KNOWLEDGE AND CURRICULUM

Max. Marks :100

Time: 3 Hours (Theory: 80, Internal: 20)

NOTE FOR PAPER SETTER

i. Paper setter will set nine questions in all, out of which students will be required to attempt
five questions.
ii. Q.No 1 will be compulsory and will carry 16 marks. There will be four short -answer type
Questions of 4 marks each to be selected from the entire syllabus.
iii. Two long answer type question will be set from each of the four units, out of which the
student will be required to attempt one question from each unit. Long- answer type questions
will carry 16 marks each.

Course Contents

Unit-I

1. Knowledge Basis of Education

●Basic concepts of Education: Teaching, Training, Learning, Skill, Beliefs and Education.

●Contribution of Gandhi & Tagore in relation to child-centered education (activity, Discovery, Dialogue)

●Concept, sources & types of Knowledge

Unit-II

2. Social Basis of Education

●Basic concepts of Society: Socialization, Equity and Equality, Modernity with reference to
industrialization, democracy and individual Autonomy.

●The role of culture, economy and historical forces in shaping the aims of education.

●Individual opportunity, social justice and dignity in context of democratic education.

●A study of Secularism, Nationalism and Universalism and their interrelationship with education.

Unit-III

3. Curriculum Development

●Concept of Curriculum and Syllabus: Dimensions of Curriculum and their relationship with aims of
education.

●Curriculum at different levels- National, State and School.

● Determinants of curriculum: Philosophical, Psychological, Sociological, Political, Culture and

Economic.

●Basic considerations in Curriculum Development.

Unit-IV

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 4. Curriculum Practices

●Teachers’ experiences and concerns: Laboratory work, Library and References, Field Survey, Group
Discussion.

●Nature of learner and learning process and subject matter.

●Knowledge and ideology in relation to curriculum and text books.

●National curriculum framework: Concept need and process of development.

UNIT-I

Ques:- Define education.

Ans:- Concept (Meaning) of Education

Education is old as the human race. It is a never ending process of inner growth and development
and its period stretches from cradle to grove. It is very important for the progress of individual and
society. It is through education that man develops his thinking and reasoning, problem solving and
creativity, intelligence and aptitude, positive sentiments and skills, good values and attitudes. It is
concerned with ever growing man in an ever-growing society. Hence, it is still in the process of
evaluation.

Etymological or Derivative Approach

1. According to one view education is derived from the Latin word “educare” which means “to bring up”
or “to nourish”. It means the child is to be brought up while keeping in view certain aims and ideals.

2. According to another view the term education is derived from the Latin “educere” which means to
“lead out” or to “draw out”.

3. According to third view the term Education is derived from the Latin word “educatum” which means
“the act of teaching or training.”

According to Indian Concept

According to Rig Veda:- Education is that “which makes a man self-relient and selfless.”

According to Tagore:- Education is that “which makes one’s life in harmony with all existence.”

According to Gandhi’s view:- “By education I mean an all round drawing out the best in child and man-
body, mind and spirit.”

Thus, in the wider sense education is life and life is education. It is really life that educates. Edward Thring
elaborated this point and said, “Education is the transmission of life, by the living, to the living.” If we take
the broader sense, even an illiterate person receives educational throughout his life. The sum total of all
his experiences during life-time is education.

According to John Dewey,” Education is the process of living through a continuous reconstruction of
experience. It is the development of all those capacities in the individual which will enable him to control
his environment and fulfill his possibilities.”

Characteristics of Education

1. Life long process:- Education is a continuous and life long process. We can get the education
throw out our life. It start from our birth and continue till the death.

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 2. Education is dynamic:- Education is a dynamic process. It relate to development of socially,
economically. Education is also related to time, place and social change.

3. Education is tripolar process:- Education is tripolar process. It develop the relation between
teacher and student. Teacher modify the behaviour of student according to society.

4. Education is a process of individual development:- It is a process of individual development.

Education helps a man in making self relient, selfless and independent. Education helps a man to
develop his inner power.

5. Education is a process of adjustment:- Education is a process of individual adjustment. It helps

a man to adjust in society, in a group, in a family, in a group of friends etc.

6. Education is a base of future:- Education is a base of future of a man. A man can decide what
he wants to become in future? What type of study he want to choose? Education provide many
type of education it may be vocational or technical etc.

7. Education is a development of moral values:- Education develop the value of morality. It teach a
man about ethics, culture, religious values and spiritual, which can develop the value of morality
in a man’s behaviour.

8. Education is theoretical as well as practical:- In nature, education is theoretical as well as

practical. A child get a knowledge through theory and practical with help these, he can analyse
the situation, measure the cause and find out the problems.

9. Education is the instrument of social change:- Education make the change in society in terms
of socially development, economically development etc. It modify the child’s behaviour which
useful for society.

10. Education is a science as well as art:- Education is a science because it depend on systematic
process. It has own methods and it based upon innovation, experiments and scientific methods.

Education is also an out because it increases the knowledge of a child. It modify the behaviour
and increases the value of morality and socially.

Ques : What do you mean by teaching and learning? Explain how they are related to each other. (16 marks)
Or
Short notes on Concept Teaching & Learning can also be prepared from this. (4 marks)
ANS: INTRODUCTION: Education is an activity, which goes on in the society. It attempts to develop the
personality of an individual and then prepares him for membership in a society. Any modification brought about
is behaviour of an individual as a result of his interaction with the environment constitutes learning. Thus
education, by all means, is an attempt to modify or mould and shape behaviour of an individual for healthy
social adjustment in the society.

Education is comprised of two processes i.e. teaching and learning. Teaching and learning are two integrated
and essential components of education process. Teaching means activities that are undertaken by teacher
and learning is change in behaviour of a student as a result of teaching. Both the processes are interrelated
and interdependent upon each other.

THE DETAILED CONCEPT AND RELATIONSHIP OF TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESSES IS AS UNDER:

CONCEPT OF TEACHING:

The term ‘teaching’ is not as simple as it seems rater it is quite complex social, cultural and ethical process
designed in a social or cultural context. By all means and in shape, it is always designed in a social context
and therefore related with social structures, cultural environment, values and ideals of the people, society and
government. All these factors always stand for dynamicity and therefore, the very concept of teaching has

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always been in a state of flux/change depending upon the need of time, place and society.

MEANING OF TEACHING:

TEACHING

has two connotations

in simple terms, it is either in broader terms, it is a process (step by step & systematic)

an occupation or profession of what?

of whom? Activities or group of activities

A community known as teacher. Undertaken by whom?

Teacher

For whom?

Learners

How?

With the help of different strategies, techniques, methods, teaching aids etc.

Why?

To bring desirable changes in the behaviour of learners and helping them to

acquire requisite knowledge, skills, attitudes, interests etc. so as to facilitate their all
round development.

Thus in its simple and broader meaning, teaching is referred to either as occupation or profession of a
community known as teacher or a systematic process in which learner, teacher, curriculum and other
variables are organised in a systematic and psychological way to attain some pre-determined goals.

DEFINITIONS OF TEACHING:

- According to H.C. Morrison- “Teaching is an intimate contact between a more mature personality
and less mature one which is designed to further education of the latter.”

- According to B. O. Smith- “Teaching is a system of actions involving an agent, an end in view, a

situation including two sets of factors- those over which the agent has no control (class size, size
of classroom, physical characteristics of pupils etc.) and those that he can modify (ways of asking
questions, ways of structuring information or ideas gleaned).”

- According to N. L. Gage- “Teaching is a form of interpersonal influence aimed at changing the

behavioural potential of another person.”

- According to Edmund Amidon- “Teaching is defined as an interactive process, primarily involving

classroom talk which takes place between the teacher and pupils and occurs during certain defined
activities.”

On the basis of above stated definitions, the nature of ‘Teaching’ has been summed up as under:

i) Teaching is a complex social process and is greatly influenced by the social factors (dynamic in

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nature).

ii) Teaching is both Art as well as Science – It is an art as it calls for practice, exercise of talent and
creativity. It is also a science in the sense that it involves effective and systematic utilization of
techniques, procedures and skills that can be systematically studied, described and improved.

iii) Teaching is a professional activity involving the teacher and the students and result in the
development of the student.

iv) Teaching is the output emanating purely from the efforts of teacher in the sense that the teacher
undertakes various activities such as lecturing, questioning, illustrating, demonstrating, etc. with
the help of which his/her student to learn and acquire meaningful knowledge, attitudes, skills,
interests etc.

v) Teaching is an organised system of varied actions and related to content and pupil behaviour in
context with prevailing physical and social conditions.

vi) Teaching is a amenable to scientific observation and analysis in terms of what is going while
teaching can be observed, analyzed and assessed through teacher behaviour, pupil-teacher
interaction and changes brought in the behaviour of the pupils. Such analysis and assessment
may provide essential feedback for bringing desirable improvement in the process.

vii) Teaching is highly dominated by the communication skill with the view that the flow of
communication within the teaching elements such as teacher or sources of teaching, student
and the teaching activities make teaching a reality and a success.

viii) Teaching is an interactive process carried out with the specific purposes of training the learners in
desired emotions, training them in making adjustment in life, taking right decisions based upon
correct judgments, developing intellectual integrity and independent thinking, etc.

ix) Teaching may be carried out at different levels- viz. namely Memory Level (lowest level of teaching
suitable for small children with emphasis on rote memorization & cramming), Understanding
Level (higher level of teaching with emphasis on utilization of mental abilities such as thinking,
reasoning, imagination, analysis, synthesis, application etc.) and Reflective Level (highest level of
teaching with emphasis on creativity, innovation, discovery, exploration, problem-solving etc.)

x) Teaching may be carried out in various forms and styles like formal and informal, formational or
informational, directional or instructional, training (shaping of conduct), conditioning (shaping of
behaviour), indoctrination (shaping of beliefs), instruction (shaping of knowledge), telling,
showing or doing, descriptive or remedial, etc.

xi) Teaching is a specialized task comprising of different teaching skills for the realization of a
specialized set of instructional objectives.

xii) Teaching serves three functions – Diagnostic Function (pertains to the identification of
weaknesses and strengths of the learners), Prescriptive Function (pertains to the learners get the
tasks to perform based upon objectives) and Evaluative Function (pertains to the evaluation of
the performance of the learners taking remedial or enrichment measures).

Difference between education and teaching

Education Teaching

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1. Scope:- The scope of education is very 1. The scope of teaching is narrow and
wide. Education includes teaching. limited. Teaching is only a part of
education, not the whole education.

2. Period:- Education is a lifelong process. 2. Teaching is confined to that period for

It starts from child’s birth and continues till which the person remains in contact with
death. the teacher. It is confined to that period
only where teacher teaches the pupil.

3. Aspects:- Education is concerned with 3. Teaching is primarily concerned with

formal, informal and non-formal aspects. formal aspect only.

4. Meaning:- Education means to draw out 4. Teaching is defined as an interactive

the best of the child and man. process, primarily involving classroom talk.

5. Importance:- In education the important 5. In teaching the important place is given

place is given to the child. to the teacher.

6. Environment:- In education natural as well 6. There is artificial environment in teaching.

as artificial environment is provided.

7. Teacher:- Any member of the society can 7. Teaching requires qualified teachers.
play the role of a teacher.

8. Methods:- There is very wide range of 8. Some fixed methods of teaching like
methods of imparting education. lecture method, notes giving method,
discussion method, demonstration
method, laboratory method and project
method are used.

9. Agencies:- Home, school, society, 9. Educational institutions are the agencies

community, state, peer groups, radio, of teaching.
television, and press, etc. are important
agencies of education.

10. Agents:- Parents, other family members, 10. Teachers are the agents of teaching.
neighbours, friends, colleagues, etc. are
the agents of education.

11. Discipline:- There is self discipline 11. In teaching, emphasis is on strict

discipline.

12. Place:- The whole society is the place of 12. The place of teaching is confined to
education. educational institutions.

13. Evaluation:- In education, evaluation 13. In teaching, evaluation is direct and by

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 continues throughout life. fixed methods.

14. Planned and incidental:- Education may 14. Teaching is always planned.
be planned as well as incidental.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN EDUCATION AND TRAINING

Training is that process which is related with the development of some efficiency or skill in the
individual. It is that process which is related with the development of some efficiency or skill in the individual.
In it the child is given practice to do a special work so that he may obtain efficiency in doing that special work.

Training is only a part of education. Training means to attain skill of proficiency in special field.

This difference between education and training can be made more clear in the way given below :

Education Training

1. The scope of education is very wide. The scope of training is very limited.

Education takes care of the development It enables the child to learn the tricks of the
of all aspects trade and develop professional competencies.

2. Aim of Education is the all round The aim of training to bring proficiency in a
development of the child. particular skill.

3. Period Of Education Is Very Large. It The period of training is fixed. It can be for a
Continues from womb to tomb. few months, a year or some years.

4. Aspects of education include formal Training is given by formal agencies only.

informal or non-formal aspects.

5. The theoretical and practical knowledge More stress is laid on practical.

can be gained in education.

6. The curriculum of education is broad but The curriculum of training is ignored. The
it is prefixed. It is fixed in formal means. curriculum of training is generally fixed
according to the needs of the skill to be
learnt.

7. So far as the field of discipline is The practical aspect is helpful in developing

concerned the stress is laid on social the habits of discipline. Strict discipline is
discipline. All the persons try to adjust in followed. Training may not socialize a person.
life according to circumstance. Many intellectually trained persons are not
social at all.

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8. There is flexibility in the field of appointed There are fixed teacher who are generally
teachers. There are no teachers for mature. Sometimes, they prove to be the
informal education. friends, philosophers and guides of the
trainees.

9. In broader sense, education does not Training has rigid and systematic approach.
follow a rigid approach.

10. Inspiration. Many sources of inspiration The source of inspiration in the training is the
are there. Social frame is the major economic aspect.
source of inspiration.

11. The educational criterion of testing The main test of a person in training is his
humanism in a man is social adjustment. proficiency.

12. Methods of Teaching. While imparting Limited Methods are used for giving training
education, methods of teaching e.g. to the learners. There is change in methods
lecture method, question-answer, when we proceed fro one skill to another.
discussion etc. are used but the methods
are not pre-decided.

13. Evaluation. There is a variety in the In training, the proficiency of the pupil is
means of evaluation. Both direct and tested in a particular field.
indirect means are used for evaluation.

14. Certificate-Certificates may or may not be A certificate is awarded to the pupil when he
awarded. completes the training.

CONCEPT OF LEARNING:

The term ‘learning’ is quite common and frequently used in our day to day conversation. We all learn at all
times of our life and at any place where we get opportunity for doing so. We learn through the experiences-
direct and indirect which we gain in coming into contact with the objects, people and ideas. In psychological
terms, learning may be taken as a process or modification or change in behaviour.

Now the question arises what type of changes can be attributed as learning

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 Types of Changes

Categorized in

Category-I Category-II Category-III

Temporary Changes Permanent Changes Relatively Permanent

includes the factors includes the factors and Includes changes in

and conditions like conditions like maturation behaviour which are
fatigue (mental and i.e. the process of natural neither too temporary nor
physical), illness, use growth and development. too permanent rather lies
of drugs, medicines midway.
and other intoxicating
substances, the effect
of intense emotions
like, fear, anger,
jealousy, amusement,
laughter etc.

The changes produced in our

The changes in behaviour on account of both
behaviour affected Type-I & Type-II categories
as a result of of factors and conditions
maturation are quite cannot be linked with the
stable and process of learning. And the
permanent in nature. type of changes that causes
It is impossible to learning are relatively
The changes undo the changes permanent and can be
introduced in the that have occurred in affected through some or
behaviour on account the body and other type of experiences
of these factors and behaviour on formal or informal, indirect or
conditions are purely direct, organised or
temporary and
transitory. As soon as
the effects of these
substances and
conditions are over, the

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Hence learning can be defined as a process of bringing relatively permanent changes in behaviour through
experience.

DEFINITIONS OF LEARNING:

- According to Bernard- “Learning is a process by which an organism satisfying the motivation

adopts or adjusts to situations in which it must modify its behaviour in order to overcome obstacles
or barriers. This process starts from the need and through reinforcement, the goal is achieved or it
ends in the attainment of the goal.”

- According to Garrett- “Learning is that activity by virtue of which we organize our response with
new habits.”

- According to Henry P. Smith – “Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or strengthening or

weakening of old behaviour as the result of experience.”

- According to Gates and others- “Learning is the modification of behaviour through experience.”

- According to Edward L. Walker- “ Learning is a relatively permanent change in performance that

occurs as a result of experience and is not attributable to maturation, fatigue, motivation, changes
in the stimulus situation or to other identifiable non-learning factors.”

On the basis of above stated definitions, the nature of ‘Learning’ has been summed up as under:

(i) Learning in its any form or shape is always the change in behaviour of a learner. That is why learning
is always directed or aimed for bringing changes in learner’s behaviour.

(ii) Change in behaviour caused by learning is relatively enduring or permanent that means it is neither
too permanent (as through maturation) nor too temporary (as caused by the factors like fatigue,
illness etc.)

(iii) Learning is a continuous life long process which has its beginning right from the conception of the
child and continues till the last breath of an individual. This is because the environment available
within the womb of the mother may work as a facilitator for such learning and after birth the
process of learning speeds up with the constant interaction and stimulation received from the
physical, social and cultural environment.

(iv) Learning is a universal process because all the li8ving creatures on this earth have the abilities and
capacities for learning irrespective of the nature of the species, caste, colour, sex, geographical
location or some other such individual differences.

(v) Learning is purposive and goal-directed in the sense that it is the definiteness of the aim and clear
understanding of the purpose which makes an individual learn immediately the techniques of
performing a particular task.

(vi) Learning involves reconstruction of experiences because what has been learnt by us at a particular
occasion always remains in the state of modification in the light of the new or richer experiences
gained by us in this respect. As a result the old learning is replaced by the new learning and our
previous experiences are restructured and reorganized for giving birth to a new structured
composed of the reconstructed experiences.

(vii) Learning is the product of activity and environment in terms of the basic condition of the emergence
of any learning essentially lies in one’s responding actively to the stimuli belonging to one’s
environment. Therefore the key of a successful learning in any teaching learning process always
lies in the active responding of the learner to the stimuli present or the activities going on in the

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 teaching-learning environment.

(viii) Learning is transferrable from one situation to another having positive (the learning in one situation
helps the learning in one situation to another) as well as negative (when the learning in one
situation hinders or obstructs the path of learning another) effect.

(ix) Learning helps in bringing desirable changes in behaviour of the learner in all its three domains i.e.,
cognitive, conative and affective.

(x) Learning helps in the attainment of teaching-learning objectives and the children can be made to
acquire essential knowledge, skills, applications, attitude, interests, etc.

(xi) Learning helps in the balanced development of personality, in proper adjustment, and in the
realization of the goals of life.

(xii) Learning is a very comprehensive process, possessing quite wide scope in the sense that it touches
and covers all aspects of the human personality viz. namely, formation of habits, development of
interests, attitudes, a sense of appreciation and critical observation, acquisition of beliefs,
perfection of values and ideals and setting of goals and purposes.

RELATIONSHIP OF TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS

Teaching and Learning are integrally related to each other. They are inseparable entities. They are
supplementary and complimentary to each other. They are like two sides of the same coin. Teaching is
causing the child to learn. It is the stimulating and direction of learning. It is helpful to the pupil to make
effective adjustments. Learning is another name for making adjustments. Teaching is guiding pupil’s
activity and training of emotions which promote learning.

It is essential to establish the relationship between teaching and learning. Now the questions are-

(a) How is teaching different from learning?

(b) Why are teaching and learning related to each other?

(c) How are they related to each other?

(d) What is the importance of relating both these processes?

HOW TEACHING IS DIFFERENT FROM LEARNING:

1. On the basis of activities:

Teaching consists of a group of complex but interrelated set of activities such as encouraging or praising,
questioning, lecturing, telling or demonstrating, giving instructions, directions, confirming or correcting pupils’
responses etc whereas learning is an individual single activity. It occurs privately and at the initiative of the
single person i.e., the learner.

2. On the basis of Objectives:

Teaching indicates a set of activities specially planned and implemented to attain pre-defined objectives of
instruction whereas learning implies intended goals or outcomes of teaching.

3. On the basis of Cause:

Teaching is the cause but learning, on the other hand, is the expected result. It may be caused by others or by
the learner himself or by both.

4. On the basis scope:

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Teaching is a social and intentional act which is occurred & designed in social context as a teacher interacts
with a pupil or pupils and with the intricacies of subject matter. But learning is not only an accomplish or a
success act but also a highly individualistic act engaged in the interest of the person.

5. On the basis of means-end relationship:

Teaching may be called a task which signifies some sort of activity or extended proceedings whereas learning
may be designated as an achievement of success which indicates occurrences or episodes.

REASONS AS WHY TEACHING AND LEARNING ARE RELATED TO EACH OTHER:

1. Teaching can become effective only if it is related to learning.

2. Teaching objectives can be realized by creating appropriate learning situations. They cannot be
realized without being related to learning situations.

3. The appropriate teaching conditions or structures may be generated for effective learning.

4. Effective teaching strategies and tactics may be selected to achieve the optimal object of
learning.

5. The concept of relationship of teaching and learning will be an aid to understand the nature of
teaching; teaching theories may be evolved.

6. The knowledge of teaching-learning relationship will be helpful for teacher educators to

produce effective teachers.

HOW TEACHING AND LEARNING ARE RELATED TO EACH OTHER:

1. Teaching & learning are related to realize the same objectives: Learning is relatively permanent
change in behaviour an d teaching task is also related to realize the same objective as may be clear in
the following definition by Clarke- “activities that are designed and performed to produce change in
student behaviour.” It leads us to conclude that teaching consists of all those activities or system of
actions that are intended to produce learning.

2. Complimentary to each other: The question arises that whether it is essential for all types of
teaching to be ended in some or the other types of learning. Similarly it is essential for learning that it
should be initiated or handled by some or the other type of teaching. It is to be stated that such type of
cause and effect relationship does not exist between teaching and learning. It is not essential for a
teaching to be ended with some or other types of learning. Similarly learning may also take place
without involving the formalities of a teaching process. But they cannot be considered as one-sided
affair and hence, complimentary to each other.

3. Results depend upon the efficiency of the teacher and abilities of the learner: It is true that
whenever a teacher teaches something to his class, his teaching intends to produce learning or
brings relatively permanent changes in the behaviour of the students of his class. But there is no
guarantee that what he intends will be fully realized. It is also possible that while he tries to provide
equal opportunities and learning situations through his teaching, the variance in the learning
achievement of his students may be quite significant. Similarly a learner may learn through self-study
and without observing any teaching formalities. Therefore in the words of B.O. Smith, it may be safely
concluded- “Learning does not necessarily issue from teaching, that teaching is one thing and
learning is quite another.”

4. Both the processes go hand in hand: It is true that teaching and learning may go quite
independently but for the welfare of the students, they are to join hands, come near and have a

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 synthesis known as teaching-learning process. A good teaching must always be so designed and
performed as to result in maximum learning. A learner may also be highly benefitted through a well
organised system of actions (i.e. teaching) for achieving his learning objectives. Therefore, as Gage
considers- “The process of teaching and learning must be adapted to each other so as to make
whatever combination of procedures pay off best.”

FOR WHAT IT IS IMPORTANT TO RELATE TEACHING AND LEARNING

The great importance of this relationship for teacher-educators, student-teachers or pre-service teachers is
highlighted as follows:

1. Planning and preparing lesson plan: An attempt is made to plan teaching activities which will be
helpful for achieving objectives by creating appropriate learning situations.

2. The teacher-educator can make use of this concept to develop skill of teaching among his
pupil teachers.

3. The level of motivation can be improved with the help of personal involvement of the teacher in
the subject, role of success, tests as a source of motivation and self-imposed goals.

4. Learning can be made effective by the readiness of the pupil, giving practice and exercise of
the content, using the technique part as whole learning.

5. Retention may be improved by teaching, meaningful and by using spaced review is cramming.

6. Transfer of learning can be improved by using the theory of generalization and identical
elements. It can be made effective by improving perception and organization of the learner.

CONCLUSION: To conclude teaching & learning shows that inspite of the fact that teaching occurs without
any consequential process of learning, it goes without saying that all teaching aims at producing learning. The
worth of teaching can be judged only in terms of the extent to which it generates learning. It is in this sense
that teaching and learning are viewed as closely related activities and both depend upon each other in the
sense that both take help of each other’s principles so that this combination may ensure effective learning
experiences, goal-oriented learning, appropriate guidance, creative powers, and individuality of the learners.

Ques:- Write a note on belief.

Ans:- Beliefs

Beliefs is a sort of trust. It is a feeling that someone is good or is able or honest etc. And sometimes we see
that different thing happens and at once we say that my belief in such thing is shaken. Another example –
mostly people have the belief about the existence of God. This belief can hardly be shaken. But in some
peculiar situations due to any reason, someone may find his belief shaken.

Actually belief is a part of education. Some ideas are infused into the minds of learners from the beginning.
Those ideas are continuously put in the minds of the leaders and thus such ideas become their firm beliefs.
Once the ideas or beliefs are fixed in the mind then time can’t easily shake of those deep rooted ideas or
beliefs from them. Belief is the attempt to inculcate or fix in the individual a certain pattern of habits. It is an
attempt to insinuate into the experience of the individual any doctrine whether social, political, economic or
religious.

Characteristics of beliefs

1. It is a part of education.

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 2. It is goal oriented.

3. It transforms the individual’s attitude in order to develop specific values.

4. The observation of individual’s behavior is done on the basis of change in his beliefs.

5. It is related to emotional development.

Merits of beliefs

1. They make the persons think positively.

2. They make the person firm and consistent.

3. They help the person in having adjustment.

Demerits of beliefs

1. One many become a blind follower of something or someone.

2. Whenever some belief is broken or shaken, there may be unbearable agony.

Ques:- Write a note on Skill.

Ans:- SKILL

Skill is the ability to do something. It is practical knowledge with which the person feels empowered. Generally
we talk of a skilled person and a non-skilled worker. The skilled worker has got practical knowledge. Naturally
then he is able to do the work better as compared to the unskilled person. The unskilled person is a raw hand.
In his case, the boss who is to get work done from he will have to exert, take pains to train him first and then
get work out of him. Govt. of India, these days, is making special efforts to give training of certain skills.

For acquiring a skill, the person has to repeat some activity again and again. The everything becomes
easy and automatic. Thereafter he/she is able to work with love and enthusiasm. Gradually the work becomes
an interesting activity for the doer.

Different jobs need different skills. The basic skills which are common for different jobs are taught
through some sort of training. Teaching may be done a little bit depending upon the skill and the person getting
training. Generally illiterate person will need less of teaching and more of training.

Learning will also differ in the case of skilled worker and unskilled person. Matric pass will need more
of teaching and less of training. On the other hand, the illiterate may need more of training and less of teaching.

Skill may be skill of reading, skill of listening, skill of writing, skill of handling equipment etc. All
practical ability once acquired helps throughout life.

In teaching, there can be different skills.

Teaching skills

“Teaching skills are a set of related teaching acts or behaviours performed with the intention to facilitate
pupil’s learning.” - B.K. Passi

Teaching is a complex phenomenon that comprises of various specific teaching skills. Through micro
teaching, complexities of class room teaching are reduced. The different skills are identified and then mastery
of each skill is acquired. Here two important questions crop up which need consideration, the first one is to
know what is a teaching skill. The second one is how many skills are involved in the teaching process.

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What is a teaching skill?

N.L.Gage (1968) says, “Teaching skills are specific instructional activities and procedures that a
teacher may use in his class room. These are related to the various stages of teaching or in the continuous
flow of the teacher performance.”

In the words of maclntyr and whine, “Teaching skill is a set of related teaching behaviours which are
specified types of classroom interaction situation, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified educational
objective.”

Types of skills

To know how many skills are involved in the teaching process is rather an interesting study. A few
research workers have tried to identify several sets of component teaching skills. Some of them are common
with a little different terminology.

Allen and Ryan (1969) of Stanford university put forth the view that fourteen skills are involved. Borg and
his associates (1970) increased the number of eighteen.

In India B.K. Passi (1976) on the basis of work done in CASE Baroda has given a list of twenty one skills.
Jangira and his associates (1979) gave a list of twenty.

None of the lists suggested by the researches are exhaustive and final. We can add or subtract from the
lists as per need of the situation. The list of skills given by Allen and Ryan (1969) is as under:-

1. Stimulus variation:- Teaching depends upon the stimulus provided by the teacher during teaching. A
good teacher goes on varying the stimulus in order to bring in variety in his teaching. That way he is
able to attract the attention of the students. Thus the teachers are trained in movements, gestures,
focusing, interactional styles etc.

2. Set induction:- Set induction helps the students to induce maximum. The teacher uses their present
knowledge and skills and tries to involve them in the lesson.

3. Closure:- It is related with the finishing up of a stage in teaching. It helps the students to relate the
new knowledge with the previous one.

4. Silence and non verbal cues:- During teaching the teacher provides cues to the students in order to
encourage them. Sometimes he puts a thought provoking question. The students speak on it. The
discussion goes on and on when the teacher does not give his personal comments. He rather remains
silent. It makes many other students to come forward and speak.

5. Reinforcement of student participation:- The pupil teacher in every way tries to encourage student’s
participation in the lesson. As far as possible, he accepts their responses with a smile. Only positive
reinforcers are used by him. He makes every effort to avoid the use of negative reinforcers which may
result into any type of discouragement for the students.

6. Fluency in making questions:- While putting questions to the class, the teacher should have fluency.
He tries to have as many questions as possible in the scheduled period of teaching.

7. Probing questions:- The teacher puts such questions with the help of which he is able to dig out
something from the students. With the help of probing questions the teacher is able to lead the
students to correct responses.

8. Higher order questions:- In every good lesson, the teacher puts some questions which are of higher
order. This type of questions enable the students to form generalization or to reach some definite
principles.

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 9. Divergent questions:- Putting divergent questions is another skills which makes the students think
creativity.

10. Recongnising attending behavior:- Every good teacher has the ability to judge while teaching how far
the students are taking interest in the lesson. The teacher is able to do so through visual cues.

11. Illustrations and use of examples:- A good teacher has the skill of clear teaching. For this purpose
he is able to give good examples. Through illustrations, he is able to capture the attention of all.

12. Lecturing:- The teacher is able to present the material effectively by using the right type of
techniques.

13. Planned repetition:- Sometimes during teaching the teacher repeats things in a planned manner. He
does so in order to focus the attention of the students over some important points.

14. Completeness:- Communication of teaching is a two way traffic. Through teaching, the teacher is
able to communicate himself fully. He is able to give knowledge, develop attitude and interest of the
students.

List of probable teaching skills for different stages of a lesson

Below is given a list of probable teaching skills which are required at different stages of a lesson:-

1. Planning stage:- This stage involves the following skills:-

i.Writing instructional objectives.

ii. Selecting the content.

iii. Organizing the content.

iv. Selection of audio visual aids material.

2. Introductory stage:-

i.Creating set induction.

ii. Introducing the lesson.

3. Presentation stage:- The presentation stage has four sub-stages. Each sub stage needs different
type of teaching skills which are given below:-

i.Questioning skills:-

a. Structuring class room questions.

b. Fluency in asking questions.

c. Probing questions

d. Question – delivery and distribution

e. Higher order questions

f.Divergent question

g. Responses management

ii. Presentation skills:-

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 a. Packing of the lesson.

b. Lecturing

c. Explaining

d. Illustrating with examples

e. Discussing

f.demonstrating

iii. Aid using skills

a. Using teaching aids

b. Using blackboard

c. Stimulus variation

d. Silence arid non verbal cues

e. reinforcement

iv. Managerial skills

a. Promoting pupil participation

b. Recognizing attending behavior

c. Management of the class

4. Closing stage:- This stage includes the following skills:-

i.Achieving closure

ii. Planned repetition

iii. Giving assignments

iv. Evaluating the pupils progress

v. Diagnosing pupil learning difficulties and remedial measures.

Ques:- EDUCATIONAL THOUGHTS OF MAHATMA GANDHI AND THEIR IMPACT ON INDIAN EDUCATION

Brief Life Sketch:

nd
Mahatma Gandhi, the father of nation, was born on 2 October, 1869 at Porbander in the State of
Kathiawar (Gujrat). His father was the Prime Minister of Rajkot State. At the age of thirteen, Gandhiji was
married to Kasturba. He passed his Matriculation examination in 1987 and went to England on September 4,
1887 for studying law. He passed his Law Examination and was called to the Bar in June, 1891.

After his return from England, he set up practice in Rajkot. Then he went to South Africa to look after
the legal matter of a rich Indian firm. It was here that he evolved the ideals of ‘Truth and Non-violence’. From
South Africa he came to India, and started taking leading part in the struggle of India’s freedom. His launching
of the Non-co-operation Movement after the Jallianwala massacre, his great Dandi March, his historic fast of
1932 and Quit India Movement are only a few events relating to this period of strife and storm.

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 The Sabarmati Ashram and Sevagram Ashram which had been founded by Gandhi in 1915 and 1935
respectively acted as centres for most of his educational activities. It is really great irony that Gandhiji, the
th
apostle of Truth and Non-violence was shot deal on 30 January, 1948 by Nathu Ram Godse.

Works:

(i) Hind Swaraj: It is his first and complete conception of the ideal Indian nation in all phases of life
activity.

(ii) My Experiments with Truth: This is an autobiography from his childhood to his active participation
into the Indian struggle for freedom. It also includes his experiments in education at Tolstoy Farm in
South Africa.

GANDHI’S GENERAL PHILOSOPHY

Mahatma Gandhi, the great philosopher, educationist and experimenter expressed his views on
everything from God to birth-control. He was deeply influenced by the humanist idealism of India’s past. Here
is given a brief description of some of his philosophical doctrines:

1. Firm Faith in God: Like all idealists, Gandhiji had firm faith in God. To him, God is all-pervasive Reality,
immanent in man and also in the world. He is Ultimate Reality and Supreme Ruler. He is Truth and
Love, Ethics and Morality, Source of Light and Life. He is the creater, dissolver and recreater. Hence he
advised to have a living faith in living and absolute God. The ultimate aim of life should be the
realization of God.

2. Truth: To Gandhiji, God is Truth and Truth is God. Truth is the inner voice. It is the call of conscience.
He wanted to realize truth himself. He also wanted everyone to be a seeker of truth. Ultimate Truth or
God is the end of philosophy. Truth is the means to achieve that Ultimate Truth or God. Gandhiji
himself said, “Truth which is the end and which is all pervading can be realized onlyh through truth –
through a way of living characterized by strict discipline, poverty, non-possession, non-violence, sense
of humility, a discipline of mind, body and spirit.”

3. Ahimsa or Non-violence: Ahimsa or Non-violence is the means to attain the goal of truth. Ahimsa
implies complete freedom from Himsa (Violence); freedom from hate, anger, fear, vanity and ill-will.
Ahimsa includes humility, charity, love, patience, purity of the heart and freedom from passion in
thoughts, word and action. It inspires us to love all creatures. It purifies spirit. In the words of
Mahatma Gandhi, non-violence is preferred to violence because of the following five reasons:

(i)More effective: Non-violence proves to be more effective than violence.

(ii)Triumph of moral principle: It is triumph of the moral and spiritual principle over the physical brute force.

(iii)Accordance with reality: Love and non-violence are in accordance with reality and it must triumph ultimately.

(iv)Shakes opponent’s will: Non-violence shakes opponent’s will.

(v)Purification of spirit: Non-violence purifies the spirit. A non-violent person has to live a life of Tapasaya or austere-
living.

4. Satyagraha: Satyagraha is the practical application of Ahimsa. It is method of securing a right by

personal suffereing and not by inflicting injury on others. Defence of peace can be constructed only
through Satyagraha. A satyagrahi is one who has faith in truth, non-violence, brahmacharya,
fearlessness and non-stealing or non-possession. Thus the life of a satyagrahi implies strict
discipline.

5. Spiritual nature of individual: Gandhiji believes that individual has a divine spirit. He is a spiritual
being. Therefore, the aim of the individual must be spiritual and not material. For realizing this aim the

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 individual must be considered as end unto himself. He should not be used as means.

6. Love: Gandhiji had a firm faith in the love for mankind. To him, love is essence of morality. Non
morality is possible without love. Truth can be attained through love. Love takes him towards the God.
It makes all duties pleasant. Hence love should guide all life. Social and political revolution started by
Gandhiji was prompted by his inherent love of humanity.

7. Concept of Spiritual Society: Gandhiji was anxious to establish a spiritual society based on the
principle of love, non-violence, truth, justice and equitable distribution of wealth. Such a society will be
free from any kind of exploitation – social, political, economic or religious. This society will be free
from all types of conflicts and struggles. Moral force and moral sanction would be the guiding factors
of such a society. Service of all should be the first fundamental of every human being. Service to God
and humanity was the greatest creed to Mahatma Gandhi. We love and serve God when we love and
serve his creatures.

GANDHIJI’S PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Gandhiji’s thoughts on education form the dynamic side of his general philosophy. His philosophy of
education is based on biology, sociology, psychology and philosophy. Educational aims, curriculum,
methodology, plan of organization and financial aspect of education were directed by his philosophy of life.

(1) Meaning of Education:

1. Education is not literacy: According to Gandhiji, literacy in itself is no education. Literacy is not the
end of education nor even the beginning of it. It is not knowledge or even the medium of knowledge. It
is one of the means whereby man and woman can be educated.

2. Education is development: For Mahatma Gandhi, education means an all round development of the
child and man. In the words of Gandhiji, “By education I mean an all round drawing out of the best in
child and man – body, mind and spirit.” Gandhiji further says, “True education is that which draws out
and stimulates the spiritual, intellectual and physical faculties of the children.” Thus to him, education
must not ignore any aspect of human development.

In fact, Gandhi’s concept of education stands for the balanced and harmonious development of all
the aspects of human personality – physical, intellectual, social, spiritual etc. – to enable the
individual to achieve the ultimate aim i.e., Truth.

(2) Aims of Education:

Gandhiji’s concept of education has two fold aims before it: Immediate and Ultimate.

(A)Immediate Aims of Education:

Certain immediate aims of Gandhiji’s concept of education are concerned with our day-to-day life.
Immediate aims of education according to Gandhiji are as under:

1. Bread and butter aim (Vocational): Gandhiji believes that in a poor country like India where earning of
bread is the main problem, education must aim at enabling every individual to earn his livelihood. It
must enable him to stand on one’s own feet. In the words of Gandhiji, “Education ought to be for them
(children) a kind of insurance against unemployment.”

2. Cultural aim: Gandhiji could never admit vocation as the end of life. Therefore, he also paid attention
to culture. In the words of Gandhiji, “I attach more importance to cultural factor of education than its
literacy factor. Culture is primary and basic thing which the girls should receive from schools.”

From this point of view Gandhiji regarded cultural aim of education as an important aim. The cultural
aim laws emphasis on obtaining knowledge of Indian culture – the culture that is reflected in our

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 dress, our manner of speech, our way of conduct and behavior. Education, with the cultural aim will
liberate the soul from pride, prejudice and encumbrances and enable man to see things in their true
perspective.

3. Character aim: Gandhiji regarded character formation as the suitable foundation of education.
Hence the end of all knowledge must be building up of character. He regarded character as the
expression of the whole personality including its ethical and spiritual aspect. Character building
implies cultivation of such moral virtues as courage, strength conviction, righteousness, purity in
personal life, self-restraint and service of humanity. According to Gandhiji, education without
character and character devoid of purity would be no good.

4. Perfect development aim: The child’s all round and perfect development aim is the sole aim. An all
round development means development of the head, heart and hand – nothing less, nothing more.
“Man is neither mere intellect, nor the gross animal body, nor heart or soul alone. A proper and
harmonious contribution of all the three is required for the making of the whole man and constitutes
the true economics of education.” (In Harijan Sep. 11, 1937) Gandhiji states, “True education is that
which draws out and stimulated the spiritual, intellectural and physical faculties of the children.”

(B)Ultimate Aim of Education

Self-realisation or Summum Bonum is the ultimate aim of life as well as of education. Spiritual
freedom provides knowledge of God and self-realisation. Hence education should provide spiritual
freedom. According to Gandhiji, “Development of the moral character, development of the whole – all
were directed towards the realization of the ultimate reality – the merger of the finite being into the
infinite.”

Harmonious Blending of Individual and Social aim:

Gandhiji advocated both individual and social aims of education at different times. He did not find any
conflict between the two. In fact, he believed in the synthesis of the two. He thought that if individuals are
good, the whole society shall be good. According to him, if we succeed in building the character of the
individual, the society will take care of itself. On the other hand, he also said that the state or the society
should also be good and try to save the individuals. He always loved individual freedom but he regarded
sonality is impossible in loneliness. In the words of Mahatma Gandhi, “A nation cannot advance without the
units of which it is composed and conversely, an individual cannot advance without the nation of which he is a
part.”

Gandhi’s ideal of self-realisation combines both the development individuality as well as of the
society. No person can be said to have achieved self-realisation unless he is fully conscious of the social
needs and tries to fulfil them.

(3) Curriculum:

Gandhiji’s scheme of education is known as ‘Basic Scheme of Education’. Its curriculum was activity-
centred. This scheme of education aimed at the development of whole man – the physical, intellectual and
spiritual powers in the best possible manner. Gandhiji suggested the teaching of the following subjects in his
scheme of education:

1. Basic crafts: Basic crafts which may be agriculture, spinning and weaving, wood work, cardboard
work, metal work, gardening and leather work etc. should be included in accordance with local
conditions of life and society. Gandhiji asserted that education should be craft-centred and hence
craft has a primary place in Gandhiji’s system of education.

2. Mother-tongue: Gandhiji emphasized that the mother-tongue is to be used as the medium of

20
 instruction in the schools, as it is an effective instrument for the expression and communication of ideas.

3. Arithmetic: Arithmetic should be correlated with life situations. The various processes of arithmetic
should be correlated with the basic craft. Arithmetic is a very useful subject for day-by-day life.

4. Social studies: Gandhiji wanted that children should acquire knowledge of social studies including
history, geography, civics and current events for promoting individual and social virtues.

5. General sciences: including nature study, zoology, physiology, hygiene, chemistry, botany and
astronomy should be taught for promoting intelligent and scientific outlook. Domestic science should
be added for the girls in the fourth and fifth grades.

6. Music and drawing: These subjects should be included to create in boys and girls a real interest in
education.

7. Place for Hindustani: Hindustani should be included as a compulsory subject in the school
curriculum for developing national language.

(4) Method of Teaching:

1. Education through craft: Gandhiji emphasized that education should be given through the medium of
some craft or production work. It is around this craft that all other subjects in the school will be
taught. He regarded craft not only as a source of recreation but also a source of character formation.
By means of craft-centred education, he wanted to give manual training to children.

2. Emphasis on activity method and learning by self-experience: Gandhiji emphasized activity method
in the field of teaching. He asserted that learning by doing and learning by self-experience is very
effective.

3. Correlation method: Gandhiji advocated the method of correlation. Education of different subjects
should be in the form of correlated knowledge and not in the form of separate subjects. Teaching of
craft will be the central point and all subjects should be related to craft. There should be correlation
with craft and with environment, and co-ordination with subjects.

4. Lecture and questioning method: Gandhiji accepted the use of lecture method as well as of
questioning method.

5. Mother-tongue as medium of Instruction: Gandhiji wanted that all education must be given through
the medium of mother-tongue.

In the words of Zakir Hussain Committee Gandhiji advocated that “Stress should be laid on the
principle of co-operative activity, planning accuracy, initiative and individual responsibility in learning.”

(5) Discipline:

Gandhiji advocated discipline through self-control. He emphasized voluntary discipline, self-discipline

or discipline that springs from within, Self-discipline arises from a pure life of self-restraint, fearlessness,
usefulness and self-sacrifice. It may be achieved through non-violent conduct of life.

Gandhiji’s craft-centred education encourages social discipline. So his concept of discipline was not
individual. It was a concept of Social discipline. He emphasized the building up of ideal citizens through
education. He wanted students to be successful and responsible future citizens of the country.

(6) Teacher:

Gandhiji asserted that only right type of teachers can help in achieving the objectives of education. He
should possess knowledge, skill, enthusiasm, patriotism, strong character and special training. He should be

21
 friend, philosopher and guide. He should be inspired with the social attitudes and ideals of Ahimsa
and Truth. He should be well equipped and fully alive to the objectives of life and education. He must possess
the virtues that he wants to inculcate in the students. He must practice these virtues himself. He should be
able to establish a heat to heart contact with the students. He has to fashion the hearts of the students rather
than their brains.

(7)Gandhiji’s Views on Women Education:

Gandhiji felt strongly for the emancipation of women. He said, “My greatest hope is in women. They
want a helping hand to lift them out of the hell in which they have been kept.” Thus Gandhiji felt strongly for the
their particular aptitudes and life demands. Gandhiji believed that women by means of their equipment and
nature are best fitted to take up the work of educating small children.

(8)Place of Religion in Education:

Religion was an essential element in Gandhiji’s life. “Life without religion Gandhiji held is life without
principle, life without principle is a ship without rudder, and just a ship without rudder will be tossed about from
place to place and never to reach a destination.” He did not agree with the belief personal experience, and not
a set of creed and dogmas. Gandhiji regarded religion as an abiding faith in the absolute values of truth, love
and justice. The fundamental basis of religious education is to impart instructions in the universal essentials
of religion and a training in the fundamental virtues of Truth and Non-violence. To Gandhiji, all the great
religions of the world agree in fundamentals. Hence these fundamentals should be made the basis of
religious education. Every child in the school should be instructed to respect all religions and to show the spirit
of religion in his actual conduct. He says, “Fundamental principles of ethics are common to all religions. These
should be certainly taught to the children and that should be regarded as adequate religious instruction so far
as the schools under the Wardha Scheme are concerned.” Emphasis should be laid on the ideals of love, truth
and justice; of co-operative endeavour, national solidarity and the equality and brotherhood of man.

Gandhiji was not in favour of a state religion. So he did not want that religious education should form a
part of the school curriculum approved by education. All religions advocate the same fundamental ethics.
Hence the teaching of such ethics should be a function of the state.

(9) Adult and Social Education:

Gandhiji advocated the education of the parents of children and other adults as the first concern of
the nation. He regarded the education of the adult as a necessary prelude to the growth of the new generation
in new values. In the words of Gandhiji, “The age of Basic Education includes the education of the whole of
society beginning with the children and going upto adults and old men and women. It has to be imparted
through the practice of handicrafts, village sanitation and medical relief, preventive and curative.” Thus we find
that Gandhiji was quite conscious of urgent necessity of adult education in the country.

Today the term ‘adult education’ has been replaced by ‘social education’ which means acquiring of
knowledge for health and civic education, promotion of communal harmony, teaching of simple crafts and
providing facilities for suitable cultural and recreational activities. Thus by social education an attempt is
made to raise the general level of the people life – material, moral, cultural and spiritual. It is in the context of
this concept educationists of all times. Wherever he went he disseminated knowledge and light for the
education to countless men and women. His historic march to Dandi has been one of the most notable
experiments in mass education. Gandhiji advised students to spend their vacations in the service of the village
people by conducting classes for them and teaching them rules of sanitation and healthy living.

BASIC TENETS OF BASIC EDUCATION

(WARDHA SCHEME)

1. Free compulsory education: Mahatma Gandhi asserted that within the ages 7 and 14 education
should be free, compulsory and universal. As a concession, however, girls, if their guardians so desire,

22
 could be withdrawn from the school after their twelfth year. During this period of seven years, Gandhiji
planned to include primary, middle and high school education. He stated that primary education was
the minimum which must be given to all. Hence he simply emphasized minimum universal education,
which he considered indispensable for the successful working of democracy.

2. Mother-tongue to be the medium of instruction: Gandhiji is a great champion of mother-tongue. He

stressed that mother-tongue should be the medium of instruction. He believes that no real education
is possible through a foreign medium. The foreign language causes brain fag, stifles all originality,
puts undue strain on the nerves of our children and makes them only crammers. On the other hand,
mother-tongue will help the child to think quickly, to express easily and freely and to bring out clarity of
ideas. It will introduce the child to the rich heritage of his ancient culture.

3. Craft as the centre of education: Education should centre round some craft or productive work. All
subjects like history, geography arithmetic, science, language, music, painting etc. should be
correlated with craft. By teaching craft, Gandhi’s object was not to produce craftsmen but he wanted
to exploit the craft for educative purposes. Craft-centred education will develop certain qualities of
head and heart. It will bring into play co-operative activity, dignity of labour, planning, accuracy,
initiative, responsibility, emotional catharsis and equalization of classes. The craft in basic education
is to be chosen keeping is view the local needs and in harmony with the local environment.

4. Self-supporting element: Wardha scheme of Education is based on the principle, “learn while you
earn and earn while you learn.” In a poor country like India, where it is not possible to provide the heavy
educational budgets, self-sufficiency is the best solution. To Gandhiji self-sufficiency is acid test of
basic education. The pupils must be able to meet the salary of their teacher through the sale of the
products of their crafts. The state should pay for the other expenses such as for furniture, books,
tools and school buildings. The state should provide the marketing facilities for the goods produced in
the school.

5. Cult of non-violence: Gandhiji wanted the future citizens of this country to be imbued with the ideal
of non-violence. In the words of Mahadev Desai, “the idea of self-supporting education cannot be
divorced from the ideological background of non-violence. Non-violence is the panacea for all evils.
Gandhiji said, “Where the whole atmosphere is redolent with the pure fragrance of ahimsa (non-
violence), boys and girls studying together will live like brothers and sisters in freedom and yet in self-
imposed restraint; the students will be bound to the teachers in the ties of filial love, mutual respect
and mutual trust.” Every act of students according to Gandhiji, should be accomplished by love. He
remarked, “We cannot, will not think of exploitation and we have no alternative but this plan of
education which is based on non-violence.

6. Ideal of citizenship: Wardha scheme of education encourages co-operation and lays the foundation
of ideal citizenship. It will enable the child to discharge his duties and responsibilities of a good
citizen. Character of the students would be developed. It will promote dignity, efficiency and a sense
of social service.

