distance formula, we have

√ √
(x − c)2 + (y − 0)2 + (x + c)2 + (y − 0)2 = 2a

This can be written as √ √

(x − c)2 + y 2 = 2a − (x + c)2 + y 2
Squaring both sides of the last equation gives us
√
(x − c)2 + y 2 = 4a2 − 4a (x + c)2 + y 2 + (x + c)2 + y 2

Simplifying and rearranging yields

√
a (x + c)2 + y 2 = a2 + cx

Squaring both sides again yields

a2 [(x + c)2 + y 2 ] = a4 + 2a2 cx + c2 x2

Expanding and simplifying yields

(a2 − c2 )x2 + a2 y 2 = a2 (a2 − c2 )

Dividing both sides by a2 (a2 − c2 ), we obtain the standard form for the equation of the ellipse with
center at the origin and foci on the x-axis as

x2 y. 2
+ 2 =1,
a2 b

where b2 = a2 − c2 . Since c > 0, it follows that a2 > b2 and hence a > b. The x-intercepts of the
ellipse are x = ±a and the y-intercepts are y = ±b. The line segment joining the points (−a, 0) and
(a, 0) is called the major axis of the ellipse, with length 2a. The line segment joining the points
(0, −b) and (0, b) is called the minor axis of the ellipse, with length 2b.

→ Note:

47
3.3 The Ellipse ⃝Francis
c Oketch

 a is the distance between the center and the vertex, b is the distance between the center and the
endpoint of minor axis, and c is the distance between the center and the focus.

 if c = 0, then a2 = b2 , and we have a circle. Also, if c = a, then b = 0, and we have a degenerate

conic, i.e., a line.

 if we interchange the roles of x and y, we obtain the standard form for the equation of the ellipse
with center at the origin and foci on the y-axis as

x2 y. 2
+ 2 =1,
b2 a

where b2 = a2 − c2 , a > b, a > c.

3.3.2 Standard equation of an ellipse

In general, for a > b, a > c and b2 = a2 − c2 , we have

 Ellipse with major axis horizontal and center at point (h, k):

(x − h)2 (y
. − k) = 1
2
 Equation +
a2 b2
 Center at point (h, k).
 Foci F (h + ′
√ c, k) and F (h − c, k),
where c = a2 − b2 .
 The major axis is on the line y = k
and the vertices are V (h + a, k) and
V ′ (h − a, k).
 The minor axis is on the line x = h
and the endpoints of the minor axis
are M (h, k + b) and M ′ (h, k − b).

 Ellipse with major axis vertical and center at point (h, k):

. − k) = 1
(x − h)2 (y 2
 Equation +
b2 a2
 Center at point (h, k).
 Foci√F (h, k + c) and F ′ (h, k − c), where
c = a2 − b 2 .
 The major axis is on the line x = h and the
vertices are V (h, k + a) and V ′ (h, k − a).
 The minor axis is on the line y = k and the
endpoints of the minor axis are M (h + b, k)
and M ′ (h − b, k).

Example(s):

48
3.3 The Ellipse ⃝Francis
c Oketch

x2 y 2
1. Describe the graph of the equation + = 1.
4 9

Solution
Since 9 > 4, the major axis is vertical and the standard equation has the form

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ =1
b2 a2
√ √ √
Thus, a2 = 9, b2 = 4, h = 0 and k = 0 so that a = 3, b = 2 and c = a2 − b2 = 9 − 4 = √ 5.
Hence, the given
√ equation is an ellipse with center at (0,0) and the foci are located at F (0, 5)
′
and F (0, − 5). The major axis is on the line x = 0 (i.e., y-axis) and the vertices are located
at V (0, 3) and V ′ (0, −3). The minor axis is on the line y = 0 (i.e., x-axis) and the endpoints of
the minor axis are located at M (2, 0) and M ′ (−2, 0). The student to sketch the graph.

2. Sketch the graph of 2x2 + 9y 2 − 18 = 0, and find the foci and length of major and minor axes.

Solution

To write this equation in standard form,

we move the constant term to the right-
hand side and divide both sides by 18 to
obtain a constant of 1 on the right:

x2 y 2
+ =1
9 2
Since 9 > 2, the major axis is horizontal
and the standard equation has the form

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ =1
a2 b2

√ √ √ √
Thus, a2 = 9, b2 = 2, h = 0 and k = 0 so that a = 3, b = 2 and c = a2 − b2 = 9 − 2 = √ 7.
Hence, the√given equation is an ellipse with center at (0,0) and the foci are located at F ( 7, 0)
and F ′ (− 7, 0). The major axis is on the line y = 0 (i.e., x-axis) and the vertices are located
at V (3, 0) and V ′ (−3, 0). The minor
√ axis is on the line
√ x = 0 (i.e., y-axis) and the endpoints of
the minor axis are located at M (0, 2) and M ′ (0, − 2).