7. Relation with life: Education in the school should be closely related to life activities and problems of
children. This is to be achieved through the principle of correlation and integration. Education should
help the child in understanding and solving the problems of life.

Conclusion:-

In the words of Dr. Zakir Hussain committee educational plan of Gandhiji is psychologically sound “because it
relieves the child from the tyranny of a purely academic and theoretical instruction against which its active
nature is always making a healthy protest. It balances the intellectual and practical elements of experience,
and may be made an instrument of educating the body and the mind in co-ordination. The child requires not the
superficial literacy which implies often without warrant, a capacity to read the printed page, but the far more
capacity using hand and intelligence for some constructive work.

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Ques:- EDUCATIONAL THOUGHTS OF RABINDRA NATH TAGORE AND THEIR IMPACT ON INDIAN EDUCATION

Brief Life Sketch:

Rabindra Nath Tagore was born in a highly cultured family in Calcutta on May 6, 1861. His father
Maharishi Devndra Nath Tagore was a great Brahmo Samaj leader. He taught him Indian philosophy,
Upanishads, Astronomy and Sanskrit. He had to go to Seminary and Bengal Academy for his other studies. He
revolted against routine type of education. At the age of sixteen he was sent to England to study law but this
subject had no appeal for him. He changed his plans and came back to India in 1880.

Tagore began to compose verses at the age of eight. He wrote poems, short stories, novels and plays.
He was the first Indian to win Noble Prize for literature in November 1913, for his famour work ‘Gitanjli’. Many
universities conferred doctorate on him.

He was a great patriot. As a result of firing in Jallianwala Bagh in 1919, he returned the knighhood
bestowed on him by the Britishers. He took an active part in the Swadeshi Movement. Besides being a patriot
he was a poet and artist of the highest order. He was a philosopher, a saint, an educationist and a karma-yogi.
He was also a prophet of humanity is an outcome of his spirituality.

Tagore’s Philosophy of Life:

1. Tagore as vedantist: Tagore was out and out a Vedantist. He had firm belief in the philosophy of
Vedas. He believed that the Supreme being, the Brahm (God) is all powerful and pervades in
everything of this universe. The entire universe is the manifestation of the Brahm. There is a spiritual
bond between man and man. Like a vedantist, Tagore believed in “I am the Brahm”. Thus according to
Tagore, true salvation lies in feeling the truth contained in the words, “I am the Brahm”. Such a
philosophy led him to have an implicit faith in the Brotherhood of Man and Fatherhood of God and in
the need for universal religion.

2. Tagore as individualist: Tagore was an individualist. He believed in giving right type of freedom to the
individual. No two individuals are alike. Every individual is unique. Every individual differs in
potentialities. Every individual, according to Tagore, has a right to give direction to his life in his own
way. He believed in the fundamental unity of man and nature. Every individual tries to establish unity
with God or Brahm during his life period. This he does in his own way. All this represents the diversity
of this world. Inspite of this diversity, there is unity in the sense that everything has one source and
one origin i.e., God.

3. Tagore as idealist: Like most of the Indian rishis, Tagore believed that man should live for the
Ultimate Truth which liberates us from the cycle of birth and death and makes us one with the Creator.
Tagore said, “Let us find our God, let us live for the Ultimate Truth which emancipated us from the
bondage of the dust and gives us the wealth not of things but of inner light, not of power but of love.”

Tagore had an implicit faith in the absolute values and in the realities that persist and beauties that
nerve fade.

4. Tagore as spiritualist: Tagore believed that every individual should try to attain spiritual perfection.
This will lead to better social order, human brotherhood and finally to international brotherhood.
Spiritual experiences are ideal and eternal. “Experience of the spiritual world, religion as the right
centre of life’s activities and the unity of thought and truth” was the keynote of Tagore’s great
philosophy. There should be spiritual relationship between man and man.

5. Tagore as humanist: Tagore was a lover of humanity. Having faith in fundamental unity of mankind,
he preached human brotherhood. He believed that the ultimate goal of life can be attained through an
understanding of humanity. Absolute manifests itself in men. In the words of Tagore, God himself
may be considered in terms of humanity. He says, “Reality is human and Truth is human. Humanity is
a necessary factor in the perfecting of divine truth. Even God depends upon man for perfecting his

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 universe. This is the peak of Tagore’s humanism.

6. Tagore as naturalist: Tagore considered nature as a great teacher. Nature according to him is not
hostile to man, but is in the form of “mother nature’. Nature is kind, benevolent and generous. In the
words of Tagore, “Education divorced from Nature has brought untold harm to young children.” Just as
a man realises his relationship with human beings, he should realize his relationship with the Nature.
In Nature, Tagore saw the manifestation of the Creator (God). According to him, God revealed himself
through the various forms, colours and rhythms of nature. Therefore, he wishes human beings to have
a close communion with nature.

7. Tagore’s internationalism: Tagore was an internationalist. He was an ardent prophet of world unity.
He believed in World Brotherhood. The distinction of caste, colour, creed or any other discrimination is
false, unreal and man-made. He worked for a closer contact between the East and the West. He
believed that the problems of humanity could be solved if creative ideals of life are developed in the
East and the West. One of the important purposes of Vishwa Bharti was to fulfil the highest mission
of the present age – the unification of mankind and world peace.

TAGORE’S PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Tagore was a great educationist. As the founder of Vishwa Bharti, he introduced himself as practical
educationist. His philosophy of education is very much connected with his philosophy of life. We shall study
his philosophy of education under the following headings:

(1) Basic Principle of Tagore’s Philosophy of Education:

1. Harmony with all things: One of the basic principles of the philosophy of Tagore is ‘harmony with all
things’ – harmony with nature, harmony with human surroundings and harmony in international
relations. According to him, the highest education is that which makes our life in harmony with all
existence. His philosophy of education is based on naturalism, humanism, idealism and
internationalism.

2. Principle of freedom: Tagore was the ardent exponent of freedom for children. He believed that
children should be brought up and educated in atmosphere of freedom and liberty. Restrictions should
not be imposed on children. Tagore remarked, “Education has its only meaning and object in freedom
– freedom from ignorance about the laws of universe and freedom from passion and prejudice in our
communication with the human world.” Tagore was not in favour of conventional and sophisticated
type of school. Natural surroundings will enable the child to develop in natural way. The great
advantage of freedom is that the child will develop love for nature and finally love for knowledge. After
gaining knowledge, he will realize his life with ripened wisdom.

3. Principle of creative self-expression: Tagore held that education should promote creative self-
expression. For achieving this purpose, Tagore assigned important place to arts, crafts, music,
drawing, dancing and dramatics in his scheme of education. He stated, “Hand work, music and arts
are the spontaneous overflow of our deeper nature and spiritual significance.”

4. Active Communication with nature and man: Tagore finds a fundamental unity between man and
nature. The child’s education must be organized in natural surroundings. It will help the child in
developing the power of communication with nature. Tagore believed that there is a spiritual
relationship between nature and God, nature and man and hence between man and God. He
remarked, “We should have the gift to be natural with nature and human society.”

(2) Meaning of Education:

1. Education as enlightenment: Tagore believed that education is reformatory and expensive process
which seeks to unfold all that is good and noble to individual. True knowledge brings enlightenment
and self-realization. In the words of Tagore, “Education is a permanent part of the adventure of

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life…..It is not life a painful, hospital treatment of curing them (students) of the congenial malady of their
ignorance, but it is a function of health, natural expression of their mind’s vitality.”

2. Education as developmental process: Tagore stated that educative process consisted of flowering
the personality of the children to their maximum. Education, according to Tagore, is an all round
development of human faculties for attainment of a full life.

3. Education as harmony: According to Tagore, “The highest education is that which does not merely
give us information but makes our life in harmony with all existence.”

(3) Aims of Education:

1. Physical development: In a Bengali essay, Tagore expressed sorrow on the poor health of students.
He gave much importance to healthy body. From this point of view, he admitted physical development
as an aim of education.

2. Intellectual development: School aim of education according to Tagore should be intellectual

development i.e., development of imagination, free thinking, constant curiosity and alertness of the
mind. He appears opposing bookish education and supports free thinking.

3. Moral and spiritual development: Moral and spiritual development in another aim of education
according to Tagore. He advised young persons to develop a feeling of penance and firm devotion. He
stressed moral training power of self-determination, development of character, development of inner
freedom and attainment of enlightenment. Education should lead to the satisfaction of mind and the
peace of soul. It is through moral and spiritual development that the individual will realize his best self
and live like ‘a man’.

4. Harmonious development: According to Tagore, education should aim at harmonious development

of all human faculties – physical, intellectual, moral and spiritual. This refers to the attainment of
complete manhood.

5. Utilitarian aim: Tagore did not ignore the utilitarian aim of education. According to him, education
should enable us to solve our day-to-day problems. It should be related with our economic life and
wants.

6. Development of international understanding: Tagore was a first rate internationalist. He held that the
entire universe is one big family. It is through education that the individual should realize his oneness
with other individuals of the universe. Education, according to Tagore, should aim at development of
international understanding and faith in the universal brotherhood of man.

7. Harmony between individual and social aim: Tagore stands for harmony between the individual and
the society. He believed that self-realization can be achieved in communion with others and not in
isolation. Society is a means of self-realization. No self-realization is possible if the individual is not
conscious of the universe. Consciousness of the universe is an essential condition for realizing the
self. Just as an individual can attain his full manhood only in society, similarly a nation must grow
among the nations of the world. Tagore established a school at Shantiniketan for the whole world
with the purpose of promoting individual development and social service.

(4) Curriculum:

Tagore’s views on curriculum are summarized as under:

1. Broad-based curriculum: In order to achieve the above mentioned objectives of education, Tagore
emphasized the necessity of broad-based curriculum. According to him curriculum should be so
broad that all aspects of child’s life – physical, intellectual, social economic, moral, aesthetic and
spiritual may be developed. He recognized the importance of co-curricular activities in the
development of the child. He was of the opinion that the curriculum of the school should be according

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 to the needs of the society. It should develop among students the feeling of nationalism and
internationalism. Tagore did not want education to be “shut off from the daily life of the people.” He
thus interpreted the curriculum not only in terms of certain subjects to be learnt but also in terms of
certain activities to be undertaken. His concept of curriculum was broad-based as it consists of
subjects, activities and actual living. He gave place to the following subjects and activities in the
curriculum:

(a)Subjects: (i) Language and Literature, Mother-Tongue, other Indian Languages, English and other Foreign
Languages like Russian, German, French, Latin and Chinese, (ii) Mathematics, (iii) Natural Sciences like
Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, General Science and Health Education, (iv) Social Sciences like History,
Civics, Geography, Economics and Sociology, (v) Agriculture and Technical Subjects, (vi) Arts, Music, Dance
etc., (vii) Philosophy, Religion and Psychology.

(b)Activities and Occupations: (i) Dancing, (ii) Dramatics, (iii) Music, (iv) Games and Sports, (v) Drawing and
Painting, (vi) Agriculture and Gardening, (vii) Excursions, (viii) Regional Study, (ix) Laboratory Work, (x) Social
Service and (xi) Self-Government.

(c)Actual living and community service: Life at Shantiniketal is practical and full of vigour. Everyone is an active
member of the community and has to render service and manual labour. Department of Rural Reconstruction
is a centre of attraction in this respect. Education must accord with life. In the words of Tagore, “It must not
only derive its contents but also its substance and inspiration from the social life at large.”

Thus we find that Tagore recommended a comprehensive curriculum for the development of the full
man satisfying the spiritual, the social, the creative, the intellectual, the aesthetic, the physical and
the vocational aim of education.

2. Educations through emotions: Tagore pleaded for education of emotions through music, fine arts,
painting, dance, dramatics and crafts which are means of self-expression and fulfillment. He struck a
balance between the education of Nature and the education of man through art, music, dance and
painting.

3. Education through mother-tongue: Tagore advocated teaching through the medium of mother-
tongue, but he was not against the teaching of English at the higher level, as English opened a way for
the western culture and literature.

4. Manual training for spiritual aspect: Tagore emphasized manual training, not for its utilitarian and
social aspect, but for its spiritual aspect, because he found God in the labourer, the path-breaker and
the tiller.

5. Physical and Social Sciences: Tagore believed that at the higher level, science must lead to material
contribution for the progress of the country. According to him material backwardness in Indians was
not due to emphasis on religion and spiritualism, but due to intellectual and practical laziness. Indian
youth must be ready to receive the gifts of science and technology. Regarding Social Sciences,
Tagore considered History as a study of cultural legacy. Besides History of India, the history of man.
All national histories are merely chapters in the larger one.” Tagore wanted to broaden the vision of
student beyond Indian Culture. To him our real legacy is the cultural heritage of the whole community.
There is need for assimilating rich value of Indian Culture in world perspective.

(5) Methods of Teaching:

Tagore criticized the educational methods prevalent in those days, calling them lifeless, imaginary,
foreign, bookish, mechanical, stereotyped and unsuitable. He believed in the individuality of the child
and stated that arrangement of education for every child should be according to individual
differences. In order to bring life in teaching, methods should be based on interests, emotions, spirit
of play and curiosity of the child. Tagore emphasized following methods of teaching:

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 1. Teaching while walking: Tagore remarked, “Teaching while walking is the best method.” He believed
that history, geography and many social subjects could be best taught through frequent excursions
and tours. During excursions and tours, students might observe numerous facts of interest.

2. Debate and discussion method: Students should recommended by Tagore is debate and discussion
method. Students should be encouraged to solve various problems through discussion.

3. Heuristic method: The most important method which is used in Shantiniketan is, the heuristic
method. First of all the pupils ask questions and the teacher satisfies them by his mature answers.
Later on the teacher asks questions to test the comprehension of the pupils.

4. Activity method: Tagore believed that activity is essential for the education of body and mind. He
appears admitting the activities like jumping climbing the tree, plucking fruit, shouting, clapping and
dramatization as important methods and techniques of teaching and learning.

(6) Discipline:

Tagore was against the so-called traditional school discipline. He did not like strict and harsh
discipline. He had great sympathy for the child. He believed that the child should not be suppressed by
authority. He was in favour of giving maximum amount of freedom to children in his school. He stated, “The
object of education is the freedom of mind which can only be achieved through the path of freedom – though
freedom has its risk and responsibility as life has.”

To Tagore, freedom is the very nature of the child, but he would not mind to accept restrictions and
discipline if these are coloured with sympathy and love. He believed in a self-imposed discipline. In
Shantiniketan a provision was made for boys’ own court of justice which deals with all breaches of conduct
on the part of the boys. At one place Tagore stated that discipline is not something imposed from outside but it
grows from within.

(7) Role of Teacher:

Tagore assigns an important place to the teacher. The teacher is a Guru. He is to guide and stimulate
the students. He is to keep them on the right track. He should have the ability to understand the child i.e., his
emotions, instincts, sentiments, interests and potentialities. He should have sympathetic attitude.

Tagore remarked, “A teacher can never truly teach unless he is still learning himself. A lamp can never
light another lamp unless it continues to burn its own flame.” A teacher should not stop his growth by
stiffening the minds of the students with dead matter. He should continue learning. He should have receptive
and learning attitude.

(8) Spiritual and Religious Education:

Tagore emphasized spiritual and religious education. It is through moral, spiritual and religious
education that the individual will realize his best self and live like a man. It will lead to satisfaction of mind and
the peace of soul. It will enable man to communicate with God.

Tagore had great faith in the efficacy of meditation and prayer as an exercise for spiritual
consciousness. The highest kind of truth can be realized through the method of meditation. In the words of
Tagore, “Thus through all our actions, when our soul is in its true relation to the Supreme Truth, then
experience of the spiritual world has to be gained by children by living in it and not through the medium of
religious instruction.

To quote Tagore, “Teaching of religion can never be imparted in the form of lessons, it is there where
there is religion in living. Therefore, the ideal of the forest colony of the seekers of God as the true school of
spiritual life holds good even in this age. Religion is not a fractional thing that can be doled out in fixed weekly
or daily measures as one among various subjects in the school syllabus. It is the truth of our complete being,
the consciousness of our personal relationship with the infinite; it is the true centre of gravity of our life. This

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 we can attain during our childhood by daily living in place where the truth of the spiritual world is not
obscured by a crowd of necessities assuming artificial importance; where life is ample, surrounded by
fullness of leisure, by ample space and pure air and profound peace of nature, and where men live with a
perfect faith in the eternal life before them.” To serve the human beings is the greatest religion. It inspires in us
the spirit of higher and higher. It maintains the right centre for life’s activities. It gives us spiritual pleasure.

(9) Women Education:

Rabindra Nath Tagore was the greatest protagonist of women education. He was greatly shocked to
see the deteriorating condition of the women folk in the Indian society. In order to improve this condition, he
educated for the women education. In the field of education, there should be no difference between men and
women, boys and girls. He remarked, whatever is worthy to be known – it is both for men and women then
why there is difference between the education of the men and women?” In 1908, he established a Department
of Women Education is Shantiniketan. In 1922, a Nari Bhawan (The Women Department) was established. In
this department girls used to get the same type of education as the boys. In addition to it there was provision
for the teaching of the Domestic Science, Sewing, Embroidery and Dancing. Tagore believed that the
knowledge of Music for girls is essential and hence there was also the provision for the teaching of music.

In the other words of Tagore, “Women should acquire pure knowledge for becoming a mature human
being, and utilitarian knowledge for becoming true women.” It is the nature of woman to be a wife and a
mother. Education should cater to the special needs of women. A woman should be able to fulfill, her duties
towards her husband and children. The importance of good manners and orderliness has been emphasized.

(10) Education of the Masses (Universal Education):

Rabindra Nath Tagore recognized the importance of expansion of education among the masses, as
he felt that Indian masses have to suffer a lot due to illiteracy. He introduced a scheme of universal education.
Education of a general public according to Tagore, can be in two forms: (i) Elementary or Primary Education, (ii)
Social or Adult Education.

Tagore advocated that provision should be made for the Primary Education of the children of the
country. The medium of instruction of Primary Education should be mother-tongue. Tagore was the champion
of free primary education. For the Adult Education, night schools should be opened. Provision should be made
for movable libraries in order to education the illiterate villagers.

Tagore listed the following obstacles that were in the way of educational expansion among the
masses: (i) Emphasis on expensive school equipment and furniture, (ii) Indifference of the State regarding
educational responsibility, (iii) Indifference of the people themselves regarding their own welfare and too
much dependence on the help of the State, (iv) Foreign medium of education. He considered English medium
as the greatest barrier in the spreading of mass education and explained that the mother-tongue was the most
convenient, speedy and inexpensive vehicle for carrying education to every home.

CONCLUSION

Through Tagore India has given her message to mankind. His unique achievements in the field of literature,
philosophy, education and art, have won imperishable fame for himself and have raised the status of India in
the estimation of the world. Tagore loved humanity and the purest form of humanity – the child. To him, he
gave respect, love, freedom, sympathy and scope for initiative. Tagore’s faith in the essential unity of mankind
was a step towards internationalism. He believed in World Brotherhood and worked for a closer contact
between the East and the West. His educational philosophy introduced seed for the reform of India’s social,
educational and cultural evils. In the words of H.B. Mukerjee, “Tagore was the greatest prophet of educational
renaissance in modern India. He waged a ceaseless battle to uphold the highest educational ideal before the
country, and conducted educational experiments at his own institutions, which made them living symbols of
what an ideal should be.”

Ques. What do you mean by Knowledge? Explain its types, sources & methods of acquiring knowledge.

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Ans:- Knowledge:- “The first step to knowledge is to know that we are ignorant.” Ceeil

Dictionary meaning of knowledge are enlightenedment learning, removal of ignorance&

acquitance. Besides the word ‘Know’ also means remember, recall, learn, find out, discover, see &
intuition.

Related terms:- There are some terms which are related to the term ‘knowledge’, but are slightly
different from the concept of knowledge. These are given here:-

1. Information & knowledge:- Information is related to bare facts which form data. It can be
quantitative or qualitative both. There is mental growth in the process.

2. Opinion & knowledge;- Knowledge is true opinion combined with reason i.e. for which the
claimant to knowledge can give adequate grounds or rational justification.

3. Wisdom & knowledge:- Wisdom is the outcome of the process of realization of reality to life &
universe, and relationship between the two. It is based both on information & knowledge.
Wisdom is the elimination of human experience & realization in life.

Definitions:

According to William James, knowledge is another name for practical achievement and success.

According to Joad, knowledge is an addition to our existing information and store of experiences.

According to Socrates, knowledge is the highest virtue.

In the light of various definitions the characteristics of knowledge are:-

● Knowledge is that which is known.

● Knowledge is information.

● Knowledge is instruction.

● Knowledge is removal of ignorance.

● Knowledge is learning.

● Knowledge is wisdom.

● Knowledge is enlightenment.

● Knowledge is rational.

● Knowledge is doing.

● Knowledge meets our daily requirement.

● Knowledge is a mean to reach the truth.

● Knowledge is certain.

● Knowledge id verifiable.

● Language is the vehicle of knowledge.

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 ● Meaning of words, terms, concepts, form the foundation of knowledge.

● Structure of knowledge is based on facts & values.

Types of Knowledge:- There are two types of knowledge

1. General

2. Specific

General Types of knowledge

1. Apriori:- It is knowledge which is in existence, prior to men’s recognition of it. Knowledge that is a
priori has universal validity & is at once recognized. It doesn’t require any further proof. For eg. 3+3=6.

2. Empirical (Aposteriori):- It is also known as experienced knowledge. It is knowledge based on

observation & experience. This is based on sensation or sensory awareness. Five senses are the
gateways of knowledge which help us to know our surroundings and individual self. This is the
knowledge gained by scientific method.

3. Experienced knowledge:- It is always tentative & cannot exist prior to experience. It cannot be
concluded or accepted from mere observations. It must be experienced to have validity.

Indian View:

According to an Indian view knowledge is of two types:-

1. Para Vidya (Knowledge):- Para Vidya is related to physical world. It can be derived through five
senses & reasoning.

2. Apara Vidya:- Apara Vidya is related to other worldliness, spiritual in nature. It is most relevant part of
human nature. It is related to self, soul, spirit, & God & their relationship. It is clearly stated in
“Upanishads” that both are indispensable for self realization as well as social welfare. A person who
obtains knowledge or both in a balanced way and utilizes it rationally, can said to be a really
successful person. Happiness & bless lie in totality & not in fragments.

Specific Types of Knowledge:

1. Authoritative Knowledge:- This knowledge emanates from an authority. An authority may be religion,
state, expert or a specialist. In the field of religion, the scriptures as well as discourses of the gurus &
mahatmas are regarded as the authority. The discourses of Sri Guru Granth Sahib, Gita & Vedas are
regarded as authority on questions relating to God & Soul.

2. Empirical Knowledge:- It is acquired through senses and observations or experiences. This

knowledge is absolutely external. It enters our brain or mind from outside. It is not innate, inborn or
prenatal. It does not pre exist in our mind.

3. Rational Knowledge:- It is acquired by intellect or reasoning through analysis & synthesis of the
perceived data.

4. Scientific Knowledge:- It is obtained through observation & experimentation. It can be verified &
tested by others.

5. Pragmatic Knowledge:- It is that knowledge which is useful in real life or practical situations. It
meets our daily requirements in real life or practical situations. It helps the person in solving day to day
problems & making adjustments. It is personalized & relativistic. It is based on observation,
experience & experimentation.

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 6. Intuitive knowledge:- It is gained through intuition, inner vision, inner subjective consciousness,
inspiration or awareness of truth. Such truth can also come through revelation in religion. It is neither
related to senses, nor related to personal experience which can be repeated nor it is scientifically
verified. Intuition is an instinct by which we obtain knowledge of inner life. Intuitive knowledge is the
knowledge of whole truth, of unity with god & of religious & moral truths. Intuitive knowledge is the
elan vital, which is the absolute reality.

7. Revelated Knowledge:- It comes from a divine source. It is that knowledge which god revealed to
man. It is difficult to prove or disapprove it empiritcally as it is accepted on faith. Certain holy men
recorded it for the sake of humanity. This type of knowledge is contained in scriptures like Sri Guru
Granth Sahib, Vedas, Upnishads, Gita, Bible, Quran, etc.

Sources of Knowledge

The sources from which we obtain knowledge range from those are highly reliable to those that are completely
unreliable. The knowledge obtained from the unreliable sources is based on assumptions, believes and
untested generalizations. Such generalizations are usually accepted on faith, tradition or authority and no
effort is made to verify their validity. In contrast reliable knowledge is base on objective verification of
generalization. To be more specific, following are considered to be the best sources of gaining knowledge.

1. Senses:- Knowledge is drawn through five senses of man. They are the gateway of knowledge
for human beings. In this way, senses are the sources of knowledge. All scientific knowledge or
empirical is drawn through observation and experiences related to senses. This knowledge is
immediate, first hand, real & concrete in nature. The more the senses are involved in the process, the
more comprehensive would be the knowledge.

2. Authority:- Authority knowledge comes from an authority or a specialist in a particular field of

knowledge. A philosopher, scientist, economist, psychologist, etc are different examples related to
special fields of study or knowledge. Views or written material of expert or specialist is accepted as
final & considered as standard knowledge. For learner, his teacher is an authority. He accepts the
teacher as a great source of knowledge.

3. Reason:- This is the source of the rational knowledge. It refers to mind. The function of mind is
to imagine, think and reason out. Reasoning is a mental process in which inferences or results are
drawn. Some special techniques like induction & deduction are used for reasoning. Induction
proceed from examples to generalization while deduction is opposite to it, that proceed from
generalization to examples. Law of gravitation is generalized while observing the fall of all things
towards earth. This is an example of Inductive reasoning. Solving a sum based on formulas is an
example of deductive reasoning.

4. Experimentation:- It is a valid source of knowledge. Man draws knowledge while doing

experiments under controlled situations or otherwise. This knowledge can be verified. Experiment
can be repeated in order to check the reliability of facts. This technique can be used in physical
sciences & other social sciences.

5. Intuition:- The intuitive knowledge is non- sensuous and it arises from an intimate fusion of
mind with reality. This type of knowledge is spontaneous & sudden. A flash of message is
experienced or listened by a person. It comes true. It is said to be revealed but it pertains to contain
persons having purity of heart and mind. It happens sometime to everybody.

6. Revelation:- This knowledge is supposed to be conveyed to a special person by an external &

more powerful agent like God or super power. It is said that the knowledge contained in Holy Scripts
of different religion is revealed knowledge. This knowledge is conveyed to the person by some super
natural or Divine power. This knowledge is accepted by all as Universal Knowledge. It is free from the
bondage of time & space & holds good & pure at all times & places.

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Methods of Acquiring Knowledge

With the help of current knowledge, we are able to adjust according to the environment. We are living in the
age of science & technology. Therefore, it has become necessary for us to increase our knowledge & to
combine it with the present times. There are different methods of acquiring knowledge.

1. Testimony or authority:- This type of knowledge is known as authoritative knowledge. We should

accept those people as authorities who are people of integrity & who had authentic information. The
method of authoritatianism is the best employed in the field of religion. In the field of religion the
scriptures as well as the discourses of the gurus & mahatmas are regarded as the final authority on
questions reality to god & soul.

2. Sensory experiences:- Empiricism is the chief method of acquiring knowledge. Senses are the chief
portals through which knowledge enters the mind. What we see, hear, touch, smell & taste i.e. our
concrete experience constitutes realm of knowledge. Empiricists lay emphasis on man’s power of
perceptions, or observation or what the senses receive from environment.

i.Observation method:- We live in the society, while living in the society, we observe the immediate
surroundings as well as our own self. We gain experiences on the basis of observation and
then try to correlate these experiences with our life, society & nation.

ii. Learning by doing:- Learning by doing is an interesting, effective & easy method of acquiring
knowledge. It develops self confidence.

iii. Learning by experience:- The personal experiences of an individual make him inventor &
explorer. It is well said, “ Experience is the greatest teacher of man.” Practical experience is
the best method of acquiring knowledge.

iv. Audio-visual aids:- Audio visual aids are very interesting, easy, useful & effective means of
acquiring knowledge. They are the best motivator of our senses. The person can gain
knowledge in a natural manner with the help of audio- visual aids.

3. Rationalism:- Reasoning synthesizes all our sensations into perceptions. Rationalists advocate that
reason alone is the final testimony of knowledge. It is only through intellect that we can arrive at
definite, true and universal knowledge.

i.Inductive method:- In inductive method, we proceed from particular to general, from concrete to
abstract, from known to unknown, from the observed to the unobserved, from empirical to
rational & from individual cases to generalizations. The process of induction calls for
perception, reasoning, judgement and generalization. We start from example & on the basis
of those examples the person formulate a law. Inductive method is very useful in the
teaching of science, mathematics geography and language grammar etc.

ii. Deductive method:- In deductive method we proceed from general to particular, abstract to
concrete & formula to examples. In deductive method rules, principles & conclusions are
applied to particular cases.

iii. Inductive-deductive method:- Both inductive & deductive methods are equally necessary as the
right & left foot are for walking or as both the wheels are wanted for a cart. Both these
methods should go side by side supplementing & complementary to each other. They are
inseparable. Induction should always be followed by deduction & deduction should be
established through induction.

4. Experimental method:- In experimental method, knowledge is gained on the basis of experiments

and laboratories. This type of knowledge is also called controlled knowledge because while making
experiments, many conditions are controlled. Experiments consists of objective observation of

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 actions performed under rigidly controlled, planned & laboratory conditions.

5. Problem solving method:- In problem solving method, an attempt is made in an intelligent, planned
and purposeful way to find the solution of the problem. Problem solving method is very useful for
acquiring knowledge. It develops intellectual qualities, social qualities, self-expression, self-
confidence and study habits.

6. Intuition method:- Intuition is the chief source & method of knowledge. They advocate that
knowledge is intuitive in nature. Intuition is the inner vision, inner voice of conscience. Inner vision is
the power of the mind or self by which the knowledge of reality of the world & life dawns in the form
of intuition. Intuition alone holds the key to the understanding of reality (knowledge)

7. Concentration and meditation method:- Concentration is considered as the most appropriate and
effective method of acquiring knowledge. No knowledge can be attained without the concentration of
mind. The power of concentration is the only key to the store-house of knowledge. For the attainment
of spiritual knowledge, there must also be meditation along with concentration.

Conclusion:- Each method has its own importance. Each method can prove to be more useful than other
methods in different fields. We can acquire different kinds of knowledge with the help of
sensory experiences, testimony or authority. Experimental method, problem solving method,
intuition method, concentration method and meditation method, playway method, heuristic
method, discussion method, debate method, brain storming, reflection and revelation etc in
the educational process.

UNIT-II

Ques:- Explain meaning of society. Discuss relationship between society and education.

Ans:- Meaning:- Every individual is an integral part of society. We can hardly think of an individual without
thinking about the society of that individual. Man is a social being. He is born in the society and
he has to pass his life in society. He can’t maintain his existence without society. So he creates
society. Society is not simply an assembly of a few or many persons. Infact, the society, is a
composite of individuals. The type of individuals good or bad, determine the goodness or
badness of the society. The society has its impact on the individuals and the individuals have
their effect on society.

Some of the definitions of society are as follows:-

1. Maclver and page:- “Society is the web of social relationship and it is always changing.”

2. Lapier’s view:- “The term ‘society’ refers not to a group of people but to the complex pattern of the
forms of inner actions that rise among and between them.”

3. Talcott parson’s view:- “Society may be defined as total complex of human relationships is so far as
they grew out of action in terms of means and relationships, intrinsic or symbolic.”

4. Ginsber’s view:- “Society is a collection of individuals united by relations or modes of behavior which
mark them off from others who do not enter into those relations or who differ from them in behavior.:

5. Wright’s view:- “Society is not a group of people, it is the system of relationships that exists between
the individuals of the groups.”

6. Gisbert’s view:- “Society, in general consists of the complicated network of social relationships by
which every human being is inter connected with his fellowmen.”

7. Giddings’ view:- “Society is the union itself, the organization, the sum total of formal relations in
which associating individuals are bound together.”

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 8. Cooley’s view:- “Society is a complex of forms or processes each of which is living and growing by
interaction with others, the whole being so united that what takes place in one part affects all the
rest.”

9. Coles’s view:- :Society is the complex of organised associations and institutions within a
community.”

10. Cuber’s view:- “Society may be defined as a group of people who have lived together long enough to
become organised into a more or less a distinct human unit.”

11. Leabock’s view:- “Society includes not only the political relations by which men are bound together
but the whole range of human relations and collective activities.”

12. Manzer’s view:- “ A Society may be thought of as a group of people among whom there is conscious
participation in some kind of common activity.”

Conclusion:- A society is not a group of individuals but it is the system or network of social relationships
found among the members of the group. The question arises what are social relationships? When two or
more individuals are aware about one another and they conduct some behavior towards one another, then
social relationships have been established among them. The basic elements of society are:-

1. Mutual awareness between individuals.

2. Similarly or dissimilarity:- They may have either similarity or dissimilarity between their aims or
thinking.

3. Cooperation or struggle:- Mutual awareness can result in two forms: Cooperation or struggle. Hence
cooperation or struggle is another element of society.

4. Mutual dependence or interdependence:- The fact is that individuals are aware towards one another
for the fulfillment of their needs and they do not bind themselves in these relationships so long their
own needs are not fulfilled from one another. Sociologists call it mutual dependence or
interdependence.

Thus society is a combination of such people who work together or function together for the
achievement of common purposes. In a well knit society, all the members are interdependent. They
help one another in achieving common goals and objectives.

Characteristics of society illustrating its meaning:-

1. Web of social relationships:- Society is a web or a network of social relationships. All members of
society are fully conscious (aware) of these relationships. All people living in a society have a
common feeling for the society as a whole and for the institutions belonging to it.

2. Interdependence of members:- Society is the interdependence of its members. All members of

society are found to be interdependence. Maclver writes, “The history of man is in one aspect the
history of growth of an organization which diversifies the work of each more dependent on others.”

3. Mutual cooperation:- No society can exist without the mutual cooperation of its members. The
progress of a society also depends upon the mutual cooperation among the members of a family.
Then it becomes wider and wider in its area and scope and extends upto the mutual cooperation of all
the members of the world nation. The peace, prosperity, and progress of the world at large depends
upon the widest mutual cooperation of this kind.

4. Feeling of affinity:- Feeling of affinity leads to friendship. It strengthens the state of friendship
between the members of a society. In its wider sense it leads to national friendship and international
friendship.

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 5. Well knit population:- Population of a society consists of those people who live together and who
work jointly for the existence of that society. All people living in a society work as dynamic forces for
success of the society in which they live.

6. Common natural environment:- Society possesses a common natural environment. All the plains,
mountains, deserts, rivers and oceans are included in the common environment. They belong to all
people living in the society in the sense that all people living in a certain society have a great affinity
for them.

7. Natural resources:- Many natural resources in a society such as minerals, forests, vegetations,
cattle, etc. are hidden treasures of that society. The natural resources significantly contribute to the
development of the society. They fulfill many needs of people living in a society. All people belonging
to the society shoulder the joint responsibility of preserving these common resources and making the
best use of them only at the time of need.

Relationship between society and education

Society and education are closely related to each other. Both are inter related and inter dependent. Education
effects society and society effects education. Education without society is devoid of its significance and
society without education loses its modern concept. Each society organizes its education according to its own
needs, ideals and aspirations. Education is the most powerful means to fulfill the needs, ideals and
aspirations to the society. It is the society which determines and formulates the pattern of its education
according to its needs, ideals, ambitions and aspirations. Thus as is the society, so is its education. Therefore,
education follows and tries to realize the ideals of society which it serves.

The following viewpoints highlight the relationship between society and education:-

1. Ottaway’s view:- “Education is an activity which goes on in a society, and its aims and methods
depend on the nature of the society in which it takes place.”

2. Ward’s view:- “Education is an ameliorative agency whose aim and function is the improvement of
the society.”

3. Bode’s view:- “Society and education stand in a relation of reciprocal cause and effect. The
character of a given society determines the character of its educational system and the character of
this system in turn determines the character of the society.”

Society becomes better through education. A better society modifies education according to
its needs and requirements. Education helps in uprooting the ills, the most hated customs, omens and
replace them with good ones. It improves the society. It makes the society virtually good by
establishing its traditions.

The relationship between education and society is explained in the following points:-

1. Education as a process of preparing people to fit into social structure:- Education is a process of

preparing the people to fit into the complex social structure and to play particular social roles as
members of more than one institutional group. Individuals have to learn to be mothers or fathers,
teachers or civil servants, shopkeepers or priests. They have to learn to keep the law, to understand
how they are governed and to be prepared to try and change the social moves when they see that they
can be improved as a social phenomenon.

2. Education as preparation for future occupation:- Education as a social phenomenon is a preparation

of the child for future occupation. This is an important economic function of education and this is in
interest of society, nation and individual. It is through education that an individual knows the structure
of society and various types of relationships that exist among those structures in the society. The
child is taught to perform various roles within the social structure in the society.

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 3. Relation of education with culture:- Education is related to culture of the society. Both the child and
social environment influence educational process and culture of the society. Thus education and
culture are inter related.

4. Education as transmission of culture:- Education transmits culture or cultural heritage. It is the

transmitter of cultural customs, conventions, traditions, norms and values of the society. Education is
influenced by the culture of society in which it takes place. Education is a means through which the
cultural values of a particular society are transmitted from one generation to another. Through this
process the society is able to achieve basic social conformity and ensure that its traditional values,
attitudes, beliefs, norms and aspirations are preserved and maintained.

5. Social factors of education:- Education differs from society to society. It depends on the total way of
life of people of a particular society. Each society has her own beliefs, traditions, values and norms
and her own ideal persons who stand out clearly for the younger generation to emulate. Type of
education given in each society changes from time to time as the society changes. Some of the
examples are given as follows:-

i.Ancient society:- There was dominance of religion in ancient society. Hence the nature of education
was religious. Education used to put emphasis on religious and character development.
Religious principles were followed.

ii. Modern society:- There is influence of science on modern society. Hence through education,
emphasis is placed on development of thinking, reasoning and judgement of the individual.
Persons have the right to get education according to their needs and ambitions. At present,
there are many types of society like materialistic society, idealistic society, communist
society and pragmatic society before us.

iii. Fascist society:- In fascist society, authority lies in one person. He rules by force. Opposers are
punished. Ruler determines the nature of education by his own accord. Education infuses the
sense of worship for the state. It also develops the sense of sacrifice for the welfare of the
state. A few years ago, Germany, Japan, and Italy were fascist societies and education was
organised according to the principles of these societies.

iv. Democratic society:- In democratic society, personality of the individual is respected. He is

given freedom of development of thinking, speech and vocation. As a result, education is
organised according to democratic principles of society. Students are given freedom to
receive education according to their interests and abilities.

6. Social interaction:- Social interaction is another area of relationship between education and society.
Social interaction is any relation between people and groups, which changes the behavior of the
people in the group. Child needs social interaction before he acquires the culture of the society. The
interaction in the society is therefore a part of the child’s education provided that type of interaction
brings positive changes in child’s behavior as required by the educational system.

Conclusion:- Education is nothing more than the whole life a community. Our education system is according to
contemporary social ideals, values and norms of the society. School education is correlated with social
environment of the children. A good society is the product of the good school system and a good school
system is the product of a good society. Hence these must be close relationship between the school and
society. While stating the relationship of school (education) and society, Mudaliar commission. 1952-53
remarked, “The starting point of educational reform must be relinking of the school to life and restoring of the
intimate relationship between them which has broken down with the development of the formal tradition of
school.”

Impact of society on education

Education is the foundation of human society. No society can progress without education. Every society

37
arranges education according to its beliefs and needs, and society’s beliefs and needs depend upon its
geographical, social, cultural, religious, political and economic conditions. The changes which take place in
the society:

1. Impact of geographical location of society on education:- Geographical location influences the life
of people in a society. Hence it is natural for its education to be influenced by it. The societies having
favourable geographical condition and sufficient natural resources have time and money for
education. As a result, they have good system of education. People of a country adopt the industries
according to the natural resources available there and accordingly education is also provided for it.
Emphasis is placed on agricultural education in agricultural countries and on industrial education in
industrial countries. On the contrary, the societies of which geographical location is such that
individual has to bitterly struggle for protection of life, in them most people have neither time nor
money for education. As a result, they have no system of mass education and the scope of education
is limited.

2. Impact of structure of society on education:- Different societies have different forms and
structures. Some societies have different castes or races and discrimination based on caste or race
too. But in some societies there is no caste or race discrimination. Hence some societies have
aristocratic and low classes of people and it is absent in societies. Education is influenced by the type
of a particular society. For example there was strict class system. The shudras were deprived of
higher education. But at present, we do not believe in entire discrimination. Equal opportunities and
facilities are available to all classes and castes of people.

3. Impact of economic conditions of society and education:- Economic conditions of a society exert
significance influence on educational set up. Rich societies provide liberal support to educational
plans of mass education to increasing number of children. They provide free and compulsory
education for every citizen of the society. Developing countries like India put emphasis on mass
education and vocational education. On the other hand, economically poor and backward societies
cannot provide all types of education. They can neither think of compulsory and free education nor
can provide vocational education, such as in Bangladesh. An agricultural economic system has less
possibilities of education. Commercial economic system has comparatively more possibilities and
the industrial economic system has the most of them. The economic condition of India is not every
good. In such type of society there is need of maximum utilization of natural resources and the
development of industries. This need has an influence on the education system. Consequently the
education puts emphasis on vocationalisation, industrialization and scientific development of culture.

4. Impact of culture on education:- Culture of a society implies customs and traditions, conventions
and beliefs, habits and techniques, ideas and ideals, values and norms, conduct and thinking,
behavioural and social patterns, its life style, eating habits, art and skill, music and dance, language
and literature, religion and philosophy, etc. Culture plays an important role in influencing education of
the society. The aims of education of a society are determined on the basis of cultural patterns i.e.,
religion, philosophy, beliefs, ideals and aspirations. Utmost importance is attached to its language,
literature and philosophy in the curriculum. The discipline, methods of teaching, place of the teacher
are also determined according to cultural ideals, patterns and needs.

5. Impact of religious conditions of society on education:- Religion is a part of culture, yet we are taking
it up separately because religion has played a leading role in education. Religion has been regarded as
the basis of education. Religious beliefs and ideals of a society influence the educational pattern to a
great extent. Society with fanatical religious beliefs plans education its own way as in Pakistan. It is
narrowly concerned. On the other hand, society which believes in free thinking and liberal attitude
towards religion as in India, provides education of a liberal and secular nature. People cannot
understand the real and true form of religion in the absence of education.

6. Impact of political conditions of society on education:- Political ideology of society influences

education to a great extent. State government organizes education according to their political

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 doctrines, aims and ideals which are to achieved through educational process and programmes. The
purpose of the society or nation is to prepare citizens for political conformity. Education brings about
political awareness in the society and the citizens are made familiar with their rights and duties. By it
national and international spirit can be developed in them. A person can only be made a blind follower
in the absence of proper education.

7. Impact of social change in education:- Society is dynamic in nature. It changes with change of
social ideals, attitudes and values of people. Since education is linked with society, changes also
occur in educational patterns, procedures, policies and programmes. For example in the ancient
period, Indian society believed in child marriage and untouchability, etc. With the passage of time,
thinking and beliefs in the people changed. Now every child has the right to get education irrespective
of sex, race, caste, creed and colour. Social change brings change in education. Similarly our society
had limited physical needs in the ancient times and its spiritual aspect was very strong. Therefore,
emphasis was placed on the education of religion and ethics. But now its physical needs have
increased and its spiritual aspect has weakened. Hence more importance is attached to science and
technology in education. Until recently women were merely home makers, so they were educated in
reading, writing and domestic work. At present, they march shoulder to shoulder with men. Therefore,
all type of education is available to them at par with men. When then occurs a social revolution, it
brings about massive change in education.

Impact of education on society

Education determines the form of society and influences its economic, social, religious, cultural and political
aspects. Education is the foundation stone of society. It constructs, changes and develops society. Education
significantly influences the society as follows:-

1. Education and control over geographical conditions of society:- Once upon a time man was
considered as the slave of his geographical conditions. But man has succeeded to control his
geographical condition with the help of education. The days have gone when mountains and rivers
blocked our path. Education has facilitated the manufacturing of aeroplanes and we not only cross
our mountains and rivers by it, we travel long distances in short time. Now we are able to control over
our geographical conditions due to education.

2. Education and economic conditions of society:- Modern education is the foundation stone of
economic development. Education provides vocational training to students to uplift themselves and
brings about economic progress and prosperity of the society to which they belong. It is not possible
without education. Today almost all societies attempt to make individual skilled in some vocation or
production work by education. It can be observed that the better is the arrangement of vocational
education in a society, the more rapid is the rate of progress in the economic field. Economic
conditions of a society cannot be improved without education.

3. Impact of education on social change:- Education is the powerful and effective instrument of social
change. Education brings about social changes. By education the individual learns the language, life
style, eating habits and is acquainted with its values and beliefs. It influences the mental
development and he comes to think of himself, society and of this universe. He experiences new
things while living in the society and comes to know the needs and problems of the society. For the
fulfillment of these needs and solution of the problems, he thinks and finds their solutions and thus
influences the society. New researches, techniques and revolutionary changes are taking place in all
fields of human activities due to modern science and technology. It is education which imparts
knowledge of latest scientific developments to the individuals and provides desired inspiration for
their use to bring about the creation of new values, ideals and goals which society gradually adopts.

4. Impact of education on religious conditions of society:- Some societies provide education of their
respective religious in education, while some of them adopt liberal attitude in this field and provide the
education of different religions of the world, while still others which do not give any place to religion in
education. As a result of the above, religious fundamentalism is found in the societies of the first

39
 type, religious freedom in the second type and in the third type of societies the education of physical
sciences eliminate religious narrow mindedness and superstitions on the one hand; and on the other,
they have started to base their education on true religion due to increasing social disorder. People
cannot understand the real form of religion in the absence of education.

5. Impact of education on social control:- Education is essential for social control. No social reform
can take place without social control. Education controls the spread of evils customs, social evils,
harmful traditions, orthodoxes and superstitions, etc. It creates public opinion against social evils. It
succeeds in eliminating these evil practices from the society for the welfare of the individuals as well
as for the welfare of the society.

6. Impact of education on political conditions of society:- Education brings about political awareness in
the society, and the citizens are made familiar with their rights and duties. By it national and
international spirit is developed in them. In the absence of education, a person can be a blind follower
and not an aware citizen.

7. Impact of education on preservation and enrichment of social and cultural heritage:- Every society
has its own social and cultural heritage in the form of customs, conventions, traditions, values,
norms, moral and religious creeds, material and spiritual wealth. Every society has proud of its social
and cultural heritage and wants to preserve and enrich it. It is education which performs this function.

8. Impact of education in humanization:- Education humanizes man. Moral and character building
education humanizes man and reforms society. In the words Swami Vivekananda, “The end of all
education, all training should be man making.” Man ought to be a human first and then he can choose
to become a teacher, a doctor, a scientist, an engineer, an artist or an architect. The training of
humanity of human being is humanization of man.

9. Education as the divinization of man:- Divinisation of major spiritual realization is the highest ideal of
education. The divinity that is latent in man must gradually unfold itself through education. The goal of
life, according to Indian scheme is twofold: (1) the betterment of man meaning all happiness and
prosperity and (2) the spiritual perfection or ‘Moksha’. Education should become a dynamic force both
in the social and spiritual aspects of our life.

Conclusion:- Education and society are closely related and interdependent. Education depends upon its
geographical, social, cultural, religious, economic and political conditions of society. Moreover changes occur
in its education along with social changes in the society. On the other hand, the type of education determines
the stronghold of that society over its geographical condition and its form, and changes occur in the social,
cultural, religious, economic and political conditions. Education is the hand-made of society and a great
motivating force behind social development. It is the education that gives the strength and sense of purpose.
It is education and education alone which can pave for a genuine social order and create genuine climate for
national integration, international understanding and culture of peace and help in preserving. Education plays a
dominant role in bringing changes in society and enriching mankind’s cultural heritage. Education in this new
millennium must emerge as the panacea for all global social evils.

Ways of cultivating relationship between education and society:-

Society makes a provision of education according to its needs and requirements and education fulfils the
need of society producing able citizens of the society. The responsibility of education towards society is
twofold: (1) to understand and give direction to the children and youth. (2) To know what the society experts of
education as an instrument of social control. This responsibility can be fulfilled by cultivating close
relationship with the society by adopting the following measures (ways and means):

1. Needs and cultural background of society:- Education should function according to needs and
cultural background of the society.

2. Cooperation of society:- Education should seek the cooperation of the society through a two-way

40
 traffic.

3. Curriculum and activities:- Curriculum and various co-curricular activities should cater to the
changing needs of the society.

4. Reforming society:- Education should try to reform the society.

In words of Dubey, “A good educational system, in all its full substance and ramifications, is related to the
level of culture, industrial development, rate of urbanization, political organization, religious climate, family
structure, stratification and other institutions of the total social system.” Education has to fulfill both
individual’s needs and need of the society and must keep pace with other sub-system in the society.

Functions or duties of society towards education

1. Establishment of good schools:- The society should establish good schools. Efficient and trained
teachers should be appointed in these schools. These schools should help in physical, intellectual,
emotional, social, cultural, aesthetic, moral, spiritual and vocational development of the pupils.

2. Establishment of good libraries:- The society should establish good libraries. Good libraries help in
broadening the mental horizon of the pupils as well as in the development of various other aspects of
personality.

3. Provision for adult education:- Society should provide adult education. If we want to make
democracy a success, we shall have to provide social education. Evening schools can be started for
providing adult education.

4. Providing literary and cultural education:- Another function of society is to establish literary and
cultural institutions. Various literary and cultural activities should be organised by these institutions. In
our country, there is huge number of literary and cultural institutions which frequently organize
lectures, discussions, debates, poetical recitations and symposiums, one act plays, music
competitions etc.

5. Providing vocational education:- Society is to provide vocationally efficient citizens. Hence vocational
education should be provided by the society. Technical and scientific training should be given while
keeping in view the considerations and the trends of the society.

6. Inculcating moral, spiritual and noble values:- No society can make progress until it inculcates
moral, spiritual and noble values in the masses. Virtues like co-operation, fellow feeling, honesty
industriousness, true patriotism and love for humanity should be developed.

7. Co-coordinating various agencies:- Another function of society is to secure co-operation of various

agencies of education. Agencies like home, community, political, social, religious and industrial
institutions should give their full co-operation to the school.

Functions or duties of education towards society

1. Fulfillment of social needs:- Education should fulfill the needs and requirements of society. As needs
of society change with the changing times, situations and circumstances, education should
understand and formulate plans and programmes to meet these demands in continual ongoing
process.

2. Preservation of culture and civilization of society:- Preservation of culture and civilization of society
is the primary function of education. Education should preserve customs, traditions, beliefs, values,
ideals, norms, language, literature, painting, music, architecture are the basis of culture and
civilization.

3. Maintenance of culture and civilization:- Education should preserve as well as maintain the culture

41
 and civilization of the society. Education should see that cultural values and ideals become a permanent
part of behavior patterns of the individuals.

4. Developing culture and civilization of society:- Education should not merely preserve and maintain
but also develop more and more cultural heritage and civilization of the society. If education fails to
perform this function, then society will not make progress. It will become static and stagnant.

5. Improvement in curriculum:- Education is equally concerned with the formulation or development of

curriculum suited to the modern needs of society. Education should remain sensitive and conscious
to the improvement in curriculum.

6. Development of creative powers:- Education has to promote and develop the creative and
constructive powers of individuals. This is very essential for developing their personalities and for
enabling them to contribute something original towards the development of society.

7. Development of social feeling:- Education has to develop social feeling among individuals. Man is a
social animal. He is to live in the society. We should understand the currents of the society and try to
use them for the welfare or betterment of individuals.

8. Removal of social evils:- Education should remove social evils, blind customs and traditions and try
to bring in desired social changes and reforms. These social changes are very useful for the society.

Conclusion:- To conclude we can say that a society is not a group of individuals but it is the system or network
of social relationships found among the members of the group.

Ques: Discuss the meaning and concept of Socialization.

Ans: Socialization

Socialization is the process by which human infants begin to acquire the skills necessary to perform as a
functioning member of their society and is the most influential learning process one can experience. Unlike
many other living species, whose behavior is biologically set humans need social experiences to learn their
culture and to survive. Although cultural variability manifests in the actions, customs, and behaviors of whole
social groups (societies), the most fundamental expression of culture is found at the individual level.

Meaning of Socialization

Dictionary meaning:

Behave in a way that is acceptable to their society

Or

Organize according to the principles of socialism

Medical point of view:

By which a human being beginning at infancy acquires the habits, beliefs, and accumulated knowledge of
society through education and training for adult status.

Psychological view: the modification from infancy of an individual’s behavior to conform with the
demands of social life.

Sociological View: the act of socializing or the state of being socialized.

Goals of Socialization

Arnett, in presenting a new theoretical understanding of socialization, outlined the three goals of

42
socialization:

Impulse control and the development of a conscience.

Role preparation and performance, including occupational roles, gender roles, and roles in
institutions such as marriage and parenthood.

The cultivation of sources of meaning or what is important valued, and to be lived for

In short, socialization is the process that prepares humans to function in social life. It should be re-
iterated here that socialization is culturally relative – people in different cultures and people that occupy
different racial, classed, gendered, sexual, and religious social locations are socialized differently. This
distinction does not and should not inherently force an evaluative judgement.

Process of socialization

The various factors which play a crucial role in the process of socialization are as follows:-

1. Child’s upbringing:- The way parents bring up their child plays a key role in the socialization of a child.
The type of atmosphere which is available to a child in his early stage of childhood helps in
developing feelings and experiences which leads to his growth. This means proper and healthy
upbringing is imperative for the socialization.

2. Social guiding:- Social guiding also plays an essential role in the process of socialization. Social
guiding is inference by the family, friends and relatives who guide the child in one way or the other.

3. Empathy:- Empathy also plays an important role in the process of socialization. When a child is in his
early stages of childhood, he is completely independent on his family for his needs for which family
should shower some empathy on their child so that the child may be able to develop a feeling of
togetherness and may be able to distinguish between his real well wishers and other people. He
develops a loving feeling for those who shows empathy towards him.

4. Views:- Social views powerfully influences the socialization of a child. A child behaves as per the
views he receive from the people around him.

5. Co-operation:- As discussed above, society makes the child social. As it has been seen that if a
child receive co-operation from others towards him, he also extend his co-operation towards the
people.

6. Learning:- The basic factor in socialization is the process of learning. A child learns the behavior,
feelings and impulses of his family members and modify his behavior accordingly.

7. Identity:- The love, care, affection and sympathy of parents, relatives, friends develop in the mind of
child the feeling of identification of others. Those who behave in a good manner with the child, the
child consider them as their well wishers. Child forms a different identity of his well wishers.

8. Appreciation and punishment:- When a child behaves according to the needs and demands of the
society keeping in mind. The ideals and beliefs, people appreciate his behavior. On the flip side, when
the child does some anti social act, he is punished and criticized by the society. This kind of
punishment helps the child to not to do unsocial activities.

Factors leading to socialization of a child

When a child is born, he is nothing more than an animal. As he groves up, he comes in contact with other
children and people, he learns different social ideas, social attitudes and habits. The process of socialization
goes on throughout life.

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 Below are the important factors leading to the socialization of a child:-

1. Family:- Every child interacts with his family members and gain a number of qualities such as love,
care, empathy, tolerance, etc. He also learn the values, beliefs and ideas, traditions of the family and
hence socialization of the child goes on and on.

2. Indoor and outdoor games:- While playing a child gains many qualities such as love, care, feeling of
sportsmanship, sympathy, honesty, team spirit and these qualities help in making socialization more
effective.

3. Neighbourhood:- Neighbourhood is also like a kind of family. Children living in the same locality gain
different habits of living and co-operative attitude and try to solve different day to day problems
effectively. On the flipside, bad neighbourhood sports the development and socialization of the child.
Hence people belonging to good families prefer to live in good neighbourhood.

4. School:- In school, children interact with many other children belonging to different caste, religion
and backgrounds. Children even with such differences interact together, read together and gain the
different traditions of the society. Also, participation in different activities at the social level help them
inculcate social values, attitudes and help them modify their behavior.

5. Camps:- The motive of different camps is the service of the society. They encourage children to
take part in social service projects through combined and co-operative efforts. These camps help in
inculcating the feeling of sympathy, co-operation, selfless service and many other human qualities
which are essential for socialization.

6. Society:- Society provides a ground for the process of socialization. Through various social
gathering, one can participate in them and can develop the qualities of togetherness, love and the
desirable ones.

7. Caste:- Each caste has its specific values, customs, traditions, and beliefs. Main motive of the caste
is to socialize the child. Each caste tries to socialize the child in one or the other way.

8. Religion:- Each religion has its specific beliefs, traditions, rituals and cosmologies. As the child
interacts with different people belonging to different religions, he is able to develop the feelings of co-
operation, sympathy, respect, adjustment leading to socialization.

Factors resisting socialization of the child

The main factors which hinders the clear and smooth working of socialization are:-

1. Children situations:- For example: Lack of affection, insecurity, punishment, conflicts, widowed
mother, favouritism.

2. Current situations:- For example: Insult, sufferings, envy, desperation, harsh experiences, hardships
and despondency.

3. Cultural conditions:- For example: Social disparities, cast distinctions, social status, snobberies,
feelings of superiority and inferiority.

4. Other circumstances:- For example: Poverty, failure, courage, experiences of hardships, lack of
education and self reliance.

Role of teacher in the process of socialization

Teacher plays a crucial role in the development and socialization of the child. Hence to boost and speed
up this process, a teacher should keep in mind the following factors:-

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 1. Parent teacher relationship:- The first activity of the teacher is to come in contact with the parents of
the child so that he/she may be able to know about the interests and tendency of the child and can
provide a platform for the development of the child.

2. Social ideals:- A teacher should try to put social ideals in front of the students in playground,
classroom, activities, functions. Such as effort can help in the identification of socialization.

3. Transmission of cultural heritage:- A teacher should try his level best to transmit the knowledge
regarding transmits the knowledge regarding cultural heritage, customs, traditions, ideals and values
in an effective way. This will lead to socialization of children.

4. School traditions:- A teacher should inspire belief and appreciation of traditions so that students
may get encouraged and then in practice may take into practice.

5. Respect for other cultures:- On school, there are children who belong to different cultures. Teacher
should try to inculcate in them inter cultural feeling so that they learn to respect their own culture
along with the other cultures.

6. Team work:- A teacher should assign projects and assignments where children can work together
as a team with mutual co-operation, mutual understanding, sympathy and fellow-feeling. These type
of activities develop more and more social feelings leading to socialization.

7. Healthy relations:- A teacher should build up healthy relations with children, colleagues and the
administration of the school. In such an environment, socialization of a child is must.

8. Healthy competition:- Healthy competition leads to socialization. A teacher should try to inculcate in
children and feeling of healthy competition through encouragement and appreciation.

Conclusion

Thus, we can say that socialization is a process of learning and teaching the ways of life. It is through
socialization that a person learns about the way of living, habits, manners, ideals, beliefs, traditions, etc. In
short, it is the process in which a person learns how to get social as he grows up.

Ques:- Explain the concept of equity. State its educational implications.

Ans:- Equity

Introduction:- Equity means fairness or impartiality in the availability of opportunities to every individual of the
society. In the light of social fairness, it is fair to follow the policy of reservations for
scheduled castes, tribes, backward classes, women people from rural area, sports men,
freedom fighter, ex-military persons and wards etc.

Meaning of equity:- The term equity, social justice and social equality almost convey the same meaning. Equity
cover almost everything, which promotes the welfare of all the members of the society in
general and in particular, the welfare of the weaker or backward sections of the society.
It implies the following:-

1. Equality of opportunity

2. Abolition of social in equality.

3. Abolition of special privileges of upper sections of society.

4. Protection discrimination, i.e. providing special benefits to backward classes or sections.

5. Abolition of social evils.

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 6. Economic security

7. Minimizing gaps in wealth.

8. Protection of the interest of the workers.

9. Fulfillment of basic needs of all the members of society.

10. Equally distributed of right among all.

Importance /Role of education for equity and equality:-

1. Knowledge of rights and duties:-Our constitution has given many rights and duties to Indian citizen
which are directly related to the concept of ‘equity’. For the success of Indian democracy it is
essential that every citizen should be aware of his rights and duties. This knowledge can be obtained
only through education.

2. Development of human qualities:- Only through education such qualities like high moral character,
sociability, patience, sympathy and brotherhood etc, can be developed in the individual.

3. Protection and transmission of culture:- In any country ideals can be achieved only when the culture
and social heritage can be maintained. It can only be possible when culture and social heritage can be
passed on to the new generation through the medium of education.

4. Faith in democratic ideals:- For the success of democracy, its citizens must have faith in the
democratic ideals. This is possible only when they are adequately educated and learned. Only
educated, individual can understand the circumstances and needs of another person before passing
judgement on him. Only such a person can accept the idea of equality after recognizing human values.

5. Fulfillment of political duties:- In a democratic country, the responsibility of electing a government

rests on its citizens. If the citizens are not educated to fulfill their political responsibilities. People
casts their votes to wrong persons. To choose a right person the person should be educated so that
he can think independently and support the right person.

6. Preventing exploitation:- If political, social and economic exploitation is to be eliminated from

society, it is essentially to have universal and compulsory education. Education is very essential for
people to fight for equity. In its absence, the rich and powerful people will never give up their
advantage and habit. While the poor will never become sufficiently conscious of their rights and duties.

7. Development of social feeling

Conclusion:- In the nutshell we can say that if right type and universal education will be provided to all Indians
then it is possible to establish equity in the real sense. The Indian constitution seeks to
establish a popular government in the country for this every citizen must participate in
administration.

Efforts made in india to achieve equality and equity in education:- Following are a few efforts made in the
direction of solving the problem of equality and equity in education in india after
independence:-

1. School education:- Primary and secondary

a) Common school system:- Indian education commission (1964-66) has recommended the
common school system in india keeping in view equality and equity in india.

b) Neighbourhood schools:- The idea of common school system was further modified and the

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 concept of neighbourhood school developed. Curriculum of neighbourhood school system should be
based on needs and it should develop skills and competencies.

c) Navodya vidayalayas:- Navodya vidyalayas opened for imparting equality education to children.

d) Reservation of seats in public schools:- Policy of reservation of sets has been followed for
public schools to enfore equity in education.

e) Universalisation of primary education:- It has been made at the primary level for the population
of children of age group 5-14.

f) Formal and non formal programmes for secondary education:- Correspondence courses are
there for secondary level. Vocationalisation has been introduced. Individual of age group
15-65 are considered to be involved in programmes of production and economic development.

2. Higher education:- The educational opportunities at the higher level are provided on the basis of
merit. Reservation policy is also followed at this stage to provide equity in education besides equality.

3. Provision under the national policy on education 1986:- The national policy on education 1986 has
emphasized on the removal of disparities and thus making the concept of equality in education more
impartial or air keeping in view overall desirable social change leading to economic development of
country.

a) Women education:- It is one of the major problem of Indian society. There is a lack of
awareness among people about women education. In Haryana, there is free education of
girls upto college level. Similarly other states are also participating to encourage women to
participate.

b) Education of SC:- Scholarship schemes are being adapted for SC and ST from I class to X
class. Teachers from schedule caste are being recruited. The location of schools, balwadis
and adult educational centres are being decided in such a way which may facilitate
maximum participation of the children.

c) Education of educationally backward section of areas:- In context of weaker sections of the

society and the educationally backward areas, the term equality and equity of educational
opportunity require:-

i.Universalisation of education without any discrimination.

ii. Recognition of education as a welfare service.

iii. No pupil should remain handicapped on account of poor economic conditions.

iv. Provision of schools within walkable distances.

4. Education of handicapped:- Special attention is being given with the aim to integrate physically and
mentally handicapped children with general community as equal partners in order to prepare them for
copying with day to day problems like normal individuals.

5. Adult education:- Formal education is being given through formal institutions at all the levels. But
illiterate population with in age group of 35 to 60 years may get education through non formal means.
The government of india in new policy on education 1986 has emphasized the education of adults.

6. Distance education:- Suppose one is not in a position to get admission in any of the formal

47
 institution for one reason or the other, he or she may draw the benefits of education through distance
education programme. For eg. The indira Gandhi national open university was opened in 1985. The
state and central universities have independent departments of distance education.

Conclusion:- Education is one of the instrument which can bring a social change Indian education commission
has recommended the common school system keeping in view equality and equity in india.

Ques:- What do you mean by equality of educational opportunities?

Ans:- Equality of Opportunity in Education

Equal opportunity implied that the rich and poor a like should have equal access to the educational
system and programme without any hindrance. All material barriers should be removed. Caste, Colour of creed
should not put any check on an individual to pursue course of education in accordance with his ability and
aptitude.

Equal opportunity does not mean identical education. No two individuals are alike. They differ in
tastes, manners, attitudes and aptitudes, beliefs etc. Any attempt to provide precisely the same educational
programmes and opportunities is likely to met with failure.

The Kothari Commission observed, “On grounds of social justice as well as for the furtherance of
democracy, it is essential to make special efforts to equalize educational opportunities.

Dr. Radhakrishanan has pointed out long back, “Democracy only provides that all men should have
equal opportunities for the development of their unequal talents.” The Indian constitution also as per Article
15, 16, 17, 38 and 48, guarantees that the State shall not discriminate between persons on account of their
religion or region and caste and class. The Preamble of the Constitution also assures equality to all the
citizens.

NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF EQUALITY AND EQUITY OF OPPORTUNITIES IN EDUCATION:

The following points highlight the need of equality and equity of opportunities in education:

1. Human right: Education has been considered as a Universal Human Right. The idea of equality and
adequate opportunity to all was highlighted in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by
the General assembly of the United Nations on December 10, 1948. As a sequel to this, the principles
of “non-discrimination” and “right to education” were strongly advocated. These two principles
inhered the concept of “equality of opportunity in education”. Therefore, depriving any person of
education on the bases of religion, race or class will be deprivation of Human Right.

2. Essential for democracy: India is a democratic country. Democracy is based on the principle of
equal freedom and equal rights for all its members, regardless of race, religion, sex, occupation or
economic status. Democracy can be achieved through liberty, equality, fraternity and justice. In a
democratic society equal rights and equality of opportunities are provided. Hence equality and equity
in education are needed because it is through the education to all the people in a democracy that the
success of democratic institution is assured.

3. Egalitarian society: Equality and equity in education are needed for the establishment of an
egalitarian society—a society in which equality and social justice are norms.

4. Economic development: Equality and equity in education are needed for the economic development
of the nation. The desired success in economic development cannot be achieved without providing
equality and equity in education.

5. Nation’s advancement: Equality and equity in education will ensure a rapid advancement of a nation.
Education is now an investment. When all the people have equal opportunities to get education they
will have a chance to develop their natural talent and thus enrich the society.

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 6. Search of talent: Equality and equity in education (equality of educational opportunity) will extend the
search of talent among all the people of a nation. There will thus be available people with specialized
talents for specialized jobs in a large number and the society will be benefitted.

7. Closer link: Equality and equity in education will develop closer link between the manpower needs of
a society and the availability of the skilled personnel.

8. Socialistic pattern of society: Equality and equity in education can help in bringing about silent
revolution in the process of establishment of the socialistic pattern of society.

9. Modernization: Equality and equity in education are needed for accelerating the process of
modernization in social, economic, political and educational fields.

Equality of Opportunities in the field of education

Adequate measure have been taken by the Framers of the constitution to see social justice,
economic, educational interests of the weaker sections of the people are protected in the best possible
manner.

Article 46 of Part IV : Directive Principles of State Policy, of our constitution stresses on the promotion of
educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the Indian Citizenry.

1. Article 28 of the Constitution :

Equalisation of educational opportunities should be taken to mean providing suitable education for all in
accordance with their interest, abilities and aptitudes, and denied of educational provision to any one who
possess special aptitudes and interests in any kind of educational field.

Religion is a very strong aspect of Indian people. Therefore to give prominence to religious education, Art
28 is added in the constitution. It states :

Article 28 (1), “No religious instruction shall be provided to any educational institution wholly maintained
out of State funds.”

Article 29 (2), “Nothing in Clause (1) shall apply to an educational institution which is administered by the
State, but has been established under my endowment or trust which requires that religious instruction shall be
imparted in such institution.”

Article 28(3), “No person attending any educational institution recognized by the State or receiving aid out
of State funds shall be required to take part in any religious instruction that may be imparted in such institution
or to attend any religious worship that may be conducted in such institution or in any premises attached
thereto unless such person or, if such person is a minor, his guardian has given a consent thereto.”

This article of the Constitution relates to “Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious
worship in certain educational institution.” In other words, it tries to give permission to for religious education
to all – an equal opportunity in the matter religious instruction/education.

This article does not say any thing about private intuitions. It only mentions :

(i) Institutions wholly maintained out of State funds;

(ii) Institutions recognized by the State;
(iii) Institutions receiving aids out of State funds;
(iv) Institutions that are administered by the State but are established under my endowment or trust
which requires. Religious instruction to be imparted therein. This is done in order to give secular
orientation to religious education. But, it is the duty of the State also be provide an opportunity to
all persons to get religious education concerning their religion. Equality in education opportunity
demands it.

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 In this direction, Mudaliar Commission has remarked, “In view of the provisions of the Constitution of
the Secular State, religious instruction cannot be given in schools except on a voluntary basis and outside the
particular faith and with the consent of the parents of the parents and the management concerned. In making
this recommendation, we wish to emphasise that discouraged in school,” and also equal opportunities of
religious instruction should be provided to all citizens of India.

2. Article – 29 of the Constitution :

Article 29 of the Constitution gives equal educational rights to every citizen of India.

In the democracy, without caring to the religion, caste or status, all person are given equal opportunity for
the all round development of their personalities. Keeping in view this basic assumption of democracy, under
the article 29 of the Constitution, the education rights of everybody is conserved, protected and fixed. The
articles 29 states.

Article – 29 Protection of interests of minorities :

Article 29 (1) : “Any section of the citizens residing in the territory of India or any part thereof, having a
distinct language, script or culture of its own shall have the right to conserve the same.”

Article 29 (2) : “No citizen shall be denied admission into any educational institution maintained by the
state or receiving aid out of state funds, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, language or any of them.”

Here minority is recognized not only on the basis of religion but also on the language, script or cluture.

3. Article 350 of the Constitution :

This article relates to facilities for instruction in mother tongue so that every Indian should get an equal
opportunity to receive education in his or her mother tongue, especially at the primary stage.

Article 350 (A) Facilities for Instruction in M.T. at Primary Stage : It shall be the endeavour of every state
and every local authority within the state to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother tongue at
the primary stage of education to children belonging to linguistic minority groups; and the President may issue
such directions to any State as he considers necessary or proper for securing the provision of such facilities.”

Article 36 (B) Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities : 350 (B) (a) There will be a special officer appointed
by the President of India for linguistic minorities.

350 (B) (b) It will be the duty of the special officer to conduct research or studies in to all subject related
to the notion of linguistic minorities as defined in the constitution, and to send suggestions to the president
regarding these subjects.”

Instruction in M.T. is very important for bringing equality in opportunities in Education. Many children in
India leave their studies in between for want of this facility.

4. Article 351 of the Constitution :

This Article places special responsibility on the centre to develop the national language i.e. Hindi. A
large number of Indians speak Hindi language specially in northern India. To provide them equality in
educational field, it is necessary to develop Hindi so that it can come upto the level and status of English
language in India. The article states :

It shall be the duty of the union to promote the spread of the Hindi language, to develop it so that it
may serve as a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India and to secure its

50
 enrichment by assimilating without interfering with the genius, the forms, style and expressions used
in Hindustani and in the other languages of India, specified in the eight Schedule, and by drawing. Whatever
necessary/desirable for its vocabulary, primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages. Indian
Constitution Articles 345, 346, 347 deal with Regional languages.

Ques:- Explain the concept of modernization. Give its advantages and disadvantages in detail.

Ans:- Modernisation

Introduction:- Modernisation is the characteristics feature of modern society. Infact, it is a process of change.
In the words of S.N.Eisenstadt, “Historically, modernization is the process of change
towards those type of social, economic and political systems that have developed in
western Europe and north America from the seventeenth century to the nine tenth and
th th
have been spread to other European countries and in the 19 and 20 centuries to the
south American, Asian an African continents. It is a movement from a traditional order to
a new order based on new processes in science and technology and associated forms
of social structure, value oriented and norms. It is a complex process involving all
aspects of human life.

Meaning of modernization:- The term of modernization does not denote any philosophy or movement but is
only symbolizes a process of change. The term modernization was used previously to
refer only to change in economy and its related effect on social values and practice.

Meaning of modernization in different spheres:-

1. Intellectual sphere:- On the intellectual front , it means more awareness in the society and a change
in the thought process of the individuals. The people gradually leave orghodoy, views and belief and
superstitions and become logical, empirical and rational.

2. Religious sphere:- Means leaving fundamentalism and rigidity and moving towards secularism.

3. Sphere of philosophy:- Social mobilization and differentiation and specialization in individual and
institutional activities.

4. Political sphere:- Stand for democratic values and principles.

5. Ecological field:- Characterised by advancing degree of urbanization.

6. Agricultural field:- In the field of agriculture, modernization stands for green revolution.

7. Daily farming:- Here modernization stands for white revolution.

8. Cultural field:- In the cultural sphere modernization is characteristics by spread of literacy and
secular education, emergence of new cultural outlook.

9. Educational field:- In this field modernization stands for new and broader aims, diversified and
flexible curriculum, improved and innovative methods of teaching, new evaluation procedure and new
concept of supervision and discipline.

Definitions of modernization:-

● Common man’s view:- Modernisation means industrialization and automation.

● Moore, “ Modernisation means a revolutionary change leading to transformation of a traditional and

pre modern society into an advanced economically prosperous an relatively political stable society.

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Characteristics of modernization:-

1. Social mobility:- Social mobilization is a peculiar component of modernization.

2. Social differentiation:- In this process there is increase in the complexity in social, political and
economic activities and there is progress in the activities of individual in various field.

3. Structural differentiation and changes:- Modernisation is characterized by structural differentiation

and continuous change.

4. Process of identification:- Modernisation is not a process of imitation but a process of identification

with the advanced countries in the matter of material affluence and physical abundance.

5. Science and technology:- Modernisation involves either adoption or adaption of the modern scientific
and technological characteristic into the emerging patterns of modern nation.

6. Developing of proper behavioural system:- Modernisation is not just acquisition of superficial traits
but it involves development of proper behavioural systems through assimilation of the characteristics
feature of the urban. Literate industrial and participants societies of the advanced west and U.S.

7. Value change:- No process of modernization can be regarded as successful unless it is

accompanied by a radical modification in the traditional value system.

8. Material prosperity:- Material prosperity is to be attained by the progressive for the utilization of
science and technology.

9. Scientific attitude:- Development of scientific temper and attitude is an important component of

modernization.

10. Industrialization:- The adoption of science based technology and mechanization leads to
industrialization.

11. Urbanisation:- The phenomena of urbanization and modernization are interlinked one leads to other.

12. International co-operation:- Modernisation aims at the development of international co-operation.

13. Education:- Comprehensive and multi-sided education is an important feature of modernization.

14. Respect for the dignity of others:- Modernisation believes in the essential dignity of all human beings.

15. Emphasis on present and future:- Modernisation believes in living in present and planning for the
future. A modern person try to improve his present in order to secure and ensure a bright future.

Advantages of modernization

General advantages:- Generally modernisaton has been referred to a process to here by less developed
societies acquire characteristics common to more developed societies.

1. Industrialisation of economy and adopting a scientific technology in industry, agriculture, dairy

farming etc. to make them highly productive.

2. Secularisation of ideas that is diffusion of secular rational norms in culture.

3. A spread of scientific and technical education.

4. A transition from ascribed to achieved status.

5. An increase in material standard of living.

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 6. A remarkable increase in geographic and social mobility including occupational mobility.

7. High expectancy of life at birth.

8. An increment of mobility in the society, understood in terms of urbanization spread of literary and
media participants.

9. High proportion of working force employed in secondary and tertiary rather than primary production.

10. Relatively greater measure of public participation in the polity or at least democratic representation
in defining and choosing polity alternative.

Advantages in different fields:- Generally following types of advantages of modernization are seen on
developing societies (Like india)

A. Economic field

1. Industrialisation:- There is increase in industrialization. Industries are taking the place of any
culture.

2. Urbanisation:- Urbanisation is the result of industrialization.

3. Improvement of women:- Modernisation has given special power to women.

B. Social field

1. Single and planned family:- The joint family is replaced by single and planned family.

2. Socialisation:- Family main obligation centred upon its role as an agent of socialization.

3. Caste and changes:- In india the bonds of caste relationships, begins to be all.

4. Social awakening:- Many social evils like ‘Sati’ disappeared from the social scene.

5. Employment:- Due to industrialization work was available.

6. Transfer of responsibilities:- Family transferred its many responsibilities to school and

economic institutions.

C. Political field

1. Democratic system:- Democratic system of government, based upon, adult franchise was
developed in place of feudalism and aristocrat government.

2. No discrimation:- Political system free from any discrimination based on caste, sex, class, etc.
was evolved and every adult was given the right to vote and to contest election.

3. Political freedom:- Political freedom was granted to all individual.

4. Multiparty system:- As a result of modernization the multiparts political system was come into
existence.

D. Education field

1. Universal, free and compulsory education.

2. Eradication of mass illiteracy and growth of adult education programme.

3. A common school system.

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 4. Science base education.

5. Admission on the basis of merit.

6. Inculcation of right value and attitudes in educational system.

7. Diversified curriculum.

8. Vocationalisation of education.

9. Relating education to economic development.

10. Expansion of social education through non formal education.

11. Education of democracy

12. Education for national and international integration.

E. Indian socio-cultural field

1. Impact on institutions:- Modernisation has brought the following benefits to the institutional
system.

i.Education system:- Modernisation has broadened the vision and outlook of the people which has
made them to become conscious of their rights and freedom.

ii. Legal System:- Due to modernization, india came under one system of common law and
legislation.

iii. Introduction of new schemes:- In place of joint families, local communities, caste fraternities
etc, there came in new institutional arrangements, such as welfare schemes, life
insurance schemes, social security schemes etc, in order to provide protection and
security to people wherever required.

2. Miraculous changes in the field of technology:- The modernization of the age old Indian
technology, agriculture, entrepreneurship and industry led to the economic advancement of
the country.

3. New values and ideologies:- The process of modernization implied certain value preferences
also.

i.Humanitarianism:- It includes “ A system of belief regulated by reason, not authority” nor dogma.

ii. Secularism:- It is an ideology which believes that the state morals, education etc should be
independent of religion.

iii. Equalitarianism:- It upholds the principles of equality, that is equality of sex, caste, class,
colour, creed, race and religion etc.

4. Restructuring of political values:- The hierarchy of political values has been restructured.
Democratic model of politics was introduced. Monarchic form of government which existed
in india for centuries came to an end. Common constitution, legislative and judicial system
came to be practiced. Feelings and sentiments of a nationalism became stronger in Indian
people.

5. New life style:- Modernisation has a great impact on the style of living Indian people. They have
adopted western style of dressing and dinning. Restrictions on food habits got released.

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Disadvantages of modernization:-

1. Materialistic attitude:- The use of technology and the scientific equipments and gadgets and the
acceptance of the western model of industrialism created new aspirations and ambitions in the
minds of the people.

2. Imitation:- Due to modernization, western way of life became so attractive that it made some
educated Indian to imitate the west indiscriminately. Everything from the west was considered good
and worthy of imitated, including the western values, customs, tastes, choices, selection,
preferences etc.

3. Slum areas:- The process of industrialization is normally associated with the growth of towns and
cities, which started attracting people from the rural areas.

4. Social field:-

i.Loosening the family bonds:- The joint families were close knit and has strong family bonds.

ii. High divorce rate:- Divorce rate has increased and there are more of pre martial relationship.

iii. Transfer of responsibilities:- In the past, family had the responsibility of providing moral and sex
education at home.

iv. Child labour:- More and more children have started working outside home at a tender age
inspite of the strong legislations.

v. Brain drain:- More and more youngsters have started migration to western countries in search
of greener postures.

5. Economic field:-

i.Competition and trade unions:- Competition has increased in the capitalist economy. Trade unions
have come up and this has resulted in strikes and lock outs.

ii. The economy has moved away from socialism toward capitalism.

iii. The modern capitalist mode of economy has given a fatal blow to the economic self reliance of
the villages.

6. Political field:- Multi party system in politics is the result of modernization. The political scenario of
today has changed due to multi party system and mostly no party is able to win a clear majority.

7. Degradation in human values:- Due to modernity, social, moral and religious values are disintegrated.
Knowledge and power are used for selfish interest.

8. Education field:-

i.Formal education is essential:- Education, modernization, advancement in science, technology and

industry normally go together.

ii. Modern schools, college and universities do not give much emphasis upon transmitted a way
of life to the students.

iii. Heavy study material:- Modern education, that is the result of modernity, includes heavy study
material on modern science and technology into the syllabus.

iv. Values loosing their importance:- Due to the impact of modernization on modern studies of
science and technology, many of the cherished values of the past have lost their previous

55
 importance.

Prof:- Ram ahuja has given the following limitations of modernization

1. Modernity demands that society must change in all ways at once. But such a regular and co-
ordinated pattern of growth cannot be planned and materialized. Some amount of social unrest, hence
is bound to be there. For eg. Discrepancy between mass education and employment opportunities.

2. During the period of modernization, structural changes mostly remain uneven. For example,
industries may be modernized but religion system, family system etc remain conservative.

3. Modernisation of social and economic institutions may create conflicts with the traditional way of
life.

4. Most often roles adopted by the people are modern, but their values continue to be traditional. For eg.
New business firms and industrial established etc. are inaugurated by muhurat ritual.

5. There is lack of co-operation among agencies which modernize and among those institutions and
systems which are already modernized. This is more or less like the problem of cultural lag.

6. Finally though modernization raises the aspiration of people, the social system does not provide
chances to materialize them. This creates frustration, disappointment and social unrest.

Conclusion

By summing up, we can conclude that modernization is change in economic and its related effect on
social values and practice. “Social change involving the elements of science and technology.” In nut shell
modernization means a revolutionary change leading to transformation of a traditional society or pre modern
society into an advanced economically prosperous an drelatively political stable society.

Ques:- Explain industrialization and role of education.

Ans:- INDUSTRIALISATION

In the modern era, the development of science and technology has completely transformed the human life as
a result of which industrial revolution has taken place. Industries are being increasing with each passing day.
Large industries are taking an edge over the smaller ones and production of things are also increasing day by
day. A machine can work in place of many workers. More work has been done in a very short span of time.

In industrialization, old industries are being revolutionized and new ones are being established. The very
sole purpose of industrialization is to give a boost to national and economic development. There have been a
lot of changes made in the same since independence. Numbers of machines are increasing day be day.
Business, industries, modes of production have been influenced by the machines. It is because of
industrialization that urbanization blooms. In contrast of villages, cities serve us with more leisurable facilities
such a better social life and other means of leisure. Because of these changes not only family structure has
changed but also due to change in values, behavior has also changes. It has been seen that lifestyle of people
is changing. Due to these changes, individuals social behavior has also changes. Even in the field of
agriculture, availability of modernized and well equipped equipments has given a boost to the agriculture
sector.

Effects of industrialization

1. Economic problems:- Although industrialization has led to the development of the society and an
individual along with the economic progress but one cannot deny from the fact it has aroused many
economic problems also. It is quite general and natural to have love with the materialistic things. The
love for money and materialistic things have been increasing. Everyone wants to enjoy life. There are
many families who have less income which affects their family and social life.

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 2. Change in values:- With the development of science and technology, values are also changing.
Progress has been made in the means of communication. Almost in every sphere of life, knowledge
explosion has been seen. Everyone has equal rights. Every individual thinks deeply. Inspite of race,
colour, and creed, he earns respect. The attitude of people have changed. Changes are being seen in
the modern generation also in which more emphasis have been laid on ‘I’ instead of ‘We’. Man has
become selfish.

3. Selfishness:- Due to industrialization, man has no time for others but do have for himself and
because of this, he sometimes undergo with the feeling of loneliness. He remains tensed. He feel
quite isolated from the society because of his individual feelings and thinks only for his own self.

4. Effect on family life:- Family life is also affected by industrialization. Nuclear family has taken an
edge over the joint ones. Even to get employment, people have to come to the cities and fulfillment of
the family expenses, demand that every member of the family must work, it has affected the family
life.

5. Materialistic attitude:- Materialistic attitude has increased because of industrialization. People

believe in ‘show-off’. Changes are being made due to new experiments. The difference between the
poor and the rich is increasing.

6. Disputes:- Due to industrialization disputes have increased. Because of this, society was bifurcated
into two businessman and workers. Businessman takes more work from their workers and wants to
pay them less due to which there is a conflict between the two.

7. Competitions:- Due to industrialization, the feeling of competition is seen in almost all the spheres.
This feeling encourages the individual to work harder and the individual works as per his energy
capacity and wants to prosper. This feeling of competition is only successful when everyone is seen
to be even which means healthy competition is necessary sometimes, person does some evil deeds
in order to take an edge over the other. Inspite of all this, it is true that it is thorough competition that
mentions have boosted.

8. Increasing social problems:- Because of industrialization, many social problems have increased.
Due to poverty and unemployment, crimes have been increased.

Industrialization and education

Both education and industrialization are closely interlinked. Each one helps the other in many respects.
Education helps to have industrialization and industrialization helps to have better education. In fact education
is an instrument for effective industrialization. It helps in producing skilled workers to occupy different
position in the society. It helps in different field such as economic, technological and social in the words of
Thomas. Gandhi, Nehru and other reformer have attempted to build a new India. They have succeeded in
reducing the importance of traditional institutions, perhaps, a first step in moving towards the establishment of
a new social order, which is already inprogress.

Impact of industrialization or education

Industrialization intends to have the following aims of education:

1. To produce skilled persons so as to have more productivity.

2. To make the individual to accept any and every type of change.

3. To awaken curiosity.

4. To teach moral and spiritual values.

5. To develop scientific attitude.

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 6. To promote research.

7. To make the learner’s critical thinkers.

How education can help

1. Education can modify the attitude and aptitude of the people and replace it with scientific outlook of
life education enables the persons to have rational outlook to superstitions. One tries to see
everything rationally and critically.

2. Education helps in increasing productivity.

3. Education helps in developing potentialities, capabilities and skills relating to the world of work.

4. Education helps in preserving, enriching and refining intellectual system.

5. Education provides clear cut comparison of modern values with the traditional values of life
naturally. Then the person is able to distinguish correctly between the favourable and unfavourable
ones. It helps him to have better preparation for future life.

6. Education as an effective instrument of change and is closely connected with the process of
change itself.

7. Education helps to unify people into nation by developing communication skill and feelings of fellow
being.

Thus, we find education can work wonders in bringing desirable changes in any aspect of life.

Role of industrialization for national development

At present industrial development is fully controlled in and regulated by the government.

1. Employment opportunities:- Due to industrialization employment opportunities have increased.

2. Increase productivity:- Because of advancement of science and technology it raises the productivity
of economy.

3. Increase per capita income:- Proper utilization of human and material resources leads to increase
per capita income which is necessary for national development.

4. Better living standard:- Industrialisation leads to better living standard. It is an instrument to remove
poverty when everyone will have work then he will economically sound.

5. Helpful for foreign trade:- Industrialisation helps in foreign trade industrial development may lead to
a change in the direction of foreign trade.

6. Strengthening the defence:- Industrialisation strengthens its defence of country.

7. Progress of country:- Industrialisation results in progress of the country. Due to advancement of

technology and science it effects all aspects such as social, economic, political etc.

Conclusion

Thus we can say that education and industrialization are closely linked with each other.

Ques:- Explain the meaning of democracy. Explain relationship between education and democracy?

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Ans:- Meaning of Democracy

Democracy is a voice of revolt against despotism, coercion, imposition and arbitrary authority which
condemns the exploitation of the weaker by the stronger. The democracy is a current concept which has taken
different forms like political democracy, economic democracy, social democracy and educational democracy.
Let us discuss these forms of democracy one by one in order to understand the true meaning of democracy:-

1. Political democracy:- The word ‘democracy’ is derived from two greek words ‘demos’ and ‘kratos’.
The word ‘demos’ means ‘people’ and ‘kratos’ means ‘power’. Thus the literal meaning of democracy
is power of the people. In the words of Abraham Lincoin, “Democracy is government of the people, by
the people and for the people.” According to Seeley, “Democracy is a government in which everyone
has to share.” Every adult in democracy has share in the governing of the country. While defining
political democracy Lord Bryce said, “Democracy is the form of government in which the ruling power
of the state is legally vested, not in any particular individual or class but in the members of the
community as a whole.” Aristotle said, “Democracy is a government of many.”

2. Economic Democracy:- Economy democracy means that people as a whole will have the economic
power; only a few capitalists will not possess that power. In democratic societies all individuals have
the right to earn wealth without obstructing the rights of other people. Economic democracy is
opposed to any kind of economic exploitation.

3. Social democracy:- Social democracy consists in the absence of distinctions on the basis of caste,
creed, colour, sex, or religion. Everyone will have equality of opportunity. The social feeling of a
democratic society is best expressed in Kant’s formula, “Treat humanity whether in thine person or
that of any one else always an end and never as a means only” or Bentham’s formula of impartiality,
“To count each person as one and no one as more than one.”

4. Educational democracy:- Democracy in education is a recent idea and it is opposed to the

continuation of autocratic and totalitarian practices in the administration, discipline and supervision of
methods of teaching prevalent in our educational institutions.

5. Democracy as a way of life:- According to Radhakrishnan university education commission,

“Democracy is the way of life and not a mere political arrangement. It is based on the principle of
equal freedom and equal rights for all its members, regardless of race, religion, sex, occupation or
economic status.” In the words of Mazzine, “True democracy refers to the progress of all under the
leadership of the wisest and the best.”

In its complete sense, democracy means a way of living and organization of community that
has unity in its political, economic and social aspects. It is a way of living that stresses the dignity of
the individual and the sacredness of human personality in which individuals establish their social
relationships on the basis of co-operation, tolerance, mutual respect, fellow-feeling and fair play.

In should be noted here that true democracy can be achieved through (1) justice i.e., social,
economic and political; (2) liberty i.e. liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; (3)
equality i.e., equality of rights and opportunities; and (4) fraternity i.e., fraternity assuring the dignity of
the individual and the unity of nation.

Importance of each letter of the word democracy:-

D stands for :- Discipline, decentralization of power, dignity of the individual and unity of the nation, duty
consciousness.

E stands for :- Equality of rights and opportunities, equality of all, mutual discussion, ethical norms and values.

M stands for:- Mutual discussion, mutual understanding, mass education, maximum development of the
individual.

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O stands for:- Open mindedness, objective attitude

C stands for :- Collective goods of the community, cooperation for others, classless society, change in
democratic society, creative and constructive attitude.

R stands for:- Respect for others’ point of view, rational approach, rational freedom, rational thinking, right
relationship between duties and responsibilities, relationships on the basis of cooperation, tolerance, fellow
feeling and fairplay, represents will of the people.

A stands for:- Adult franchise, appreciation of other’s culture.

Y stands for:- Yearning for peach and living together.

Factors leading to the development of modern democracy:-

1. The glorious revolution, England, (1688).

2. The American revolution, (1776).

3. The French revolution, (1789).

th th
4. The industrial revolution (18 and 19 centuries).

5. The Russian revolution (1917).

Fundamental assumptions or values of democracy

1. Respect for dignity of the person:- Democracy believes in the essential dignity of all human beings.
Every person is treated as an end never as a means only. Each individual occupies the dignified
position in the cosmic universe irrespective of caste, creed, race, religion, or vocation which are
matter of insignificant importance in the democratic society. Democratic society as a whole aims at
the highest development of the individual. The ideal can best be achieved if every individual is given
full scope for self-realisation. But no individual should stand in the way of the development of another.

2. Freedom:- Democracy is based on freedom. Individual is given freedom i.e. freedom of thought,
expression, belief, faith, worship, vocation and movement to develop his personality. The democratic
concept of freedom is not whimsical that you can do anything you like. It entails a large amount of
self-restraint and responsibility, and humane and just consideration for welfare of others. Individual
freedom does not imply lack of self-control. It means rational freedom. It should not infringe the
collective goods of the community.

3. Equality of opportunity:- In a democratic society, equal opportunities are provided to everybody to

realize his best self. Men are socially equal and have the right to remain so. It does not mean that
identical education should be given to all, but it simply means that education should be given
according to one’s ability. The gifted should not be sacrificed for the sake of handicapped. Men are
born equal but not identical. Each man has different abilities, aptitudes, interests and inheritance.

4. Group living:- Democracy believes in group living. It encourages formation of multiple associations
and groups. These groups and associations exist for the individual; the individual does not exist for
them. All the citizens live together. Hence they have common interests and common purposes. They
co-operate with others for better living. They have faith in the brotherhood of man. Thus group living,
co-operation, fellow-feeling and brotherhood of man are guiding principles of democracy.

5. Faith in tolerance;- Democracy implies tolerance. Toleration is an essential element of democracy. In

democracy all types of physical, social, economic, cultural, political, religious and individual
differences in language, thoughts, habits, food and dress etc. are tolerated. Democratic citizens
tolerate the views of others. A true democratic never thinks that his way is the only right way and

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 those who differ from him are wrong. He welcomes and encourages all honest differences of opinions.
He adopts what appears to him the best in others’ way of life. He believes in the fundamental
principle of ‘live and let others live.’

6. Faith in change:- Democracy has a liberal attitude towards change. It welcomes change if and when
it is needed for evolving a better society. This change is not enforced from force but comes as a
result of mutual discussion, persuasion and agreement. Change in a democratic society is essential.
Standardization or stagnation is the enemy of democracy.

7. Faith in peaceful method:- Democracy believes in methods of peace. It affirms its faith in the dictum
– “Peace hath its victories more glorious than war.” It also believes than human jealousies, conflicts
and rivalries can be settled through peaceful measures. Democracy achieves peaceful solutions to all
problems that endanger security of human life and existence.

Features of democratic education

1. Universal and compulsory education:- Education under democracy is universal and compulsory.
Democracy education is available to all so that every member may participate intelligently in social,
economic, and political life of the community. Education makes people conscious of their rights and
duties. So democratic education upto minimum standard is free, universal and compulsory.

2. Broad-based education:- Democratic education is broad-based. The more democratized the

education is, the more broad based it tends to become. Democratic education is based on philosophy,
psychology, sociology and biology etc. philosophy determines the aims, psychology helps in
achieving the aims, sociology provides the environment for education and biology provides the data.

3. Child-centred education:- Democratic education is child centred. Education is meant for the child
and child is not meant for education. Education is to be given in accordance with child’s needs,
interests, abilities and aptitudes. Education revolves around the child. Opportunities are given for the
best and maximum development of the child.

4. Community centred education:- Democracy education is also community centred. It is given in

accordance with the needs, interests and problems of the community. It is related to social
environment of the child. Thus democratic education has a reference to the social demands as well
as to the needs of the individual.

5. Cultural basis of education:- Education in democracy has a cultural basis, of course materialism
gets its due place, but not the sole emphasis. Life is lived for the sake of noble and spiritual values
like truth, beauty and goodness. Thus democratic education strikes a happy balance between
materialism and spiritualism. It keeps the individual enjoying a decent standard of living and striving
for higher values of life.

6. Decentralization in educational organization:- Democracy means free exchange of views, which is

only possible when power is decentralized. There is no place for absolute state control. Private
enterprise in educational field is allowed to function and given proper grant in aid for imparting
education.

7. Education for worthy citizenship:- Democratic education develops worthy citizenship which involves
recognition and fulfillment by an individual of the obligations towards himself and his fellow men.
Education in democracy must inspire in the youths the spirit of co-operation, social sensitiveness and
the spirit of discipline.

8. Education for leisure, national integration and international understanding:- Democratic education is
useful and effective. It is not ornamental. Education for leisure, national integration and international
understanding is also imparted.

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 9. Provision of adult education:- In democracy, attention is being paid not only to child education but
also to adult education. As we have pointed out, every individual has to be educated in democracy.
Social education and adult education are also being managed.

10. Students’ association:- In democratic education, students take interest in the activities of the school
to some extent.

11. Decentralization:- For giving democratic education, the environment is made democratic. There is
decentralized functioning of the school. There is students’ self government. The institution gives
training for leadership and democratic living.

12. International understanding:-Now, democratic education has become the heartfelt requirement of
one and all in this world. One brotherhood, one humanity and one universe are now completely
understood by whole humanity. Democratic education provides international understanding by
developing democratic values of life.

13. Balance between materialism and spiritualism:- Democratic education maintains proper balance
between materialism and spiritualism. Culture is the basis of democratic education. Cultural values
are helpful for the individual in maintaining a good standard of living.

The national education association of America has given the following salient features (hall marks) of
education:-

1. Equality of educational opportunity.

2. Efficient use of various personnel.

3. Favours democratic methods.

4. Gives right to all determine the purposes and policies of education.

5. Gives knowledge to all determine the purposes and policies of education.

6. Liberates and uses intelligence of all.

7. Promotes economic, social and political conditions.

8. Promotes loyality to democracy.

9. Respects humanity, tolerance, vocational efficiency and civic responsibility.

10. Teaching through experience.

11. Welfare of all.

Democracy and various aspects of education

1. Democracy and aims of education with special reference to India:-

i.Development of democratic citizenship:- Citizenship in democracy is a very exacting and challenging

responsibility for which every citizen has to be carefully trained. It involves many intellectual,
social and moral qualities, which can be developed through education. In order to develop
democratic citizenship education should aim at developing the following qualities:-

a. Clear thinking:- Education should aim at developing capacity for clear thinking and receptivity of
new ideas so that one may have the understanding and intellectual integrity to shift truth
from falsehood, facts from propaganda and to reject the dangerous appeals of
fanaticism and prejudice.

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 b. Clearness in speech and writing:-With clarity of thought is needed clearness in speech and
writing for free discussion, persuasion and peaceful exchange of ideas.

c. Art of living with the community:- Education should make the individual learn to live with others
and to appreciate the art of co-operation through practical experience and free interplay
with other personalities. Qualities necessary for living graciously, harmoniously and
efficiently should be developed. These qualities are : (1) Discipline, (2) Co-operation, (3)
Social sensitiveness and (4) Tolerance. So these virtues should be developed through
education.

d. Sense of true patriotism:- Another aim which education must foster in this connection is the
development of a sense of true patriotism. True patriotism involves three things: (1) A
sincere appreciation of the social and cultural achievements of one’s country; (2) A
readiness to recognize its weaknesses frankly and to work for their eradication; (3) An
earnest resolve to serve it to the best of one’s ability, harmonizing and subordinating
individual interests to broader national interests.

e. Development of sense of world citizenship:- There is no more dangerous maxim in the world of
today than “My country, right or wrong”. The world is so intimately interconnected that no
nation can or dare live alone and the development of a sense of world citizenship has
become just as important as that of national citizenship. In fact patriotism is not enough
and we should move towards realizing that we are all members of one world.

ii. Improvement of vocational efficiency:- The second important aim of our educational system
should be to increase the productive or technical and vocational efficiency of our students.
This includes the following:-

a. Creation of attitude to work:- We should create in the pupils a new attitude of work, an attitude
which implies an appreciation of the dignity of all work however slowly.

b. Promotion of technical skill and efficiency:- With the development of new attitude of work,
there is need to promote technical skill and efficiency at all stages of education so as to
provide trained and efficient personnel to work out schemes of industrial and
technological advancement.

iii. Development of personality:- The third main aim of our educational system according to
secondary education commission is the development to personality which includes:-

a. Releasing the sources of creative energy in the students so that they may be able to appreciate
their cultural heritage.

b. Cultivating rich interests which they can pursue in their leisure and contribute in later life, to this
heritage.

c. Giving a place of honour to the subjects like art, craft, music, dancing and the development of
hobbies.

iv. Development of the qualities of leadership:- This is important for successful functioning of
democracy. Education must train our students for discharging their duties efficiently. They
must be trained in the art of leading and following others. Our education must train persons
who will be able to assume the responsibility of leadership – in social, political, industrial or
cultural fields – in their own small groups of community or locality.