3. Discuss and sketch the graph of the equation 16x2 + 9y 2 + 64x − 18y − 71 = 0.

Solution

To obtain the standard form of the given

equation, we complete the squares as follows

16(x2 +4x+p)+9(y 2 −2y+q) = 71+16p+9q,

( )2 ( )2
4 −2
where p = = 4 and q = = 1.
2 2
Substituting yields

16(x2 + 4x + 4) + 9(y 2 − 2y + 1) = 71 + 64 + 9 ⇒ 16(x + 2)2 + 9(y − 1)2 = 144

49
3.3 The Ellipse ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Dividing through by 144 yields

(x + 2)2 (y − 1)2
+ =1
9 16
Since 16 > 9, the major axis is vertical and the standard equation has the form

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ =1
b2 a2
√ √
Thus,
√ a2 = 16, b2 = 9, h = −2 and k = 1 so that a = 4, b = 3 and c = a2 − b2 = 16 − 9 =
7. Hence,√ the given equation√is an ellipse with center at (−2, 1) and the foci are located at
F (−2, 1 + 7) and F ′ (−2, 1 − 7). The major axis is on the line x = −2 and the vertices are
located at V (−2, 5) and V ′ (−2, −3). The minor axis is on the line y = 1 and the endpoints of
the minor axis are located at M (1, 1) and M ′ (−5, 1).

4. Find the equation of the ellipse with vertices (±4, 0) and foci (±2, 0).

Solution
Since the foci are on the x-axis and are equidistant from the origin, the major axis is on the
x2 y2
x-axis and the ellipse has center (0,0). Thus, a general equation of an ellipse is 2 + 2 = 1.
a b
Since the vertices are (±4, 0), we conclude that a = 4. Since the foci are (±2, 0), we conclude
x2 y2
that c = 2. Hence, b2 = a2 − c2 = 42 − 22 = 12, and an equation of the ellipse is + = 1.
16 12

Exercise:

1. Find the vertices and foci of each ellipse. Sketch its graph, showing the foci: (a) 4x2 +16y 2 = 64,
(x − 3)2 (y + 4)2
(b) 4x2 + 25y 2 = 1, (c) + = 1, (d) 9x2 + 25y 2 + 54x − 50y − 119 = 0, and (e)
16 9
4x2 + y 2 = 2y.

2. Find the equation of the ellipse with center (-4,3), with minor axis of length 6, and with foci
(x + 4)2 (y − 3)2
(−4, 3 ± 4). [hint: h = −4, k = 3, b = 3, c = 4, a2 = b2 + c2 = 25, ans: + = 1]
9 25

3.3.3 Eccentricity
To obtain information about the roundness of an ellipse, we use the term eccentricity (e) of an ellipse,
which is defined by √
distance from centre to focus c a2 − b2
e= = =
distance from centre to vertex a a
Thus for an ellipse, 0 < e < 1. The case e = 0 corresponds to a circle while e = 1 corresponds to
a line. The greater the eccentricity, the more ”stretched” out the graph of the ellipse will be. The
smaller the eccentricity, the more circular the ellipse will look.

50
3.4 The Hyperbola ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Lecture 9

3.4 The Hyperbola

A hyperbola is the set of all points in a plane, the difference of whose distances from two fixed points
(the foci) in the plane is a positive constant.

3.4.1 Equation of hyperbola

To obtain a simple equation for a hyperbola, we

choose a coordinate system with foci at F (c, 0) and
F ′ (−c, 0) and denote the (constant) distance by 2a.
The midpoint of the segment F ′ F (the origin) is called
the center of the hyperbola.
By definition, a point P (x, y) is on the hyperbola if
and only if either of the following is true: (1) d(P, F )−
d(P, F ′ ) = 2a or (2) d(P, F ′ ) − d(P, F ) = 2a.