2. Democracy and curriculum:-

If democracy aims are to be achieved, the curriculum at every level needs to be drastically changed.
The following principles should be considered in this connection:-

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 1. Broad based curriculum:- In order to achieve the democratic ideals i.e., development of
democratic citizenship, improvement of vocational efficiency, development of personality and
development of qualities for the leadership it is desirable that the curriculum at the primary,
secondary and university levels should be broad based. It should include the totality of
experiences that a child receives at school, whether in class room, in library, in laboratory or in the
playfield. It should include the co-curricular activities, the play activities, the classroom procedure
and the examination system. Thus the curriculum consists of much more than the subject matter.

2. Variety and flexibility:- At the various levels of education the curriculum should be flexible and
varied, not rule bound and rigid. This principle of variety and flexibility in the curriculum helps in
accommodating the brilliant as well as the average educand. At the secondary and university
levels this is all the more essential. In progressive countries the core curriculum consisting of
minimum essential has been prescribed for all pupils. Additional subjects are offered only in
accordance with the needs and abilities of the pupils.

3. Principle of local requirements:- Democratic curriculum should take into account the local
requirements and environmental demands. It should be vitally related to the needs of the
community and should make full use of local resources. It would be better to give primary
education to the children residing in different parts of the country in their respective mother
tongues. At the secondary and university levels, the pupils should be given an opportunity to learn
both Hindi and English.

4. Social outlook:- Curriculum should have social outlook. Education must benefit the society. That
education is not at all democratic which is part from the society’s needs and necessities.
Therefore social aims should be the main principle of curriculum construction.

5. Provision for vocational needs:- Curriculum should have a vocational bias as well. It should hold
a balance between general and vocational education.

6. Integrated curriculum:- The curriculum should be constructed on the basis of principle of

integration. It should be so devised that it may present a coherent picture of the universe – an
integrated way of life. It is through an integrated curriculum that the education of the whole man
or woman is possible. It also stands for correlating the education with the experience of the
students and their environment.

While keeping in view the above principles of curriculum construction for a democratic
educational institution in India, we may suggest the following subjects in the curriculum:-

i.Natural sciences like physics, chemistry and biology for understanding the physical
environment.

ii. Social sciences like history, political science, civics, economics, social psychology,
sociology and anthropology for understanding the society and social environment.

iii. Study of arts, languages, ethics, philosophy and religion for religion the emotions of the
pupils and acquainting them with the aims and ideals of human life.

iv. Vocational or professional education (including craft) should constitute an integral part of
the curriculum to make pupils socially efficient and vocationally competent. Democracy
depends for its very life on a high standard of general, vocational and professional
education.

3. Democracy and methods of teaching:-Democracy trend in education has given birth to a number of
modern progressive and dynamic methods of teaching which are based on (1) individual differences,
(2) learning by doing and principles of freedom, (3) Montessori method, (4) project method, (5) Dalton
method, (6) heuristic method, (7) laboratory or experimental method, (8) survey method, (9) enquiry

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method, (10) group work, (11) socialized techniques, (12) Seminars, (13) symposiums, (14) discussion
are based on democratic trend. Democratic methods give due consideration to individual differences
as well as to the needs of the society. They encourage co-operation and train the individual for group
discussion along with independent thinking. In the words of Alexander Melekle John, “The art of
democracy is the art of thinking independently together.”

4. Democracy and discipline:- Democracy ensures discipline through co-operative activities of pupils.
Freedom is the counter-part of discipline. The essence of discipline lies in freedom regulated by
reason. Discipline consists in the control by the rational self. From this point of view true discipline is
self discipline. It involves changes in one’s own tendencies and desires, according to the demands of
the community or the society. Self discipline is the essence of democracy. It is free, positive and
natural. It is inner and self imposed. It does not consist in an external order created by some external
authority. It is discipline from within. Thus democratic discipline is free and positive discipline based
on love, sympathy, co-operation and human relationship. It was Montessori who said, “To obtain
discipline, give freedom.” Discipline in democratic education is based on the conviction of doing the
right thing in the right manner and at the right moment.

Self governing units such as students unions, students committees, students councils and
students parliaments should be created in the schools. These institutions of pupils’ self government
would frame their own laws and decide the forms of punishments for breach of social laws. The child
would realize that the rules he obeys are his own he would accept them gladly. This is self discipline
which is the core of democratic living.

5. Democracy and teacher:- In a truly democratic system, the teacher’s role is that of a friend,
philosopher, stage setter, sympathetic guide or a vigilant supervisor rather than a tyrant. He minimizes
unnecessary interference in the learning of the child. He has to know the child and manipulate the
environment for the best development of personality. In an atmosphere of freedom, he must be co-
operative with the pupils and should try to solve those hurdles which beset the path of the children. He
must have constructive relations with the society and must support the way of life on democratic
lines. He is to practice what he preaches and exhibit utmost self discipline himself. He should put
various democratic principles in actual practice.

6. Democracy and school:- In word of Thomas Briggs, “School is truly the guardian of democracy.”
Kilpatrik assigns the following functions to school in democracy:

i.To give its students an intelligent understanding of the issues of democracy.

ii. To make its students well disposed towards democracy as way of life.

iii. To make its students skillful in the cooperative activities through which democracy must
function.

7. Democracy and school administration:- The following are the features of democratic school
administration:-

i.More rights to teachers:- In democratic school administration, teachers are given rights in framing
the policy of the school, in preparing the curriculum and in the other matters pertaining to the
school.

ii. Greater freedom to teachers:- Without freedom little creative and original work can be
expected. In democratic administrative, teachers are given greater freedom in selecting the
methods of teaching, study and research etc.

iii. Democratic environment in schools:- Cooperation and brotherhood forms the basis of relations
between teachers and students and between the teachers and the administrators or
organizers of the school, between the vice-chancellor and the teachers of the university etc.

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 If the democratic administrator is required to critciise the work of the teacher he criticizes in a
constructive and tolerant way. The co-operative spirit raises the morale of the institution.
Students also catch this spirit.

8. Mass democracy and mass education:- Education is the birth right of every individual. It implies:-

i.Universalisation of elementary and secondary education.

ii. Adult education.

iii. Continuing and lifelong education.

Education for democracy – ways and means

The following are the ways and means of imparting education for democracy:-

1. Recognition of the individual’s worth:- Individual is the heart of a democratic philosophy of life.
Hence due recognition should be given to the individuality of the child. We should make him
understand that he is an asset in a democratic society. We may take the help of the following steps
for this purpose:-

i.Universal education:- Education should be given to all irrespective of their caste, creed, colour, sex or
affiliation. By providing universal education, we are recognising individual’s worth.

ii. Child-centred education:- We should recognise individual differences and provide child-centred
education. Education should revolve around the child. Opportunities should be given for the
best and maximum development of the child. There should be provision for the education for
the gifted, the backward, the average and the handicapped (physically or mentally
handicapped) children.

iii. Diversified curriculum:- Diversified courses should be introduced in the school according to the
needs, interests and aptitudes of the students.

2. Development of critical and objective thinking:- Critical and objective thinking is essential for the
successful working of democracy. The following steps can be taken for developing critical and
objective thinking:-

i.Education in mother-tongue:- Education should be given in mother tongue. Mother tongue facilitates
the process of critical and objective thinking.

ii. Provision for self-governing units:- Self-governing units, such as students, unions, students
committees, students councils and students parliaments should be created in the schools. It
is an effective way of developing critical and objective thinking and imparting education for
democracy as it provides opportunities to the students to get training in the art of democratic
living.

iii. Provision for self expression activities:- Debates, declamation, symposiums, mock assemblies
or parliaments should be organised from time to time to promote self expression among the
pupils. Such activities will enable the pupils to think seriously about the problems of the
school and the community and to find out their solutions. They will also get an excellent
opportunity for getting practical training in the art of democratic living.

iv. Dividing students in small groups:- Critical and objective thinking can be developed by dividing
students into small groups and asking them to solve or discuss a particular problem.

v. Dynamic and progressive methods of teaching:- For developing critical and objective thinking,
dynamic and progressive methods of teaching should be used. Montessori Method, project

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 method, Dalton method, heuristic method, laboratory or experimental method. Socialised techniques
are based on democratic trend. These democratic methods give due recognition to individual
differences as well as to the needs of the society. They train the individual for group
discussion along with independent thinking.

3. Training for human relationship:- In the words of John Dewey, “Democracy is primarily a mode of
associated living, of conjoint communicated experience.” Training for human relationships is an
essential condition for successful working of democracy. The following steps can be taken for
providing training for human relationships:-

i.Encourage group living:-Group living should be encouraged. The school should so organise group
activities like games, excursions, debates, dramas and other functions that every pupil gets a
chance to participate in one activity or the other. These activities promote co-operation,
tolerance and social sensitiveness.

ii. Residential schools:- There should be residential schools. In residential schools, students will
learn and enjoy together and develop good virtues. These residential schools provide
effective training in human relationships.

iii. Provision for social sciences:- There must be provision for social sciences like civics, political
science, history, economics, sociology, social psychology and anthropology etc. for
understanding the society and social environment and promoting human relationship.

4. Training for character:- Character is the faith of a democratic society. It is men of character who can
make a country strong and rich. In the words of Emerson, “Not gold but only men can make a nation
great and strong.”

So in a democratic country, we must have men and women of strong character. The following steps
are suggested for building character of the pupils:-

i.Provide teacher’s own character must be good. Teach children by example because example is
better than precept.

ii. Examples of great heroes:- Teacher should place before children examples of great heroes of
history so that children may imitate their dates and views. Longfellow rightly remarked, “Lives
of great men all remind us. We can make our life sublime.”

iii. Biographies of great men:- Teacher should encourage the students to read biographies of great
men and religious books. It will have good influence on children.

iv. Acquaint with ideals of the society:- Teacher should acquaint the students with ideals and
traditions of the society so that they come to have a feeling to live according to those ideals
and traditions.

v. Individual attention:- Teacher should pay individual attention to students so that they may
develop traits of character. He should try to sublimate, modify and reform various instincts
and emotions of children. He should help the students in the development of good habits and
positive sentiments like honesty, truthfulness, justice and social service.

5. Vocational efficiency:- For an effective democracy, vocational efficiency is essential. Education

should enable the individual to make both ends meet in order to live happily and think independently.
As Indian Education Commission has suggested the school can take following steps in this
connection:-

i.Science education:- Science education should become an integral part of school education and
ultimately become a part of all courses at university stage.

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 ii. Work experience:- Secondly, work experience should be introduced as integral part of all
education – general or vocational. Work experience can be defined as participation in
productive work in the school. In the workshop, in the factory, in the home or in any other
productive situation.

iii. Vocationalisation:- Secondary education should be largely vocationalised and in higher

education, a greater emphasis should be placed on agricultural and technical education.

6. Democratic educational administration:- Schools should be made the centres of democracy.

Democratic principle should be applied to every aspect of school administration and organisation
such as methods of teaching, organisation of pupil’s activities, students unions or councils, time
table construction and discipline etc. Co-operation, brotherhood and mutual respect forms the basis
of relationship between the teachers and the administrators or organisers. If the democratic
administrator is required to criticise the work of the teacher he should criticise in a constructive and
tolerant way. The co-operation raises the morale of the institution. Students will also catch this spirit.

Conclusion:- Democratic ideals imply respect for the individual, freedom to all, equality of opportunities,
safeguarding interest of minorities, believing in the method of peach, dealing with all individuals on the
principles of justice, co-operative living and fair play. Education is the weapon of democracy. Education
in democracy should develop in each individual the interests, abilities, habits and ideals whereby he will
find his place and use that place to share both himself and society towards nobler end on the basis of
co-operation, tolerance, mutual respect and fellow feeling.

Ques:- Write a note on individual autonomy?

Ans:- Autonomy is an individual’s capacity for self determination or self governance. Beyond that, it is a much
contested concept that comes up in a number of different arenas. For example, there is the folk concept of
autonomy, which usually operates as an inchoate desire for freedom in some area of one’s life, and which may
or may not be connected with the agent’s idea of the moral good. This folk concept of autonomy blurs the
distinctions that philosophers draw among personal autonomy, moral autonomy, and political autonomy. Moral
autonomy, usually traced back to kant, is the capacity to deliberate and to give oneself the moral law, rather
than merely heeding the injunctions of others. Personal autonomy is the capacity to decide for oneself and
pursue a course or action in one’s life, often regardless of any particular moral content. Political autonomy is
the property of having one’s decisions respected, honoured, and heeded within a political context.

Another distinction that can be made is between autonomy as a bare capacity to make decisions and of
autonomy as an ideal. When autonomy functions as an ideal, agents who do not meet certain criteria in having
reached a decision are deemed non-autonomous with respect to that decision. This can function both locally,
in terms of particular actions, and globally, in terms of agents as a whole. For instance, children, agents with
cognitive disabilities of a certain kind, or members of oppressed groups have been deemed non-autonomous
because of their inability to fulfil certain criteria of autonomous agency, due to individual or social constraints.

There is debate over whether autonomy needs to be representative of a kind of “authentic” or “true” self. This
debate is often connected to whether the autonomy theorist believes that an “authentic” or “true” self exists.
In fact, conceptions of autonomy are often connected to conceptions of the nature of the self and its
constitution. Theorists who hold a socially constituted view of the self will have a different idea of autonomy
(sometimes even denying its existence altogether) than theorists who think that there can be some sort of
core “true” self, or that selves as agents can be considered in abstraction from relational and social
commitments and contexts.

Finally, autonomy has been criticized as being a bad ideal, for promoting a pernicious model of human
individuality that overlooks the importance of social relationships and dependency. Responses to these
criticisms have come in various forms, but for the most part philosophers of autonomy have striven to express
the compatibility of the social aspects of human action within their conceptions of self-determination, arguing
that there need not necessarily be an antagonism between social and relational ties, and our ability to decide
our own course of action.

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It will focus primarily on autonomy at the level of the individual and the work being done on personal autonomy,
but will also address the connection of autonomy to issues in bioethics and political theory.

Ques:- Discuss historical forces in shaping the aims of education.

Ans:- Meaning of aim:-

In the words of john dewey, “An aim is a foreseen end that gives direction to an activity or motivates behaiour.”
Each activity, each aspect of life has some aim before it. There is close relationship between an activity and
its aim. When we talk about the aim of an activity, we are supposed to have a clear goal towards the realization
of which an activity is directed. An aim is a conscious purpose which we are apt to set before us, while
launching upon any activity. We set our hearts on achieving some specific result and this desired end is the
aim.

Criteria of a good aim

John Dewey outlines the following characteristics of aims in his book, ‘democracy and education’:

1. Good aims are related to real situations of life. They grow out of real life situations and they can be
achieved only under those situations.

2. Good aims are flexible. Conditions of life are always changing and aims should be flexible to meet
successfully the challenge of new situations appearing in society.

3. Good aims always represent a span of diverse activities. They also involve purposeful activity. They
should correspond to our existing needs and should be supported by our philosophy of life.

Importance and necessity of educational aims

According to encyclopedia of modern education “Education is purposeful and ethical activity. Hence it is
unthinkable without aims.” We cannot proceed in any walk of life without aim. For achieving success in
activity of life, clear and well defined aim is essential. An educator without the knowledge of aims can be
compared to a sailor who does not know his destination. This means that a system of education which is not
clear about its aims or which has undesirable ends is bound to fail. Aims give foresight to the educational
planner. All our methods of teaching, our curriculum and our system of evaluation are shaped and moulded
according to our aim of education. It is the ignorance of right aims that has vitiated our educational system, its
methods and its products, and has successfully resulted in the physical, intellectual and moral weaknesses
of the race.

There is a great necessity of aims in education because of the following reasons:-

1. To direct efforts:- If aims is known we can direct our efforts to that end. Educational aims keep the
teacher and the taught on the right track. They provide a line of action and guidance to the teachers.
They give direction and zest to the work of the pupils.

2. To avoid wastage:- Educational aims help us to avoid wastage in time and energy. In the words of
john Dewey, “To have an aim is to act with meaning.” Aims help us to act intelligently and to act with a
meaning. We know what is to be done and we straight away start doing that.

3. To evaluate ourselves:- Educational aims help us to evaluate ourselves. They help us to take stock
of the results of our effort. The aim is a yard stick with which we can measure our success and
failure. They are necessary to assess the outcomes of the educational process.

4. To provide efficient school administration:- Aims are necessary for efficient school administration
and organization. They help the school authorities in organizing, equipping, and administering the
school. Various aspects of school administration and organization such as proper selection of
teachers, proper curriculum planning, proper library equipment, proper planning of curricular and co-

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 curricular activities, are guided by educational aims. It is rightly said that good schools evolve out of
enlightened aims. Aims are guide lightsin the educational process. Like the sun, aims illumine our life.
The ignorance of right aims will spoil the whole educational system.

5. To evaluate the existing conditions:- We as educators carefully evaluate the existing conditions i.e.,
contents of education, methods of teaching, efficiency of teaching, library equipment, planning of
curricular and co-curricular activities in the light of our objectives and plan for the future.

Factors influencing aims of education

1. Political ideologies:- Political ideologies significantly influence aims of education. In the words of
brown, “Education in any country and at all periods reflects value of the ruling class.” Different political
ideologies like democratic, totalitarian and communistic will formulate different aims of education.
India has faith in democratic education. Hence the aim of education has been fixed as the
development of democratic view. Russia and china believe in communism as the aim of education.
There is development of communistic view point. Under a totalitarian state the aim of education is to
propagate the state ideology. It is in fact indoctrination. The good of the individual lies in his working
for the good of the state. Thus he dies for the state.

2. Social and economic problems:- Sometimes social and economic problems of the country influence
the aims of education because people have to adjust to the social and economic standards of the
community. According to secondary education commission report, “As political, social and economic
conditions change and new problems arise, it becomes necessary to re examine and re state clearly
the objectives which education at each definite stage, should keep in view.”

3. Prevailing philosophy of life:- Aims of education are shaped by prevailing philosophy of life.
Prevailing philosophy of life is always reflected in the aims of education. An optimistic philosophy of
life gives optimistic aims of education and a pessimistic philosophy of life lays down pessimistic
aims of education. Idealistic philosophy emphasized self realization of exaltation of personality as the
aim of education, naturalistic philosophy stressed self expression or self gratification as the aim of
education and pragmatic philosophy advocated formulation and cultivation of dynamic, adoptable,
resourceful and enterprising mind as the aim of education.

4. Higher ideals of life:- In an ideal and advanced community ultimate aims of education are influenced
by higher ideals of life. Some of the aims of education are education for individual and social
development, for culture, for character, ‘knowledge for knowledge sake’ and for ‘completes living.’ All
these are ideals and the approach to these aims is idealistic.

5. Religious ideologies:- Though there is no state religion in India, yet different religious viewpoints
influence the aims of education. The denominational institutions run by different religious
organizations have to work to realize the aims accordingly. But human religion occupies the most
appropriate place. Therefore, the development of moral and spiritual values has been fixed as one of
the important aims of education.

6. Cultural ideology:- Social cultural heritage of a country largely affects the aims of education. The
changing and developing pattern of culture directly influence the aims of education.

7. Psychological ideology:- Aims of education should be according to needs, interests, desires,

abilities, aptitudes and development level of the students. They should be flexible and related to life.

8. Exploration of knowledge:- We are living in the age of science and technology. There is almost an
explosion of knowledge. Modern education has become science oriented and technology based all
over the world. Therefore exploration of knowledge is an important factor in determining the aims of
education.

Our education must represent these factors and it should be related to the needs and

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 aspirations of the people of Indian society.

Why many aims of education?

1. Education at different levels;- Education is given at different levels and at different stages of life.
Each stage as the primary, the secondary, the higher and the adult has its own needs and
characteristics and its own level of development. So each stage has its own aims of education.

2. Different types of education:- Different types of education such as general, technical and
commercial have different aims of education for themselves.

3. Complexity of human nature:- There is complexity of human nature. Human nature is multi sided.
Many elements make up a man. An individual has many aspects – physical, intellectual, social, moral
and spiritual. Emphasis on the one or the other leads to different interpretations.

4. Complexity of human environment:- There is complexity of human environment. Different types of

environment i.e., physical, intellectual, social and cultural give birth to different aims of education.

5. Different ideals of life:- Different philosophies have emphasized different ideals of life. They have
given rise to different aims of education.

Aims of education of India

India is known for its education, culture and philosophy. On the basis of aims of Indian education, Indian
culture guided the world. Even in present age, the educationists and philosophers are trying their best for
organizing the system of education in a way which may help in continuous development and promotion of
culture. Our late president Dr. Rajendra Prasad stated, “India has to choose for herself a culture that devices
inspiration from what is noble in our ancient culture and at the same time does not ignore the demands of the
present age.”

Aims of education in ancient India:-

1. Infusion of piety and religiousness

2. Formation of character

3. Development of personality

4. Inculcation of civic and social duties.

5. Promotion of social efficiency and happiness

6. Preservation and propagation of culture.

Aims of education in medieval India:-

1. Propagation of Islam

2. Spread of education among Muslims

3. Extension of Islamic kingdom

4. Development of morality

5. Building of character

6. Propagation of “Shariyat”

7. Achievement of material well being

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Aims of education during the British rule;

Main aims of education during the British rule are given below:-

1. Consolidation of British empire

2. Recruitment of clerks

3. Spreading English literature

4. Promoting craze for English articles and English textiles.

5. Preparing a class of interpreters of English laws.

6. Translating literary master pieces of Indian religious books into English

The objective of the present discussion is to study the aims of education in India today. So
we now focus our attention on these aims.

Aims of education in India to-day

Our country has attained independence after centuries of slavery. So our education was neither based on
Indian culture nor it was having any national objective. After attaining independence, our democratic
government, educationists, philosophers and social reformers experiences the necessity of formulating new
aims of education in order to base education on Indian culture and to make successful democratic society.
Our late Prime Minister Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru remarked, “Great changes have taken place in the country and
the education system must be in keeping with them. The entire basis of education must be revolutionized.”

It is essential to formulate aims and objectives of education with special reference to the needs and
aspirations of our people. Since the needs of a country change from time to time, the education must be
reformulated. At the present juncture, social, political and economic conditions of India are changing fast and
new problems are coming up. It becomes necessary to re-examine carefully and re-state clearly the aims of
education in modern India. Important aims of education in India today:-

1. Individual aim of education

2. Social aim of education

3. Vocational aim of education

4. Liberal aim of education

5. Harmonious development aim

6. Moral or character building aim

7. Culture as an aim of education

8. Complete living as an aim of education

9. Spiritual aim of education

10. Democratic aim.

Ques:- Define concept of culture. Discuss its kinds and influence of culture on education.

Ans:- Introduction:- Just as each human being receives from society the gifts of family life, community life,

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education, vocation, legal rights, safety and protection in the same way he or she inherits from society the
valuable gifts of cultural heritage. In the following lines, we are throwing light on the meaning and definition of
culture.

Meaning of culture:- In the narrow sense culture means that manmade social organization which promotes
specific habits of thinking and living, specific habits of social interaction, specific ways of eating, dressing
and living, religious and scientific beliefs and various material objects together with political and social
customs, traditions and patterns of behavior which cumulatively satisfy the various needs of human beings. In
its wider sense, culture refers to all inclusive habits of thinking which shape human behavior in all its aspects
and in all fields of human activity. In short, culture includes all human beliefs, patterns of behavior and all
academic, artistic, moral, religious beliefs together with all achievements in all fields of human life. In this
sense, culture epitomizes the total pattern of human belief and behavior.

Definition of culture

To make the meaning of culture more clear, the following definitions of it by some scholars are being given:-

1. “Culture is that complex whole that consists of everything we think, do and have as members of
society.” - Bierstedt

2. “Culture is the complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and other
capacities and habits acquired by man as a member of the society.”
- Tylor

3. “Culture is the expression of our nature in our modes of living and of thinking in our every day
intercourse in art, in literature, in religion, in reaction and enjoyments.”
- Maclver

Different kinds of culture

There are different kinds of culture namely – (1) individual culture, (2) communal culture, (3) national culture
and (4) world culture. As a matter of fact, each individual has some personal traits and qualities which guide
his habits of thinking and behaving in all fields of human activities. These personal likes and dislikes,
interests, modes of thinking and patterns of social behavior constitute his personal culture. In the same way,
different communities have their distinct traits of life styles comprising specific modes of community beliefs
and styles of living. All the members of different communities exhibit different traits known as community
culture. Likewise, each nation has some distinct national traits and attributes of character which conditions its
national patterns of ideals, values, modes of thought and behavior. Such national traits are known as national
culture. Further a rapid rise in the means of transport and communication has shrunk the whole world into one
small unit with the result that different nations of the world live together as members of a world community
having common values of life. Such values namely co-operation, sympathy, social service, social awakening
and social sensitiveness etc. constitute world culture.

Types of culture

In each society, culture is of two types as under –

1. Material culture

2. Non material culture

1. Material culture:- Material culture includes all those manmade things and objects which human
society has created for its physical welfare in times of peace and war. Items such as clothes,
utensils, homes, roads, ornaments, T.V., radio, various machines, gadgets and various means of
transport and communication are some examples of material culture.

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 2. Non material culture:- Non material culture includes all those ideals, attitudes and values which
modify the behavior of an individual – language, literature, art, music, religion, customs and traditions,
etc, are some examples of non material culture.

Characteristics of culture

The following are the characteristics of culture –

1. Acquired traits:- Culture is the sum total of acquired traits. The new born baby is devoid of any trait.
As he grows older, he acquires different ideals, attitudes and values by imitation and social contacts.
These experiences contribute to the formation of his personal culture.

2. Distinct entity:- Different societies of the world have their distinct cultural patterns which establish
the different identities of different nations.

3. Transmission:- Cultural traits and patterns are transmitted from generation to generation. Each
generation is free to modify the cultural heritage and then transmit it to the next generation. In this
way, cultural patterns are powerfully conditioned and influenced by the trends which appear from time
to time according to different circumstances and conditions. In short, transmission is a continuing
process.

4. Utility:- A culture is good if it has some utility to the individual as well as the society. If it does not
fulfill this purpose, it decays and dies out in the long run. It may be borne in mind that mutual give and
take among different cultures is also an essential and conditioning process. Generally, cultural
fanaticism and snobbery promotes conflict and chaos. Hence, one should see and adopt the cultural
beauties and excellencies of all the cultures that exist in the world. Only this vitality and welcoming
attitude can promote the development of world culture which leads to international brotherhood. The
prime need of our Indian society is this cultural integration.

5. Dynamism:- Culture is not static but dynamic. In other words, it changes and grows. Due to rapid rise
in the means of transport and communication a culture invades the other culture. It penetrates, inter-
penetrates, changes and grows. It is why our modern Indian culture is not that old culture which
guided the nations of the world in the past. One can notice the fast changing patterns of our cultural
beliefs, ideals, values, modes of thinking and behavior. The different cultures of the world are
interacting among themselves and thus a synthesis of cultures is going on in this modern world.

Education and cultural lag

Due to rapid progress of scientific inventions and technologies advancement, material aspect of culture has
gone ahead and its area has been greatly widened. The modern society is gradually adopting more and more
of these techniques and scientific achievements in their day to day styles of living, while the non material
aspect of culture has been left far behind. This vast difference between the material culture and the non
material culture is known as social and cultural lag. As the pace of material culture cannot be slackened, the
need is to speed up the changes in the non material cultural patterns of thinking and living. Both should
proceed together in a corresponding pace as the two wheels of a chariot. Education is the only means to
bridge this cultural lag. We see that through scientific inventions, investigations and discoveries many of our
own Indian people are enjoying the fruits of the material culture, yet there are still vast masses of people who
are steeped in ignorance, inertia and utter backwardness. Education can do this job of eliminating this cultural
lag and inspire the general people to march on the road of progress and modernization as best as they can.

Education and culture

Education and culture are intimately and integrally connected. Hence, the cultural pattern of a society
conditions its educational pattern. For example, if a society has a spiritual pattern of culture, then its
educational procedures will emphasize the achievement of moral and eternal values of life. On the other land,
if the cultural pattern of a society is materialistic, then naturally its educational pattern will be shaped for the

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attainment of material values which promote pleasures of senses and material comforts. It may no borne in
mind that a society devoid of any culture will have no definite educational organization. Hence, it may be
safety asserted that the culture of a country has a very powerful impact on its educational pattern. This
mutual influence is being discussed in the following lines.

Influence of culture on education

Culture influences the following aspects of education –

1. Influence of cultural on aims of education:- The meaning and aims of education are determined by
the cultural ideals, values and patterns of a society. In other words, as is the culture of a society so
shall be its aims of education.

2. Influence of culture on curriculum:- The aims of education are achieved through curriculum. As the
aims of education are determined according to the culture of society, so the curriculum is conditioned
according to the culture of society. In other words, as are the ideas, ideas and values of a society, the
educational curriculum of that society is conditioned according to the ideals and needs of that society
to realize its cultural values. In short, the system of education tries to realize the cultural needs of
society through curriculum which conditions all educational activities and programme.

3. Influence of culture on methods of teaching:- Culture and methods of teaching are intimately
connected. It is why, the changing cultural patterns of a society exert powerful influence upon the
methods of teaching also. In ancient times education was teacher centred and tried to force into the
minds of children specific dozes of knowledge in quite disregard of their natural interests and needs.
The result of this artificial progress of education was mechanical cramming and rote memorization. In
modern times, education has become child centred. Thus, the interests, inclinations, aptitudes needs
and capacities of children are taken into full consideration before exposing them to specific
educational experiences, activities and programmes. In this way, education is now a method of
preparing children for successful and effective living during the present times and for the times to
come. In short, cultural and social needs condition the methods and techniques of teaching in a very
powerful way.

4. Influences of culture on discipline:- Cultural values also influence the concept of discipline. The
present cultural patterns of thinking and living are directly linked to our concept of discipline. In
ancient and middle ages societies where authoritarianism ruled, the concept of discipline was
repressionistic. But in modern times when democratic values of life are being accepted all over the
world, the concept of discipline has come to mean impressionistic or emancipator or self discipline.

5. Influence of culture on text books:- Curriculum is contained in text books. We have discussed above
the powerful impact of cultural values upon the curriculum. These text books are written according to
the formulated or determined curriculum. It may be borne in mind that only those text books are
welcomed if they foster and promote cultural ideals and values. On the contrary, they are discarded
and often banned if they militate against the cultural ideals and values of a particular society.

6. Influence of culture on teacher:- Each individual teacher is imbued with the cultural ideals and values
of the society of which he happens to be an integral member. Only such a teacher achieves his
mission successfully. It is only such a teacher who is able to infuse higher ideals and moral values in
children. The idealism and higher ideals of teacher are imbibed by children imperceptibly but definitely.
It may be noted here that the idealism and higher ideals of teacher are comprised of the cultural
ideals and values of his society of nation.

7. Influence of culture on school:- According to the ideology of pragmatism, a school is a miniature of

society. The total activities and programmes of the school are organized according to the cultural
ideals and values of the society which establishes and organizes the school. Hence, school is the
centre of promoting, moulding, reforming and developing the cultural patterns of the society which
establishes that school for its own good and welfare.

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Influence of education on culture

Just as culture influences education, must in the same way education also exerts its powerful influence upon
the culture of a country. In the following lines, we are explaining the various ways by which education
influences the culture of a country.

1. Preservation of culture:- Each country believes and flaunts the superiority of its own culture over the
text. Hence, it tries to preserve its culture in its original form. Education is the only means to complete
the task. In other words, education preserves the culture of society.

2. Transmission of culture:- The process of preservation includes the process of transmission as well
because through transmission of culture from one generation to another is the best guarantee of its
preservation. The famous sociologist ottaway has rightly remarked. “The function of education is to
transmit the social values and ideals to the young and capable members of society.”

3. Development of culture:- The function of education is not only to preserve and transmit the culture
of society, but it also brings about the needed desirable changes in the cultural ideals values for the
progress and continued development of society, without which social progress will stratify and come
to naught. In other words, education culturises individuals, modifies cultural processes by research
and deeper investigation into all areas of human requirements.

4. Maintaining the continuity of culture:- Culture is the life blood of a society. Without culture a society
is bound to decay and die sooner or later. Education upholds the continuity of culture through its
diverse activities and programmes. It may be noted that a society establishes schools to preserve and
transmit its culture from generation to generation. But some schools try to develop cultural
chauvinism and superiority complexes among its children. This is very undesirable. Children should be
motivated to learn more and more from cultural interaction among various cultures and develop the
qualities of tolerance, adjustment together with mutual give and take so that they are able to benefit
themselves from the contribution of all cultures. This cultural integration and cultural synthesis is the
dire need of the world society in modern times.

5. Helping the development of personality:- Education aims to develop the personality of the child. For
this, it employs diverse cultural patterns of thinking, behavior and items of cultural values so that
children are physically, mentally, socially and emotionally developed to the maximum extent.

6. Removing cultural lag:- When material culture develops at a fast pace due to scientific researches
and inventions, non material cultural consisting of ideals, values and norms lag behind creating a gulf
between the two. Education is the only means to bridge this cultural lag by its activities and
programmes of development.

It is clear from the above discussion that whereas on one hand, education culturises an
individual, on the other hand, it preserves, transmits and develops the culture of a society. In short,
education and culture are mutually interdependent, complementary and supplementary in all their
aspects and activities.

Conclusion:- To conclude we can say that culture impacts on education very deeply. These are inter related
with each other.

Ques: -Explain role of economy in shaping the aims of education.

Ans:- EDUCATION AND ECONOMY

Country like India, which has many castes and creeds, religious and faith, it is very essential that the economy
of the govt. should be sound so that everyone is benefitted. If all round economy of the country is sound, it can
be said a welfare state. Education plays an important role in the development of economy. Education is a
crucial type of investment for exploitation of modern industry. In an advanced society it is very important that

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education and industry should be closely related. Modern industrial societies are distinguished in their
structure and development from others in comparable complexities, scientific researches in services,
economic growth and military growth. Therefore, education plays a key role. Education has become an
investment for the economy. Old educational set ups are now outmoded in age of political caste class
structure which totally renounced all of the axiological norms. In this way, education is an investment in which
our efforts fruitfy and it strengthens our economy.

Education is the foundation stone of a nation’s intellectual power which shapes the power profile of a
nation in the community of world nations. It is rigidly said that the progress of country, particularly of a
democratic country, depends upon the quality of its system of education. Education is recognized as the mirror
of society. I.L.Kandel has observed, “In order to understand, appreciate and evaluate the real meaning of the
educational system of a nation, it is essential to know something of its history and tradition, of the forces and
attitudes governing its social organization and the political and economic conditions that determine its
development.”

Education not only helps in the growth and development of individual, but also plays a key role in the
economic development of a country. So, in twenty first century, all the countries of the world are forced to
spend huge sums of money on their educational planning and thus, educationists also think that education
must aim at social and economic upliftment of the nation by increasing the productive efficiency of the
workers.

Determinants of economic development

Economic development of any country depends upon a number of factors. Following are some of the
important factors that have a significant influence on the economic development of a country.

1. Education. Education plays a pioneer role in the economic development of a country. It is an

extremely important element of economic development. Imparting aides for education not only helps
in the development of human capital, but also plays a significant role in the progress of the country.

2. Natural resources. Natural resources have a considerable influence on the economic development
of each country. According to A lewis, “National resources determine the path of progress.” Land,
climate, rivers, mountains, mineral products, sources of energy, such as petrol, gas, etc. are
manifestations of natural resources.

3. Human resources. Human resources play an important role in the economic development. Human
resources provide labour and entrepreneurship. If the labourers are efficient, hard working and
disciplined and the entrepreneurs are competent, then the pace of economic development will
accelerate. If a country has scarce natural resources, then this shortage can be covered up by
efficient human resources. Japan has no iron mines and Sweden has shortage of minerals, but due to
proper utilization of human resources these countries are ranked among the developed countries of
the world.

4. Physical capital resources. Physical capital refers to building, infrastructure, machine, plants and
equipments, raw material etc. These resources are considered as the most important determinants of
economic developments.

5. Technical progress. Another main determinant of economic development of a country is technical

progress. Technical progress is a multidimensional process. It includes new techniques, new
machines and increased efficiency etc.

6. International determinants. Economic development of underdeveloped countries depends on foreign

capital, international trade, foreign investment and many such international determinants. Most of the
underdeveloped countries of the world have been receiving help from developed countries for their
economic growth.

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 7. Political factors. Economic development of a country is very much influenced by its political
environment. More long term plans will be formulated and the process of development would continue
without any hindrance leading to greater political stability. The development of roads, railways, canals,
electricity, education system etc. can be possible with the help of efficient and honest leaders.

8. Freedom from corruption. Corruption is one of the big hurdles in the way of economic development.
In the words of Prof. Gunnar Myrdal, “Freedom from corruption is so very essential for economic
development of the less developed countries.”

Those are many other factors like law and order situation, desire for development, developmental
planning, market situation etc. play vital role in the economic development of a country.

Education for economic development

Education as an investment. There was a time, when education was for the sake of education. Education was
considered as an end in itself. These was no relationship between education and economics. Giving grants for
education was just an unproductive expenditure. As a result of this only elite class people were sending their
children for education.

Time has changed now. In modern days everybody in the world has been able to realize the importance of
education. Educationists, economists and many other scholars consider education as an essential
expenditure and a productive investment. Now almost all the countries of the world are forced to spend huge
sums of money for education.

Education as a productive element. It we consider education as an industry, then, the immature students
getting admission are the inputs (raw materials) and their successful achievement after the completion of
education are called as output. No doubt, education does not produce goods directly, it helps in increasing the
skills and abilities of the man power and this ability plays a significant role in the economic development of the
individual as well as of the country.

According to singer, “Investment in education is not only highly productive but also yields increasing
returns. So, education plays pioneer role in the creation of human capital and social progress which in turn
determines the progress of the country.”

Education for high standard of living. Education can help in improving the standard of living of the people.
Development of human capital is possible through education and training. Skilled and knowledgeable human
capital earn comparatively more money than the normal labourers. More income leads to higher standard of
living.

Educated people of developed and developing countries enjoy a high standard of living. Apart from
satisfying their basic needs of food, clothing and shelter, they are also able to enjoy a large number of
comforts and luxury goods.

Education for technological development. Education plays a pioneer role in the development of science and
technology. Continuous research and innovative experiments have brought revolutionary changes in the field of
technology. It is because of technological development that in developed countries production keeps on
increasing. It is only through education that the industrialists are able to use the latest techniques of
production to a very large extent.

Education and sustainable development. Sustainable development is that process of economic development
which is undertaken without harming natural resources and environment. It refers to that process of
development which fulfils the needs of present generation without causing any harm to the ability of the future
generation to meet their own needs. Education is the key indicator of sustainable development. Education
produces efficient, capable and skilled human resources who serve as foundation not only for the present but
also for the future.

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Conclusion

To conclude, it can be said that education plays a significant role for the all round development of the child.
Education helps in the personality development of the child and at the same time helps to achieve his ‘bread
and butter aim’. Educationists and economists suggest to invest more in the field of education to get more
return for the nation. Education is such a powerful medium in the hands of background and developing
countries to achieve gradual economic progress and prosperity.

Ques:- Education and individual opportunity

Many people think that education in today’s world has become an integral part of our society and education is
the main provider of individual opportunity in our society. They think that just as property and money were the
keys to success in past years, in present world the key to success is education. But some people contrast
with these words. They think that education is not as important as property and money. They believe that
having enough of property and money is like achieving success in life. They feel education is not important in
anybody’s life. In today’s advanced world education is the integral part of the society. Without education, a
man stands nowhere in this well developed world and in this technological era. Therefore, a key to success
today is to have education.
Today education is the most precious jewel in the society. Education plays a major role in each person’s life.
Without education a man’s life is ruined. Today, the world has gone so far beyond imagination that, to do any
kind of work, a basic knowledge about that is a must. And to have that basic knowledge, one has to gain a
minimum level of education. Today, property and money are not considered the key to success. It is the
education which makes a man stand in this world. For instance, in the current world one has to have the
knowledge of what is going on around him/her. Even a homemaker is supposed to have basic education so
that she can take care of the accounts of her household. Another example regarding this is that a farmer has
to have minimum knowledge of the interest rates and how a loan has to be clear. Without proper education, his
landlords could cheat him. Hence, in today’s world, basic education is a key to a man’s success.
As many of them think that education is not as important as having property and money. For example, if a man
is very rich, he has lots of money and many lands and property. But, if he does not have minimum knowledge
of how that money is to be utilized, then no sooner he will lose all his money. Thus, education is far more
important than property and money. In the present world, education provides lots of opportunities. There are
many fields in which one can educate oneself based on his passion and talent. Moreover, present world is the
world of technology. One should have basic education to deal with simple household works. For instance,
mobile has become the most common thing today. Each person is having a mobile with him/her. Mobile is very
helpful in emergency cases and when important news is to be passed on. But this needs a basic knowledge
of using the mobile phone. And that basic knowledge can be achieved with the help of education. Hence,
education plays major role in the society.
In conclusion, while there are many points to be made on both sides of the statement, Education has become
the main provider of individual opportunity in our society and education is the key to success.
Ques:- Explain meaning of social justice. Explain its features.

Ans:- Introduction:- It is not possible to build a democratic, socialist and secular society without granting
justice to citizens in every sphere of life i.e. social, economic, political and religious justice etc. To make this
operative, following norms have been established for the behavior pattern of an individual:

1. Respect for individual’s individuality.

2. Patience, tolerance and sympathy.

3. Sacrifice and service

4. Mutual co-operation and mutual goodwill.

5. Honesty and truth.

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 6. Forgiveness and non-violence

7. Responsibility, broad-mindedness and self-control.

As long as these norms are not accepted, by individual in our society, it is not possible to establish a
democratic, socialist and secular state.

A. Social justice:- Indian society has firm faith in the provision of justice. Indian constitution aims at
providing justice to the people to help them in making the all round development of personality. Social
justice means no discrimination shall be made against any individual on the grounds of caste, colour,
creed, sex, place of birth or religion.

Characteristics of social justice:- Right to equality in Article 14 to 17 of the constitution is provided for
the realization of this purpose:-

1. Equality before law: Article 14: Indian constitution guarantees to all its citizens equality before
law as well as equal protection of the laws. Under article 14, equality before the law or protection
of the laws is guaranteed to all. Article 14 declares that, “the state shall not deny to any person
equality before the law or equal protection of the laws.”

2. No discrimination: Article 15:- Article 15 prohibits discrimination on certain grounds. This article
provides that no discrimination shall be made on the grounds of caste, colour, creed, sex, place of
birth and religion in matters of access to public places and their use i.e. the use of wells, tanks,
bathing ghats, places of public resorts, roads, public parks, hotels, cinema houses, etc.

3. Upliftment: Article 15(3):- Social justice essentially demands upliftment of the weaker sections
of society, including women and children. No restrictions would be imposed on the state in
making special provisions for the upliftment of women and children. The state can make special
provisions for children and women, and the socially backward sections of society.

4. Equal opportunities in matters of public appointment: Article 16:- Social justice also demands
equality of opportunity in matters of public appointment. Article 16 guarantees equality of
opportunity in métiers of public appointment. It is provided that no discrimination shall be made
only on the grounds of caste, colour, creed, sex, place of birth or religion in matters of
employment under the state. The state, however is empowered to reserve posts for the
scheduled castes, backward classes and tribes, and can also lay down eligibility qualifications
for making appointments to public places.

5. Abolition of untouchability: Ability 17:- According to Article 17, untouchability is abolished and its
practice in any form is prohibited.

6. No prohibition: Article 20 (B):- No citizen would be prohibited from taking admission in any
government institution or aided by the government on the basis of religion, caste, class or
language, etc.

7. No exploitation: Article 46:- Another characteristics of social justice is total ban on exploitation
of weaker sections of society. Special attention would be paid in respect of educational and
economic responsibilities towards the weaker sections of the society especially. In cases of
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, proper safeguards would be given to them. They would
be safeguarded against any type of exploitation through social justice.

8. Equality of educational opportunity:- Social justice also demands equality of educational

opportunity.

Norms for realization of social justice:-

For the realization of the value of social justice, the people of our Indian society should behave according to

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the following norms:-

1. Eradication of any kind of discrimination between one individual and other on the basis of caste,
class, religion, sex, birth etc.

2. Equality before the law for every individual.

3. Abolition of the practice of untouchability.

4. Prohibition of discrimination in the use of public places on the basis of caste, class, religion, sex or
place of birth.

5. Co-operation in eradicating class differences in society.

6. Promotion of social measures for ensuring the development of weaker sections of the society viz.
women, scheduled castes and tribes and provision of special opportunities for them.

Principles underlying social justice:-

1. Full employment and right to work:- Education should be planned in such a way that all the people
get employment according to their abilities and capacities. For this, education should be
vocationalised.

2. Maximum production of national wealth:- Maximising production is a pre-requisite for bringing about
economic prosperity. For this, scientific and technical education should be emphasized.

3. National self sufficiency:- Self-sufficiency helps in creating a society that lives by the creed of social
justice. Hence, it is desirable that modern methods of production for the maximum exploitation of
natural resources of the country should be emphasized.

4. Social and economic justice:- The fundamental objective of social justice is the establishment of
social and economic order, based on equality of opportunity, and on social, economic and political
justice. In order to ensure social and economic justice everybody should be given the opportunities for
highest type of education according to capacities.

5. Decentralization of power:- Economic and political power should be decentralized through the
establishment of village panchayats and industrial cooperatives. Education should be geared towards
that end.

Steps taken for the achievement of social justice:-

Education is the powerful means for the achievement of social justice. The following steps have been taken in
this education:-

1. Education as the right:- Everyone has the right to education.

2. Free and compulsory education:- Provision has been made in our constitution to provide free and
compulsory education from 6 to 14 years of age.

3. Right to employment:- Every person of the society has been given the right of employment. They are
not bound to take up the occupation of their forefathers. They can choose any occupation according
to their abilities.

4. Not untouchability:- Untouchability has been legally abolished. All the people may be belonging to
backward classes, scheduled castes and tribes etc., have been provided with equal justice,
opportunities and rights. Thus, modern Indian society is marching forward actively on the path of
social justice.

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 B. Economic justice; Corrollary of social justice:-

Economic justice is virtually a corollary to social justice.

Meaning of economic justice:- Economic justice means that equal and adequate means of livelihood
are provided to all and exploitation of all types is ended. It means non-discrimination between man
and man on the basis of economic value. In positive terms, it implies that the state of national
economy should work in such a way as may prove beneficial for the general welfare. The very
concept of economic justice involves the idea of a welfare state. Social and economic justice are
ensured to the people of India by the Directive Principles of state policy. Some of the directives
promise the citizens of India the right to work, to claim public assistance at the time of need,
adequate means of livelihood and no discrimination on the basis of economic intent.

Norms for determining the value of economic justice:-

As a consequence of capitalism and feudalism, a few people in our country become extremely rich while the
vast majority was rendered destitute. The means of production in our society began to be concentrated in a
few hands and consequently, the poor were becoming poorer, day by day. In such a situation, the desirable
socialist pattern of society cannot be established. Hence, the value of economic justice was accepted as the
goal of our national life. Thus, the value of economic justice was established. This value directed the following
norms for directing our social behavior:-

1. Prevention of concentration of wealth and the means of production.

2. Keeping the ownership and control of the natural and material resource of the community in the
control of the society.

3. Provision of opportunity for employment to every citizen.

4. Provision of equal pay for equal work for men and women.

5. Promotion of economic interests of weaker sections of society.

6. Prohibition of employment of children below the age of fourteen years.

7. Co-operation in the provision of just and human conditions of work, facilities for leave, residence etc.

8. Freedom of profession, occupation and business.

Thus active efforts are being made to bridge the gap between the rich and poor. Economic assistance is
being provided to backward class. No discrimination is made towards anyone from the economic point of
view. Free education is provided to poor children. Help is also given to them in the form of books and
stipends. Every person has been given the right against exploitation. Thus in our modern Indian society,
active efforts are being made to bring about economic justice which is the basis of social justice.

C. Political justice: Determinant of social justice:-

Our government is the government of the people which is formed by the people and it works for the
people. Thus we got an opportunity to elect our own representatives to form the government.

Meaning of political justice:- Political justice ensures free and fair participation of the people in their
political life. Political justice involves universal adult franchise and non discrimination against citizens
on any ground in the political life of the country. It also includes the reasonable reservation and
safeguards for the betterment of the minorities and other weaker sections of society.

As a part of ensuring political justice to the citizens of India, the constitution framers provided for
universal adult franchise and threw open elected offices to all the citizens of India. The constitution of

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 India also provides for special safeguards for the betterment of the weaker sections of society.

Norms for obtaining political justice:-

To obtain political justice, every citizen must behave as per the following norms:-

Each individual is expected to:-

1. Express his opinion freely.

2. Participate in elections in accordance with the conditions laid down for every citizen.

3. Show respect for the national flag, national anthem, etc.

4. Protect and work for the unity, integrity and sovereignty of the country.

Ways for providing justice:-

The government of India is bringing about justice in the following two ways:-

1. Facilities to all:- By providing necessary facilities to all without any discrimination.

2. Reservations for weaker sections:- By providing reservations to those classes which have been
backward for centuries and are being exploited so that they may become equal.

Role of education in social justice:-

Today the objective of creating a classless society has become very important characteristics of
Indian society. Education system has been striving for social justice in the domains of education for
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, education for backward classes, women education, adult
education, social education and mass education. Thus the characteristics of social, economic and
political justice have an important place in the modern Indian society.

Ques:- Discuss the concept of dignity.

Ans:- Moral, ethical, legal and political discussions use the concept of dignity to express the idea that a being
has an innate right to be valued, respected, and to receive ethical treatment, in the modern context dignity can
function as an extension of the enlightenment era concepts of inherent, inalienable rights. English speakers
often use the word ‘dignity’ in proscriptive and cautionary ways: for example in politics it can be used to
critique the treatment of oppressed and vulnerable groups and peoples, but it has also been applied to cultures
and sub cultures, to religious beliefs and ideals, to animals used for food or research, and to plants. ‘Dignity’
also has descriptive meanings pertaining to human worth. In general, the term has various functions and
meanings depending on how the term is used and on the context.
th
The English word ‘dignity’ attested from the early 13 century comes from Latin dignitas (worthiness) by way
of French dignite. In ordinary modern usage it denotes ‘respect’ and ‘status’, and it is often used to suggest
that someone is not receiving a proper degree of respect, or even that they are failing to treat themselves with
proper self respect. There is also a long history of special philosophical use of this term. However, it is rarely
defined outright in political, legal, and scientific discussions. International proclamations have thus far left
dignity undefined, and scientific commentators, such as those arguing against genetic research and algeny,
cite dignity as a reason but are ambiguous about its application.

Ques:- Define Secularism in detail.

Ans:- Our country has chosen to build itself into a democratic and secular society in which different groups
and communities can flourish side by side in confidence and good will; different social and cultural traditions
might grow in freedom, and all citizens might be able to make the best of their capabilities for personal
fulfillment and social progress.

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Meaning of Secularism

● View of chambers dictionary:- According to chambers dictionary, secularism is “the belief that the
state, morals, education, etc. should be independent of religion.”

● View of oxford dictionary:- Oxford dictionary defines secularism as “the doctrine that morality should
be based solely in regard to the well being of mankind in the present life, to the exclusion of all
considerations drawn from belief in God.”

● Radhakrishnan’s view:- “Secularism does not mean anything irreligious or atheism or even stress on
material comforts. Rather, it lays stress on the universality of spiritual values which may be attained
by a variety of ways.”

To conclude, secular outlook implies:-

1. Freedom of religion:- Secular outlook implies freedom of all religions.

2. Moral and spiritual values:- It encourages moral and spiritual values.

3. Tolerance:- It implies tolerance.

4. Rational thinking:- It has faith in rational thinking.

5. Free enquiry:- It emphasizes free enquiry.

6. Freedom of mind:- It treats freedom of mind from dogmatic ideas.

7. Freedom of worship:- It permits freedom of worship.

8. Faith in co-existence:- It believes in co-existence.

9. Equal footing:- It treats all religions on equal footing.

10. Equal rights;- It recognizes all individuals as citizens with equal rights.

11. No negative of religion:- It is not a negation of religion.

Indian constitution and secularism

The idea of secularism is one of the basic aspects of Indian society as envisaged by the constitution of India.

1. ‘Secular’ word is included in the preamble:- Although the word secular was not included in the
original preamble, yet by an amendment to the constitution in 1976, the ‘secular’ character of India
was classified.

2. Non state religion:- In India, there is no religion of the state. The state treats all religions equally and
grants religious freedom to every citizen of India. The state has accepted as the personal affair of the
individual.

3. Article 11:- Equal qualifications for acquiring citizenship: Under Article 11 of the Constitution, the
Parliament can frame laws regarding citizenship, but no discrimination shall be done on the basis of
religion.

4. Article 15: Prohibition of discrimination: Article 15 of the Constitution states:

(i) The state shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, and
place of birth or any of them.

(ii) No citizen on grounds only of religion, race, sex, place of birth shall be denied access to shops,

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 wells, tanks, etc.

5. Article 25(1): Right to religious freedom: All citizens are equally to freedom of conscience and the
right to profess, practice and propagate religion.

6. Article 25(2) (a): Interference with freedom of religion: The state may interfere with freedom of
religion for the purpose of regulating or restricting any economic, financial, political, or other secular
activity which may be associated with religious practice. Only those religious practices need be
regulated or restricted which are regarded as integral part of the religion, others can be banned
without affecting religious freedom, if they are undesirable.

7. Article 26: Right to establish religious institutions for religious purposes: Article 26 guarantees these
rights: “The freedom of conscience entails freedom to establish and maintain religious institutions,
manage their affairs, acquire, maintain and administer movable and immovable property.”

8. Article 27: Exemption from payment of taxes: Article 27 “provides freedom as to payment of taxes
for promotion of any particular religion.”

9. Article 28: no religious instruction in government institutions: According to the Article 28 of the
Constitution, any religious instruction will be imparted in government educational institutions.

10. Article 29: No discrimination in admission: The government or government aided institutions will not
make discrimination with any person while giving admission.

11. Article 30: Establishment of educational institution: Article 30 provides for the establishment of
educational institution by minorities whether based on religion or language.

There will be no discrimination in granting aid to any educational institution run by minorities whether
based on religion or language. Thus the Constitution of India guarantees freedom of religion and
secularism to her people.

Secularism and religion:

Secularism is not negation of religion. It implies mutual tolerance for all religions to which different
people owe their allegiance. Religion is an effort to strive for better life in future. Secularism contains
a moral point of view. The education for moral upliftment is an ideal sought by secularism. Moral
conduct patterns have been found most productive of human happiness and welfare.

Western versus Indian concept of Secularism:

Secularism as understood in Western Europe, and in terms of the American experience, means that the State
and the Church co-exist in the same society without having to do anything with each other.

Indian conception of secularism requires that there shall be no state religion and the state shall treat all
religions equally. In the words of Mahatma Gandhi,”My veneration for other faiths is the same as for my own
faith.” “We believe in Sarva dharma samanatva –having equal regard for all faiths and creeds.

Characteristics/ features of Secular Education:

1. For all: Secular education is meant for all: irrespective of religion, caste or creed. No discrimination
is made on the basis of religion.

2. No religious education: Secular education does not include religious education of any type.

3. National goals: Secular education is based on national goals and objectives.

4. Religious tolerance: Secular education attempts to inculcate religious tolerance and mutual
appreciation of other religious contribution.

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 5. University accepted religious truths: Secular education may incorporate within itself some
universally accepted religious truths.

6. Universal values: Secular education may highlight on the biographies of the great world religious
leaders and spotlight on the universal values that they have propounded.

7. No fanaticism: Secular education neither encourages religious indoctrination of fanaticism.

8. No condemnation: Secular education does not attempt to develop the spirit of religious or uphold any
religious faith.

It must be noted that secular education attempts to develop the spirit of religious tolerance, mutual
respect and virtuous living. The concept of secular education should be understood in the right
perspective. In the public educational system, religion is kept out of the purview of the curriculum.

Social goals of secular education

Important goals of secular education are given below:-

1. Development of moral outlook;- Secular education is needed for development of moral outlook. It is
the foundation for development of character and moral development. It inculcates in students
humility, truthfulness, tolerance, honesty, courtesy, sympathy, spirit of service and sacrifice which
form a noble character of man and develops his personality.

2. Development of wider attitude:- Secular education makes a man dynamic and enlightened, develops
in him a wider attitude towards life, and takes interest in social service by sacrificing his selfish
motives.

3. Development of pluralistic outlook:- Secular education leads to the emergence of a healthy

pluralistic outlook which fosters the growth of science, art, philosophy and even religion.

4. Development of democratic qualities:- Secular education helps man in developing democratic

qualities like liberty, equality, fraternity and co-operative living. True secularism stresses the dignity of
the individual and the sacredness of human personality.

5. Cultural development:- It preserves and reinforces culture. Both secularism and culture go hand in
hand and influence each other.

6. Development of scientific spirit:- The scientific spirit implies a spirit of free enquiry, a spirit of
looking at things objectively and rationally, freedom from an obsession with the past, and a more
humble attitude towards our own history and achievements.

7. Balance between spiritual and material:- Secularism is based on certain fundamental human values
and looks upon science not merely as a means of material progress but a quest for truth and a search
for harmony with nature.

8. Humanitarianism:- Secular education leads to humanitarianism. It stands for peace, good will and
understanding. It helps in fostering the brotherhood of man and the unity of the world.

Education for secularism in India

Our educational system today promotes secular attitudes and values through its broad based aims, curricula,
enlightened teachers and appropriate activities, all emphasizing open mindedness, progressivism, rationality,
freedom from bigotry and superstition and equal respect for all religious.

1. Secular educational aims: Our educational aims and objectives are secular. They seek to develop
our nation as a rational, democratic, progressive and modern welfare state.

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2. Democratic organization of educational institutions:- In all government institutions and government
aided institutions, it is necessary to observe secular, democratic, rational criteria in appointments,
promotions, admissions, and all such matters.

Secularism stands for scientific rationalism. It stresses logical thinking, and abhors superstitions and
irrational things. Realizing this, our education today puts much emphasis on science teaching. At all levels
of schooling science is taught in a practical manner so that it might influence the attitudes and values of
the pupils. The spirit of science with emphasis on inquiry, experimentation, proof and critical outlook,
permeates the teaching of other subjects also.

The following points highlight curriculum and methods of teaching concerning secularism:-

i.Activities and textbooks:- Different activities and textbooks should propagate the chief features/
characteristics of secularism.

ii. Lessons:- Different lessons in the books should reflect love and respect for all religions.

iii. Moral education as compulsory subject:- Moral education should be introduced as a

compulsory subject for all the classes.

iv. Comparative religions study as a subject:- Comparative religions study should be introduced as
a subject at a senior/higher secondary level.

v. Newspapers and journals:- Newspapers and journals should propagate the characteristics of
secularism.

vi. Audio-visual aids:- Radio, films, television, exhibitions, etc. should be used for educating the
public about secularism.

vii. Democratic teachers:- The teachers today are expected to treat their pupils in an impartial
manner. They have to eschew all caste, community and class considerations in dealing with the
students and colleagues. Equal respect has to be given to all students and to all religious groups.
An effort is made by every conscientious teacher to behave in truly democratic and fair manner.

To sum up the teachers and heads of the schools can play important role by performing the
following duties:-

i.Celebration of religious festivals:- They should celebrate religious festivals of different religions.
Equal importance should be given to all religious festivals.

ii. Declamation contests:- They should organize declamation contests in topics related to all
religions.

iii. Extension lectures:- They should organize extension lectures on topics of comparative religious
study in schools.

iv. Tours and trips:- They should organize tours and trips for the students to different centres of
religions.

v. Common religious things:- They should highlight the common things about the different
religions such as social service and service to humanity.

Secularism is a philosophy of education. Secular behavior springs in the school from the
influence of the school, through the conduct and behaviours of the teachers themselves and
life in the community as a whole. All the activities and programmes of the school must strive
for the inculcation of values of love, truth, tolerance and mutual respect.

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Activities of educational institutions:-

For the establishment of a society based on secularism, educational institutions should perform the following
activities:

1. Common prayer: School work should begin with a common prayer. In the prayer meetings,
quotations from all religions, sacred scriptures, should be read out to the students.

2. Celebration of birthdays: Birthdays of founders of every religion should be celebrated.

3. Religious festivals: Festivals pertaining to every religion should be celebrated.

4. Religious lectures: Arrangement should be made for lectures by saintly persons belonging to
different religions.

5. Teachings and principles of religions: Teachings and principles of various religions should be
imparted to the students through a well organized syllabus. At the primary level and secondary level,
this can be done through social studies and literature and at the higher level in the form of
independent subjects.

6. Studies in comparative religions: At the higher education level, studies in comparative religions
should be encouraged.

Limitations of our Educational System in Prompting Secularism (Difficulties in Secular Education System):

Building up a secular state is a very challenging task, especially in a country like India, in which traditional
institutions like religion, caste, untouchability, and dowry have been prevailing for thousands of years.
Despite the best intentions of our constitution makers and truly great leaders, we shall find it difficult to
establish and promote a really functional climate of secularism in India. The main limitations of our
educational system in this task are as under:

1. Traditional bias and narrow outlook: Despite all professed faith in secularism, in reality some of our
educational administrators openly favor their caste and community members and have a deep-seated
prejudice towards some others. As a result, many of our educational and professional institutions
have been reduced to the level of houses of dirty politics, animosity and conflicts.

2. Too much emphasis on theoretical learning: Our educational curricula emphasize many things only
in theory. Very little effort is made to change the values and attitudes of our students. It is a pity that
many people with higher education do not hesitate to demand big dowries.

3. Neglect of religious and cultural celebration: It has been observed that on the days of important
religious fairs, festivals and birthdays, schools and colleges observe holidays. Seldom are
programmes conducted in institution—especially in higher institutions- on these days to highlight the
best thoughts and values associated with them.

Neglect of group activities: Schools do not encourage many group activities. There is tendency on the part of
teachers to neglect group activities and group methods of teaching and learning. This is a serious limitation in
the promotion of secular and free ideas and values.

Ques:- Define nationalism in detail.

According to the Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English, Nationalism is strong devotion to
one’s nation; patriotic feelings. It is loyality, love and devotion towards one’s nation. A person who possesses
the sentiments and feelings of nationalism is called a nationalist.’ Mrs. Indira Gandhi said, “Even if I die in the
service of nation, I would be proud of it. Every drop of my blood, I am sure, will contribute to the growth of the
nation and make it strong and dynamic.” So feeling of love towards the country, devotion and spirit of self-
sacrifice is nationalism. A true nationalist stands far above party politics and is ever-ready to serve the nation

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and safeguard it from any type of outer dangers. The fundamentals of national unity are co-existance,
tolerance, co-operation and unity.

NATIONAL CHARACTER

National character refers to :

(i) Identity of self

(ii) Identity of neighborhood

(iii) Cultural identity of the people of a nation.

National character is a set of ideals, values, ethics, social and cultural characteristics. Thus, it
makes a link with our past rich heritage contributed by our ancestors. It is a force which provides direction to
the people.

NATIONAL WILL:- National will refers to a collective capacity of the people bounded by a political system,
cultural identity, geographical structure of the land and its economic set-up. It is the product of a quality
education based on human awareness and self-consciousness about nationhood.

DEFINATIONS OF NATIONALISM

-Brubacher says, “Nationalism ordinarily indicates a wider scope of loyalty than patriotism in
addition the ties of place. Nationality is evidenced by such other ties as race, language, history, culture and
tradition.”

-According to Humayan Kabir, “Nationalism is that which depends on we-feeling towards the
nation.”

-According to Education Commission Report, (1964-66) “Ntional integration includes a confidence

in nation’s future, a continuous rise in the standard of living, development of feeling of values and duties, a
good and impartial administrative system and mutual understanding.”

-Dorothy Thompson’s says, “National integration is a feeling that binds the citizens of a country.”

-National Integration Conference Report, 1961, states : “National integration is a psychological and
educational process involving the development of a feeling of unity, solidarity and cohesion in the hearts of
people, a sense of common citizenship and a feeling of loyalty to the nation.”

-According to S.N. Panda, “National Integration is a psychological phenomenon, a feeling of

oneness, that rises above all narrow and divisive tendencies and makes for genuine patriotism and progress.”

-According to Preston, “National Integration is the job to inculcate knowledge of our country, pride
in it, and respect for the best in our national environment, aspirations, traditions, and a wish to improve our
country.”

NARROW MEANING OF NATIONALISM

Some people talk of nationalism in a narrow sense. When people confine their views to their own
limited sphere, to their own nation only in this age of internationalism, that creates hatred, jealousy, conflicts
and ultimately leads to war.

Hitler used to say that the Germans have been born to rule over the world and others to be ruled.

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The concept ‘My country good or bad, should be dear to me’ is wrong. This narrow concept destroyed the
humanity.

-Secondary Commission (1953) states: “There is no more dangerous maxim in the world of
today than ‘My Country right or wrong.’ The whole world is not so intimately interconnected that no nation can
or dare live alone and the development of a sense of world citizenship has become just as important as that of
national citizenship.”

-Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru said, “Nationalism is such a strange element which while it instills life,
development, energy and integration, at the same time makes it narrow because on account of it a person
thinks about his own country as separate from other countries of the world.”

Nationalism and patriotism are not synonymous. Patriotism is ‘old’ and nationalism and
internationalism are ‘modern’. Brubacher rightly remarks, “Nationalism ordinarily indicates a wider scope of
loyality that patriotism.”

BROADER MEANING OF NATIONALISM

True or pure nationalism means love and devotion for one’s country but not at the cost of hatred for
others. A true nationalist is a well wisher of everyone and he strongly believes in world peace. In fact, the
spirit of true nationalism in a person tends to make him a lover of internationalism.

ASPECTS OF NATIONAL INTEGRATION

The main aspects of national integration are as follows:-

1. Emotional Integration means integration of minds (i.e. thoughts) and hearts (i.e. feelings) of all the
citizens of a nation.

2. Economic Integration implies removal of all economic disparities and improvement I the living
standards of the citizens of the nation.

3. Cultural Integration means appreciation, enrichment and preservation of the cultures of different
groups.

4. Social Integration implies eradication of casteism and enrichment of feelings of co-operation,

unselfishness, social responsiveness, etc.

5. Language Integration means establishing interaction among various languages and development of
communication through suitable languages.

NEED AND IMPORTANCE

The greatest need of the country is to strengthen itself through national unity. We should have full
faith in nationalism and national understanding. According to Brubacher, “Nationalism is a term that has come
into prominence since the renaissance and particularly since the French Revolution. It ordinarily indicates a
wider scope of loyalty than patriotism. In addition to ties of place, nationalism is evidenced by such other ties
as race, language, history, culture and tradition.”

“National unity is essential for any country at any time. It is doubly so far India in view of varied
compositions of her population, the vast distance that separates her different parts, the vastly varying climate
and physical features that condition the daily lives and occupations of the people and above all, because of
the period of rapid change-social, political, economic and technological through which she is passing to
discover her bearings in the modern world.”

Nehru gave a call to the people saying: “The time has surely come when every Indian must look

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within and ask for himself whether he is with the nation or with a particular group. This is the challenge of our
time that every man, woman and child must face.”

According to the Indian Education Commission Report (1964-66), national understanding (national
integration) implies:

(i) A confidence in the nation’s future.

(ii) A continuous rise in the standard of living of the masses which includes reduction in unemployment.

(iii) A deep sense of values and obligations of citizenship and growing identification of the people, not
with national loyalties but with nation as a whole.

(iv) Assurance of good and impartial administration, equal treatment for every citizen.

(v) Mutual understanding and respect for the culture, tradition, and ways of life among different
sections of the people. Only a united nation can stand firmly like pillars to shoulder any type of
outer or inner threats to its existence. The present situations that prevail all around further
necessitate to have a strong and united nation. Then and then only it will be able to exist
prosperously in the teeth of any type of opposition or threats.

The following points make a strong case to have national and emotional integration or spirit of
nationalism in order to overcome dissiparious tendencies in the country:

1. A Democratic Country:- At the time of independence, the national leaders accepted the country as a
democratic republic. Now that has to be maintained. For this, proper education about the democratic
values has to be imparted to all the citizens of the country. Misunderstandings of any type in
understanding democracy will have to be removed.

2. A Secular Country:- India accepted secularism though there exist people who have faith in different
religions. Everybody has his firm convictions in his own religion. It is the process of education which
helps them understand that the basis of all religions is the same and the ultimate goals are also the
same. Thus people should have full faith in secularism. Naturally then, they will have all regard for
each and every religion.

3. Unity In Diversity:- In India, there are people of different cultures. In many cases, it is seen that
there are too many variations among the different cultures. In the absence of conscious efforts
uniting them, they will remain separated and will not perhaps share their living together with others.
So some type of inter-cultural ties have to be thought of and implemented.

4. Geographical Variations;- India is a vast country. If we look at the geographical placement of

different regions, the South and the North are the two extremes with a lot of divergence and variation.
People of one region have different ways of life, traditions, conventions which have hardly and
similarity with the ones being maintained in the other region. There is need of making them
understand that they are Indian nationals. Their progress and prosperity depend upon their beliefs in
true national values.

5. Variation of Languages:- Different people living in India use different languages for their
communication. It is rather difficult to give equal recognition and status to all the languages. The
three language formula surely helps in this regard when everybody accepts Hindi as the national
language and learns it, it unifies all the people of the country to some extent. Then English as an
International language further strengthens the contacts of the people with one another. The
importance of mother tongue remains, because it is given the status of first language.

It the words of Dr. Radhakrishnan, “If India is to remain free, united and democratic, education
should train people for unity and not localism, for democracy and not dictatorship.”

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 6. A Mighty Nation:- Jawahar Lal Nehru beautifully remarked, “We should not become parochial,
narrow-minded, provincial, communal and caste-minded, because we have a great mission to
perform. Let us, the citizens of the Republic of India, bring about the integration of Indian people. We
have to build up this great country into a mighty nation, mighty not in the ordinary sense of the word,
but mighty in action, mighty in culture and mighty in its peaceful service of humanity.”

7. Development of Indian Culture:- National Integration is needed for the development of our own
culture. Indian culture is supreme and superb. That has to be preserved and that has to be enriched.
Art, painting, sculpture, music, dancing, national language, national literature etc. have to be glorified.
That way only, our nation will stand elevated and we may hold our head high in the galaxy of
developing or developed nations of the world.

8. Facing External Threats:- External threats to the country are always there as long as nationalism
reigns supremem in the world. Internal unity of the country, one mindedness is a must. Emotional
unity makes the country men strong and then they are able to face the threats of the enemy.

9. Economic Progress:- Economic progress of the country is possible when there is peace in the
country and people are able to put their heart and soul into their work. National integration helps the
people to work together, live together and there lies the success of the people and the success of the
country. That way there is more of national growth and development. In this regard Dr.
Radhakrishnan, the former President of India said, “We must strive to rise as a nation above regional
jealousies and aspirations and build up our economic power and standing in the world.”

MAIN OBSTACLES IN THE NATIONAL INTEGRATION AND EMOTIONAL INTEGRATION

There are a number of obstacles in the path of national integration (Nationalism). The most
important ones we may describe as follows:-

1. Casteism:- In the achievement of unity of the country, the castes is also becoming a great
obstacle. The different castes look to the benefit of their own castes. They do not bother for national
benefit. During elections., the casteism gets full and free play. Every candidate tries to win the votes
on the basis of caste affiliation. One who wins the election on the basis of caste looks on the interest
of his own caste in the first instance. If the power comes into the hands of such elected leaders then
members of their castes get preference in services whether in the government or outside it. When
such a situation arises, the other castes resent it and conflict between different castes take
aggressive turn.

2. Regionalism:- Another hurdle, which is operating on the path of national integration is regionalism.
The Govt. of India divided the country into different states for the administrative and other sorts of
benefits. But we often find conflicts among the states from time to time. The people of Assam,
Meghalaya and Manipur have started agitation against the outsiders living in these states. Every state
fights with its neighboring states for different issues. These regional considerations go against
national integration.

3. Different Religions or Communilism:- Communilism is another obstacle in the way of achieving

national integration. There are different communities in India. People belonging to Hindu, Christianity
and Islam community live there. The partition of the country created a wide gulf among the Muslims
and Hindus. Many people work only on the basis of Communalism. They disturb national unity and
solidarity.

4. Different Languages:- The diversity of languages is one of the formidable obstacles in the path of
emotional and national integration the country is so unfortunate that even after more than sixty years
of Independence it could not adopt any national language.

The language controversy is still very much alive though the violent agitations have been
curbed. This controversy is disintegrating the nation. The south cries, “Down with Hindi

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 imprerialism.” The Hindi speaking have a slogan, “Boycott English Language any where and every
where.” If we wish to achieve national unity, question of national languages has to be specially
settled.

The nation definitely needs a national language. Psychologist, sociologist and the experts
in human behavior are all of this opinion that one national language brings greater national cohesion
and integration than the multiplicity of the languages.

5. History and Unity:- Main obstacle which is described in the attainment of national unity is the
historical past of the country. Some people think that this country can never be united since
essentially it is composed of different races, religions, communities, etc. but as we have pointed out
earlier, this obstacle can be overcome through laying stress on the dormant current of unity. It will
also be worthwhile to create a feeling in the country that if we remain divided we will again fall as our
ancestors have fallen before, at the appearance of even a minor external danger. Let the history be
utilized to tell our people that in the present day world we can only survive if we have unity.

6. Different Culture:- Some people say that in India there are different cultures so there are no
chances of achieving unity. They do not believe in cultural integration but say that the Indian cultural
unity is a myth. At present it is very much evident that there is some sort of cultural oneness in this
land. What is needed is to strengthen this unity further and to create in the minds of all the citizens a
sense of belongingness to one culture, to that pattern which has its won uniqueness.

7. Lack of good leadership:- There is no denial of the fact that we lack good leaders. Most of our
leaders are selfish and corrupt. They work for their own interests. They do not bother abot national
welfare. Such leaders are really responsible for disruption and disunity in the nation. The success of
democracy depends upon good leaders. But such leaders have sowed the seeds of democracy
depends upon good leaders. But such leaders have sowed the seeds of casteism, linguism and
communalism. Such leaders stand as an obstacle in the path of national unity.

8. Economic Differences:- The gap between the rich and the poor class, the peasant and the big land
holders, the industrialist, and the workers in increasing. In our country there is so much economic
disparity that some people are rolling in wealth while others go without food for a number of days.
The bad economic conditions always give birth to anti national element.

9. Social Differences:- In India, social conditions of the people have always been responsible for
national integration. The national unity cannot be achieved if there is hatred between higher and lower
castes. This caste struggle is a serious impediment to the growth of national sentiment and it must
be eliminated from the minds of younger generation.

10. Narrow Politics:- There is multiparty system in India. Political parties have been formed on
regional, communal and personal considerations. In order to achieve their own selfish ends, these
parties create trouble every where in the country. They altogether forget the national interest and work
for their own interest. They mislead the people through false propaganda. This kind of attitude of
some political parties disintegrate our country.

11. Restrictions of Domicile:- There are domicile restrictions in various jobs in India. Here the states
are treated virtually as different countries, although all the states are expected to work untidily for the
development and progress of the country. How can the people of all the states gather under one flag
and how can all the communities and castes become indistinguishable if such barriers exist?

12. Unemployment:- Unemployed intelligent is the greatest threat to national cohesion. It causes
frustration, complexes, conflicts, restlessness and discontentment. A frustrated youth is country’s
worst enemy. Unemployed engineers, unemployed teachers, etc, are adding to the devil’s share.

13. Lack of vision of Education:- Our education system has not been linked to the national life. The
system has not fulfilled our needs and aspirations. There is lack of vision in education. ‘Where there

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 is no vision, the people perish. The same is the fate of our country. It is a sad fact that our system of
education lacks vision, hence it is perishing and, we are afraid, will carry the country along.

NATIONAL INTEGRATION THROUGH EMOTIONAL INTEGRATION

National integration is not a mechanical proess. It is rather a psychological process. In fact,

emotional integration is the basis of national integration. Emotional attachment links people and persons
firmly and strongly.

-According to Humayun Kabir, “National integration does not depend on race or language or religion
or geography, singly or collectively, though they help, but on the feeling of belonging to one nation.”

-Pt. Pandit Nehru said, “Let us, the citizens of the Republic of India stand up with straight backs
and look up at the skies, keeping our feet firmly planted on the ground and bring about this synthesis, this
integration of the Indian people. Political integration has already taken place, but what I am after, is something
deeper than that, an emotional integration of the Indian people so that we may be welded into one strong
national unit, maintaining at the same time all our wonderful diversity.”

EFFORTS AT NATIONAL LEVEL FOR NATIONAL INTEGRATION

-Formation of National Integration Committee under the Chairmanship of Smt. Indira Gandhi.

-Appointment of Emotinal Integration Committee under the Chairmanship of Dr. Sampurnanand.

-Periodical Conference of Chief Ministers to discuss the problem of National Integration.

-Periodical Conference of Chief Ministers to discuss the problem of National Integration.

-Establishment of National Integration Council.

-Conference of the Vice-Chancellors to tackle the problem of National Integration.

Setting up of an organizing committee by the standing committee of National Integration Council to

conduct organized campaign against communication in the country at a massive scale, with which all the
political parties, eminent sociologists and educationists would be associated and so on.

ROLE OF EDUCATION IN NATIONAL AND EMOTIONL INTEGRATION

Education can play a significant role in promoting the idea of national integration among our
children. To make our life worth living, we should use education as an instrument for bringing about a healthy
and permanent understanding among the various cultural communal groups living in our country. To shape the
character and personality of the people and to promote among them the idea of national integration, the
educationists should come forward and take the lead. Education, thus can be used as a laboratory, where the
cultural, social, political and other maladics can be examined and suitable cure can be discovered to bring
about national integration. Indian schools should make a deliberate effort to recognize their educational
programmes to achieve this end. Let us discuss how their educational programmes to achieve this end. Let
us discuss how education can help in bringing national and emotional integration.

Dr. Radhakrishna rightly remarked, “National Integration cannot be built up by brick and mortar. It
cannot be built by chisel and hammer. It has to grow silently in the minds and hearts of men. The only
process is the process of education.”

1. AIMS OF EDUCATION

(i) Self Development:- The inner potential of the individual should be developed.

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 (ii) Self-Confidence:- The energy level of the individual should be enhanced. More energy will give
the individual more confidence in his ownself.

(iii) Building a National Character:- There is need of making the national character of the
individuals very high formal and non-formal education may be used for this purpose.

(iv) Strong Will and Determination:- Education should make the individuals strong-willed
persons. They should be given training so as to build strong determination. Will power and
strong determination will make the youth brave and strong.

(v) Respect for National and Cultural Values:- Education should equip the individuals with the
respect for national and cultural values.

(vi) Ethical and Spiritual Values:- Ethics of human life are above everything else. Moral and
spiritual values should become significant for the youht.

2. curriculum

(I) THE CONTENTS OF THE SYLLABUS SHOULD BE RELATED TO Indian history, cultural traditions and
human values.

(II) Social, economic and political structure of the country should be based on democratic principles in
the present scenario.

(III) National character and ‘will’ should be an integral part of all disciplines of educational institutions.

(IV) Study and practice of values of Ashtanga Yoga under Yama and Niyama for development of self
should form a part of curriculum.

(V) Study of national issues and solutions thereof through study, research and extension be made an
integral part of curriculum.

(VI) Study of national literature should form a part of curriculum.

(VII) Study of national language should be an integral part of curriculum.

(VIII) The moral and humanistic education should be taught as compulsory subjects.

3. METHODS OF INSTRUCTION

(i) Learning experiences of the individuals should be based on ancient studies and learning’s. New
findings of research should improve the system further.

(ii) Modern technologies of information should be put to use. Human values should be made an integral
part of teaching methodology.

(iii) Focus of all teaching should be on the individual as a ‘spiritual being’.

4. DISCIPLINE

Self discipline should be the bases and every body should be fully obedient to it.

5. TEACHER-PUPIL RELATIONSHIP

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 (i) The teacher is to play the role of a facilitator. His efforts should be to bring out the best in the
learners.

(ii) Every pupil of the class is to be accepted as a ‘spiritual being’.

(iii) Bothe the teacher and the pupil must maintain a sacred relationship with a commitment to
self, society, nation and global society.

National character and will power are strong human characteristics for survival. They are lacking
at present in Indian society. They need to be inculcated in the youth through self-education while bringing out
self-awareness and consciousness.

6. SPECIFIC ROLE OF THE TEACHER

Teacher’s position in the classroom as well as in the school is that of an idol whom the students
respect and worship. As is the teacher, so are his students. He should be a good model with regard to
nationalism. His thoughts and actions should reflect the spirit of nationalism. He should behave in such a
way that the learners are able to imitate him. He should be nationalism incarnate. That will become a source
of envy and people will like to be like him. That naturally will change things and help in the development of the
spirit of nationalism. Some content related roles of teachers are stated below:-

(i) The teacher of language should talk about not only the languages that he is teaching but also some
other languages. In his teaching, he can draw comparison with other languages. His knowledge
of other languages will imbibe in the learners love and regards for different languages.

(ii) In the teacher of history, the teacher can draw the attention of the students to the achievements of
mankind. They learn how to appreciate the works and deeds of bravery of others. The history of
India’s struggle for freedom reminds the students about the sacrifices made by others. They will
learn many things and will value their hard earned freedom.

(iii) Through teaching civics, the teacher can explain the rights and duties of the citizen. The students
will be able to understand the constitution. The topics such as fundamental rights, duties,
system of government, etc, emphasise the unity of the nation.

(iv) In geography, the teacher can explain to the students about the location of different regions, raw
materials produced there and their use in the factories which are located there or somewhere
else. The teaching of this subject thus highlights and need of interdependence of various regions
and areas. The policy of give and take between different regions helps in bringing the people
together.

(v) Through the study of science, the students become logical and rational in thingking. They tend to
have a scientific temperament. Generally, people quarrel over trifles or other petty issues which
don’t have any scientific basis. When the students are able to think logically, they are then not
prejudiced against others. Thus, the study of science helps in inculcating the ideals of national
integration with proper understanding.

(vi) In order to promote national integration the teacher should help in the organization of various co-
curricular activities.

7. REORGANISATION OF TEXT-BOOKS

In order to bring national unity and love for the country, it is essential to make revision of the text-
books. The text-books in Languages, History and Geography will have to be re-written to emphasise national
oneness in different ways. A national unit should be made for the production of text-books of common

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national character. Books on every subject should reflect the feeling of unity in diversity, love and
belongingness among the people of our country.

8. SCHOOL-COMMUNITY RELATIONSHIP

The modern classroom should be the replica of the community life. Opportunities should be
provided to all the students to gather community experiences in the classroom, in the hostels and in the play
ground. Students should be encouraged to participate in programmes of community development. It will not
only break the distance between the educated and the uneducated people, but also develop a feeling of
oneness among the students as well as the community members.

9. DEVELOPMENT OF A PROPER LANGUAGE POLICY

The development of proper language policy can be helpful in bringing national and emotional
integration among the students. Maximum opportunity should be given to all Indian Languages to develop
according to their genius. Students should realize that not difference of languages, but the wrong training and
ideology disintegrate us.

So far as the question of medium of instruction is concerned, the place of mother tongue is
prominent. Learning through a foreign language compels the students to concentrate on cramming instead of
mastering the subject matter. Hence regional language should be accepted as the medium of instruction and
attempt should be made for the use of a common medium in higher education throughout the country.

10. RELIGIOUS AND MORAL TRAINING

Article 28 of the Indian Constitution lays down that no religious instruction shall be imparted in the
educational institutions maintained by the state. That means our constitution is based on secularism, which
originally meant equal respect for all religious. It is, therefore, desirable to impart broad based spiritual
education. The religious and moral text-books should contain quotations from all great religious. Hinduism,
Islam, Sikhism, Christinaity, Buddhism, Jainism, etc.

11. SOCIAL AND NATIONAL SERVICE

The present system of education increases distance between the educated and the uneducated
classes. It is desirable on the part of educated people to uplift the uneducated. In order to achieve this target,
social and national service should be made obligatory, for all students and should be accepted as an integral
parts of education at different stages. As a result of this, we can build the character of the students, make
them disciplined and develop in them a sense of dignity of manual labour and social responsibility. The
programmes of N.C.C., N.S.S and other social and national service programmes should be made compulsory
for all students.

(i) Celebration of National Days:- The school should celebrate days which are of national importance.
In stead of declaring holiday, the school should celebrate the Republic Day, Teacher’s Day,
Independence Day, Children’s Day, Gandhi Jayanti, etc.

(ii) Festivals of Different Commnunities:- Festivals of different communities like Ganesh Puja, ID,
Christmas, etc. should be celebrated in the schools. This will increase mutual understanding and
also add to national integration.

(iii) Celebration of Birthdays of Great Heroes:- The school should celebrate the birth days of great men
like Lord Krishna, Mahavir, Buddha, Jesus Christ, Prophet Mohammad, Mahatma Gandhi, etc.

(iv) Respect to National Flag:- The students should get knowledge that they should have respect and
love for national flag, national anthem, patriotic songs, etc.

(v) Sports and Games:- Sports and games should be organized in the school to develop a team effort

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 among the students. Inter-school, and inter-district sports competitions should be organized to develop
mutual interaction among them.

(vi) Educational Trips and Tours:- Tours and trips to different places may be organized with the sole
educational purpose of better mutual understanding. The students can get knowledge of
different people, places and facts of different places and develop a feeling of oneness.

(vii) Organizing Youth-Festivals:- Interstate youth festivals for different cultural items may be organized.
It will increase mutual understanding among the students of different cultures and social groups.

(viii) Debates and Discussions:- Debates, discussions, declamation, skits, songs, dramas, essay
writing, etc. on the theme of national integration should be organized. Prizes should be given to
the students having outstanding performance.

(ix) Extension Lectures:- Eminent persons working in different field for the good self of the nation
should be invited for extension lecture. Students should provide opportunity to participate actively
by interacting with those persons.

IN THE CONTEXT OF GLOBALISATION/UNIVERSALISM

We live in an era of LPG. Here reference is made to liberalization, privatization and Globalisation/
Universalism and not liquefied petroleum gas (a cooking fuel). Let us examine a relationship between
technology, Globalization/Universalism and liberalization in respect of education, development and economic
structural reforms at the international level. Indian economic reforms have been taking place since summer
1991 for making a transition from inward oriented and highly regulated policy regime to export-oriented and
internationally competitive Indian Industry. Fast development in information and communication technology
has given a new fillip to international trade and other related fields of economy. The need of the hour in for
much faster growth of exports and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and a steeper inflation rate than of past
few years.

The need of the hour is to develop and adopt sustainable technology development strategies in
order to adjust with global market.

Let us first understand the emerging concepts at the global level before dealing with educational
implications related to Globalization/Universalism or internationalization.

BASIC CONCEPTS

1. Globalisation/Universalism/Universalism:- It refers to the extended area of activity and interaction

among the nations. It transcends the geographical boundaries between the countries. Globalization/
Universalism is a new trend in human cognitive structure or disposition. It can be called an attitude towards
interaction among the nations. This interaction encompasses the mutual interest of the nation towards
development especially economic one.

2. liberalization:- It refers to the spirit of freedom and openness. In relation to rules and regulatory
structures of world nations, it aims at to bring relaxation, flexibility, accommodation of diversities, tolerance of
others’ interests. Obviously it leads to fast development and economic growth.

3. Inter-nationalisation:- This concept has a relationship with the term Globalization/Universalism.

Both the terms are used interchangeably. We shall have to differentiate between internationalization and
international understanding. The former is related to establish standards or extending limits to global level
activity whereas the latter is related to understanding among the nations to have better relations and
maintaining harmony.

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MEANING OF GLOBALISATION/UNIVERSALISM/UNIVERSALISM

1. Dictionary Meaning:- Globalisation/Universalism/Universalism means the movement of people and

technology across international borders.

2. Common Meaning:- Globalisation/Universalism/Universalism is a combination of free exchange of goods,

services, materials, finance and technology.

3. Expert Views:- According to rangarajan’s view, “Globalisation/Universalism/Universalism means integration

of economics and societies through cross country flow of information, ideas, technology, goods, services,
capital, finance and people.”

Roland Robertson, professor of sociology in University of Aberdeen, was the first person to define
Globalization/Universalism as “the compression of the world and the intensification of the consciousness of
the world as a whole.”

Sociologists Martin Albrow and Elizabeth King define Globalization/Universalism as “all those
processes by which the people of the world are incorporated into a single world society.

In the words of Jaseph Stiglitz, “Globalisation/Universalism/Universalism menas removal of

barriers of free trade and the closer integration of national economics. In other words, economic Globalization/
Universalism refers to the integration of different economics of the world through trade, investments and
migration of people.”

ASPECTS OF GLOBALIZATION/UNIVERSALISM

The various facts/aspects/dimensions of Globalization/Universalism can be represented

diagrammatically as follows:-

Aspects of Globalization/Universalism

Economical

Knolwedge Geographical
Globalisation

Globl Globlisation Globlisation

Educational Expansio
Scientific
n of
(Self)
Globlisation

Technological

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CHARACTERISTICS OF GLOBALISATION/UNIVERSALISM/UNIVERSALISM

The main features of Globalization/Universalism are stated below:-

1. Technology Advancement:- The most important feature that makes the Globalization/Universalism
possible is the advancement of technology. The technology development in terms of transportation and
communication are the key factors that drive the rest of the characteristics of Globalization/Universalism.in
the past, it was of great difficulty for people to travel to places both the short distances or long journeys and
also in communicating with people t other parts of the world. But, with the growth of technology in today’s
world these are of no big deal. People can travel from one side of the globe to other in few hours.
Communication is also very fast with the use of internet, mobile phones, fax and video conference. In other
words it can be said as; technology is shrinking the gap between places and people. Technology has not only
decreased the communication time but also the cost incurred in the communication.

2. Knowledge Transmission:- Twenty first century is the century of knowledge. Each country is
deliberately producing knowledge and sharing it across the world. Knowledge transmission is nothing but
diffusing knowledge i.e. if anything innovative is done at some place of the globe, it is sure to spread to rest of
the world in no time with the technology available. The innovation of automotive farming machine in some
place of Asia is spread to every farmer (around the globe) who does agriculture manually.

3. borderless World:- Breaking of national barriers and creation of inter-connectedness is one of the
key features of Globalization/Universalism. Globalization/Universalism is about an increasingly borderless
world where the interaction, interrelation, communication, migration, partnership and collaboration, etc. are
not confined to a particular territory. A businessman from one country can establish business in another part
of the world; a student can go other country for study; a couch or teacher or trainer can go other regions to
facilitate couching, teaching or training.

4. Social Change:- With the advent of Globalization/Universalism, social life of the people across the world
has been changed tremendously. The socio-cultural functions like marriage, festivals, worship, etc, are being
seen in economic perspective. The changing of family pattern from joint to unclear family and migration of
people from rural to urban areas are very much seen in India. Women in large numbers have succeeded in
breaking the patriarchal boundary and they are contributing in many aspects equally with their female
counterpart. The living style, food habit, relationship, social values, social norms, social behavior are
perpetually in the process of changing due to Globalization/Universalism.

5. Multiculturalism:- The greatest contribution of Globalization/Universalism is that if reduced the bar

of caste, creed, religion and culture. People from ideologies. While working together, it has been found that
cultural diversity reflects on the food, music, art, life style, customs and race. In the cities like Mimbai, Delhi,
Banglore, Gurgaon, Tokyo, New York, London, etc, people have accepted the multicultural ambience that is
ultimately moving towards other urban and sub-urban areas. Globalization/Universalism has not only
promoted cultural blending. But also driven a lot of business opportunities.

6. Liberalization:- Liberalization means the freedom of the industrialist/businessman to establish

industry, trade or commerce either in his country or abroad. It also promotes free exchange of capital, goods,
service and technologies between countries. Globalization/Universalism cannot be occurred without
liberalization. The Government of India, in 1991, adopted liberalization policies for its international trade and
commerce and as a result, the number of foreign investors increased dramatically in the country.

7. Privatization:- Privatization refers to the mode of doing things at personal level without any control
of the government. This practice may occur at both personal and organizational level. In order to minimize the
financial burden, the Government of India invites the private partners to work in various sectors like
infrastructure, education, communication, etc. in the form of Public Private Partnership (PPP) model.
Number of private schools, colleges and universities has already been established in the country to provide
quality education in tune with the need of 21th century.

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8. Demand of Skilled and Educated Persons”- Gobalization has increased the demand of skilled,
educated and talented persons for effective outcomes in various fields. The industries and organizations
prefer to select the skilled and efficient persons irrespective of their caste, creed, religion and country. The
people of India, due to their fertile brains, are not only doing tremendous job within the country, but also have
shown their identity across the world. For instance, 36 per cent employees working in NASA are Indian and
38 per cent doctors in America are from India.

NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF GLOBALISATION/UNIVERSALISM/UNIVERSALISM

st
We are at the threshold of 21 century, where every country of world has been influenced by
Globalization/Universalism. The question arises here is Globalization/Universalism indispensible? In fact,
Globalization/Universalism has been a serious debate across the world. Some argue that with Globalization/
Universalism comes citation where richer countries take advantage of the poorer countries, creating a large
gap between them. However, no country can abstain itself nom Globalization/Universalism, particularly in
such a period where the whole world has converted into a village. Following are some of the important
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reasons that have made Globalization/Universalism essential for 21 century.

1. Global Connectivity:- Globalization/Universalism has promoted international connectivity. With the

mass use of Internet, the world has definitely become a smaller place. E-Communication has strengthened
the connectivity among the people as well as various organizations across the world. There has been
exchange of thoughts and ideas which has morally boosted and interlinked the mindset of people all round the
world. Even the movement of large number of people from one country to another has been increased rapidly
due to advanced transport and communication facilities.

2. Free Trade:- With the advent of Globalization/Universalism, most of the countries have already
adopted the liberal approach in business and commerce. As a result, the goods of one country can easily be
exported to other countries. Thus, the process of expeort/import has become easier and that whole world has
become a huge market. This allows consumers to buy goods and services, comparatively at a lower cost.

3. Employment Opportunities:- One of the most advantageous factors of Globalization/Universalism

is that it fosters the generation of employment. This happens due to the emergence of new companies and
new markets, where lots of skilled and unskilled labor is required. Immigration between countries also
increases, providing better opportunities for people all round the world. By providing employment,
Globalization/Universalism helps in increasing the standard of living of the people, and also reduces poverty.\

4. Peaceful Relations:- The history of the world has already witnessed the bitter experiences of war
that damaged many countries several. Now, every country is empowered with more advanced furious and
harmful weapons. It has already been realized by the people in power that the use of such weapons will
definitely ruin the whole world within a blink. So, nations now try to build positive relation not only for peace
and security but also for their growth and prosperity.

5. Quality Products:- The competition among different companies finds place at an international
level. It becomes important for the companies to focus on quality goods and services in order to have a strong
foothold in the market. The consumer is benefited in the process, and gets quality products at cheaper rates.
He/she also gets the opportunity to select his goods from a large variety available in the market.

6. Migration:- Due to advance transport and communication facilities, the trends of migration have
increased over the years at global level. People from developing and under-development countries migrate to
developed countries for better education and job. Similarly the industrialists and people of different values the
their potentials. Thousands of Indians go to overseas, particularly to USA, Australia, England, Chine, Japan
and many other countries for different reasons. Of course, one of the reasons is to get a job with lucrative
salary.

7. Easy Transportation:- With the advent of Globalization/Universalism, there has been an immense
increase in the transportation of goods and services worldwide. Things which took weeks for conveyance

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can now easily be availed within a couple of days. Transportation costs are reduced to a great extent, lowering
the cost of products in the world markets.

8. Growing Tourism Industry:-Globalization/Universalism has promoted tourism to great heights.

There are many places that have tourism as their main source of capital generation. International trade among
different countries also helps in increasing the number of tourists that visit different places around the world.
India’s tourism industry is flourishing rapidly. Every yer, millions of tourists from different corners of the world
visit India to understand and enjoy the culture, heritage, lives and beauty of the country. It not only gives
employment to the people but also increases the national revenue.

9. Security of Nation:- For every country/nation, its security and integrity is an important factor and it
requires international understanding and co-operation. With Globalization/Universalism, it has become easy
for the nations of the world to maintain security of the nation.

10. Environmental Problems:- With increase in trade and technology, there is also increase in
environmental problems of the world. The problems like global warming, depletion of ozone layer are issues
which need to be taken up at the global level. Thus it has become compulsion for the nations to get together
and to take decisions at international level.

It is a fact that Globalization/Universalism has become important for every individual and country
as a whole. No country, at present, can claim that Globalization/Universalism has nothing to do with its growth
and development. If the whole world is a village, then how can a country grow aloof from this global village?
Globalization/Universalism has played an important role in making our lives much more comfortable too. The
phones, apparels, gadgets or accessories that we use to our day-do-day life are available to us through
Globalization/Universalism. Knowingly or unknowingly, we are all under the impact of Globalization/
Universalism, and more importantly it is helping bringing international peace.

IMPACT OF GLOBALISATION/UNIVERSALISM/UNIVERSALISM

Globalization/Universalism has given more value to knowledge and knowledgeable society. Even,
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many scholars and leaders across the globe strongly believe that 21 century is the century of knowledge. A
person having adequate knowledge is duly recognized and respected irrespective of his/her caste, colour,
creed, language, culture, and religion. Thus, Globalization/Universalism has brought education to the front
line. Education is expected to be the major tool for incorporation into the ‘knowledge society’ and the
technological economy. The significance of education is being realized as more people achieve higher levels
of education. The educational restitutions are in the process of producing competent students to cope up
with the flow of Globalization/Universalism. The economic, political, legal, and socio-cultural aspects of
education has been highly influenced due to Globalization/Universalism. They are discussed below:-

1. Enrolment Expansion:- In the context of Globalization/Universalism, because of the workers’ need to

compete for the few good jobs Globalization/Universalism creates, the demand for educational
expansion has increased. Parents realize education as an asset in modem society and invest, to the
extent of their financial means, in schooling for their children. As a result, enrolments are rising, even
in the developing country like India, the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) has already exceeded to cent per
cent. Similarly, flow of students to secondary and higher education is also constantly increasing. The
expanded access is also contributing to a sizable reduction in the gap between girls and boys.

2. Free Elementary Education:- Article 26 of the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights, declares
that basic education shall be free and compulsory. Most of the countries across the world provide
free elementary education to the children. India is one of the 135 countries in the world to provide
universal elementary education after the enactment of RTE Act 2009. At present, two global policies,
Education for AH and the Uniter Nations Milennium Development Goals, call for the provision of
universal education throughout the world and gender parity in the provision of all levels of education

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by 2015. In India the enactment of RTE Act 2009 serves the purpose of Education for All, disparity on the
basis of gender, religion and locality are still to be removed.

3. Quality Education:- Quality is defined as an educational content that enables students to obtain the
knowledge they require for the construction of an equitable social and economic world. Quality
education has been the major concern of Globalization/Universalism. The institutions providing
quality education and producing capable human capital are globally recognized. Unfortunately. India
has to travel a long journey to provide education . even, many of the private institutions are functioning
directionless without realizing the aims of education. Similarly, higher education of the country is also
at the crossroad. As per the world ranking of the universities, the performance of Indian Universities is
not up to the level of satisfaction. Thus, institutions are to rethink about the aims and objectives of
education highlighting the need and significance of education at global level.

4. Education as a Commodity:- One of the key features of Globalization/Universalism is tht it inclines

much towards economic dimensions. The world is seen under the lens of trade and economy. As a
result, every tangible and intangible thing is being measured in the scale of commerce and economy.
Like property, buildings, vehicles, and other items, knowledge and education are also considered as a
commodity. When knowledge is a commodity, then schools and universities are market places,
where education is sold and purchased. Rich people pay handsome amount for the education of the
children, whereas the people belong to poor socio-economic background have to rely on the
government and various agencies of education. In case of higher education, the curricula have been
designed according to the growing needs of the market. The students need to pay high fees for the
courses which are more demand at national and global level.