If P is not on the x-axis, then from the above figure we see that

d(P, F ) < d(F ′ , F ) + d(P, F ′ ),

because the length of one side of a triangle is always less than the sum of the lengths of the other two
sides. Similarly,
d(P, F ′ ) < d(F ′ , F ) + d(P, F ).
Equivalent forms for the previous two inequalities are

d(P, F ) − d(P, F ′ ) < d(F ′ , F ) and d(P, F ′ ) − d(P, F ) < d(F ′ , F )

Since the differences on the left-hand sides of these inequalities both equal 2a and since
d(F ′ , F ) = 2c, the last two inequalities imply that 2a < 2c, or a < c. (Recall that for ellipses we had
a > c.)

Next, equations (1) and (2) may be replaced by the single equation

d(P, F ) − d(P, F ′ ) = 2a.

Using the distance formula to find d(P, F ) and d(P, F ′ ), we obtain an equation of the hyperbola:
√ √
(x − c)2 + (y − 0)2 − (x + c)2 + (y − 0)2 = 2a.

Employing the type of simplification procedure that we used to derive an equation for an ellipse, we
can rewrite the preceding equation as
x2 y. 2
− 2 =1,
a2 b
where b2 = c2 − a2 with b > 0.

51
3.4 The Hyperbola ⃝Francis
c Oketch

3.4.2 Graphs and Analysis

x2 y2
The graph of 2 − 2 = 1 with b >
a b
0, is a hyperbola with center at the
origin. The length of the transverse
axis (V ′ V ) is 2a, and the length of
the conjugate axis is 2b. The foci
are a distance c from the origin, where
c2 = a2 + b2 . The vertices are V (a, 0)
and V ′ (−a, 0). The graph has no y-
y2
intercept, since the equation − 2 = 1
b
has the complex solutions y = ±bi.
The points W (0, b) and W ′ (0, −b) are
endpoints of the conjugate axis W ′ W .
The points W and W ′ are not on the
hyperbola; however, as we shall see,
they are useful for describing the graph.

x2 y2 b√ 2
Solving the equation − = 1 for y gives us y = ± x − a2 . If x2 − a2 < 0 or, equivalently,
a2 b2 a
−a < x < a, then there are no points (x, y) on the graph. There are points P (x, y) on the graph if
x ≥ a or x ≤ −a. The lines y = ±(b/a)x are asymptotes for the hyperbola. These asymptotes serve as
excellent guides for sketching the graph. A convenient way to sketch the asymptotes is to first plot the
vertices V (a, 0), V ′ (−a, 0) and the points W (0, b), W (0, −b). If vertical and horizontal lines are drawn
through these endpoints of the transverse and conjugate axes, respectively, then the diagonals of the
resulting auxiliary rectangle have slopes (b/a) and (−b/a). Hence, by extending these diagonals we
obtain the asymptotes y = ±(b/a)x. The hyperbola is then sketched as shown, using the asymptotes
as guides. The two parts that make up the hyperbola are called the right branch and the left branch
of the hyperbola.

Similarly, if we take the foci on the y-axis,

y 2 x2
we obtain the equation 2 − 2 = 1. In this
a b
case, the vertices of the hyperbola are (0, ±a)
and the endpoints of the conjugate axis are
(±b, 0). The asymptotes are x = ±(b/a)y,
and we now refer to the two parts that make
up the hyperbola as the upper branch and the
lower branch of the hyperbola.

→ Note: the vertices are on the x-axis if the x2 -term has a positive coefficient or on the y-axis if the
y 2 -term has a positive coefficient. It is not always true that a > b, as is the case for ellipses. In fact,
we may have a < b, a > b, or a = b.

52
3.4 The Hyperbola ⃝Francis
c Oketch

3.4.3 Standard Equation of a Hyperbola

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
In general, the equation − = 1 is a hyperbola with center (h, k). The length of
a2 b2
the transverse axis is 2a, and the length of the conjugate axis is 2b. The vertices are (h ± a, k).
The endpoints of the conjugate axis are (h, k ± b). The foci are a distance c from the centre, where
b
c2 = a2 + b2 . The foci are (h ± c, k), and equations of the asymptotes are y − k = ± (x − h).
a
Example(s):

1. Sketch the graph of 9x2 − 4y 2 = 36. Find the foci and equations of the asymptotes.

Solution

The graph is a hyperbola with center at the origin.