5. Diversified Courses and Programmes:- In the age of Globalization/Universalism, the nature and type
of works have been increased rapidly and thus, people have the advantage to choose theright course
and programme as per their interest and ability as well as the demand of the hour. The rapid
expansion of higher education has taken place throught the creation of programs that address market
and social needs in flexible ways and prepare individuals for multiple types of jobs. At the same time,
diversification has meant the emergence of universities, colleges, and technical and vocational
institutes with very different levels of a academic emphasis, quality, and recognition. The process
diversification benefits society because there is a greater distribution of knowledge and this
knowledge becomes increasingly accessible to a population that had not had this chance before.

6. Competition:- Competition among the people is as old as the existence of human civilization. But
Globalization/Universalism has further increased the level of competition not only among the people,
but also, among the institutions. The aim of every student is to achieve success with excellence. In
globalized era, only those people are valued across the world, who perform better htan others, by
showing their talent and capability. Though, competition often causes harm to the society and
individual, but, it is also fact that competition stimulates the people to march towards thegoal with
more zeal and energy. Even the educational institutions realize the significance of competition and
deliberate perpetually to improve the quality of education. As quality assurance becomes an essential
principle in the schools, colleges and universities, concern s shown for improving the standard of
education. The accreditation of institutions by various national and international agencies develops a
spirit of competition among the institutions and that ultimately reinforces the institutions to care for
increasing ranking in their quality.

7. Privatization:- Because of the commercialization, educational sector has been more popularly
described not as a service sector but as an education industry. The free market philosoph has already
entered the educational sphere in a big way. Consensus is still to be built among the scholars,
authorities, and educationists regarding the entry of private bodies in the field of education. But, the
government of India is keen to see the private sector in education as it minimizes the financial burden
of the government. During last few years, there Is a mushrooming of private institutions from primary
to tertiary education level. Unfortunately, most of the private bodies are coming to education only for
profit-making motive. Thus, they are reluctant to establish institutions in the backward regions. Due to

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 high fees, the enrolment of students is confined to elite class. USA, UK and many European countries
have already succeeded in privatization of education.

8. Indian Students Studying in Foreign Universities:- Many of the Indian students are passionate to get
education in foreign countries. The increasing number of students in foreign countries may be, due to
poor quality education in India or any other reasons, there is a growing trend among the students of
our country to study in foreign countries not able to mobilize funds from its students at home. By
some accounts, Indian students, whose fees are paid by their parents, have become a net subsidizer
of British higher education; the largest number of foreign students in the US come from India, some
50000; and there are even an estimated 5000 Indian medical students in China. Many of the best
students of abroad. Globalization/Universalism has made education an extraordinary business
opportunity with a great impact on employment.

9. Entry of Foreign Universities:-It is believed that the Indian institutions do not match and standard of
foreign universities’ and as a result Indian students go to other countries for higher education. It not
only put question mark on Indian education, but also causes huge transfer of wealth from India.
Thus, it has been a matter of great debate among academicians and policy makers on the issue of
setting up satellite campus by the foreign universities in India. In the current scenario, Universities
from different parts of the world want to jaoin hands with Indian Universities and be a part of India’s
Lucrative economic strength. Academicians here say that allowing foreign universities to set up their
overseas campuses in India will not bring any good till they bring their faculties from their main
campuses and conduct research of the same standard as in their parent institutions. It is, therefore,
the government should allow the foreign universities, and that too reputed ones, to set up their centres
only after conducting study and survey about performances of their overseas centres in other
countries

10. Vocational Education:- Globalization/Universalism has increased the demand of skilled and
professional manpower for more efficiency in different fields of work. Various Committees and
Commissions including National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986 have advocated to impart vocational
education for the adolescents. However, India has to travel a long journey to provide vocational
education of substantial quality for the students as per the need of the Globalization/Universalism.

HIGHER EDUCATION AND GLOBALISATION/UNIVERSALISM/UNIVERSALISM

Education in such an agency of human development that starting from early period of schooling to higher and
professional education, it brings new awareness and consciousness.

Higher education is such a sector which contributes to prepare men of excellence and
professionally capable of country’s economic growth. It has the potential to contribute for whole of the
humanity in respect of health, medicine, engineering, technical education , and so on.

INTERNATIONALISATION OF INDIAN HIGHER EDUCATION

The Association of Indian Universities organized a Round Table Conference on ‘International

th th
isation of Indian Higher Education’, at the University of Mysore, Mysore from 26 to 28 feb, 2001 at which
senior Indian educationists, planners, international educators, representing developed and developing
countries, had in –depth discussions on the internationalization of higher education. The discussion focused
on the global scenario relating to:

(i) The promotion of internationalization of Indian higher education.

(ii) The status of international education programmes at select Indian Universities.

Three working groups deliberated separately on the

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 (a) Glolabal status of international education programmes,

(b) Policy framework for improving administrative infrastructure

(c) Academic restructuring.

The Mysore Statement:-

-Accepting that ‘intrnationalisation of higher education is a fact of life in the new ‘knowledge rea’.

-Realizing that ‘Internationalisation’ world lead to an improvement in the quality of education, promote
Indian culture aboard, generate goodwill and understanding, and yield financial benefits,

-Recognizing that partnership and networking are essential for the enrichment of teaching-learning
process and for improved quality of research.

-Believing that it is necessary to act in earnest without further delay.

-Resolved that the government, academic institutions and the Association of Indian Universities be urged
to take necessary steps to promote Indian higher education internationally, and for this prupose the
following recommendation be given due consideration:

1.RECOMMENDATIONS TO THE GOVERNMENT

(i) Action should be taken to promote Indian education abroad.

(ii) The UGC Act, 1956 and the Acts of other statutory councils be amended towards opening off-shore
compasses and export Indian education through the distance mode it is also necessary to frame legislation to
check communalization and promote partnership with foreign institutions.

(iii) There is a need to simplify the existing legal framework, procedures relating to registration, entry-
test requirement, issue of ‘No-Objection Certificate’ , as also the issue and extension of visa.

(iv) The Government should advise Indian Embassies and High Commissions abroad to play a proactive
role in providing information regarding facilities available in higher education in India.

(v) There is need to adopt an open-door policy for self-financing students.

(vi) Steps should be taken to strengthen the data and information base to facilitate prospective
international students to seek relevant information.

(vii) The Government, statutory bodies and the UGC should grant greater autonomy and flexibility to
universities in dealing with the process of admission to foreign students and in establishment of
off-shore campuses and centres.

(viii) The Government should setup a single-window clearance mechanism, in the form of Task Force for
admitting students to different professional programmes.

(ix) The Government should consider establishing a financial mechanism for international education
such as International education Development Bank.

(x) The government should set up a mechanism for monitoring the standard of education that is
imparted by foreign universities.

2. RECOMMENDATIONS TO ACADEMIC INSTITUTIONS

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(i) Universities and other academic, institutions which enroll foreign students need to have a good
infrastructure and other physical facilities.

(ii) The academic institutions should develop special area of studies which would attract the foreign
students.

(iii) The procedure for granting admission to international students must be simplified. It can be done
through a single window operation.

(vi) The ‘social infrastructure’ should be strengthened so that international students are at ease.

(i) Indian universities should develop networks with foreign universities in both the developed and the
developing countries. The development of international education programmes should be made
given priority and the faculty be encouraged to participate in the enrichment of their academic
content.

(ii) Academic structure need to be built in universities in terms of selection of courses, semester
system, continuous internal evaluation and credit system, etc.

(iii) Top priority should be given to the updating and internationalization of the curriculum.

(iv) Students coming from certain countries and having deficiency in the proficiency of English
Language, may be given special assistance in Language learning.

(v) Indian universities should develop special “Study India” programmes that could be covered in one
semester for the benefit of students from developed countries. It would enable the students to
know about the cultural heritage, natural resources, diversity, languages or indigenous
technologies and systems.

OBJECTIVES OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND GLOBALISATION/UNIVERSALISM/UNIVERSALISM

In view of the changing scenario of the world, new developments at all fronts are taking place.
New areas of specialization in respect to technology, sciences, agriculture, commerce, space sciences, brain
sciences, health, social sciences are coming up. Nurturing linkage with educational system will contribute to
realize the goal of self-reliance, national development and international standards. Some objectives of higher
education in modern and global context are:-

(i) To acquaint the students with the latest frontiers of knowledge.

(ii) To work out new methodologies for imparting instruction in higher education.

(iii) To evolve new strategies of gathering knowledge and generating new disciplines.

(iv) To develop international perspectives in higher education.

(v) To develop world culture and human society.

(vi) To draw the benefits from the experiences of other countries in the field of knowledge related to
science, technology and economic sector.

(vii) To inculcate human values.

(viii) To develop feeling of world citizenship.

(ix) To develop international understanding among the students.

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Curricular contents in higher education and Globalization/Universalism

Both at under-graduate and post-graduate level new emerging areas of knowledge be added to the
courses of studies. The following suggestive areas can be integrated or developed independently:

1. Microelectronics and optoelectronics

2. New materials and sensors technologies

3. Processing techniques and equipment.

4. Environmentally sound technologies

5. Space technologies

6. Life sciences based technologies networks and communications

7. Networks and communications.

8. Societal and cultural studies.

9. Management systems

10. Health and Medicine.

The bewildering variety of courses and socio-cultural environments in the developing and
developed countries go to account for the educational offerings from the excellent to the execrable.
Structuring the courses suiting to the needs of international students require vast experience, skill and
methodology on the part of scholars and experts.

METHODS OF TEACHING

The following methods of teaching should be used:-

1. Demonstration method

2. Experimental method

3. Project method

4. Problem solving method

5. Activity based methods

6. Heuristic method

7. Seminars, Symposiums

8. Use of computers

9. Web-based methods of teaching

10. Use of multimedia.

TEACHER

In the age of Globalization/Universalism, teacher should be educator, motivator, guide, counselor,

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facilitator and communicator of knowledge.

He should possess following qualities:

1. He should be committed one.

2. He should be a continuous learner.

3. He should be competent and skilled.

4. He should possess national and international outlook.

5. He should have rational outlook.

6. He should possess positive attitude.

7. He should be a critical thinker.

8. He should develop humanitarian outlook in his students.

DISCIPLINE

Globalistation favours following types of discipline:-

1. Free discipline

2. Self-discipline

3. Co-operative discipline

4. Discipline of life.

In view of many experts, individual and national systems of higher education must take
responsibility for quality.

Monitoring is a system to control and assess the functioning or working of an institution/

organization. The product in the light of the objectives are assessed. Modifications are made at different
stage of the system while receiving feedback. The type of arrangement which correlates objectives,
functioning with positive gain, efficiency and both ways feedback systems, is named monitoring.

Evaluation in higher education involves the following:-

-Formative evaluation

-Summative evaluation

The former includes periodic tests & continuous assessment during the term/semester. The latter
deals with end semester examinations in higher education, the mode of evaluation encompasses to
assignments, participation in seminars, workshops, submission of term papers, project reports, dissertation,
thesis, practical work and field work or study trips. This enables the students to develop higher scholastic and
critical skills.

Related to evaluation of individual students, there is institutional evaluation. It is concerned with

the performance of an institution or evaluation. It is concerned with the performance of an institution or
university. The credibility and standing of a university is assessed by external agency and ultimately
accredited to some international standard.

In India, the National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC), an autonomous body under

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the aegis of the UGC has been doing this work for the last few years. The process involves preparing a self
study report by the universities/colleges, visit of a peer team deputed by NAAC, and the final rating by the
NAAC after scrutiny of the various reports.

At an international conference on quality assurance in igher education held at Bangalore, India, a

delegate from Hong Knog mooted an idea of establishing International Network for Quality Assurance
Agencies in Higher Education (INAQAAHE) for recognizing accrediting agencies in different countries on the
basis of well thought out and accepted criteria.

ADVANTAGES OF GLOBALISATION/UNIVERSALISM/UNIVERSALISM

Globalization/Universalism is the process by which people of the world are unified into a single
society. It is one of the emerging trends of the twenty first century. Globalization/Universalism has made life
easy. It has many advantages which are explained below:-

1. The world is a small place:- Globalisation/Universalism/Universalism has made the world a small
place. It has reduced the size and narrowed the boundaries of the world. Various nations can now
participate together in the development process and whole world is a family now.

2. Peace and Cooperation:-Globalisation/Universalism/Universalism has brought nations together

which has led to the world peace and cooperation. Now various nations help each other in their
problems. Nations also motivate each other for their political, economic and social development.

3. Good Standard of Living:- Globalisation/Universalism/Universalism has also improved the standard

to living of the people. Now one can easily know international standards and can also afford the
things from other nations which was very costly a few years back.

4. Importance to Consumer:- These days there is an increased importance given to the consumer. It is
given first priority to provide quality goods. Moreover it has become easy to provide quality services
due to the advancement of technology.

5. More Wealth:- Globalisation/Universalism/Universalism has improved the trade and commerce

between nations which has increased the wealth of the world. Due to easy exchange of scientific
technological, intellectual and cultural instruments, there is more economic strength in the poor
nations.

6. Cultural Exchange:- With easy reach to various places in the world, it has become more convenient
to exchange culture of different nations and it has brought the world together.

7. Welfare of Humanity:- Different nations have come closer to discuss global issues and in each area
welfare of humanity is given humanity are taken up in a way to provide maximum benefit to humans.

8. Better Administration:- Various nations follow each other in administering their country. They try to
take benefit from other nations and improve their administration which has led to more facilities to
the people.

9. Industrial Growth:- Due to Globalization/Universalism, different nations have easy access to the raw
material as well as the technology required for industrial growth. Thus there is more industrial growth
which helped the developing countries.

DISADVANTAGES OF GLOBALISATION/UNIVERSALISM/UNIVERSALISM

Apart from its advantages, Globalization/Universalism has some disadvantages also which are discussed

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below:-

1. Wider Gap between Rich and Poor:- Globalisation/Universalism/Universalism has made rich more
poor. Instead of bridging the gap, it has widen the gap between the rich and poor countries. The
benefits of Globalization/Universalism are taken up by developed and rich nations, so it has become
the instrument of the rich where as poor nations lag behind as they cannot afford the powerful tools
of Globalization/Universalism.

2. Loss of Natural Resources:- Globalisation/Universalism/Universalism has given birth to MNC’s and

these MNC’s capture the poor countries and transfer their natural resources to the rich nations.
Moreover they displace people and destroy their environment leading to the loss of natural resources.

3. Materialistic Approach:- With Globalization/Universalism, everyone wants to acquire more and more
material wealth. People try to amass more wealth and in this competition they harm other. Thus it
has created an unhealthy competition in the nations as well as people.

4. Bad effect on Agriculture:- For increased industrial growth, nations are cutting on agriculture.
Moreover new technologies introduced in agriculture are not easily adopted by farmers which leads to
negative impact on farming.

5. Human Trafficking:- Globalisation/Universalism/Universalism has increased the demand for labour

and it in turn given rise to human trafficking. Labour is taken up from poor countries and is made to
work at low wages and unhealthy conditions in other nations.

6. Commercial and Political Exploitation:- Globalisation/Universalism/Universalism has given power to

rich nations to rule and exploit poor ones. The developed and rich countries establish their
commercial and Industrial units in the developing nations and force them to favour their benefits.
Thus it leads to commercial as well as political exploitation of the poor nations.

CONCLUSION

It is a fact that Globalization/Universalism has a significant effect on the ducation system of our
country. The educational institutions are being established across the globe according to the needs of the
clanging world. Number of conventional and non-conventional programmes and course are opened for the
students in tune with the Globalization/Universalism. But, at the other end, education is also considered as
one of the major tools of Globalization/Universalism. The aims of education, particularly at tertiary level, have
been changed over a period of time. The curriculum and teaching pedagogy are set of provide need based
education in India, the quality of education has always been a debatable issue. Thus, the government has to
deliberate upon the education system.

UNIT-III

Ques:- Explain the Concept of curriculum in detail what is the difference between curriculum and Syllabus

Curriculum

The word curriculum is derived from the Latin word which means race course. In education it means work field
of students. The new concept of curriculum is very broad one which consists the totality of experiences that a
pupil receives through the various activities that go simultaneously in the classroom, school and the numerous
contacts between the teacher and the students.

Munroe says that “a curriculum embodies all the experiences which are utilized by a school to attain the aims
of education.” Curriculum is therefore, something related to the life and the needs of the children of different
age groups. It includes both the way of learning and the matter they have to learn. It is the result of interaction
of different people which influences the qualitative content of the environment.

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Definitions of curriculum

According to cunninghum, “Curriculum is the tool in the hands of the artist (teacher) to mould his
material (pupil) according to his ideal (objective) in his studio (school).”

According to Taylor, “Curriculum consists of the content, teaching methods and the purpose may be
in its rough form and may have a sufficient definition which is to start with”.

So, curriculum is the subject matter in the teaching learning process.

Learning of education in relation to curriculum

Pillars of learning for reorienting curriculum objectives. Generally speaking, school curriculum seeks to
achieve two broad aims:

One to provide equal opportunities for all pupils to learn and to achieve, for best possible progress and at
the highest attainment.

The other is to promote learner’s spiritual, moral, social and cultural development and prepare all pupils
for the world of work and societal responsibilities.

Curriculum objectives are derived from over arching educational goals, which address human
development at both personal and societal levels. On one hand education is a very individualized process,
whose stages correspond to those of the continuous maturing of the personality. On the other hand, it
represents “a process of constructing social interaction” (Delors, p. 95). From this perspective the four pillars
of learning indicate broad goals of education in a new century and could thereby reorient the setting of
curriculum objectives.

Pillars of Learning

Learning Learning for Learning to know Learning to be

Firstly, the pillar of “Learning to be” reflects a shift from an instrumental view of education, as a process one
submits to achieves specific aims (e.g. economic productivity), to a humanistic view of education that
emphasizes the development of the complete person, in short, learning to be’ (Delors, p. 86). They imply an
educational aimed at all rounded development and full flowering of the human potential of individual learners.
Thus school curriculum should be more balanced, taking into account not only cognitive – intellectual
dimension of personality but its spiritual, moral, social skills and values aspects.

Secondly, the pillars of learning stresses an important educational goal in contributing to social
cohension, inter cultural and international understanding, peaceful interchange, and, indeed, harmony. “These
are the very things that are most lacking in our world today” (Delors). This goal therefore implies a radically
new curriculum domain, in which relevant knowledge and a range of skills and values should be taught and
caught to resolve and manage conflicts for peace in family, at school, in community and in the world at large.

Thirdly, the pillars of learning imply an educational goal in developing a learning society in a new
century. The concept of learning throughout life emerges for each individual to learn how to learn. The shift
from ‘schooling’ to learning throughout life implies that school education is only part or a phase of the leaning
continuum and curriculum should therefore not attempt to ‘teach’ or cram the young minds with discipline –
based details, apart from the fundamental knowledge, basic skills and universal values which will prepare the
pupils for further learning.

Fourthly, the pillars of learning points to a goal for much closer linkage between education and the

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 world of work. This not only concerns ‘learning to do’ but other three pillars of learning as one central
function of education is to prepare young learners to be successful workers and responsible citizens in their
adulthood. School curriculum can no longer be purely academic and college bound; it has to impart employable
sills, and positive attitudes toward work, and to develop competency in adapting to change, which is ‘the only
thing which will not change’.

Curriculum

Students and prospective students need an accurate account of course content in order to enable them to
decide whether the course will be appropriate for their interests and choices. The curriculum for any course
should reflect the aims of the provision and the skills and knowledge that students are expected to acquire
during the course. The curriculum must support:

i. The aims of a course in providing a student with a thorough grounding in the basics of a subject.

ii. The learning outcomes of the course for students to acquire in depth knowledge of a specialized
topic where appropriate. This need not necessarily be through a lecture course, it could be a
subject dealt with in supervisions or by dissertation.

Curriculum framework:-

It is very necessary to prepare curriculum of one class according to the needs and present trends of the
market. A plan that interprets education of aims must be connected with both individual and society. It must
help the students to arrive at an understanding of the kinds of learning experiences. It is duty of school to
prepare students according to the needs.

Needs and importance of curriculum development

Curriculum development is a purposeful activity. It serves specific purpose to design and redesign a proper
curriculum for employing it as a tool or means in the achievement of specific educational objectives. The
purposes served by it are the realization of teaching learning objectives effectively and properly. Curriculum
development is very technical and systematically organised procedure involving definite sequential steps
which we shall discuss in this chapter. Here we shall highlight need and importance of curriculum as follows:-

1. Determination of objectives:- Curriculum development is needed for conceptualizing a curriculum in

determining educational/teaching learning objectives for the teaching learning at a particular stage,
grade, class or level of school education.

2. Shaping the form:- Curriculum development is needed for shaping the curriculum in the form like
child centred, activity centred, experience centred, subject centred, life centred or balanced
curriculum.

3. Meeting the needs:- Curriculum development is important because it helps in meeting the needs and
requirements of philosophical, psychological and sociological and national considerations.

4. Matching suitability:- Curriculum development is needed for matching its suitability with the available
teaching learning situations, human and material resources and needs of children.

5. Selection and organization of content:- Curriculum development helps in selection and organization
of content.

6. Selection and organization of learning experiences:- Curriculum development is needed for proper
selection and organization of learning experiences in the form of subject matter and other activities
for the needed acquisition on the part of students.

7. Suggestions to planners and administrators:- Curriculum development assists in providing

suggestions to the educational planners and administrators to make proper arrangement of the

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 human and material resources and teaching learning environment for the proper implementation of the
curriculum.

8. Scheme of evaluation:- Curriculum development recognizes the needs of providing a scheme of

evaluation for the continuous and comprehensive evaluation of the teaching learning outcomes and
thus receive proper feedback for making necessary improvement in the teaching learning process
and environment.

9. Teaching learning methods, material and modes:- Curriculum development helps in suggesting
teaching learning strategies, methods, instructional material and modes for the proper
implementation of curriculum on the part of teachers and students.

10. Self feedback mechanism:- Curriculum development process involves a self feedback mechanism
by having evaluation of its own effectiveness. It may prove very useful in designing, redesigning and
restructuring the curriculum for making it very appropriate for realizing the objectives.

Thus we find that the process of curriculum development is very useful for (1) assessment
of educational needs, (2) formulating educational objectives, (3) for making criteria for content
selection, (4) organizing the content, (5) selecting learning experiences, (6) evaluating the curriculum,
(7) development try out, (8) structuring an appropriate curriculum for implementation at one or the
other grades/classes or stages/levels of school in the achievement of the desired teaching learning/
educational objectives.

SYLLABUS

Meaning of syllabus

A syllabus is simply an outline and time line of a particular course. It will typically give a brief overview of the
course objectives, course expectations, and list reading assignments, homework deadlines, and exam dates.
It is typically available on the first day of a college course, and a student is expected to know what is in the
syllabus throughout the course. The purpose of the syllabus is to allow the student to work their schedule for
their own maximum efficiency and effectiveness. It helps to avoid conflicts with other courses, and it prevents
one from accusing a professor of unfairly adding assignments mid-term.

Curriculum Syllabus

1. Curriculum refers to the subjects that are 1. A syllabus is simply an outline and time line
studied or prescribed for study in a school or of a particular course.
in a college.

2. It is definite part of whole class room

management. Curriculum is a focus of study, 2. It helps to avoid conflicts among classes.
consisting of various courses all designed to
3. It will typically give a brief overview of
reach a particular proficiency or qualification.

3. The objectives are not predetermined

because different students have different
abilities of work.
3. It will typically give a brief overview of the
course objectives, course expectations, and
list reading assignments, homework
deadlines, and exam dates.
4. It prepares students for their all round
4. It removes the burden of faulty

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 development. assignments.

5. Curriculum is available for all children 5. The students are expected to know what
according to their interest. It is not related they have to learn and complete it through
with one standard. this particular syllabus throughout the
course.

6. It is helpful to develop knowledge, skills

6. It is helpful for all round development of and attitudes of students.
children. It is not related up to educational
process.

7. Curriculum covers the whole activities/ 7. Syllabus refers to the portions of study
parts of school. prescribed in a particular subject.

8. Curriculum is not properly prescribed but it 8. Syllabus is prescribed once in a year for
may be changed according to passage of one class.
time.

9. The purpose of curriculum is to develop the

internal and external qualities of students. It 9. The purpose of the syllabus is to allow the
is not prepared for one but for all. student to work their schedule for their own
maximum efficiency and effectiveness.
10. It pertains to the entire period of study in a
college or a school. 10. Syllabus is a subject of curriculum. It is
contained in the curriculum.
11. A curriculum may also refer to a defined
and prescribed course of studies, which 11. A syllabus is typically created by each
students must fulfill in order to pass a individual teacher, so it focuses on a
certain level of education. For example, an particular class. It usually offers an overview
elementary school might discuss how its of the goals of the course so that students
curriculum, or its entire sum of lessons and know what is expected to them by the end of
teachings, is designed to improve national the term. One of the most useful aspects of
testing scores or help students learn the a syllabus is that it frequently give students
basics. An individual teacher might also refer an idea of the course schedule, listing the
to his or her curriculum, meaning all the dates and descriptions of assignments and
subjects that will be taught during a school tests.
year.

Ques:- DIMENSIONS OF CURRICULUM

“Curriculum acts as a pivot in organizing educational efforts on some manageable basis and is undoubtedly
the heart of the school and all that goes with it.”

In order to have a detailed study of curriculum, we ought to study it from different angles. Importance of
curriculum can be better known if we try to understand fully the chief characteristics of it. Let us, therefore,
have reflections on curriculum.

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1. Curriculum in a series of experiences. Curriculum does not mean just a collection of subjects or only
the combination of a few topics, rather it is a series of experiences presented by more experienced
and matured persons for the immature and inexperienced persons. Matured and experienced are the
teachers who present series of experiences to the students. The different experiences are, thus,
learning exercises given through different situations created by the school authorities.

The experiences are placed before the learners in some logic so as to make the students logical type.
Systematic experiences make the learners also systematic. All these experiences are given under the
directions and guidance of school authorities. It naturally helps the learners grow and develop in
accordance with the aims and objectives fixed up by the school authorities.

2. Curriculum is a means to achieve some end. Curriculum is a means to achieve some end and is not
an end in itself. Philosophy fixes up goals of education. Through curriculum efforts are made to
achieve those ends. Philosophy of people may change with the change in life style with the passage
of time. So will the objectives of education undergo changes? The curriculum them will have to be in
accordance with the objectives of education. In every case, curriculum acts as a means to achieve
the desired ends. It is never an end in itself.

3. Curriculum is the entire programme of school’s work. Curriculum includes not only the different
subjects to be taught to the children but also the other activities which go on in the school. Whatever
affects the overall personality of the child is included in the curriculum. All the subjects prescribed by
the authorities, the different activities such as games, declamation contests, debates, poetic
recitation, contest etc. come under the purview of curriculum.

Let us see to the details of the programmes which go on in a school. Starting with morning prayer,
thought given by some student, news in brief read out by someone, mass P.T. drill, lunching together
during recess, library studies, supervised studies, indoor and outdoor games, picnics, excursions etc
on holidays. All these items are the component of curriculum. In short, we may say that whatever
activity or activities go on in the class rooms or outside the class rooms, inside the school or outside
the school which have their bearings on the personality of the child come under curriculum.

4. Curriculum reflects education trends. A mere look at the curriculum of a school gives to us the total
picture about the education system that prevails there. The objectives behind the education system
stand highlighted through the series of experiences which are provided in the curriculum. Which
subjects are taught in a particular school, the detailed syllabus of each subject, standard of teaching-
learning, all this is reflected in the curriculum? So the curriculum of an institution show the inner
detailed picture of that institution.

5. Curriculum depicts philosophy of life. Philosophy of life goes on changing with the passage of time.

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It is through philosophy of life that goals of education are fixed up. Education serves the purpose of
improvement in life patterns, better standards of life and better philosophy. In fact, educationist is a
tool with which better environment can be created. Education goes on in the school in the form of
multiple types of activities. That total educational programme of the school highlights the philosophy
of life in general and also in particular.

Democratic way of life or autocratic way of life each one is reflected through the curriculum. In each
way of life, there is different philosophy and so are different goals of education.

6. Curriculum is dynamic. A good curriculum is dynamic. It is always in the making. Teachers,

administrators and the children are always in the process of creating the curriculum. The needs and
requirements of the children go on changing with the passage of time. For varying needs, different
type of activities are needed. That necessitates some changes in the curriculum. There is never a
stage when curriculum is static. It has to be kept dynamic in order to keep pace with the life of the
people.

Thus dynamic curriculum shows the dynamic side of life of the people and also of the society.

7. Curriculum helps in the evolution of a balanced personality. A curriculum is a composite of multiple

activities of multifarious types. It touches the life of the students at all points and thus helps in the
evolution of a balanced personality. The different activities help in the growth and development of an
individual. All facts of the life are touched and improved upon by the curriculum. It brings all round
development in the personality of an individual.

8. Curriculum as a process of living. Every curriculum has two essential elements i.e. content and
structure. Content is the sum total of learning experiences. The structure is the form or we may say
arrangement of learning experiences. In curriculum, both the elements are of unique significance.

Curriculum is a process of living. There is shift from the static outlook to the dynamic outlook. In life,
there is growing interaction between the individual and his environment. Curriculum has its concern
both with the individual and his environment. But the individual and his environment go on changing
with the passage of time. For the different stages of growth and development we need different type
of curriculum. So the curriculum has to be kept dynamic. It has to grow and develop so as to make
itself suitable and fir for the individual as well as the environment in which that individual exists.

9. Guidance an important part of curriculum. The good curriculum does not help the child his solving
the present problems only. It gives him proper guidance as per needs and requirements. It provides
him guidance in the selection of education courses. It also acquaints him with the vocational
occupations. Thus he may get training in one which he may adopt later on as a career.

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 The modern curriculum, thus, has to have guidance facilities for the children. It helps the children
have wiser selection of subjects. That way the children are better prepared for life in every way.

10. Individualization as a feature of curriculum. A good curriculum always caters to the needs of the
individuals. At the same time, social needs are also not ignored.

11. Society and the school curriculum. Curriculum and the society are inter related and inter dependent.
No curriculum is possible in the vacuum. In fact, it is determined by the purpose of the society. The
purpose of society determines the purpose of the schools. The purpose of school decides the
contents of education. Suppose the society wants technical efficiency of the people, the educational
provisions then will be mainly technical institutes. If the society wants divisions in society, it will
provide disintegrated education system. And if it wants unity, it will provide common experience for all
during their pre-adult life.

12. Curriculum revision a continuous process. The school along with its major tool ‘curriculum’ is meant
for the children and the society to which the children belong. The society is undergoing changes with
the passage of time. Its needs, desires, requirements, aims etc. are subject to fast changes in this
fast changing era of life. So are the needs of the children undergoing changes. The curriculum is
meant for the children. It is for their betterment. It has to remodel the children’s behavior so as to
make them really fit persons for the society; curriculum reorganization is in the hands of the school
authorities who are expected to carry it on with great care and with all their wisdom. Better it is if the
head of the institution continuously recognizes the curriculum as a captain by associating the whole
of his staff. Let all teachers accept one common philosophy under the directions of the head of the
institution and let them have common purposes. It will make curriculum revision a continuous
process. But the sad plight of affairs is that the curriculum is provided by the authorities. The teachers
are not allowed to reason out anything. All this needs revolutionizing everything. They only something
really good for the learners and the society will be the outcome.

In the present day set up of life, curriculum has to be in accordance with the times. It should
fulfill the needs and requirements of the individuals. It should be multipurpose type and should help
the individual in the evolution of their balanced personalities. A co-operative thinking, a combined
venture under the able and expert guidance of authorities for making the curriculum up to the mark
will have to be planned and then efforts in the right directions need be made. Then only the curriculum
will be worthy of the name.

Ques:- Discuss curriculum at national level?

Ans:- In spite of the recommendations of the NPE, 1986 to identify competencies and values to be nurtured at
different stages, school education came to be driven more and more by high stake examinations based on
information loaded textbooks. Despite the review of the curriculum framework in 2000, the vexed issues of

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curriculum load and the tyranny of examinations remained unresolved. The current review exercise takes into
cognizance both positive and negative developments in the field, and attempts to address the future
requirements of school education at the turn of the century. In this endeavour, several interrelated dimensions
have been kept in mind, namely, the aims of education, the social milieu of children, the nature of knowledge
in its broader sense, the nature of human development, and the process of human learning.

The term national curriculum framework is often wrongly constructed to mean that an instrument of
uniformity is being proposed. The intention as articulated in the NPE, 1986 and the Programme at Action (PoA)
1992 was quite the contrary. NPE proposed a national framework for curriculum as a means of evolving a
national system of education capable of responding to India’s diversity of geographical and cultural milieus
while ensuring a common core of values along with academic components. “The NPE – PoA envisaged a child
centred approach to promote universal enrolment and universal retention of children up to 14 years of age and
substantial improvement in the quality of education in the school.” The PoA further elaborated on this vision of
NPE by emphasizing relevance, flexibility and quality as characteristics of the national curriculum framework.
Thus, both these documents envisioned the national curriculum framework as a means of modernizing the
system of education.

Guiding principles

We need to plan and pay attention to systemic matters that will enable us to implement many of the good
ideas that have already been articulated in the past. Paramount among these are:-

Connecting knowledge to life outside the school,

Ensuring that learning is shifted away from rote methods,

Enriching the curriculum to provide for overall development of children rather than remain textbook
centric,

Making examinations more flexible and integrated into classroom life and

Nurturing an overriding identity informed by caring concerns within the democratic polity of the
country.

There are new developments and concerns to which our curriculum must respond. The foremost among these
is the importance of including and retaining all children in school through a programme that reaffirms the value
of each child and enables all children to experience dignity and the confidence to learn. Curriculum design
must reflect the commitment to universal elementary education (UUE), not only in representing cultural
diversity, but also by ensuring that children from different social and economic backgrounds with variations in
physical, psychological and intellectual characteristics are able to lean and achieve success in school.

UEE makes us aware of the need to broaden the scope of the curriculum to include the rich inheritance of
different traditions of knowledge, work and crafts. Some of these traditions today face a serious threat from
market forces and the commodification of knowledge in the context of the globalization of the economy. The
development of self esteem and ethics, and the need to cultivate children’s creativity, must receive primacy. In
the context of a fast changing world and a competitive global context, it is imperative that we respect
children’s native wisdom and imagination.

Decentralization and emphasis on the role of panchayati raj institutions (PRIs) are to be viewed as major
steps towards systemic reforms. PRIs offer an opportunity to make the system less bureaucratic, teachers
more accountable, and the schools more autonomous and responsive to the needs of children. These steps
should also stimulate questions and entanglements with local physical conditions, life and environment.

Children acquire varied skills naturally while growing up in their environment. They also observe life and
the world around them. When imported into classrooms, their questions and queries can enrich the curriculum
and make it more creative. Such reforms will also facilitate the practice of the widely acknowledged curricular

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principles of moving from “known to the unknown”, from “concentrate to abstract”, and from “local to global”.
For this purpose, the concept of critical pedagogy has to be practiced in all dimensions of school education,
including teacher education. It is here that, for instance, productive work can become an effective pedagogic
medium for (a) connecting classroom knowledge to the life experiences of children; (b) allowing children from
marginalized sections of society, having knowledge and skills related to work, to gain a definite edge and
respect among their peers from privileged sections; and (c) facilitating a growing appreciation of cumulative
human experience, knowledge and theories by building rationally upon the contextual experiences.

Making children sensitive to the environment and the need for its protection is another important
curricular concern. The emergence of new technological choices and living styles witnessed during the last
century has led to environmental degradation and vast imbalances between the advantaged and the
disadvantaged. It has become imperative now more than ever before to nurture and preserve the environment.
Education can provide the necessary perspective on how human life can be reconciled with the crisis of the
environment so that survival, growth and development remain possible. The national policy on education, 1986
emphasised the need to create awareness of environmental concerns by integrating it in the educational
process at all stages of education and for all sections of society.

Living in harmony within oneself and with one’s natural and social environment is a basic human need.
Sound development of an individual’s personality can take place only in an ethos marked by peace. A disturbed
natural and psycho social environment often leads to stress in human relations, triggering intolerance and
conflict. We live in an age of unprecedented violence – local, national, regional and global. Education often
plays a passive, or even insidious role, allowing young minds to be indoctrinated into a culture of intolerance,
which denies the fundamental importance of human sentiments and the noble truths discovered by different
civilizations. Building a culture of peace is an incontestable goal of education. Education to be meaningful
should empower individuals to choose peace as a way of life and enable them to become managers rather
than passive spectators of conflict. Peace as an integrative perspective of the school curriculum has the
potential of becoming and enterprise for healing and revitalizing the nation. As a nation we have been able to
sustain a robust democratic polity. The vision of democracy articulated by the secondary education
commission is worth recalling.

Citizenship in a democracy involves many intellectual, social and moral qualities… a democratic citizen
should have the understanding and the intellectual integrity to sift truth from falsehood, facts from
propaganda and to reject the dangerous appeal of fanaticism and prejudice… should neither reject the old
because it is old nor accept the new because it is new, but dispassionately examine both and courageously
reject what arrests the forces of justice and progress….

For us to foster democracy as a way of life rather than only a system of governance, the values enshrined in
the constitution assume paramount significance.

The constitution of India guarantees equality of status and opportunity to all citizens. Continued
exclusion of vast members of children from education and the disparities caused through private and
public school systems challenge the efforts towards achieving equality. Education should function as
an instrument of social transformation and an egalitarian social order.

Justice – social, economic, and political – to all citizens is integral to strengthening democracy.

Liberty of thought and action is a fundamental value embedded in our constitution. Democracy
requires as well as creates a kind of citizen who pursues her own autonomously chosen ends and
respects others’ right to do so as well.

A citizen needs to internalize the principles of equality, justice and liberty to promote fraternity
among all.

India is a secular democratic state, which means that all faiths are respected, but at the same time
the Indian state has no preference for any particular faith. The felt need, today, is to inculcate among
children a respect for all people regardless of their religious beliefs.

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 India is a multicultural society made up of numerous regional and local cultures. People’s religious beliefs,
ways of life and their understanding of social relationships are quite distinct from one another. All the
groups have equal rights to co-exist and flourish, and the education system needs to respond to the
cultural pluralism inherent in our society. To strengthen our cultural heritage and national identity, the
curriculum should enable the younger generation to reinterpret and re-evaluate the past with reference to
new priorities and emerging outlooks of a changing societal context. Understanding human evolution
should make it clear that the existence of distinctness in our country is a tribute to the special spirit of our
country, which allowed it to flourish. The cultural diversity of this land should continue to be treasured as
our special attribute. This should not be considered a result of mere tolerance.

Conclusion:- In the end we can say that curriculum at national level maintained very carefully. It is
according to the needs, requirements than it implements successfully.

Ques:- Discuss the curriculum at state level?

Ans:- The following are the main functions of education in a democratic state:-

1. Construction of a national scheme of education:- In a democratic state education is just like the soul
in a body. Thus, each state constructs a national scheme of education, keeping into consideration the
multifarious needs of its citizens, after detailed discussion with its prominent educationists,
educational philosophers and ministers. After the construction of such a comprehensive scheme of
education, it is cooked out and executed in such a way that no one is discriminated on the basis of
colour, caste, sex as well as economic and social status. In other words, each individual gets equal
opportunities to grow and develop.

2. Training in citizenship:- The progress of state depends upon the ability, capacity and strength of
character of its citizens. Hence, the second function of a democratic state is to provide political,
social, cultural and economic training to its citizens so that they are able to grow into dynamic,
resourceful and national minded individuals to serve their nation with full sincerity, zeal and devotion.
Political training or training regarding the political ideology of the state is given by way of free film
shows, military demonstrations, radio, magazines, newspapers and television shows. Social training
is given through social service programmes, social functions and other variety programmes. Cultural
training is given by establishing various institutions like museums, picture galleries, exhibitions, zoos,
clubs for entertainment and arranging national tours, national fairs and free film shows. Much in the
same way, economic training is given by imparting best possible vocational and technical training.

3. Provision of schools:- The third function of state is to establish primary, secondary and various
types of other schools. A democratic state establishes such schools and also the voluntary agencies
run such schools to fulfill the needs of its citizens.

4. Adult education:- The fourth function of state is to provide adult education for the uneducated and
illiterate adults. It is really a matter of great pleasure that India has very recently launched such a
scheme on a very huge scale.

5. Finance of schools:- Financing is greatly essential to establish schools of various types and stages.
The state provides adequate financial assistance to all the schools established either by the state or
run by other voluntary agencies.

6. Universal, compulsory and free education:- The success of a democratic state depends upon those
citizens who make use of their rights and discharge duties correctly. Therefore, each democratic
state provides universal, compulsory and free education up to a certain standard.

7. Encouragement to guardians:- Opening more and more schools does not bring in them all the
children of the nation. To achieve this objective, the state motivates the parents in such a way that
they begin to take interest to educate their children.

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 8. Provision of efficient teachers:- Establishing various types of schools, provision of universal,
compulsory and free education up to a certain level requires the services of a large number of
competent and efficient teachers to run those schools and to work out those schemes successfully.
The state opens more and more training colleges and various types of training institutions to make
available the vast army of capable teachers.

9. Provision of military education:- In this modern age of conflict each citizen is expected to defend the
state against a foreign invasion. Hence, the state provides military education in all the schools and
colleges so that in times of emergency the trained citizens are able to be vigilant and defend the state.

10. Provision of standard books:- Good education depends upon the availability of good and standard
books. The state persuades authors and publishers to prepare good and standard books of
reasonable price.

11. Provision of scholarships:- Many talented, gifted and intelligent children of indigent means cannot
persue their education properly and go ahead further. The state provides scholarships and stipends to
the needs and deserving ones without any discrimination of colour, cast, creed or sex.

12. General control and direction of school system:- Each state determines the aims, curriculum and
methods of teaching various subjects together with the evaluation system keeping into consideration its
own demands and needs of its
citizens.
Not only this, it extends proper guidance and keeps close supervision in such
a way that the entire educational system runs on the right track. The defaulting institutions are brought to
book, reformed and made to run on proper lines with motives of public good and national service.

13. Organization of boards and committees:- The state organizes committees and boards for
determining the aims, curriculum, methods, the examination system and other relevant activities
concerning education.

14. Appointment of commission:- Sometimes the state appoints commissions of enquiry to know about
the working, deficiencies and drawbacks of schools and suggests measures for improvement and
progress. The secondary education commission and the Kothari commission were appointed in India
for this purpose and the government is executing the recommendations of these commissions
gradually.

15. Encouragement to education research:- The modern age is an age of research. Hence, each state
encourages educational research according to its needs and requirements to solve its own problems
and explore new areas of improvement. We, in India, are beginning to realize its importance and
schemes of research are coming up over here also.

Conclusion:- In the end we can say that curriculum at state level is maintained very carefully because it is
according to the needs of the citizens.

Ques:- Discuss curriculum at school level?

Ans:- First of all we will discuss the meaning of curriculum

Concept of school

A school is an institution designed for the teaching of students under the direction of teachers. Most countries
have systems of formal education, which is commonly compulsory. In these systems, students progress
through a series of schools. The names for these schools vary be country but generally include primary school
for young children and secondary school for teenagers who have completed primary education. An institution
where higher education is taught is commonly called a university college or university.

Etymologically the word school derives from Greek (schole), originally meaning “leisure” and also that in

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which leisure is employed”, but later “groups to who lectures were given, school”.

Relationship between school and education

It is commonly believed in United States that school is where people go to get and education. Nevertheless, it
has been said that today children interrupt implied by this remark is important.

Education is much more open ended and all inclusive than schooling. Education knows no bounds. It can
take place anywhere, whether in the shower or in the job, whether in a kitchen or on a tractor. Or game lovers to
gain Run escape Gold of buy Run escape Money for their account. It includes both the formal learning that
takes place in schools and the whole universe of informal learning. The agents of education can range from a
revered grandparent to the people debating politics on the radio, from a child to a distinguished scientist.
Whereas schooling has a certain predictability, education quite often produces surprises. A chance
conversation with a stranger may lead a person to discover how little is known of other religions. People are
engaged in education from infancy on. Education, then, is a very broad, inclusive term. It is a lifelong process,
a process that starts long before the start of school and one that should be an integral part of one’s entire life.

Schooling, on the other hand, is a specific, formalized process, whose general pattern varies little from one
setting to the next. Throughout a country, children arrive in school at approximately the same time, take
assigned seats, are taught by adult, use similar textbooks? Do homework, take exams, and so on. The slices
of reality that are to be learned, whether they are the alphabet of an understanding of the working of
government, have usually been limited by the boundaries of the subject being taught. For example, high school
students know that they not likely to find out in their classes the truth about political problems in their
communities or what the newest filmmakers are experimenting with. There are definite conditions surrounding
the formalized process of schooling.

Their relation has been understood clearly by the following points:-

i. The school is mainly considered as an important agency of education as there the sole aim is to
provide education. To cope up with the basic life skills and how to lead a smooth life, this all
school inculcates in an individual.

ii. School is the only educational agency which seeks to develop the individuals mind, body, morals,
religious thinking and spiritual contemplation.

iii. Schools also provide us with the intentional education wherein individuals devote their novel thought
to the objectives and means of education, analyze the novel thought and experience which fall to
their lot during the course of actual teaching and make us efficient individual of the society.

iv. Without the assistance of the school, the family cannot by itself perform the task of educating the
child, earning ones livelihood is the main task of the education, and for this there is no alternative
for the child except to go to school.

It is very difficult to call a person educated if he has never been to school in his life. So, school plays a very
important role in educating the child and makes him adjustable and run a peaceful and balancing life.

Ques:- Explain different of determinants of curriculum in detail.

PHILOSOPHICAL DETERMINANTS

The philosophical factors are responsible for preparation of curriculum. It depends upon philosophical ideas
of one nation which type of subjects are included in curriculum. Indian philosophers give stress on moral and
spiritual aspects in curriculum so that moral values can be protected. Bright man says that “Philosophy may be
defined as the attempt to think truly about human experience as whole or to make our whole experience
intelligible.” The Greek philosophers give stress on logical development in curriculum. It increases the inner

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efficiency of the students. Western philosophers give stress on practical education. They want to make
students able for practical education. It clears that the impact of one state can directly be seen on curriculum
on that state. The present situation, environment and political ideologies of one state also make its direct or
indirect impact on curriculum. The impact of society can also be seen in curriculum. In short, there are
numbers of political ideologies which also show its ideologies on the basis of different aspects. Naturalist,
idealism, pragmatism and realism have given different ideologies according to environment of society and
needs of child with passage of time. All the disciplines gave stress on social development of child. Philosophy
is soul of education. It shows direction to education time to time. Philosophy influences the various aspects of
education. Different people have different needs in their lives. They fulfill their needs with help of education.
Philosophy helps education for achieving these aims which are foundation stone of the buildings.

According to Fichte, “Philosophy is the science of knowledge.” The scope of education spreads out time to
time. Philosophy directs education to achieve these goals. Education starts with birth of child and moves till
death. Different people cross various ways to follow philosophy which is possible only with the help of
education.

Gentile said, “Education without philosophy would mean a failure to understand the precise nature of
education.”

Philosophy and aims of education

Philosophy is the real aim of education. Aim is definite destination of education. Aims are predetermined.
Philosophy is end of education.

Rusk said “From every angle of the educational problems, then demand for a philosophical basis of life and
education comes.”

Education has different aims at different times and stages. Education helps men to achieve these aims.
Education also moves according to changing time of society. Change is law of nature. Education also changes
according to the needs of the people. The real aim of education is to know the realities of the life which
change with the passage of time. Different ideologies make effect on the aims of education. It changes time
to time. Bode said “Unless we have some guiding philosophy in the determination of objectives, we get.”

Idealistic philosophy gives positive outlook towards education. The aims of education change according to the
needs of the society. Encyclopedia explains “Education is a purposeful activity. Hence it is unthinkable without
aims.”

Without aims, destination cannot be attained. In the same manner education is incomplete without philosophy.
Education is demand of every age. The aims of education change with passage of time. It is done due to
physical and social environment of the society. The aims of education differ among different nations. These
aims depend on the needs of the society.

John dewey said “Philosophy is concerned with determining the ends of education.”

The scope of education is different in the modern age. They have wide areas. These aims are changing the
internal and external powers of the countries. The effect of western culture can directly be seen on Indian
society. The world has converted into global hut. The aim of education cannot be limited in this age. Different
structures of governments also make effect on the educational system of these countries. For example the
education system of USA and education system of Bangladesh cannot be same. Both have different aspects.
Both have different cultures and outlook. The aims of education can be formulated on the basis of these
principles. Sometimes the aims of education are also prepared by the ideologies of the government. These
aims differ according to the structure of country. The philosophy of the country also makes its effect on
educational system. Aims of education cannot remain same in the whole world. The aims of Indian education
are based on democratic principles. It contains equality, freedom, brotherhood and cooperation. Pandit
J.L.Nehru, the first prime minister of India said about it “Great change have taken place in the country and the
educational system must also be in keeping with them. The entire basis of education must be revolutionized.”

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So the aims of education are directly affected by philosophy, physical and social environment of that country.
The methods and techniques also make impact on educational aims of one country.

Ross said “The educational aims and methods are corollaries of philosophical doctrines.”

It is clear that the philosophies of different countries make effect on the aims of education. Idealism gives
stress on moral and spiritual education. Naturalism gives stress on natural and child centered education.
Pragmatism gives stress on practical education. So it is clear in itself that the philosophy directly makes its
effects on educational aims which change according to the events of particular areas.

Philosophy and curriculum of education

Philosophy has two aspects practical and theoretical. Education can be run with helps of particular curriculum.
It is framed according to the cultural, social and philosophical values of nation. It helps to achieve the goals of
people. Rusk said “Nowhere is this dependence of education on philosophy more marked than in the question
of curriculum.” Curriculum is made on the basis of society. It is made according to needs of the society. The
curriculum is made by educationalists. They know the values and needs of society. They help to formulate
curriculum according to philosophical concepts. The practical knowledge is demand of modern society.

Philosophy

Need of today/need of knowledge prepare for modern age / modern problems

Brubacher said “Activity based curriculum is needed so far that activities are needed to make education for
just like life and able life for getting truth.”

It is clear that curriculum is made according to the needs of society. Philosophy helps to formulate the new
concept in the curriculum people can live peacefully and prepare themselves according to their surrounding
environment through present curriculum. Educationalists and philosophers of the society try to cover all these
aspects of life. Curriculum is also developed with present problems so that these can be removed with helps
of education. The curriculums can also aware people towards these problems.

IDEALISM AND CURRICULUM

CURRICULUM MUST BE DEVELOPED ON THE BASIS OF VARIOUS ASPECTS

The curriculum of idealism must be prepared for the development of the students. It must be based on good
ideas of man, ideals, experiences, and civilization of society, so that both these types of values as well as
scientific subjects must be included in this curriculum. It should reflect certain ideas of humanity. It should be
based on values truth, beauty, goodness and other various religious values. The humanities as well as social
sciences should be included in the curriculum. Idealism emphasizes on spirituality instead of materialistic
world. In idealism, curriculum is pre-planned and systematic. Idealism advocates complete development of
child on pre-planned concept. According to them material world is nothing and man should connect himself
with spiritual world. It can be possible only by education. It can transfer our values from one generation to
another.

Rusk said, “Dependence of education on philosophy cannot be seen too much elsewhere, as much in
curriculum concept.”

According to idealism, curriculum should be as under:

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1. Curriculum for values:- Idealism remarks that man and his surrounding is supreme creature of God.
Man is a part of it, but this world is destroyable in it. Human values change time to time. So,
curriculum should be in such a way which can adjust with changing values. It helps the students
overcoming and solving their present problems.

2. Definite curriculum:- Curriculum helps the students to adjust in the society. It should be full of
knowledge and eternal values. If it will not be based on spiritual or eternal values, it cannot solve the
problems of students and fulfill their desires. It should be adopted after evaluation so that they can
adjust in the modern society. Such subjects should be included in curriculum which may be helpful to
show the realities of society. The children of today would be the leader of tomorrow. Static curriculum
is against the rule of change.

3. Important and useful curriculum:- Idealism emphasizes on utility of curriculum. According to it,
curriculum should be useful for mental strength and guide everyone for their all round development.
So, curriculum should be according to the interest and utility of the students. It is important and useful
at that stage. If it will be based on different types of activities, it will be beneficial for the students.

4. Curriculum should be based on pre-planned:- According to idealism, curriculum should be

constructed on the basis of three sides – knowing, willing and doing for the up-liftment of the child’s
life. The teaching of different subjects in different disciplines may develop the ‘knowing’ personality
of the mind. The study of arts can develop the will-power of child. The study of music, art and
literature can give the power of intense realization to child. The development of ‘knowing’ provides the
power to the mind and man can find the discovery of truth on the basis of logic.

NATURALISM AND CURRICULUM

education is a development tool for a child. It may be beneficial for his development. No doubt,
naturalistic movement had started by bacon and communion but its main founder and developer was
rousseau. He is considered as father of naturalism.

T.P. Nunn says about it, “The proper goal of human life is perfection of the individual. Individuality of
one is the real deal of life. In short, education is the process of development of the child into joyous,
rational, harmoniously balanced useful and mature child.” Rousseau has favoured imparting moral
education and stabilizing emotions during youth. It is divided into various stages.

Rausseau has given this type of curriculum for children

Infancy (0-5 yrs)

Every child is active in this stage. He can develop himself in the lap of nature. Exercises and playing
activities must be developed by every child in that stage in natural environment, so that physical
development may be done.

Childhood (5-12 yrs)

The brain of child is controlled by senses. These senses are developed in the stage of childhood. At
that time, he directly makes his contact with nature. He takes direct experiences through looking,
touching, playing, swimming, running, singing and horse riding etc…That is called negative education
by rousseau. It makes child able to know about truth and false things. It does not give the education
of truth but gives positive education to obey his duties.

Adolescence (12-14 yrs)

The education of natural sciences must be given to child for knowing the realities of life. It will help to
live good and healthy life. It must include language, hand craft, mathematics, social sciences and
education of singing. Rousseau wants to include one book in curriculum like robinson crusoe.

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 Young age (15-20 yrs)

In this stage, child moves towards youth. The development of attraction towards social aspects and
development of senses also need maximum satisfaction, so the need of high pyramid of education is
required. Rousseau gives stress to moral and religious education indirectly in curriculum.

He said “Give your children no verbal lessons, he should be taught by experience alone.”

PSYCHOLOGICAL DETERMINANTS OF EDUCATION

Man is considered as intellectual or rational animal. He can develop him through his own experiences. The
psychological aspect is valuable when it is related with human behavior or real knowledge. Psychology helps
us to know about this. It is science of human experience and behavior. In ancient time psychology is related
with knowledge of soul, mind and consciousness. It is called science of behavior. Pilsbury says that
“Psychology may be defined most satisfactory today; it is as the source of human behavior.”

The value of psychology in the field of education is increasing day by day. Teacher takes help of
psychology in his teaching. He can remove various problems of children with help of psychology. Curriculum
must be based on children’s psychology and needs. It must be based on habits, interests, needs, abilities and
natural tendencies. There are different types of children in the society. They are divided into various
categories. In the same way, the age of the students is also divided. It is as under.

● Infancy

● Childhood

● Adolescence

● Adulthood

● Old age

Psychology provides curriculum according to these ages. Without prior curriculum, students do not get
proper development in their life. It gives stress on child centered education. Modern psychologists give
importance to child rather than teacher because child is center point of educational system. Education is
for child into child is for education. Teacher is considered as source that only transfers the knowledge
from books to child.

In short, education is based on psychological aspect of child. It is said that education must be given
to child according his psychology. Froebel said that education is a dynamic process which helps child to
expand to draw out his internal qualities. Individualist also considers that “Education is process of
changing and modifying the human behavior.” Dr. Deepak Sharma says, “That education is valuable which
is given on the basis of child’s psychology. There is no worth of that education which is delivered
according to strength of teacher not child.” Socrates said that education helps to bring out the ideas of
universal validity which are latent in the mind of child.” There are two things same in this world. In the
same way, there are different types of students sitting in the same class room. It is duty of teacher to
understand the psychology of the students. If the teacher does not teach according to the level of the
students, he cannot perform well in the class room. The teacher is one who can change the outlook of
students. Curriculum must be flexible and dynamic so that it can fulfill the needs of students.

1. Intellectual development:- Psychology supports education and develops child in various ways as
under : It is duty of formal education to develop the intellectual activities of a child. It is the main aim
of education to develop the thinking power, understanding power, logical power of the students
through particular process. The children improve their imagination power and decision making power
through practical curriculum. Curriculum must manage different types of activities for children.
Curriculum is made according to psychological level of students. It may be beneficial for students as

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there can be organized various co-curricular activities for children. It develops their logical power and other
aspects.

2. Vocational training:- This type of training is necessary for students which can change the outlook of
children. Curriculum framers include work experiences in subject matter so that the students can
create positive feelings towards every type of work. They can earn on the behalf of their learning
abilities. The development of vocational education at secondary level must be included in the
curriculum. The curriculum framers adopt the concept of vocational education for different students.
It helps the students to learn professional activities according to their psychological needs. These
activities will make them able to earn their livelihood.

3. Mental development:- Indian schools provide proper material of study to its students. It helps the
students to work together according to their strength. Every student has different capacity to learn
through his environment. They can develop their mental abilities on the basis of various activities and
curriculum. The students can take part in different activities and co-curricular activities according to
their psychology. It also helps them to develop their internal power according to their level.

4. Practical education:- Educationists must develop the practical aspect of education for the students
so that they can earn their livelihood according to their learning abilities. Curriculum can deal all the
problems of life of different students through practical knowledge. Content matter should not be
based on bookish knowledge. The curriculum according to psychology of the students should create
the actual responsibility of practical aspect of student’s life. School curriculum must be based on real
experiences of life. It will help them to achieve the goal of their life.

5. Encourage the feeling of creativity of the child:- Curriculum can arrange those facilities which may
be helpful to nurture their creative power. Students can be prepared for clay modeling, story writing,
poem recitation, essay writing competition, poster making, painting and singing subjects. It may be
very useful for children in their daily life. They can learn according to their psychological aspect.
Curriculum must be based on creativity rather than bookish knowledge. It will help the students to
improve their skills.

6. Psychological teaching:- Teachers must use psychological methods for effective learning. Children
must be trained by learning by doing process. Teachers must help the students as a guide and
director. Teachers can make their lesson effective with help of audio-visual aids. It is not easy to
teach all the students at the same time with same method. There are number of students sitting in
the class room so curriculum and teacher can adopt the completeness in teaching learning process.
It may be done on the basis of their psychological needs.

7. Improvement in examination system:- Curriculum must improve the strength of the students. Their
logical, thinking and understanding power will be improved. Examination system must be prepared
according to psychological needs of the students. These students can be evaluated time to time on
the basis of their practical aspects. It can give us valuable evaluation of children. It is not possible
that all children have same level. Education through proper curriculum can change the outlook of
these students.

8. Spirit of responsibility among students:- Every child takes birth in family. Every member has different
qualities. When he shares his views with others, he gets support from his parents, brothers and
sisters/friends. As the same manner, teacher with perfect curriculum also keeps hope in himself. He
follows some responsibilities through these needs. Curriculum gives him sources of inspiration
towards his rights and duties if the teacher understands the psychological needs of the students.

9. Remove the hesitation of child:- Curriculum helps children to remove the hesitation of the students.
We know that students have different qualities and demerits. They feel hesitate while producing their
strength before others. The teacher must prepare them psychologically so that they can produce their
inner strength before others. Sometimes the students do not share with others in the class room.
They sit silently in the class room at the time of presentation. They leg behind due to their

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 psychological problems. Proper curriculum and good teachers can help these students. They can heal
their wounds through motivations. They can easily speak what they want before their friends.

Curriculum development is influenced curriculum development is influenced by several factors. Several factors
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affect all curriculum development in meeting the needs of 21 century learners in both organized academic
settings and both organized academic settings and corporation learning centers. Factors affecting corporation
learning centers. Factors affecting curriculum development include government rules, which in turn brings
other factors into the process. Valid curriculum development requires process. Valid curriculum development
requires awareness of the diversity of the target awareness of the diversity of the target community socially,
financially and community socially, financially and psychologically.

SOCIOLOGICAL DETERMINANTS OF CURRICULUM

Education is a social process. The existence of society prepares education on the basis of social aspects. It
also shows that education is dynamic process. Society is also changing phenomena. The changes in society
also change the curriculum of education. It is also considered process. Dr. Deepak Sharma says that the
society is pillar of child’s learning, it is his first home. The family must provide social and spiritual knowledge
to child that is developed with help of education. The culture is based on good education which binds us with
modern and traditional outlook. Education is emancipation which helps us to connect with light. It is also
considered development process. It is enculturation. It is also considered that transmission of culture moves
from one generation to another.

In secular state and social state, the curriculum of education must be broad. The teaching must not be
based on all aspects. In this way, the students will be far away from narrow activities. It will help them to
become good and responsible citizens. It can be possible only when the curriculum will be based on
descriptive outlook. For achieving that aim, healthy and peaceful environment can be created for making the
students impartial. Education should not be related with any particular religion; otherwise it will create the
problem of regionalism, lingualism, casteism or secularism.

Indian education system is totally based on wider curriculum. There should be different types of
curriculum. It should cover various aspects of education that help in developing an all round personality.

1. Value based curriculum:- Syllabus must be based on values. It should improve the values among
people. It must cover value based subjects in curriculum, but it will not be based on any particular
religion. It will follow moral values of all the religions.

2. Promoting harmony and co-operation:- Curriculum must be based on different types of co-curricular
activities. All these activities must improve the feeling of promoting the feeling of harmony and co-
operation among all the people of the society.

3. Respect for all religions:- Curriculum in secular state must be based on different religions. The
teaching and subject matter must develop the feeling of respect towards all religions among the
students. The school must organize various co-curricular activities which improve the feeling of
respect in the students.

4. Conduct moral education and programme:- Curriculum of secular state must be based on moral
aspects through moral education. For development of moral values among the students, various
programs must be organized time to time by schools which can be based on different faiths.

5. Based on scientific outlook:- The curriculum of secular state must be based on scientific outlook. It
will reduce the misconception among people. It can cover experimental base. It will also reduce the
orthodox ideas and help the students. Education must be based on science and mathematics. It will
improve the reasoning, logical and practical knowledge of the students. It will also improve critical
outlook and inquiry methodologies of the students.

6. Celebration of different festivals and faiths:- The curriculum of secularism must be based on

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 diversification. It covers celebration of fairs, festivals and birth anniversaries of great saints, scholars, and
religious and cultural ideas. All these will develop the feelings of brotherhood.

7. Emphasis on social and moral values:- The curriculum of a socialistic must be useful for society.
The curriculum should be related with the community life so that their needs can be fulfilled. The
important and necessary aspects of community life should be available to meet their needs and solve
the problems of life.

8. Training in industries:- The curriculum should be combination of various subjects and activities
according to his interests and ability of the students. The students must be provided industrial training
for their professional growth. It will help them to earn their livelihood.

9. Knowledge of socialistic trends:- Curriculum must be prepared on socialistic pattern of the society.
It will help them to create new social trends among the students. They will respect other’s religions
and try to follow its positive aspects. Curriculum must avoid any specific religious trends which can
create negative rays in the school environment.

10. Vocational education:- Vocational education must cover study of crafts like agriculture, wood work,
metal work, gardening, card board work and leather work etc. so, that they can adopt any profession
for their livelihood. No institution will make discrimination on the matter of subjects. Curriculum
should be related to community needs. The curriculum should not create any difference on sex
discrimination. Education will be related to those capabilities, attitude and aptitudes which are not
related to gender.

11. Study of science and technology:- There is great importance of science and technology in modern
age. It is time of globalization which is complete in itself. Curriculum of socialistic pattern must cover
scientific aspects of life so that one can use his surrounding resources through scientific outlook.

POLITICAL DETERMINANTS OF CURRICULUM

Ans:- Education develops a human being in such a wholesome way that he rises higher above his animality
and instead of removing a slave of circumstances like animals, he is able to manipulate his environment to
suit his purposes and develops higher and higher to divinity. He is able to fulfill his various needs of life in
mental, religious and artistic areas and creates original literature, master pieces of art, religious treatises,
conducing original researches and inventions in the area of science and technology. In other words, education
humanizes, enables and inspires higher ideals, values and confidence in human beings. On the other hand,
politics produces snobbery and develops rivalry, enmity, crookedness and sometimes criminality. As culture
and civilization developed more and more, politics got finer touches together with humanizing influence from
education and in return politics provided respectable attitudes towards education. Thus, education and politics
are not contradictory. They are integrally correlated and are mutually complementary and supplementary. Both
aim to bring out the full development of individuality as well as national progress for all human beings.

1. Vedic period:- During Vedic period, education was propagated by Rishis, munis and sanyasis. The
schools were then known as Gurukuls and ashrams where pupils and teachers lived together forming
a big family. The state had nothing to do with the curriculum methods and duration of education
except helping these centres of learning materially and financially.

2. Brahmanic period:- During brahmanic period also the pattern of education continued as before.
Gurukuls and ashrams flourished and provided all kinds of education to the children of the community.
The state did not interfere with the working of these centres but helped them in all other ways.

3. Buddhistic period:- During buddhistic period, individually organized and managed educational
centres of the Vedic and brahmanic periods developed into big public institution like the modern
universities. Nalanda, vallabhi, vikramshila, nadia were world renowned centres of higher learning
which attracted students from all over the world. The management by committees of these
institutions replaced the old pattern of individual management. Though the state had its say in the

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 organization, maintenance and working of all the centres of higher learning, yet the educational
atmosphere and processes remained pure and of high academic standard. The virus of political
corruption did not enter the portals of these world reputed centres of learning. Thus, they enjoyed
complete internal and external autonomy.

4. Muslim period:- During Muslim period, the rulers controlled the centres of learning and used
education to propagate the state religion which was islam. Thus, centred the virus of political
influence and corruption in the sacred precincts of educational centres.

5. British period:- During the early British rule, East India company remained quite indifferent towards
the education of Indians. But in 1913, under the insistence of some Indian and British scholars, East
India company agreed to shoulder some responsibility of education of Indians. For full twenty two
years, the controversy between western and oriental education continued to rage giving rise to a
number of problems. Finally lord macaulay, with the purpose for consolidating the British empire in
India, decided in favour of English, education and exhorted that ‘A single shelf of good European
library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia.’ Lord William bentnick, who had a
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predudice against Indian languages and literature, decided on 7 march 1835 A.D. in favour of lord
macaulay’s policies and decisions about education to be imparted to Indians. Gradually, the
government assumed full control over the aims, curriculum, methods and medium of education to be
given to Indians. In 1854 A.D. on the recommendations of Wood’s Despatch, the company government
in India established department of education and four universities on the pattern of London university.
The hunter commission of 1882 A.D. recommended the opening of government model schools and
provided a scheme of government financial aid to encourage public initiative for opening more and
more privately managed schools. The result of this effort was that government began to open more
and more schools, colleges and universities for academic, vocational and professional education of
the people. At the same time, charitable persons and endownments also began to provide more and
more schools and institutions for public education. Not only this, in 1910, officers were appointed to
supervise educational activities at local, district, commisionary and provincial levels. In 1919, the
central government transferred its responsibility towards education to popularly elected ministries in
all the provinces of India. Since then, education is a responsibility of the state governments, the role
of the centre being advisory and financial help. In other words, the state government got control over
education in their states in 1919 A.D.
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6. Modern period:- On 15 august 1947 A.D., Indian attained independence from the alien British rule
and the Indian people framed their own constitution. Education was assigned to both the state and
central control also in some aspects and areas. Central government controls a few universities and
institutes of higher learning, but the rest of the educational institutions in the country are under the full
control of their respective states privately managed educational institutions are awarded recognition
by the state governments which also provide to them grant in aid and other financial supports for their
maintenance and growth. In short, the state government controls all the educational activities and
processes including the curriculum of the institutions.

Control of policies on education

In a separate chapter of this book – “The state’, the control of politics on education as well as the state
control on education has been discussed at length. Here some special features are being discussed in a nut
shell. In a monarchy or despotic state, the whole educational process remains under the grip of the monarch
or the despotic ruler and education is used to bolster up consolidating the rule of the monarch or the despot.
On the other hand, in a democracy, the aim is the welfare of the people. Thus, education develops the
individual, the society and the state more and more. The modern age is an age of democratic values and
patterns of organization in all human areas of existence and activities. As a democratic state depends for its
growth and existence on able, educated, resourceful, dynamic and enterprising citizens of strong character
and responsible conduct in al spheres of human existence and progress, hence each democratic state tries to
organize its education effectively by de-centralizing it making more useful and purposive.

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 India has accepted the democratic and socialistic pattern of government. Hence, to achieve maximum
public welfare, the state tries to influence and control the educational processes in the following ways –

1. Constitutional control:- Constitutionally, article 11 of the Indian constitution empowers and makes
each state responsible for the education of people in its territories and areas of control.

2. Economic control:- The state governments control all educational institutions by means of financial
aids and supports. Even the privately managed institutions are kept under close supervision by means
of grants in aid and recognition by state governments.

3. Educational control:- Educational control operates in the fields of aims, curriculum, text books, and
examinations at various levels of education through diverse government controlled agencies and
boards.

4. Administrative control:- Government recognition is the most effective means of control besides
grant in aid. In the field of appointment of principals, head masters, and teachers and through the
enforcement of educational status together with codes all educational institutions are made to
conform to set patterns, rules and policies prescribed by the government.

Political factors

From your experience as a student and teacher, you may have noticed how politics influence education. This is
why education is regarded as a political activity. National ideology and philosophy have a tremendous influence
on the education system because:

Politics determine and define the goals, content, learning experiences and evaluation strategies in
education.

Curricular materials and their interpretation are usually heavily influenced by political considerations.

Political considerations may play a part in the hiring of personnel.

Funding of education is greatly influenced by politics.

Entry into educational institutions and the examination systems are heavily influenced by politics.

Factors that affect curriculum design and development

1. How politics influences curriculum design and how politics influences curriculum design and
development starts with funding. Both private development starts with funding. Both private and
public educational institutions rely onand public educational institutions rely on funding for hiring
personnel, building and funding for hiring personnel, building and maintaining facilities and equipment.
All aspects maintaining facilities and equipment. All aspects of curriculum depend on local, state and
national of curriculum depend on local, state and national political standards. Politics affect
curriculum development in politics affect curriculum development in numerous ways.

2. Politics affects curriculum development from defining goals, interpreting curricular from defining
goals, interpreting curricular materials to approving examination materials to approving examination
systems.

3. Curriculum developed for in house training in corporations focuses on educating employees for
promotions that bring better returns in profits. Nations financing education expect an economic return
from educated students contributing to the country’s economy with global competition abilities in
technical fields. Economic influences curriculum development.

4. Nations financing education expect an economic return from educated students contributing to the
country’s economy with global competition abilities in technical. Example (economic)

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 st
5. The computer technology of the 21 century influences curriculum development at every level of
learning. Learning centers and classrooms of learning increasingly provide computers as requisite
interaction for studies among students. Technological multimedia use influences educational goals
and learning experiences among students. Technology driven curriculum development is the norm of
st
the 21 century.

Example:- Subjects which has gender education and political economy have proved difficult to include in
the curriculum because of the resistance from some religious groups.

Conclusion:- In the end we can say that political determinants plays a very important role in curriculum
development.

CULTURAL DETERMINANTS

Education makes culture good and culture make education better. Conservation of culture is one of the most
important functions of education. The cultural heritage is transmitted to the coming generation through
education. Culture includes many things such as arts, sciences, religions and the social customs and
traditions developed by the people. It has to be conserved and transmitted to the youth. Thus culture is the
centre of the society and without culture no society can even exist. Education via curriculum enriches the
culture and spreads it to the coming generations.

Role of culture

Man is not only a social animal but also a cultural being. It is through the culture that he develop moral values
and enhances his personality.

1. Provides knowledge. Culture provides knowledge which is essential for the overall development of
an individual. Culture preserves knowledge and help its transmission from generation to generation
through language. Which plays and influential role in providing knowledge.

2. Culture reflects ideas, beliefs and attitudes. It is the culture which unites our ideas, beliefs and
attitudes. Attitude refers to the ability to react in a particular situation. Whereas our ideas and believes
reflect our goodness. Our goals of understanding others, being obedient to elders, being patriotic are
enhanced by our culture.

3. Provides path for our career. Everyone desires to become a successful person in his life. Be it a
doctor, engineer, teacher, lawyer, soldier, farmer, etc. in one of the other way depends on our culture.
Culture provides an opportunity to choose our career by remaining within its framework.

4. Culture go hand in hand with our daily situations. What we eat, what we drink, what we do, what we
wear, what God we worship, how we sleep, when to laugh, what knowledge we gain, etc, all these
things are related to our culture. Hence, culture and our daily situations go hand in hand.

5. Culture modifies our behavior and characteristics. Culture is in direct relation to our behavior and

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 characteristics. No one can develop moral and human qualities without culture. Culture prepares the
individual for different life experiences. It is the culture that provides the opportunity to blossom in
life’s aspect.

The main cultural determinants are as under:

1. Culture and aims of education. Cultural ideals and values help in determining aims of education.
Accordingly the process of education goes on. Thus functioning of the curriculum takes place
through culture.

2. Culture and text books. Cultural values and knowledge are interwoven in the contents of the books. A
good book is the bases of a good curriculum. Thus cultural aspect is very important.

3. Culture and the student. As is the culture, so is the learner. The aim of education is always to have
excellent culture and its transmission to the learners in every possible way.

4. Culture and the teacher. The teacher is the architect of learner’s future. Only a good teacher who has
some unique values of culture with him can make the students really very good.

5. Culture and discipline. Cultural values and discipline are inter-linked. Good discipline is the reflection
of good culture.

Thus we find the cultural determinants play a very significant role in the construction of a
curriculum.

Economic determinants of curriculum

Economy is the most important thing in the success or failure of a programme. Education is no exception. In
fact, money makes the mare go. Without money, education system cannot flourish. In fact, money spent on
education in the best investment. The end product of education is a good human being which cannot be
matched with money.

The main economic determinants of curriculum are as under:

1. Economy and curriculum. The better the economical health of an organization, the better is the
school established. Good economic condition helps in having a very good school; the curriculum of
the school speaks everything of the school. The teachers, the facilities, the building, the learners etc.
In this age of materialism and competitions, a really good school is the need of the times. That is
possible with good economic health.

2. Economy and the teacher. The good teachers who are fully qualified, well experienced are available

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 with good salary only.

3. Economy and co-curricular activities. All types of co-curricular activities are essential in a modern
school. A few activities are quite expensive and they involve huge expenditure.

Ques:- Discuss basic consideration in curriculum development?

Ans:- Curriculum provides the basis for all the academic and non academic programmes of the school. It
implies all the courses, totality of experiences and cognitive, affective and conative activities that a pupil
receives in the school and playground, and many informal contacts between teachers and pupils. Thus the
curriculum is the total education of the pupil. (1) goals of education, (2) process of curriculum and (3)
evaluation of end products are different facets of curriculum.

Curriculum development is never ending process. It is always in making and in developing stage because
it needs further change and improvement. Curriculum helps in the achievement of goals and goals depend
upon needs and requirements of the society. In this rapidly changing modern life, needs, aims, ambitions,
aspirations and life styles are also changing. Thus a new type of curriculum is needed according to the
changing situations of life. Thus curriculum development needs special care and attention.

Steps of curriculum development (Process of curriculum development)

Curriculum development is a specialized task which requires systematic thinking about 1.

Identification/assessment of educational needs, 2. Objectives to be achieved, 3. Learning experiences to be
provided, 4. Evaluation of changes brought out by the curricular activities and so on. There is need to follow,
the order in which decisions related to curriculum development are made and we have to make sure that all the
relevant considerations are taken into account before taking any decision. To arrive at a thoroughly planned
and dynamically conceived curriculum we should follow the steps as follows:-

1. Identification/assessment of educational needs:- Curricula are framed to enable learners to learn

socially desired behaviours. As the background of learners differ, it is essential to diagnose the gaps,
deficiencies and variations in these backgrounds. Identification/assessment of need is the first step
in determining what the curriculum should be for a given population during a particular period of time.
Hence target students should be identified and their profiles should be prepared.

There are two means of needs assessment:-

i.Surveys:- We assess educational needs through specially mounted surveys. We go to the field (the
target group) and study the areas where educational inputs are required. Besides educational
needs, we also collect background information about the target group. The needs assessed
through field studies are known as felt needs.

ii. Analysis of data:- The second means of need identification/assessment is the analysis of
existing data, such as education commissions, reports, government policies (for example
national policy on education 1986, 1992 ), etc. The policy documents can provide useful
guidelines for framing curriculum. Similarly every institution has its objectives to be achieved.
The priority areas can be identified from the secondary sources. The needs assessed the
needs of the target group, we can prepare a list of priority areas, known as real needs.

2. Formulation of educational objectives:- The second step for curriculum development is fixing up
appropriate aims and objectives of education in accordance with educational needs and requirements
of the people. The educational objectives are classified into five categories: 1. Cognitive objectives, 2.
Affective objectives, 3. Psychomotor objectives, 4. Social objectives, and 5. Cultural objectives. These
objectives are further specified for different stages or levels. Thus specific objectives are formulated
for specific subject for specific level. The specific objectives are written in behavioural terms which
are measureable and observable. The content structure is selected for preparing curriculum for a

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 specific level. The specific content has its own structure which is presented for achieving specific
objectives by specific learning experiences. The specific content is used for realizing objectives.

General and specific objectives are determined. Both long term and short term objectives are
recorded. We have to transform the needs into aims and objectives. The purpose of discussing
objectives here is to highlight their role in curriculum development.

Criteria of formulating objectives

Since objectives specify expected outcomes, there is a need to gives serious thought to the following points
while formulating them:-

i. Matching:- The objectives should be related to the broad goals of education from which they are
derived. For example, the objective of understanding of certain facts should enable the students to
apply the knowledge gained in practical problems. It should be emphasized here that the attainment
of objectives should lead the students to attain the overall good of education.

ii. Worth:- Worth related to whether an objectives has value in the life of the students in the present or
future. Since our knowledge base in continually changing, the objectives needs to be updated,
modified or eliminated to improve the quality of education and of human life. The objectives should be
useful, meaningful and relevant to the need of students.

iii. Wording:- The statements of the objectives should be worded properly, so that students can easily
understand the intended outcomes.

iv. Appropriateness:- All objectives should be derived from and cater to the needs and interests of the
students. Any ambiguity in the statements of an objective may create confusion in the mind of both
the teacher and the students. In such a case, the process of education will lose direction.

v. Logical grouping:- Sometimes the objectives lack proper organization coherence, especially when
the learning experiences and their evaluation procedures are decided. The affective and psychomotor
domains. Proper grouping of objectives will help them and develop a more meaningful curriculum in
terms of content and evaluation.

vi. Revision:- The objectives require periodic revision because students’ needs, realm of knowledge,
instructional strategies, etc. change at a very fast speed these days. Revision of objectives will have a
recurring impact on the curriculum and make it an on going process. The curriculum should have the
flexibility to accommodate changes in the society.

Sources used for identifying/formulating objectives:-

The following sources are used for identifying/formulating objectives:-

i. Analysis of internal and external factors of situations.

ii. Philosophical, sociological, psychological, economic and political bases of education.

iii. Stages of growth and development of students.

iv. National needs and future requirements.

3. Selection of content

We have already stated that content and objectives are interdependent and constitute a major
dimension of curriculum development. Generally content refers to subject matter or the compendium
of facts, concepts, organization, principles and theories. By content we imply learning experiences,
besides subject. The curriculum content should enable students to gain and apply knowledge in day

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 to day life. The content selected should constitute the students’ knowledge or understanding of the
reality of human life.

Criteria of content selection

i.Macro level:- At the macro level the criteria for the selection of content should be based on the socio
political and educational philosophy of the society or nation.

ii. Micro level:- At the micro level the criteria should suit the specific objectives set for meeting the
students’ needs.

Some of the criteria for content selection are given as under:-

i.Self sufficiency:- This criteria helps the students to attain maximum self sufficiency in the most
economical manner i.e., economy of 1. Teaching efforts, 2. Students’ efforts and 3. Extent of
availability of subject matter. Thus the content should help the students to become self
reliant and self sufficient.

ii. Significance:- The content to be framed should be significant in terms of the contributions of
the basic needs, concepts, etc, in particular learning abilities.

iii. Validity:- Validity refers to the authenticity of the content selected. The content selected should
be valid to the extent that it flows from and supports the goals and objectives of the
curriculum. The content should be usable in day to day life.

iv. Interest:- Content should suit the personality (for example attitude, interest, intellectual
capabilities like mental level and aptitude) of students. Students’ interests are transitory. The
criteria should be weighed to provide for students’ maturity, previous knowledge and
experience etc.

v. Utility:- The utility criteria is concerned with the usefulness of the content. The usefulness can
be interpreted in different ways. For example content learned by the student should be useful
in his job situations.

vi. Learnability:- This criterion relates the optimal placement and appropriate organization and
sequencing of content. The selected content should not be out of the range of students’
experiences, intellectual abilities etc. The content should be such that it can be perceived,
understood and assimilated by the learners for whom it is intended.

vii. Feasibility:- Feasibility as a criterion of content selection compels curriculum available to the
student, costs involved, contemporary socio political climate. Despite the fact that there are
several options available, the students have limitations as far as the pace of their learning is
concerned.

4. Organization of content

Organization of the content is considered as the most important in curriculum construction. The
organization of curriculum and interpretation is done in terms of knowledge, skills, attitudes, value
development and application. Once the content is identified, it needs to be adequately organised. If
the curriculum is a plan for learning as indeed it is, its content should be logically organised so that it
facilitates the attainment of educational objectives. If a curriculum has not been systematically
organised, it will lack direction and it will not help in attaining the objectives on which it was based.

Organization of curriculum is a difficult and a complex task. It demands a thorough

understanding of the teaching learning process. The main problems of curriculum are 1. Lack of
sequence 2. Continuity and integration of content included in curriculum.

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 i.Sequencing:- Establishing a sequence in curriculum means putting the content and materials into
some sort of order of succession. Some general principles are used in arranging the content
in most appropriate sequence. We have to follow some teaching norms, such as moving 1.
From known to unknown, 2. From simple to complex, 3. From concrete to abstract, etc. The
content can be arranged according to the period or historical development, such as the
ancient period, the medieval period, the modern period (that is pre independence and post
independence), etc. Besides these norms or principles, it is the resourcefulness of the
curriculum planners to arrange the content in such a way that it facilitates students’ learning.

ii. Continuity:- The curriculum should provide for progressively more demanding performance,
more complex materials to deal with, a greater depth and breadth of ideas to understand, to
relate, to apply and so on. Such cumulative learning can apply to thinking, attitudes and skills.
The content of curriculum should provide for continuity in learning and prevent loss through
forgetting. We can know that disjointed content does not lead student to the attainment of
objectives.

iii. Integration:- Learning is more effective when facts and principles from one field can be related
to another, especially when applying knowledge. Curriculum planners should integrate the
curriculum by simultaneously establishing relationships between various subjects taught to
the target learners. One method can combine areas into broad field; for example combining
geography, history, economics and sociology into social studies. Correlating two subjects
such as mathematics and science is another attempt to integrate content.

Now it is clear the curriculum organization should protect and preserve both the 1.
Logic of subject matter and the 2. Psychological sequence of the learning experiences. In
the logical organization, the planners organize content according to certain rules, to make it
more manageable. Content should be organised in such a way so that the concrete content
is experienced before the abstract concept.

Precautions to be taken in organizing the content:-

i.Needs and interests:- Needs and interests of the students should be fulfilled.

ii. Based on previous achievement:- The content should be based on earlier achievement of the
students.

iii. Abilities and capacities:- The content should be according to abilities and capacities of learning
of students.

iv. Individual differences:- Individual differences of students should be kept in mind.

v. Accurate:- The content should be accurate and clear.

vi. Useful:- The content should be useful for students, society as well as nation.

vii. Methods of teaching:- Methods of teaching should be available for the content.

viii. Objectives of teaching:- Objectives of teaching should be realized by the content.

ix. Learning:- The students can learn the content easily.

x. Skills, interests and values:- The content should be helpful in developing skills, interests, and
values among the students.

5. Selecting and organizing learning experiences

The term learning connotes learning activities which shapes the learners’ orientation to the content

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 and ultimately their understanding of it. It refers to 1. The teaching learning process, 2. The methods
followed and 3. The activities planned to facilitate the teaching learning process.

i.Teaching methods:- Different teaching methods are used by the teachers such as: 1. Lecture
method, 2. Discussion method, 3. Demonstration method, 4. Project method etc.

ii. Learning activities:- Various learning activities are 1. Viewing films, 2. Conducting experiments,
3. Undertaking field trips, 4. Taking notes, 5. Working on assignments, 6. Participating in
discussions etc.

The teaching methods generate learning activities. Teaching methods and learning
activities are two sides of the same coin. Some curriculum planners differentiate content
from experience. They should keep in mind that content and experiences do not exist
independent of one another. On the contrary both the content and learning experiences
comprise the overall curriculum.

Questions to be addressed before selecting learning experiences:-

The following questions should be addressed before we select learning experiences:-

1. Aims and objectives:- Do the learning experiences function the way we wish them to be in the
light of overall aims and specific objectives?

2. Application:- Will the students be able to apply the knowledge gained to practical situations?

3. Feasibility:- Is it feasible in terms of time, staff expertise, resources, etc, to learn the content of
the curriculum in the specified time?

4. Development of thinking skills:- Do the learning experiences enable students to develop

thinking and reasoning skills?

5. Understanding of existence:- Do the learning experiences stimulate in students a greater

understanding of their own existence as individuals and as members of a group/society?

6. Openness and tolerance:- Do the learning experiences foster in students an openness to new
experiences and a tolerance for diversity?

7. Needs and interests:- Do the learning experiences allow students to address their needs and
interests?

8. Total development:- Do the learning experiences cater to the total development of students in
cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains?

These questions help us in selecting proper learning experiences for a given set of
objectives. Besides, we should be able to create suitable physical and psychological
environment. The experiencing of content cannot be divorced from the environment in which
the experiences occur. Students who work in a creative environment are more likely to be
stimulated and excited about their learning. The educational environment should for others. It
should stimulate purposeful student activity and allow for a range of activities that facilitate
learning.

6. Identification of resources

In the sixth place, human as well as non human resources are identified. Possible and convenient
type of resources are finalized for their inclusion in the curriculum.

7. Determining teaching methods

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 Seventhly, adequate teaching methods (strategies) are determined for giving experiences to the
learners so as to achieve the goals already determined.

It should be kept in mind that a good curriculum is ever changing, ever growing, ever developing,
dynamic, flexible, learner centred, community centred, life centred, utilitarian, integrated and balanced
curriculum. Curriculum once prepared needs improvement. Its defects are to be removed. Curriculum
has to be revised and overhauled according to the changing needs of the learner as well as of the
society.

Teaching methods are selected on the basis of nature and structure of the contents and
development levels of learners. Interaction between the teacher and students takes place with the
help of teaching methods/strategies. The way of presentation of content is known as teaching
methods. The teaching methods play an important role in preparing curriculum of a subject. The
effectiveness of a teacher and school mainly depend on teaching methods. The content influences
objectives, methods of teaching/strategies of teaching and media of teaching.

The following factors should be kept in mind while selecting the methods of teaching:-

i.Previous learning opportunities:- New learning opportunities should be based on earlier learning
opportunities.

ii. Subject’s opportunities:- New learning opportunities should also be related with the other
subject’s opportunities.

iii. Realizing teaching objectives:- New learning opportunities or situations are created for realizing
teaching objectives in behavioural change of students. The content is selected in
accordance with learning situations. It should be understood in behavioural terms.

iv. Teacher’s ability, student’s ability and school climate:- New learning situations are managed in
view of teacher’s ability and communicative competencies, students’ abilities, interests and
school climate.

8. Evaluating the curriculum

Evaluation is meant to gauge the extent to which the objectives of curriculum are achieved through
implementation. Relationship between evaluation and objectives can be expressed as follows:-

Objectives Activities Evaluation

The above figure suggests that as soon as the objectives of a curriculum are stated, the ways of
evaluating the attainment of the objectives should be decided. The content and learning experiences
are there in order to achieve the objectives and also with reference to the possible means of
evaluation. The effectiveness of any educational programme is judged by its potential to realize its
goals and objectives. The extent to which the objectives are achieved can be assessed through
appropriate evaluation procedures. The evaluation of any purposeful activity should have following
characteristics:-

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 1. Consistency with the objectives of the curriculum, 2. Sufficient diagnostic value, 3.
Comprehensiveness, 4. Validity, 5. Continuity.

Role of teachers in curriculum development:-

The teacher cannot be denied participation in the process of changing or developing curriculum. A teacher
should be directly involved with the curriculum planning and development because it is the teacher who
implements it and translates instructional plans into action. Teaching is an act of implementing and
transacting the curriculum. Teachers should be the part of overall development activity. This implies:-

1. Involvement in all stages:- Teachers should ideally be involved at every stage of curriculum planning
and development i.e., from the formation of aims to the evaluation and maintenance of the curriculum.

2. Development of curriculum packages and resource designs:- Teachers’ help should be sought for
developing curriculum packages and conceptualizing resource designs.

3. Designing supporting educational environment:- Teachers can help in designing supporting

educational environment.

4. Communication with public:- Teachers can communicate with general public on new curriculum
projects and thereby make them more receptive to curriculum change.

Stages in process of curriculum development/construction

The following stages are involved in the process of curriculum development/construction:-

1. Planning stage:- In the planning stage students, parents, teachers, community agencies, academic
specialists (curriculum experts), progressive thinkers and educational administrators, etc. are
involved.

2. Some modifications and improvements are made. After that curriculum is tried on a larger
population. After that it is suitably improved. Thus the curriculum becomes ready for implementation.

3. Implementation stage:- The curriculum is implementing for achieving the determined goals.

4. Evaluation stage:- At this stage the academic specialists, the administrators, the teachers and the
students are able to examine the curriculum and feel the pulse of the curriculum. They come to know
the advantages and disadvantages/limitations of the curriculum

5. Reconstruction stage:- At this stage curriculum is reconstructed and improved in the light of existing
defects.

Steps involved in curriculum design development process:-

The following steps are involved in curriculum design development process:-

1. Identifying learning needs:- Learning needs are identified. Motivation, educational activities, action
planning, environmental change, creation of alternatives and behavioural changes are identified.

2. Understanding the audience:- This implies how learning styles influence people’s responses to
learning events. The intended audiences are looked at in terms of age range, gender, educational
background, cultural background, learning style and on the job responsibilities. The information is
useful in designing the content and methods to be used in learning events. Besides the individual
characteristics of audience, a means of looking at the circumstances in which the audience operates
to guide curriculum development effort is developed. This method is known as situational analysis.

3. Understanding cultural diversity:- Participants understanding of cultural identities and how these
identities influence learning and behavior is increased. Action plans for developing cultural

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 competence means that participants will continue to broaden their understanding beyond the period of
formal training.

4. Developing goals and objects:- Clean goals, learning objectives and long term objectives based on
the outcomes that an individual/organization are decided and fixed. The goals and objectives indicate
that what participants would learn and be able to do as a result of the learning event. The goals are
stated so that learning objectives could be formulated in measurable terms. Along with learning
objectives, long term objectives are to be developed to establish a basis for evaluation.

5. Evaluating learning experiences/training:- Open system evaluation is employed which uses most of
the techniques of traditional evaluation, with a slightly different twist. In the open system approach,
the following levels of a system are examined.

i.Effects:- Have participants really acquired knowledge and skills?

ii. Application:- Have participants applied the knowledge, attitudes and skills learned at the
training?

iii. Outcomes:- Has the outcome of participants’ applying the knowledge, attitudes and skills
reflect the desired result?

6. Facilitating learning process:- This step is focused on acquisition of knowledge and skills
necessary to create and maintain a safe and positive learning climate in which participants can
effectively meet the course objectives. Stages of group development and basic training interventions
are explored and participants give and receive feedback on their learning.

Conclusion:- To conclude we can say that curriculum development is never ending process. It is always in
developing stage because it needs further change and improvement.

Ques:- NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF CURRICULUM

The teacher, the student and the school curriculum are inter-linked and inter-related. The teacher is meant for
the growth and development of the student. The place where he does this is called the school. What should
the teacher do and how all that is given to him by the school curriculum. Without a curriculum, the teacher and
the student cannot function. The student is to grow and develop through the process of schooling. The
teacher is also to grow and develop through his process of schooling. The teacher is also to grow and develop
through his process of teaching the child. For the growth and development of these two human resources i.e.
the teacher and the student, we need that type of curriculum which is growing and developing. Any fixed type
of curriculum cannot serve the purpose fully. Therefore, we need growing and developing type of curriculum
which should be available to the teacher and the student for doing their functions successfully.

Let us now see what is the need and importance of curriculum

Importance of Curriculum

1. Means for achieving educational aims and objectives. Curriculum is important because it is needed
for achieving educational aims and objectives. It is impossible to realize the aims of education
without framing appropriate curriculum.

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2. To meet the needs of the learner. The learner-the child comes to the school for his proper growth
and development. The teacher is there to help him like a gardener. Every day the needs and
requirements of the child will be changing. It will be so in the case of every child. Needs and
requirements of different children of the same age group may be varied and different. There will be
need of that curriculum which is growing and developing one.

3. Continuity in teaching-learning process. The thought process of the child-the children will be
effected by the homely environment and also by the surrounding environment of the street, the bazaar,
the rural/urban area, the people etc. It will go on varying the needs and requirement of the children.
Only the fast changing type of curriculum will suit them.

4. All-round development of the child. In each learner we find changes in physical, mental, social and
cultural aspects. There is need of enriching everything. Naturally the need of everybody i.e. the school,
the teacher and the student will be develop a nature of curriculum.

5. Development of the learner as well as teacher. No doubt, the teacher is meant for the growth and
development of the student. In this, process, it is but natural that every teacher will also grow and
develop will become more experienced and able to handle the student and guide them in far better
ways. Thus the teacher, who is growing and developing, also like to have growing and developing type
of curriculum.

6. Proper administration. The head of the institution/the administrator/ the supervisor wants to do his
job in better ways with the passage of time. His needs and requirements will also be to have subject
development in curriculum with the passage of time.

7. Preservation of Traditions, conventions and culture. Every educational institution is meant for
preservation of traditions/conventions, culture of the people. Another duty is transmission to the
coming generations. And above all, enrichment of everything, betterment of everything is also their
cherished goal. For this, they need ever growing and ever developing type of curriculum.

8. Source of acquisition of knowledge. Curriculum is also an important source of acquisition of

knowledge. Students as well as teachers get great deal of information and knowledge from
curriculum.

9. Selection of Appropriate methods of teaching. All the topics and subjects cannot be taught to the
students by using only one teaching method. There are various methods of teaching. Curriculum also
helps in the selection of appropriate methods of teaching.

10. Selection of appropriate teaching material. There are various types of teaching material such as
blackboard, models, charts, computer, projectors etc. Curriculum helps the teacher in selection of

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 appropriate teaching material for different topics.

11. Utilization of community resources. Community resources are very important in educating the
students. They make the teaching-learning process practical and effective. Curriculum suggests
ways of utilizing community resources in education.

12. Different subjects. Curriculum also plays an important role in deciding about the content and subject
matter of different subjects. This also reflects its need and importance.

13. Criteria for teachers. Curriculum clearly states about the aims and objectives of education and also
about teaching-learning methodology. It also states how much syllabus should be covered in how
much time. This information acts as a standardized criteria for the teachers.

14. Development of democratic values. Curriculum also helps in developing democratic values in the
students. It develops a sense of equality and fraternity among them.

15. Development of good citizenships. Curriculum also helps in the development of good citizenship
among the students. Right and proper curriculum develops a sense of awareness and obligation
towards his responsibilities toward the nation and society.

16. Helpful in research. Curriculum also helps in research. Various research projects are undertaken for
bringing about improvement in the educational system, teaching-learning process and teaching
methodologies etc.

Thus we find that curriculum development is a must for everybody concerned with the school and the
schooling process. Textbooks once prepared, the curriculum once prepared cannot be considered to be the
best on for all times to come. Changing times, changing environment, changing human and non-human
resources wish and welcome the growing and developing curriculum which is an accordance with the time
and the social set up of life.

Ques:- Principles of curriculum development

The following principles should be kept in mind while developing/framing (designing) curriculum:-

1. Principle of student centredness:- Curriculum should be based on the needs, interests, abilities,
aptitudes, developmental level and circumstances of the students. It should provide rich experiences
to students for proper development. It should revolve around the student because he is the central
factor in the curriculum.

2. Principle of community centredness:- Along with the need of the student attention must be paid to
the needs and problems of the community. Let the customs, tradition and values of the community
condition the curriculum. In fact curriculum should grow out of community life. It should be based on
the needs and problems of the community. It should be an epitome of their life. It should reflect all
that is significant and characteristic in the life of the community. It should be correlated with the
environment of the community.

3. Principle of activity centredness:- Curriculum should be based on the activities of the educands in
which they are interested. It should provide opportunities for play activities, constructive and creative

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activities and project activities. It should be based on learning by doing. Playground, workshops,
workrooms and laboratories not only direct the natural active tendencies of youth but they involve
intercourse, communication and cooperation. Abbot and wood report also stressed the activity
principle. Curriculum must ensure the activity of body and mind. It should be the centre of the
curriculum. All modern and progressive methods of teaching i.e., kindergarten, Montessori and project
method etc. are based on the principle of activity.

4. Principle of variety (broad basedness):- Curriculum should be as broad based as possible because
narrow curriculum cannot develop varied faculty of the students. At every level, the curriculum should
have variety to allow for individual differences and adaptation to individual needs and interests. It
should not only be confined to books but include wholesome experiences from the entire physical,
cultural and social environment. Students should be prepared for life. This necessitates the
curriculum to be as broad based as possible.

5. Principle of flexibility:- Curriculum should be flexible and adjustable to needs of the pupils at every
stage. Curriculum of the girls cannot be identical with that of boys. The special needs of both the
sexes should be given their due consideration. It should be in harmony with the changing social
conditions and needs of the society. It should be suggestive rather than perspective. Current and local
developments should always find a place in the curriculum to give it life, reality and vividness.

6. Principle of utility:- According to Nunn, “Principle of utility is the most important principle underlying
the formation of a curriculum. Those subjects, topics, content and learning experiences should be
included in the curriculum which are likely to prove useful for the educand in his life and by means of
which he can be made a responsible member of the society. Hence vocational, technical and
industrial courses should be included in the curriculum. A subject curriculum should include all such
material and experiences that may prove useful to students (1) day to day life, (2) in the study of other
subjects of the curriculum, (3) in knowing and adjusting to their physical and social environment, (4)
in the utilization of leisure time, (5) in developing their ability to solve the social problems, and (6) in
making them able to contribute to the progress of the society.

7. Principle of integration/correlation:- Curriculum should provide knowledge in an integrated way.

Activities of teachers as well as those of students should be integrated. Units of teaching should be
correlated with (1) the study of other subjects and activities of the school curriculum (2) with the
physical and social environment of students and (3) with the life and environment of students rather
than with narrow bits of information. They should be taught as to lead the student to a functional unity
with environment. Traditional compartmentalisaton of the subject matter should be discourged.

8. Principle of totality of experience:- Curriculum should be based on the principle of totality of

experiences that a pupil receives through manifold activities that go in the school, in the classroom,
library, laboratory, playground and in numerous information contacts between teachers and pupils.

9. Conservative principle:- Curriculum should help in preserving and transmitting culture and civilization.
The past is a great pride for the present as it helps us to decide what has been useful to those who
are living now. Conservative principle will help only when we carefully select as to what things of past
are likely to help us in the present and the future. Only those topics and activities to be included in the
curriculum which are required by the present generation.