To express the given equation in a standard form,
we divide both sides by 36 and simplify, obtaining
x2 y2
− = 1. Here, a2 = 4 and b2 = 9.
4 9
That is, a = 2, b = 3. The hyperbola has its
vertices on the x-axis, since there are x-intercepts
and no y-intercepts. The vertices (±2, 0) and the
endpoints (0, ±3) of the conjugate axis determine
the auxiliary rectangle whose diagonals (extended)
give us the asymptotes. The graph of the equation
is as shown.

√ √
To find the foci, we calculate c2 = a2 + b2 = 13. Thus, c = 13, and the foci are F ( 13, 0) and
√ 3
F (− 13, 0). The equations of the asymptotes are y = ±(b/a)x = ± x.
2
2. A hyperbola has vertices (±3, 0) and passes through the point P (5, 2). Find its equation, foci,
and asymptotes.

Solution

We begin by sketching a hyperbola with vertices

(±3, 0) that passes through the point P (5, 2),
as shown. An equation of the hyperbola has
x2 y2
the form 2 − 2 = 1. Since P (5, 2) is on the
3 b
hyperbola, the x- and y-coordinates satisfy this
52 22
equation; that is, 2 − 2 = 1. Solving for b2
3 b
2 9
gives us b = , and hence an equation for the
4
x2 y 2
hyperbola is 2 − 9 = 1 or, equivalently,
3 4
x − 4y = 9.
2 2

√
9 45 45 3√
c2
To find the foci, we first calculate = a2 + b2
= 9 + = . Hence, c = = 5, and the
( ) 4 4 4 2
3√
foci are ± 5, 0 . The general equations of the asymptotes are y = ±(b/a)x. Substituting
2
3 1
a = 3 and b = gives us y = ± x.
2 2

53
 ⃝Francis
c Oketch

3. Sketch the graph of the equation 9x2 − 4y 2 − 54x − 16y + 29 = 0.

Solution
We arrange our work as follows: 9(x2 −6x+p)−
4(y 2 + 4y + q) = −29 + 9p − 4q. Completing the
squares for the expressions within parentheses
to obtain p = (−3)2 = 9 and q = (2)2 = 4.
Therefore,

9(x2 − 6x + 9) − 4(y 2 + 4y + 4) = −29 + 81 − 16

⇒ 9(x − 3)2 − 4(y + 2)2 = 36. This can be

(x − 3)2 (y + 2)2
written as − = 1, which is a
4 9
hyperbola with center (3, −2) with vertices and
foci on the horizontal line y = −2, because the
term containing x is positive.
√
We also know that a2 = 4, b2 = 9 and c2 = a2 + b2 = 13. Hence, a = 2, b = 3 and c = 13. The
vertices are (h ± a, k) = (3 ± 2, −2) i.e., V (5, −2) and V ′ (1, −2). The endpoints of the √
conjugate
′
axis are (h, k±b) = (3, −2±3) i.e., W (3, 1) and W (3, −5). The foci are (h±c, k) = (3± 13, −2),
b 3
and equations of the asymptotes are y − k = ± (x − h). i.e., y + 2 = ± (x − 3).
a 2

Exercise:
1. Find the vertices, the foci, and the equations of the asymptotes of the hyperbola. Sketch its
y 2 x2 (x − 3)2 (y − 1)2
graph, showing the asymptotes and the foci: (a) − = 1, (b) − = 1, and
9 4 25 4
(c) 25x − 9y + 100x − 54y + 10 = 0.
2 2

Lecture 10

4 Polar Coordinates
Polar coordinates is another way of representing points in a plane. In polar coordinate system, we fix
a point O called the pole (or the origin) and construct, from the origin, an initial ray called the polar
axis, as shown below. Next, we consider any point P in the plane different from O.
If r = d(O, P ) and θ denotes the measure of
any angle determined by the polar axis and OP,
then r and θ are polar coordinates of P and the
symbols (r, θ) or P (r, θ) are used to denote point
P. As usual, θ is considered positive if the angle
is generated by a counterclockwise rotation of
the polar axis and negative if the rotation is
clockwise. Either radian or degree measure may
be used for θ.
An assignment of ordered pairs of the form (r, θ) to points in a plane is a polar coordinate
system, and the plane is the rθ-plane.

→ Note: the point P (r, θ) has infinitely many polar coordinates pairs corresponding to r > 0 and
r < 0.

Example(s):

54
4.1 Relationships between Cartesian and polar coordinates ⃝Francis
c Oketch

3 ), Q(3, − 4 ) and R(−4, 3 ) in the rθ-plane.

1. Plot the points P (2, 4π π 2π

Solution

 P (2, 4π 4π
3 ) - turn 3 radians in anticlockwise direction
from the initial ray and move forward 2 units.
 Q(3, − π4 ) - turn π4 radians in clockwise direction from
the initial ray and move forward 3 units.
 R(−4, 2π 2π
3 ) - turn 3 radians in anticlockwise direction
from the initial ray and move backward 4 units.

2. Locate the point P (4, 3π

5 ) in the rθ-plane and find all its polar coordinates pairs.

Solution

3π
The point P (4, 3π
5 ) can be reached by turning 5 radians
in anticlockwise direction from the initial ray and going
2π
forward 4 units. It can also be reached by turning
5
radians in clockwise direction from the initial ray and going
8π
backward 4 units or turning radians in anticlockwise
5
direction from the initial ray and going backward 4 units
7π
or turning radians in clockwise direction from the initial
5
ray and going forward 4 units.

Therefore, the corresponding polar coordinate pairs of the given point P are P (4, 3π
5 + 2πn) and
P (−4, − 2π
5 + 2πn), where n = 0, ±1, ±2, etc.

Exercise:
1. Locate the following points in the rθ-plane: (a) P (−3, − π6 ), (b) P (−4, 3π 7π
5 ) and (c) P (2, 6 ).

2. Find all the polar coordinates pairs of the point P (2, π6 ). [ans: the corresponding coordinate
pairs of P are P (2, 6 + 2πn) and P (−2, − 6 + 2πn) for n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, · · · ]
π 5π

4.1 Relationships between Cartesian and polar coordinates

The rectangular (or Cartesian)

coordinates (x, y) and polar
coordinates (r, θ) of a point P on
the plane are related as follows:

x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ
y
r2 = x2 + y 2 , tan θ =
x
These relationships can be proved
from trigonometry and Pythagoras
theorem.

55
4.1 Relationships between Cartesian and polar coordinates ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Example(s):
√
1. (a) Find three different pairs of polar coordinates of point P (x, y) = (−1, 3). [ans: (2, 2π
3 ),
3 ) and (−2, − 3 )]
(2, − 4π π
√
(b) Find the rectangular coordinates of point Q(r, θ) = (4, 7π/6). [ans: (x, y) = (−2 3, −2)]

2. Convert the given equations to polar coordinates form.

(a) x2 − y 2 = 16

Solution
Substituting x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ yields

(r cos θ)2 − (r sin θ)2 = 16 ⇒ r2 (cos2 θ − sin2 θ) = 16 ⇒ r2 cos 2θ = 16

Therefore, r2 = 16 sec θ.
(b) xy = 4

Solution
Substituting x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ yields
1
(r cos θ)(r sin θ) = 4 ⇒ r2 (cos θ sin θ) = 4 ⇒ r2 sin 2θ = 4
2
Therefore, r2 = 8cosec 2θ.
(c) x2 + y 2 − 2ax = 0, where a is a constant.

Solution
Substituting x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ yields

(r cos θ)2 + (r sin θ)2 − 2a(r cos θ) = 0 ⇒ r2 (cos2 θ + sin2 θ) − 2ar cos θ = 0

But cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1, therefore, r2 = 2ar cos θ or r = 2a cos θ.

3. Find an equation in x and y that has the same graph as the polar equation r = a sin θ with
a ̸= 0. Sketch the graph.

Solution

r = a sin θ ⇒ r2 = ar sin θ. Substituting

y = r sin θ and r2 = x2 +y 2 yields x2 +y 2 −ay =
0. Completing the square in y gives us
( )2 ( )2
−a −a
x2 + y 2 − ay + =
2 2
or ( )2 ( )2
a −a
x + y−
2
=
2 2
In the xy-plane, the graph of the last equation
is a circle with center (0, a2 ) and radius |a|
2 as
illustrated herein for the case a > 0 (the solid
circle) and a < 0 (the dashed circle).

4. Sketch the graph of the polar equation r = 2 + 4 cos θ.

Solution

56
4.1 Relationships between Cartesian and polar coordinates ⃝Francis
c Oketch

We first find the pole values by solving the

equation r = 0 and solve for θ in [0, 2π]:
2π 4π
0 = 2 + 4 cos θ ⇒ θ= ,
3 3
π
Thus, the step-size for θ should be . Next,
3
we construct a table of θ-values from 0 to 2π at
π
intervals of .
3
The graph is called a limacon with an inner loop.

π π π 2π 5π 7π 4π 3π 5π 11π
θ 0 π 2π
6 3 2 3 6 6 3 2 3 6
r 6 5.5 4 2 0 -1.5 -2 -1.5 0 2 4 5.5 6

→ Note: you should use polar coordinate graph paper, which displays lines through O at various
angles and concentric circles with centers at the pole.

Exercise:
√
1. Show that r = 2 sin θ − 2 cos θ is a circle. Find the center and radius.[ans: center (1,-1), r = 2]
2. Convert the given polar equation to the corresponding Cartesian coordinate form
(a) r = 1 + 2r cos θ. [ans: y 2 − 3x2 − 4x − 1 = 0]
√
(b) r cos(θ − π3 ) = 4. [hint: cos(A − B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B, ans: x + 3y = 8]
(c) r = 2. [ans: x4 + x2 y 2 = ay 2 ]
(d) r = a tan θ, where a is a constant. [ans: x2 + y 2 = 4]
6
(e) r = . [ans: 2x − 3y = 6]
2 cos θ − 3 sin θ
(f) r = a(1 + 2 cos θ), where a is a constant. [ans: (x2 + y 2 − 2ax)2 = a2 (x2 + y 2 )]
3. Verify the following graphs of polar equations

π
r = a sin 2θ for a > 0 [hint: step-size = ] r = θ for θ ≥ 0
4

Exercise:
1. Draw the graph of the following polar curves in the range 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
(a) r = 2 cos 2θ.
(b) r = 2 sin2 θ.
(c) r = 1 + 3 cos θ.

57
4.2 Points of intersection ⃝Francis
c Oketch

4.2 Points of intersection

If r = f (θ) and r = g(θ) are two intersecting polar curves, then at points of intersection, we have

f (θ) =. g(θ)

Solving this trigonometric equation yields infinitely many values of θ. Thus, a range of the required
values of θ is necessary.

Example(s):
1. Find the points of intersection of the curves r = cos 2θ and r = cos θ in the range 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.

Solution
At the points of intersection of the two polar curves, the right-hand side expressions in both
cases are equal, i.e.,
cos 2θ = cos θ
But from Trigonometry, we have the identity cos 2θ = 2 cos2 θ − 1. Substituting into the above
equation yields
2 cos2 θ − cos θ − 1 = 0
Letting x = cos θ, the equation becomes
2x2 − x − 1 = 0
1 1
The roots are x = 1 or x = − . Therefore, cos θ = 1 or cos θ = − . We use the unit circle
2 2
to find the values of θ.

π
2

θ1
Case 1: cos θ = 1.
S Ac
0 From the unit circle, cosine is +ve in the 1st and 4th quadrants.
π . 0, 2π Let the roots be θ1 and θ2 .
0c
The principal value is given by α = cos−1 (1) = 0 rad.
T C Hence, the roots are: θ1 = 0 and θ2 = 2π.
θ2
3π
2
π
2

1
Case 2: cos θ = − .
θ3 2
S A From the unit circle, cosine is -ve in the 2nd and 3rd quadrants.
π/3 .
π 0, 2π Let the roots be θ1 and θ2 .
π/3 ( ) π
The principal value is given by α = cos−1 21 = .
θ4 T C ( π ) 2π
3 (
π ) 4π
Hence, the roots are: θ1 = π − = and θ2 = π + = .
3 3 3 3
3π
2

Therefore, the points of intersection of the two curves are (1, 0), (1, 2π), (− 21 , 2π 1 4π
3 ) and (− 2 , 3 ).

Exercise:
1. Find the points of intersection of the following polar curves in the range 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
(a) r = 1 + cos θ and r = 1 − cos θ. [ans: (0, 0), (1, π2 ) and (1, 3π
2 )]
√ √
(b) r = 1 + cos θ and r = 1 − sin θ. [ans: (0, 0), ( 2−2 2 , 3π 2− 2 7π
4 ) and ( 2 , 4 )]
(c) r = 4 − 5 sin θ and r = 3 sin θ. [ans: (0, 0), ( 23 , π6 ) and ( 32 , 5π
6 )]

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 ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Lecture 11

5 Vectors in Two and Three Dimensions

Vectors in two and three dimensions: Addition, subtraction, multiplication by scalars, resolution,
scalar and vector products.
Applications to plane trigonometry, geometry of straight line in two and three dimensions, and
resultant force and velocity.

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