10. Creative principle:- Curriculum should encourage each pupil to develop his creative ability as far as
possible. Those topics and activities should be included in the curriculum which enable the pupils to
exercise his creative and constructive powers. Raymont rightly remarked, “In a curriculum that is
suited to the needs of today and of the future, there must be a definite bias towards definite creative
subjects.” All that is finest in human culture is the creation of man’s creative abilities.

11. Principle of interest:- Interest is latent attention and attention is interest in action. Interest is
considered as the mother of attention and motivation. These are important factors in the success of
any teaching learning process. Therefore attention must be paid for the inclusion of such topics,

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contents, learning experiences and activities in the curriculum of a school subject that may arouse,
capture and motivation of the students in the study of that subject.

12. Principle of individual differences:- Individuals differ from one another in respect of their general and
specific abilities, aptitudes, achievements, interests, motivation, learning, thinking, memory and
creative potentials and many other characteristics influencing the process and product of learning.
Thus there are many types of individual differences among the students of a class. The presence of
gifted, backward, dull and average students or students showing differences in their choices and
interests for the study of one or other things. Therefore, in the curriculum development, proper
attention should be paid to the various types of individual differences found in the students.

13. Principle of availability of resources:- Curriculum is the means to realize the outcomes of objectives
of school education. Hence the implementation a curriculum is as important as its development. So, it
is very essential to keep in view the adequate implementation of the curriculum under the existing
conditions of our schools, in accordance with the availability of time and other human and material
resources.

14. Principle of consultation with teachers:- Teachers play very important role in the implementation of
the school curriculum. They implement and carry out the spirit of the curriculum. They are better
persons to tell what is actually suitable to their students. Hence it is very essential to seek proper
involvement of the school teachers in the development of the school curriculum.

15. Principle of joint affair:- Curriculum development must be a joint affair/venture of (1) subject
experts, (2) curriculum specialists, (3) curriculum developers, (4) curriculum advisors, (5) educational
psychologists, (6) educational technologists, (7) evaluation specialists and (8) educational
practitioners/teachers. They should be members of curriculum construction and development
committee.

1. Subject experts

2. Curriculum specialists

3. Curriculum developers

Curriculum 4. Educational psychologists

development

5. Educational technologists

6. Curriculum advisors

7. Evaluation specialists

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 8. Educational practitiones/
users
Partners in the curriculum development

16. Principle of concentrating over set objectives:- Curriculum framers/developers should be in proper
tune with the set objectives of the teaching learning of that subject in our schools. They should take
these set objectives as the guidelines for (1) selection and contents of learning experiences in the
subject, (2) techniques and methods for the implementation of curriculum and (3) suggesting
techniques and methods for evaluation.

17. Principle of broader vision:- The curriculum has to be broad based and not narrowly conceived. It
should help the child to raise the standard of life and the standard of living of the society. It should
result in the uplift of the whole society.

18. Principle of diversification:- Diversification is an important feature of the modern curriculum. The
curriculum has to cater to the needs and requirements of all the students. Diversification of courses
in the curriculum fulfils that requirement and thus ensures better teaching learning.

19. Principle of being up to date:- A good curriculum is up to date in every aspect. There is need of
revising and revitalizing to curriculum from time to time. It should have the latest available contents
and the materials. Only a rich and up-to-date type of curriculum will help in providing suitable teaching
learning environment to the learners.

20. Principle of preparation for life:- Curriculum should prepare the pupils for life. It should be linked with
life. Hence curriculum should include those activities which enable the pupil to take his part
effectively and amicably in the activities of the community when he becomes an adult. He is to be
prepared in such a way that he is capable of facing the various challenges of the complex problems
of the future.

21. Forward looking principle:- The child of today is an adult of tomorrow. Curriculum should enable the
pupil, after he has left school to adjust himself to the conditions of the community outside the four
walls of the school. The pupils will be able to adjust themselves with the society only if they leave the
school as progressive minded persons. The curriculum should have such contents in it that it makes
the pupil adjusted with the trends of the modern world. This principle asks for the inclusion of those
topics, contents and learning experiences that may prove useful to the learners in leading their future
life in a proper way. Hence efforts should be made to include the topics and learning experiences
helpful in training the students in civic competency, effective leadership, sociability. Socio-cultural
adjustment, democratic living, national and international understanding and world brotherhood, etc. for
preparing them to lead their future plan in the most desired way.

22. Democratic principle:- Curriculum should be such that it inculcates democratic values like equality,
fellow felling, sympathy, tolerance, respect for others, faith in change, change through persuation etc
among the students.

23. Principle of functional relationship:- Curriculum should provide functional relationship among
different subjects i.e., taken together it should appear as an organic whole and not isolated
experiences. The curriculum should be well knit in two directions i.e, vertical and horizontal direction.
On the one hand each year’s course should be built on what has been done in previous years and at
the same time should serve as basis for subsequent work. It is essential that the entire curriculum
should be connected and coordinated.

24. Principle of loyalties:- Curriculum should be planned in such a way that is teaches a true sense of

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 loyalty to the family, the school, the community, the town, the state, the region, the country and the world
at large. It should enable the student to understand that there is unity in diversity.

Principle of concentric growth:- This principle states that we should proceed from (1) ‘known to unknown’, (2)
‘simple to complex’, (3) “easy to difficult’, (4) ‘concrete to abstract’ and (5) ‘psychological to logical’ etc. It
means that first of all known, simple, easy, concrete and psychological facts should be presented. This
means that while teaching social sciences/social studies first problems dealing with the local aspect of
citizenship.

Ques:- DEFECTS IN PRESENT CURRICULUM

Curriculum is means for realizing the aims of education. If the curriculum is defective, then the realization of
aims and objectives of education is not possible. The main defects in current curriculum are:-

1. Bookish and theoretical. One of the main defects of present curriculum of education is that it is
bookish and theoretical. Too much stress is given on mere bookish and theoretical knowledge. This
doesn’t promote wholesome education. It makes the students book-worms.

2. Emphasis on examination. Another important defect of present curriculum is that in this type of
curriculum too much emphasis in given on examination. Although examinations are important. But too
much stress on examinations creates many kinds of psychological problems among the students.

3. Narrow curriculum. Present curriculum is narrow in nature. It is based on old conservative thoughts
and beliefs. It doesn’t help in all-round development of the child. It takes into account only the
cognitive aspects of child. It aims at intellectual development only. Affective and psychomotor
development of the child is completely ignored in present curriculum.

4. Lack of uniformity. Present curriculum lacks uniformity. Due to lack of uniformity uneven and
sometimes irrelevant learning experiences are involved in it.

5. Doesn’t satisfy student needs. Another important defect in current curriculum is that it doesn’t
satisfy the needs and requirements of the students. Due to this, the students take it as a burden and
boring activity.

6. Too many subjects. Current curriculum includes many subjects. The students are burdened with lot
of subjects. This curriculum makes them jack of all the trades but master of none.

7. Overload on students. Due to a lot of books and subjects, there is a lot of overload on the students.
Usually the weight of student’s school-bag is more than his own weight.

8. Lack of all round development. The present curriculum aims at providing just bookish knowledge to
the students. Social, moral, emotional, psychological, physical development of the student is not
given proper attention. Thus present curriculum doesn’t help in all round development of the child.

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 9. Unpsychological. Yet another defect of present curriculum is that it is unpsychological. It is not
based on psychological principles of learning such as, principle from easy to difficult, from concrete
to abstract, law of readiness, law of exercise, law of effect etc.

10. Rigid. Present curriculum is too much rigid. The teachers or the school-setup cannot make even
minor changes in the curriculum according to their needs and requirements.

11. Lack of technical and vocational education. We are living in an age of science and technology. The
technical and vocational education is need of the hour. But in the present educational curriculum, the
technical and vocational education are neglected.

12. Lack of correlation among subjects. In the present curriculum, the content of different subjects are
not correlated with each other. Their subject-matters and contents are totally isolated. This makes the
learning process more difficult.

13. Avoidance of co curricular activities. In the present curriculum stress is given only on the curricular
activities. Co-curricular activities such as games, debates, declamations etc. are totally neglected and
they are not given any weightage.

14. Focus on memorization. The present curriculum doesn’t promote real understanding and application
of content. In it the focus is only on memorization.

15. Lack of integrity. The present curriculum also lacks integrity of thought, aims and contents. The
methods and materials of teaching learning process are also not integrated with the aims, objectives
and content of different subjects.

Suggestions for reasons in curriculum

As discussed earlier, the present curriculum has many defects and limitations. Different commissions have
suggested measures for improving this defective curriculum.

1. Suggestions of secondary education commission (1952-53). Secondary education commission has

given following suggestions for improving present curriculum:

i.Curriculum of education should be aimed at all round development of the personality of the child.

ii. There should be variety of content, teaching methodology and material in the curriculum.

iii. The curriculum should not be rigid, rather it should be flexible.

iv. Subjects included in the curriculum should have proper inter-correlation among themselves.

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 v. The curriculum should be related to the society.

vi. Curriculum should provide totality of experience to the student.

vii. Curriculum should be such that it promotes proper utilization of leisure time of the students.

2. Suggestions of Kothari commission (1964-66). Kothari commission (1964-66) has given following
suggestions for improving present curriculum:

i.Research in the field of curriculum should be promoted. Only then good curriculum would be framed.

ii. Schools should be given proper freedom for adopting and implementing experimental
curriculum.

iii. Science education should be made an integral part of school education.

iv. Effective programmes should be framed for teaching of social sciences.

v. In-service training should be provided to the teachers so that knowledge about the subject
could be refreshed.

vi. Kothari commission also laid emphasis on manual work. It suggested that manual work should
be an integral part of teaching learning process. State boards of school education should
work for making improvements in the curriculum.

vii. Text books and teaching learning materials should be developed by taking into consideration
the current technological and scientific advancements.

To conclude we can say that following measures must be undertaken for improvements in the
present curriculum”

1. Correlation among subjects and contents. There should be proper correlation among the
different subjects and different contents of the same subject in the curriculum.

2. Regular revision. The curriculum should not be static. Regular revision, additions and omissions
should be made according to the changing needs and requirements.

3. Based on psychological principle. The curriculum should be based on the principles and laws of
learning/psychology.

4. Activity centred. The curriculum should be activity-centred. Learning through various types of
activities is lifelong learning.

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 5. Reports/suggestions of national committee/commissions. While framing the curriculum for a
particular course or class, the reports, recommendations and suggestions of national and state
committees and commissions must be taken into consideration.

6. Variety. There should be an element of variety in the curriculum. Various types of materials and
methods should be suggested in it.

7. Flexibility. The curriculum must be flexible. Appropriate freedom should be given to teachers
and schools in curriculum.

8. Current events/affairs. Current events and affairs should be made an integral part of curriculum.

9. Teachers’/educators’ opinions. The feedback or opinions from the teachers and educators
must be taken while framing the curriculum.

10. Emphasis on manual work. The curriculum of education should be such that it would promote
dignity of labour and manual work among the students.

11. Role of state boards of education. State boards of education should make continuous efforts
for developing good curriculums.

12. Development of text books and teaching learning materials. The text books and teaching
learning materials should also be developed according to the curriculum.

13. In service training. The teachers should be provided inservice training so that they can
implement the curriculum effectively.

14. Research in curriculum. Research in the field of curriculum should be encouraged so that the
best ways and methods for constructing and implementing the curriculum could be developed.

15. Effective programmes for social sciences. Effective and workable programmes must be
suggested in the curriculum for teaching of social sciences.

Thus, it can be rightly said that though present curriculum of school education have certain defects
and limitations, it can be made effective and flawless if above mentioned suggestions are taken care
of.

UNIT-IV

Ques:- Explain meaning of laboratory. Discuss its qualities, advantages and arrangements.

Ans:- The academic, social, economic, cultural and intellectual value of science is being increasing
recognized. Hence there should be provision for efficient science teaching in every school. The school should
possess a well equipped science laboratory. The reasons are obvious as the apparatus must be put to the

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greatest use and benefit of students in order to use the apparatus and tools etc. with greater accuracy and
skill. In order to do that an apparatus should not be used for decoration or window dressing but should be used
in the real sense. Hence a science room which affords the maximum use of its apparatus and chemicals in
the best efficient manner would survive all tests of a good science room.

To have one room to be used as a lecture room, demonstration room and laboratory may depend on the
level of the school and the number of students offering that subject. In the elementary school (including
middle school) all the three can be combined in one room. The table can be used in one position for class
work and in another position for laboratory work. For a high school with a number of sections, needs an
elaborate laboratory, and the three i.e., lecture room, laboratory and store should be separate. For higher/senior
secondary school with higher physics, higher chemistry, higher biology and geology as the elective subject
offered, ideal thing would be to have separate laboratories for physics, chemistry, biology and geology. Hence
the science wing in the school should consist of:-

1. Lecture theatres, the number depending upon the strength of students and number of sections.

2. Laboratories for physics, chemistry and biology.

3. One big store room and

4. One museum

But with a view to economise space, a laboratory cum lecture room as suggested by Dr. White Head can
serve the purpose if designed and used specially and imaginatively. In that case there will be one physics
room, one chemistry room and one biology room. The equipment of laboratory cum lecture room is
suggested below:-

1. Size:- Science room (physics, chemistry, biology or geology) of the size 48’ x 25’ should be provided
for seating accommodation for 40 students and for practical work of 20 students.

2. Doors and windows:- Two doors, having one entrance at the lecture side and the other from the
laboratory tables with be better as we can operate both the doors as desired. The room should be
provided with three windows opening on the other side.

3. Almirahs;- A suitable number of almirahs should be fixed to store equipment, apparatus and subject
books. A good number of built in cup board for storing chemicals and apparatus will be quite useful.
All the almirahs should be labeled properly and should have glass panes.

4. Tables:- Suitable number of tables and chairs should be provided. The laboratory tables should have
a special surface to resist acid and other chemicals. A treatment known as waxing was quite
common in the past but these days instead of coating or special treatment, special sheets of
sunmica, formica or sunglass may be used.

5. Sinks:- There should be three sinks, one for the teacher and the other two for the students.

6. Maintenance:- The maintenance of science laboratory is very important. The apparatus in the
almirahs need checking and cleaning after regular intervals. Proper oiling of machines must be done
regularly. After the experiment, the apparatus should be cleaned and dried and put back in its proper
place. Sinks should be regularly washed with vim.

7. Museum;- Museum is an important part of the science room. In museum, we have a collection of
natural or scientific curiosities. The exhibits in the museum may consist of roots, stems, seeds,
weeds, fruits flowers, leaves, mushrooms, grasses, shells, insects, birds, skeletons of animals,
minerals, maps, photographs of monuments and scientists, homemade apparatus, charts, pictorial
illustrations and models of scientific interest like telephone, steam engine, powerhouse, and human
body. For the purpose of storing and displaying this material there may be a cupboard, a show case, a
few shelves and some boxes. The cupboard should have glass front. Materials of science should be

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 systematically arranged and displayed. Each exhibit should be properly labeled.

Importance or need of laboratory

In the words of ghate, “every subject which is recognized as deserving of study in a school should have a
room of its own.” The following points highlight the importance of laboratory:-

1. Pleasant environment:- A well equipped laboratory is more attractive than an ordinary classroom with
plane walls without any decoration. Laboratory creates congenial environment which plays an
important role in the teaching learning process. In the words of M.P. Moffat, “Class room furnishing
and their arrangements have a direct bearing upon the quality of results obtained. Satisfactory
outcomes can be expected only when adequate and comfortable working facilities are provided. It is
furnished to provide a suitable environment for acquiring and practising social studies skills.” Such a
subject room with a pleasant social climate becomes a learning laboratory and a good activity centre
in which great emphasis is placed on student activity and student participation in class room
procedures. More over there is no scope for non functionalized instructions in such a room.

2. Effective teaching:- well equipped lab is of paramount importance as it helps in effective teaching. It
provides a greater scope for variety in teaching methods and facilitates the use of teaching aids. The
permanent display of important pictures, charts, graphs, maps, models, and globes and constant
reference to them by the teacher is bound to make the teaching of studies effective, impressive,
interesting and lively. The teacher can make use of any material at any time, and has the opportunity
of using as frequently as possible.

3. Functional environment:- A well equipped lab provides a quick and ready functional environment. The
physical environment in the laboratory will provide a workroom for the pupils, making the environment
functional not merely theoretical. It gives theoretical as well as practical knowledge. The classroom
facilities must be capable of rapid transformation into a laboratory setting. The physical equipment
must provide a workroom for the pupils, because activities and the practical solution of problems
characterize every topic or unit. The students will feel at home and comfortable. They will have an
incentive to work.

4. Creative expression:- Laboratory develops creative attitude in the students. In it, students are given
an opportunity to make models, charts, pictures, diagrams, etc. It creates in them constructive
attitude. A student develops comprehension and learning in creative expression and it makes him
endeavouring and creative.

5. Real knowledge:- The laboratory provides an opportunity to learn by activity (doing). The student
goes to the laboratory and observes the material aids and their usage. This experiment includes
writing and study activities. Moreover, the experiment carried out in the laboratory provides the real
form to knowledge and is called real knowledge.

6. Permanent knowledge:- Experimentation in itself is considered a scientific method. The use of

laboratory is considered to have scientific attitude and this is called permanent knowledge.

7. Diverse methodology:- The laboratory is highly desirable addition to any secondary school in which
the teachers use a diverse methodology and go beyond the simple use of one textbook and a rigid
curricular pattern.

8. Economical in time:- Equipment like maps, models, charts, projectors, etc. is too cumbersome to
carry round the school. A permanent base will save a lot of time and energy. For example a chalkboard
(blackboard) can be prepared before hand, and the diagrams can be preserved for future use.

9. Centre of self discipline:- A laboratory is the most prominent centre of self discipline. In it, a student
works according to his ability, interest, capacity and need, etc. As a result the proceeds toward self
activity remaining in self discipline.

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 10. Helpful in concentration:- Laboratory creates a good atmosphere for teaching the subject. The
students love to look at the pictures, charts, maps, models, etc. They feel that they are in a special
environment, which strengthens their concentration.

11. Use of various teaching methods:- in various teaching methods like project method, playway
method, problem method, source method and discussion method etc., are used. All these methods
require special articles or specific seating arrangement which is possible only in a special room.

12. Co-operative attitude:- Sometimes there may be lack of instruments in the laboratory. In such a
situation, the students complete the experiment (task) by cooperating with other. It inculcates the
spirit of cooperation and thus, fulfills its objectives. It teaches him how to cooperate in the whole of
future life. Thus the students can experiment the importance of cooperation in the laboratory.

13. Completion of assignments:- The tasks assigned to students can also be called exercise work, and
the laboratory fulfills this need. Books are special material aids in a laboratory. As a result, the
assignment is easily completed.

14. Proper classification:- Laboratory includes the contents of geography, history, civics, and economics
etc. The aids will be related to all these subjects. A permanent base in the form of laboratory will help
in keeping the material in proper classification.

15. Safety of equipment;- Laboratory safeguards costly equipment like charts, maps, models, film
strips, epidiascope, projection etc. It ensures against breakage of breakable items, and helps
preservation. It is the responsibility of the teacher to keep them safe and secure for which he can
seek the cooperation of the students. It also develops a feeling of belongingness as well among the
students.

16. Home for teachers;- To inspire the teachers with the requisite faith in himself, and imbued with
essential imaginative strength, he has to be provided with a home of his own. Laboratory provides
‘home of their own’ to teachers for developing enthusiasm for the subject and faith in themselves and
the students.

Precautions in the organization of laboratory

The following points should be considered while organizing laboratory;-

1. Collection and arrangement of material:- Sufficient suitable material should be collected with the
help of students and utilizing other sources. Material should be properly placed at suitable places. The
arrangement should be such that there is no obstacle in the display of that material.

2. Student committees:- As far as possible each student should be given some responsibility for a
definite period of time. Student committees under student chairmen should be formed in the
beginning of each academic year for distributing and collecting material for the arrangement of
equipment, for selecting and organizing displays on the bulletin board, for securing and purchasing
books, magazines and other material, for welcoming guests, for contacting outside agencies and
establishments, for arranging entertainment programmes, for organizing excursions and educational
tours and for assisting the teacher in various ways. This arrangement will provide training for
leadership and committee cooperation, so essential in a democratic country.

3. Cleanliness:- Arrangement for cleanliness of the room must be made.

4. Appreciation and encouragement:- Good work should be appreciated and each student should be
encouraged to express his worth.

5. Self discipline;- Opportunities for self discipline and self control, based on cooperation should be
provided to all the pupils. This will lead to character building and personal development. If our
students assume responsibilities in the true spirit and discharge them to the best of their abilities and

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 capacities, they are receiving effective training for democratic citizenship. In the words of Moffat and
Howell, “Classroom management expresses a businesslike and orderly approach to the teaching
learning situation. Leadership gives direction and provides for the type of atmosphere so essential for
effective instruction. Good organization for all activities eliminates confusion and possible discipline
problems. Pupils should, therefore, be encouraged to develop abilities and attitudes commensurate
with the democratic sharing of responsibilities in co-management of their own classroom.’

Qualities of good laboratory:-

1. Separate laboratory;- There should be separate laboratory for different subjects. In senior secondary
schools there should be separate laboratory for different branches of science.

2. Improvised laboratories;- There may be improvised laboratories. Such laboratories are very helpful in
teaching.

3. Spacious:- A laboratory must be spacious enough to accommodate properly atleast 40 students at a

time. Generally a laboratory is expected to cover 1,000 square feet area.

4. Light arrangement:- There should be proper arrangement for light in the laboratory. As far as possible
the laboratory should be facing the north.

5. Water arrangement:- There should be proper arrangement for water.

6. Demonstration table:- There should be demonstration table in the centre of the laboratory. It should
be so designed that the students may be able to see the practical work very conveniently.

7. Shelves and racks:- There should be shelves and racks in the walls to keep things.

8. Exhausters:- There should be ‘exhausters’ in the laboratory. This would enable the gases and bad
smell to get out freely.

9. Good flooring:- The flooring of laboratory should be good. There should be store room attached to the
laboratory.

10. Projection of slides;- There should be proper arrangement for the projection of slides.

11. Diagrams and charts:- There should be diagrams and charts hung on the walls of the laboratory.

12. Lodging of poisonous elements:- Acid and other poisonous elements should be properly lodged.

13. Safety:- The laboratory should be kept under lock and keys so that there may be safety to the
laboratory.

14. Laboratory assistant;- There should be a laboratory assistant to help the teacher.

15. Laboratory bearer:- There should be laboratory bearer who can help in the cleanliness and upkeep of
the laboratory.

Quantity and quality of laboratory apparatus

The quantity and quality of the apparatus depends upon the following factors:-

1. Scheme of work:- The apparatus and material should be adequate to provide demonstrations and
class practical work for the students. The quantity of chemicals consumed and the sets of apparatus
required are roughly proportional to the time spent on practicals.

2. Level of students:- The level and number of students should be considered while equipping a
laboratory. So the apparatus in the laboratory should be planned according to the level and number of

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 students.

3. Finance:- It controls the quantity and quality of equipment of a laboratory.

4. Storage space:- It is important that there should be enough storage space for the equipment ordered.

Arrangement the equipment:-

1. Equipment may be arranged alphabetically or subject wise.

2. Dangerous chemicals like mercury, phosphorous, sodium, calcium, spirit etc. should be kept in a
separate cup-board under lock and key.

3. The apparatus which is generally required by the students i.e., stands, clamps, spirit lamp etc.
should be placed on the table or in open almirah so that students may get whenever they desire and
may not have to ask the teacher again and again.

4. Chemicals should be arranged alphabetically.

5. The apparatus should be arranged subject wise in the laboratory in the order in which experiments
have to be performed.

6. Articles should be placed in such a manner that these are replaced easily without disturbing other
articles.

Care and maintenance of the laboratory apparatus

Care of the apparatus is very essential. The following points should be kept in mind:-

1. Cleaning and checking:- The apparatus in the almirahs should be cleaned and checked after
suitable intervals.

2. Polishing:- Wooden articles should be polished with spirit polish while the iron articles should be
coated with black point occasionally as they may not get rusted.

3. Drying:- Care must be taken especially in the rainy season. Apparatus for frictional electricity may be
dried by placing in the sun. After the experiment, the apparatus should be cleaned and dried and put in
its place. Sinks should be washed with vim.

4. Oiling:- Proper oiling of machines should be done regularly.

Conclusion:- In the end we can say that laboratory plays very important role in every educational institution.

Ques:- Discuss the meaning of library and its uses. Discuss the organization of good library.

Ans:- “No school or university without a library, adequate for its needs and size, should be recognized as a
worthy centre of education.” - K.g. Saiydain

1. Meaning of library:- In the words of Bacon, “Libraries are the shelves where the relics of saints full
of virtue and that without delusion and importance are preserved and reposed.” Library is much more
than a collection of books kept in a room or building. In the words of education commission
(1964-66), “A collection of books, even a collection of good books, does not constitute a library.”
Library is a collection of the “background material” which can be drawn upon to enrich the work of the
curriculum. It is a place where the use of books as sources of information may be taught and
practiced.

Library has been considered as “a public institute or establishment charged with the care of
collection of books, the duty of making them accessible to those who require the use of them and the

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 task of converting every person in its neighbourhood into a habitual library goer and reader of
books.” According to a library bulletin, “The library should be the centre of the intellectual life of the
school available at all times for reference, for study and for private reading. It should be a quiet place,
an environment which encourages study and reading, furnished and equipped for comfortable use. It
should be very much more than a store room and distributing centre of books.” Library is the treasure
value of ideas, store house of knowledge and the flowing streams of living thought.

2. Importance, uses and functions of library:- Library is a gateway of knowledge, repository of culture
and an instrument of advancement. It is a rich spring from which knowledge flows out to irrigate the
wide field of education and culture. Much of our cultural heritage would have perished, had it not been
preserved in the libraries of yore. In the words of Barbara Ruth Fuessli Kyle, “Libraries preserve
knowledge so that none is lost, organize knowledge so that none is wasted and make knowledge
available so that no one need be deprived.”

A school without library is like a body without a soul. The library has been regarded as the
core, the heart and the hub of the academic life of the school. It is the real intellectual workshop. It
should be the centre of the school educational programme. In the words of H.G. Wells, “A school
without an easily accessible library of at least a thousand volumes is really scarcely a school at all –
it is a dispensary without bottles, a kitchen without a pantry.”

According to Frances Henne, “Good schools, very good schools, and excellent schools, all need excellent
libraries. Inferior schools, need excellent libraries too, to overcome the omissions of the curriculum and to
compensate for the proper instructional programme.”

Importance, uses and functions of library can be studies under the following points:-

1. Intellectual function:- Library provides intellectual feast for the students and the teachers. It
stimulates thinking, reasoning, imagination, argumentation and creativity. It satisfies their quest for
knowledge, widens their mental horizon, adds to their general information, educates them and creates
further curiosity to learn more and more. Library is the intellectual nerve centre of a good school, the
hub of its academic life.

2. Reading habit:- Library helps in the inculcation of proper reading habits. Library reading awakens love
for reading and cultivates habit of independent study. When a vast treasure of learning is placed
before them, it develops in them the incentive to read more.

3. Creative function:- Library reading serves a creative function. It motivates, instigates and inspires
the readers to do something creative. They are stimulated to collect information, and make use of the
subject matter in their creative and original writing. The independence study motivates them to make
original contribution in various fields. Variety of books available from a library serve as a great source
of inspiration and inculcation of new attitudes, new thinking, new zeal and zest in life.

4. Linguistic function:- Library reading strengthens the linguistic ability of the readers. They learn new
vocabulary which helps them in proper understanding of text and reference books.

5. Recreational function:- Library provides recreation and relaxation and relieves the students of the
boredom of classroom. Library develops a taste in reading not only for examination but for pleasure. It
provides the students a healthy environment for utilizing their leisure for both profit and pleasure. A
poet has beautifully written.

“Books are keys to wisdom’s pleasure;

Books are gates to lands of pleasure;

Books are paths that upward lead;

Books are friends, come, let us read.”

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 It means that books are friends, treasure house of wisdom, give us pleasure and lead us to
heights. Library redirects the energy of young adolescents to fruitful channels and detracts them from
harmful habits like gossiping, wandering, playing cards and frequently visiting cinemas.

6. Supplementary function:-Library reading supplements the classroom work. All progressive methods
of teaching depend upon self education through library, and supervised study. In the words of
Mudaliar, “The library may well be regarded as an essential instrument of putting progressive methods
into practice.” The students have to work out their assignments with the help of material available in
reference books, source books and other standard books.

7. Participation in co-curricular activities:- Library is indispensable for participation in co-curricular

activities like debates, declamations, symposiums, dramatics, writing articles for the school
magazine etc.

8. Cultural function:- A library is a great source for the preservation and tradition of culture. History
shows that knowledge has trickled down from generation to generation through the agency of books.
Books are known as “brains preserved in ink.” The knowledge or ideas of mighty, scholars,
philosophers and scientists of a place are known all the world over through this agency.

9. Instructional function:- Library facilitates the instructional programme for the teacher by providing
him a wide variety of text and reference books related to various school subjects.

Carlyle identified a true university with a library. Great scholars like Shakespeare, Bernard
Shaw, Tagore and Radhakrishnan were the products of libraries and not of classrooms.

Present position of school libraries can be studied under the following headings:-

1. Accommodation:- In most of the traditional schools there is no separate room or accommodation for
the library or reading room. If a room is provided, there is no proper seating arrangement and suitable
furniture. At some places a verandah is utilized for a reading room in the recess period. Sometimes,
the staff-room serves the double purpose. In some schools, books are stocked in a few book-shelves
which are housed in a school office or any other inadequate and unsuitable place.

2. Books:- The books in school libraries are usually old, outdated and unsuitable purchased just to
oblige the publishers without any regard to students’ requirements and interests. There is no selection
committee for the selection or purchase of books. The head of the institutions is all in all in this
matter. Some heads get ‘commission’ or black money in this deal.

3. Librarian:- In most of the schools, there is no full time trained librarian. Most of the schools are
without librarians. Usually the office clerk or an indifferent teacher who has neither knowledge for
library technique nor love for books is made library incharge. He takes it as a burden. The time given
for the issue of books is the recess period, when he too wants to enjoy recess and have his
refreshment and chat with his colleagues. So he lacks enthusiasm and zeal in his work.

4. Budget allocation:- Most of the schools have shortage of finance. There are no budget allocation in
private schools. Government and local body schools do not get adequate grants for the purchase of
books, almirahs, shelves, furniture, catalogues and other necessary equipment. Sometimes, the
parcels of books remain unopened for want of adequate arrangement of shelving.

5. Indifferent attitude of teachers and heads:- Most of the teachers and heads of the institutions are
indifferent and do not have love for reading. They hardly borrow and read any book from the library.
They do not stimulate their students to read. At the time of inspection some books, charts and maps
etc. are purchased or borrowed for the purpose of window dressing.

6. Indifferent attitude of students:- Most of the students have indifferent attitude towards library
reading. Library work is considered useless for the purpose of getting brilliant success in the

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 examination. They are not properly guided. Most of the students read cheap notes, guides, keys, short
cuts, guess papers, model papers, solved test papers, digests, made easy series, memory charts and
pockets books. In most of the cases teachers recommend these notes and guides. It is found that
students read film magazines, novels with sex appeal, pamphlets containing film songs and obscene
literature which have adverse effect on character and personality. Such material is available not in
school libraries but on the footpaths, railway book stalls and cheap book shops.

7. No place in curriculum:- Library reading finds no place in the school time table and curriculum. The
time table is so overcrowded that there is hardly any time for library reading. The school authorities do
not encourage the students to read books, not even the newspapers. Teachers do not provide any
guidance or motivation for the selection and the use of library books.

8. Library services:- In majority of schools there are no proper arrangements for issuing books to the
students. Most of the students do not get a chance to borrow books from the library. Moreover, no
guidance is provided for the selection of books. Hence books are borrowed at random. The books
borrowed are generally not at all suitable for the mental level of the students. Sometimes books are
lent but returned after months together, and in some cases lost by the students. Hardly a few schools
have a provision for subject libraries or class libraries. If class libraries exist in a few schools, they do
not function properly.

Organization of a good library

The following factors contribute to the efficient running of a library:-

1. Location:- Library should be situated in a calm and quiet corner, free from noise and distraction to
ensure cosy and peaceful atmosphere for study. It should be centrally located and within easy access
from any point in the school building. Library should be made the most attractive place in the school. It
should be housed in a spacious room, with the walls properly white washed and rooms decorated
with charming pictures, famous paintings, flowers and hangings.

2. Library building and equipment:- The library building of an ideal senior secondary school should
include the following:-

i.The main library hall, housing almirahs containing books.

ii. The reading room, housing newspapers, periodicals, journals. It may accommodate atleast 80
students at a time.

iii. The librarian’s room, which should have the librarian’s table, racks for books awaiting technical
process and catalogues, and almirahs.

iv. The store room for storing books, periodicals and other essential audio-visual materials.

v. Seminar room for discussion and seminars.

For schools with limited strength and finance one library room may serve all the purposes.

The furniture – book shelves, tables, chairs, catalogue cabinets, almirahs should be provided in the
library in sufficient number and of appropriate quality. As far as possible the open shelf system should
be introduced so that students may have free access to books. There may be cemented almirahs in
thick walls, or steel or wooden almirahs. The protable almirahs are preferred because it may facilitate
the shifting of the library to some better place. Other essential things are newspaper stands, sloping
magazine shelves, librarian’s counter, notice board, display board, bulletin board and pigeon holes for
keeping extra things at the gate of the library. There should be proper lighting arrangement.

3. Organization of library rooms:- In brief the following points should be kept in mind while equipping
and organizing library rooms (library):

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 i.Size of tables and chairs:- The tables and chairs should be of adequate size i.e., their size should be
accordance with the size of the pupils. There should be durable, comfortable and simple.

ii. Easy chairs:- A few easy chairs should be provided for reading in a reclined position.

iii. Catalogue drawers:- Modern type catalogue drawers should be provided. The cards should be
loosely packed for easy handling. The catalogue of books should be arranged book wise. It
should be placed at a suitable place accessible to all.

iv. Magazine shelves:- There should be some sloping magazine shelves placed at convenient
parts of the library hall.

v. New arrivals:- A bulletin board should be placed either outside the library or inside, wherein the
jackets of new arrivals are displayed. The selection from great scholars, thoughts for the day,
the bibliography on some selected topics of current interest, newspaper cuttings and other
information regarding the library services should be displayed outside the library.

vi. Captions:- Captions indicating the class of books should be conspicuously placed at the top of
the shelves. Instead of having geography, history, biography, drama we may use such
stimulating captions as round the globe, the stories of our ancestors, footprints on the sands
of time, the curtain is up respectively.

vii. Adequate lighting and ventilation:- Proper attention must be paid to the adequate lighting and
ventilation arrangements of the library. The library room should be airy, with a number of
windows on all sides. Dark room must not be selected for the library.

viii. Decorating articles:- Articles which may be hung on the walls for adding to the decoration of
library are:-

a. Pictures of great leaders, saints, scientists, historical figures etc.

b. Pictures of other lands.

c. Pictures and charts of animals and birds.

d. Artificial flowers, creepers and flower pots.

e. Good sayings, mottos, placards, drawings etc.

To sum up we quote S.Ranganathan, “IT (The library) should be equipped with plenty of
attractive, well built, well printed, well illustrated, with comfortable furniture, open shelves,
charming pictures, flowers, hanging with bright and cheerful outlook, with a librarian who
loves children as well as books.”

4. Reading room:- Every school should have one reading room. It may be a part of the library or a
separate room. For want of accommodation even adjoining verandah may be utilized. It should be
suitably equipped with important newspapers, magazines, periodicals, and journals. These may be
placed on suitable racks, tables, or stands. There should be arrangement for keeping back number of
newspapers and periodicals, so that in time of need, these may be readily available. Very important
newspaper cuttings may be displayed on the bulletin board. The reading room should be managed and
supervised by the librarian. But there should be one library assistant to see that the readers do not
face any difficult in locating old newspapers, magazines and periodicals and that they read silently
and do not steal or take away cuttings.

5. Resources:- There are two types of library resources: (1) Book resources and (2) Non-Book
resources:

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 A. Book resources:- Important book resources which should be available in the library are:-

i. Textbooks:- The library should contain a variety of standard textbooks on different subjects.

ii.Unit booklets:- The library should have booklets on the variety of topics ranging from family life
and neighbourhood to people of other lands and places.

iii. Literary materials:- The library should have inspirational and imaginative literature
particularly story books, novels, plays, essays, poetical selections, biographies, travel
accounts and descriptions, historical series, exploration and adventure, accounts of
discoveries and inventions, and humorous skits. These will help make curriculum lively
and interesting.

iv. Reference books:- The library should be fairly well equipped with reference materials.
Reference books may be divided into two categories:-

a. Standard or conventional reference books:- These reference books include dictionaries,

encyclopaedias, yearbooks, atlases, books of quotations, who is who, maps, charts,
handbooks and manuals. The dictionary and the encyclopaedia are basic reference
books. Oxford illustrated dictionary and a set of oxford junior children’s
encyclopaedia or a book of knowledge should be provided in the library even if these
are costly books. There should be some picture collections which include animals,
insects, flowers, portraits, places of interests and events.

b. Non-conventional reference books:- The non conventional reference books consists of all other
library books which may be used for reference service of any other kind. These
include books or miscellaneous information and books on special subjects.

B. Non book resources:- The following non book resources should be available in the library:-

i. Newspapers:- Each school should provide a local newspaper, one or two other daily
newspapers of all India circulation.

ii.Pamphlets:- Every school should subscribe atlest low period pamphlets published by various
government agencies and bureaus for specialized services. These are important sources
of information about social, economic and political life.

iii. Periodicals:- Periodicals include the magazines and current events periodicals. They tell
us about the current events and various aspects of life showing art, literature, music and
dance.

iv. Special documents and publications:- Brochures, yearly calendars, data books, published
by the state governments, folders containing useful information about various places,
regions and towns published by tourist bureaus and important business concerns should
also form part of library.

v. Audio visual material:- A library should have maps, models, charts, graphs, globes, films, film
strips and slides. Radio, television, tape recorder, projector and sound films may also be
included.

6. Selection committee:- The success of the library depends largely on the proper selection of books,
pamphlets, periodicals and journals etc. It should be the function of a selection committee of
teachers (who have a genuine love for books) to make the selection of books for the library. This
committee should comprise of two or three teachers and equal number of senior students who are
interested in library books with librarian as convener and head of the institution as chair person. This
committee should meet from time to time and make plans for the selection, purchase and
maintenance of the books.

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7. Library rules:- There should be definite library rules. The rules should facilitate immediate issuing
and withdrawal of books. The rules regulating the library work should be framed and suitably
displayed for the use of readers. These must indicate the following points:-

1. Hours of opening and closing of the library.

2. Hours fixed for the issue and return of books.

3. Duration for which a book can be retained with the borrower.

4. Penalty for delay in returning the book.

5. Number of books that can be issued at a time.

6. Penalty for spoiling, tearing and defacing the book.

7. Rules regarding perfect silence in the library.

8. Rules prohibiting spitting, smoking etc.

9. Amount of security required.

10. How to apply for refund of security.

11. Identity cards required.

Other rules may be added according to local circumstances.

8. The school librarian (Role of the librarian):- Every secondary school should have a full time trained
and qualified librarian. As an engine cannot work unless and until there is somebody who could
control and put life into it, similar is the case with the library. The expenditure on books and equipment
in a library will not bring any good return without a capable organizing head of the library. McColvin
writes, “Books themselves are nothing. They have no meaning more than the white paper on which
they are published unless they are made serviceable by demand.” Books are artificial entities and
there must be someone to put life into them.

The librarian must have general education, professional training in librarianship (Diploma in
library), and wide experience about the world of literature. He must know languages and scripts in
vogue in the state. He should be a lover of children and books both. He should be cheerful and
optimistic, ready to guide each student and treat him sympathetically and affectionately. He should be
adept in child psychology. He should inspire students for purposeful study. He should by his efforts
stimulate reading habits among the students.

The librarian will be responsible for giving due publicity to good books, available in the library,
preparing and circulating book lists suitable for different grades, displaying jackets and lists on the
notice board, arranging book exhibitions.

Specific functions of the librarian are as under:-

1. To prepare and display suitable library rules.

2. To prepare budget estimates for the session.

3. To prepare list of books to be purchased in consultation with the selection committee.

4. To prepare and maintain accession record and classification of books.

5. To prepare catalogues – subject wise and author wise.

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 6. To display jackets of books, newspaper cuttings and book reviews on the bulletin board.

7. To take annual stock of books, replace the out dated manuals, and maintain proper statistics.

8. To develop habits among the students and teachers and train them in the proper use of books.
(a) To train them in looking up reference material, in using catalogues, in selecting books
and in hunting out books on the shelves. (b) To give them instruction for using the book,
keeping it neat and tidy and returning in time. (c) To inculcate in them the habit of reading
silently and quietly in the library or the reading room.

9. To guide students in the choice of books for curricular and co curricular work.

10. To direct the students to make the best use of the library.

11. To make efforts to develop love for reading among students and teachers by circulating list of
books, showing new titles and various other incentives.

In the words of V.B. Pathak, “In addition to the routine work, the librarian is
required to see that the library is situated in a central place in the school; that it is
adequately equipped; that every student has an easy approach to the library material; that
adequate arrangements for seating according to the age groups are available; that books
are arranged in the shelves in such a way that students do not find much difficulty in
tracing out the required information; that the tools for finding out the information are
adequate; the library meets the demands of the gifted as well as the backward children;
that the library helps in forming a good reading habit in the students; that there is co-
ordination with the teaching staff; that the students and the staff get the right type of
books; that the funds of the library are not misused; that the library is made a place of
attraction; that there is temperamental adjustment with the staff; and last but not the
least that the important factor of economy in time; labour and money receives special
attention in such a way that it does not serve as an obstruction in achieving the ultimate
goal of education.” The librarian will have to act as the pivot, and inspiration of the
intellectual and library firmament.

9. Role of the teacher:- Library will remain a passive show piece, if the teacher lacks the enthusiasm to
utilize it as a teaching device. A teacher has to play an important role:-

1. The teacher should have love for reading books. He must have a library habit. He should know
good authors and good books. He should guide the students in the selection of good books.

2. He should introduce the library to the students i.e., he should tell them about the rules and
regulations, issue and withdrawal of books, various sections of the library and the time for getting
the books.

3. He should take the class or group of students to the library and explain to them the functioning
of its various departments. They should be made familiar with catalogue cards and the way the
books can be traced.

4. He should encourage and motivate the students to read library books and other material. This
can be done by introducing a few incentives. Sometimes, a question may be asked in the class-
test. He may promise rewards and prizes. He should give them assignments, refer to the relevant
reading material, tell them the names of authors and titles, sometimes read extracts from good
books in order to stimulate their curiosity and quote relevant references during the class lessons.

5. He should encourage the students to utilize free periods for library reading.

6. He should discover ‘enthusiastic readers’, ‘less enthusiastic readers’, ‘slow readers’, and ‘bad
readers’ and ‘no readers’ and then provide them individual help and guidance. The enthusiastic

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 should be made more enthusiastic while bad readers be motivated to develop reading habits.

7. He should assess whether the students really get any benefit from the library. This can be done
by asking each student to maintain a library diary and keep a record of books studied, and
sometimes narrate in brief what they have read. He may ask them to write short reviews and read
the same in the class.

8. While teaching his subject, the teacher should suggest some selected books to the class,
show the illustrations given there in and tell about the contents so that the students be motivated
to read. On certain occasions he should tell them the method of using reference books like an
encyclopaedia or a dictionary.

9. He should help the librarian in performing his functions smoothly.

10. Encouraging (motivating) students for library reading or utilizing library resource:- Last important
thing in the organization of a good library is to adopt the measures by which the students can be
encouraged, inspired and motivated to develop reading habits. Important practical measures are:-

i.Attractive place:- The library should be made attractive and appealing. It should be decorated with
mottos, pictures, matching colour schemes, flower pots, the floor matting, etc. The
ventilation, the lighting arrangement, the comfortable furniture, the calm and quite
atmosphere will give added grace. Attractiveness of the library has much to do with the
promotion of study habits in the library. If the place is made really attractive and comfortable,
the students will be drawn and not driven to the library. In decorating the library, co-operation
of students should be obtained in order to give them the feeling that it is their own library.

ii. Special library hours:- There should be atleast one library period per week for each class. The
library should remain open throughout the school day so that the students can make full use
of it whenever they are free. They can read something of their interest during recess period or
if they have some free period or when a particular teacher is on leave. It will be encouraging if
the library remains open after school hours in the evening and on Sundays and holidays. It
may remain open during vacations also so that the students be tempted to read whenever
they want to read something.

iii. Due publicity of books:- sufficient publicity should be given about new arrivals in the library. The
jackets of new books can be displayed on the bulletin board. List of latest titles with brief
contents can be put up on the notice board. Such a list should be circulated every month
among the staff members who, in turn, may pass on the information to their students.

In the words of Rabindra Nath Tagore, “In order to bring library into the fullest use, it
is necessary that its contents should be clearly and specifically brought to notice, otherwise
it is difficult for the ordinary man to find his way about them, and the library is left as a city of
vast accommodation that lacks sufficient means of communication.”

iv. Systematic instruction;- Thorough and systematic instruction in the use of the library should be
given to the students. The instruction should aim at teaching students not only how to find
out the books and other materials in the library but also how to make the best use of the
material which the library contains. The librarian should give these instructions to regularly
scheduled classes. The teacher should give occasional talks to students on the importance
of library reading.

v. Prescribing minimum library reading:- Minimum library reading should be prescribed. It may be
different for different classes, according to their standard. Lists of different types of books
may be prepared by the teacher in consultation with the librarian. These lists may be provided
to all students and they may be asked to read the required number of books.

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vi. Teacher’s use of library resources:- Classroom teaching should be organized in such a way that
the students should find their studies incomplete without library reading. The students may
be required to supplement the knowledge acquired in the classroom by studying some books
from the library. The teacher may give to the pupils the names of the books, the names of the
authors and those of their publishers and ask them to collect material from them related to
the unit under study. Moreover, the teacher may narrate some story or stories to the students
that he reads in some books of the library. He may tell the students that such stories are in
the books which are lying in such and such place, section or almirah of the library. It will
motivate the students for library reading.

vii. Assignments:- Students may be given assignments which require use of the library. Before any
work is assigned to the students, the teacher should ensure that necessary material is
available in the library.

viii. Discussions and debates:- Discussions and debates may be held on the basis of material read
by the students. Prizes and merit certificates can be awarded to winners.

ix. Articles for school magazine:- Students may be encouraged to write articles for school
magazine or the wall magazine, and collect material from the library.

x. Participation in student’s sabha:- Students may be asked to narrate stories, recite poems and
give abstracts of books in students’ sabha or morning assembly.

xi. Book competitions:- Book competitions should be organized from time to time. Book
competitions can prove very useful in motivating students to read. Questions on titles,
authors and subject matter may be set. It will help the students in improving the knowledge
of books.

xii. Celebration of days:- Birthdays of great men and days of national importance may be
celebrated and the students may be encouraged to write articles and draw illustrations for
these occasions. Good articles and illustrations may be displayed on the bulletin boards or on
the board for wall magazines.

xiii. Book lovers club:- A book lovers club may be formed and monthly meetings be held. The
students may be asked to give a short review of interesting stories or other comments of the
books read by them.

xiv. Book exhibition:- Library day and book exhibition may be organized once a year to popularize the
library.

xv. Social service in the library:- Students may be involved in doing social service in the library like
cleaning the shelves, rearrangement of books etc. By doing so the students will come to
know about the various books of the library. They will be attracted towards reading some of
them.

xvi. Reading groups:- Reading groups may be organized. Students may be asked to keep diaries of
what they have read. The record should not be just of the names of all the books (along with
the names of the authors) which the student has read. Students may be instructed to write
brief quotations or extracts that may appeal to them. If possible, they may write short reviews
or appreciations of those books. They may be asked to suggest titles for addition to the
library.

xvii. Record of the books;- Proper record of the books read by the students should be maintained.
Each student may be allotted a few pages of the register in which al books studied by him are
entered date wise. Through this, the class teachers and head of the institution may see at a
glance what each student has been reading and can give him suitable advice and

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 encouragement.

xviii. Honour roll lists;- Honour roll lists of the books read can be kept. If the students are rewarded
for reading books, they will surely like to read. Certificates of various types may be awarded.
To encourage the students to read marks may be allotted. There is a practice in some
schools to make a mention of the number of books read by each during the month in the
monthly progress report which they send to parents.

xix. Efficient service:- Library service should be efficient. A whole time and competent librarian
should be appointed. The library staff should be co-operative, cheerful and sympathetic. They
should be ready to provide assistance to the readers.

xx. Open shelf system;- As far as possible, open shelf system should be introduced. This will
enable the students to have an easy access to the books they want. They will be free to look
to any title and see the contents of the books and have a good choice. There may be a few
causalities’ – some books may be spoiled or lost, but that will be a small price for the great
benefit the student is likely to gain from the free use of library.

xxi. Improvised library;- During the vacation books of interest to suit different grades of students
should be collected from various school libraries and placed in a central locality. This will
encourage the students to visit such improvised libraries and to study the books of their
interest.

To quote Rabindra Nath Tagore, “The library alone can be called hospitable which
shows an eagerness to invite readers to the feast at its disposal. It is such hospitality that
makes a library big, not the size. That the readers make the library is not the truth, the library
likewise makes the readers.”

Class library:-

Class library contains useful material for a particular class in different subjects and the class teacher is
responsible for the administration of that library. The class teacher takes from the central library (library) a
sufficient number of books suited to the needs, interests and intelligence of his students. Advantages of the
class library are:-

1. It is simple to oragnise and administer. A teacher with little interest can manage it.

2. Students can borrow and return the books easily and at their own convenience without going to the
central library.

3. The teacher can conveniently watch, supervise, guide and motivate the reading interests of the
students.

4. Class library helps teacher to detect talented and backward students.

5. Class library encourages reading habits of the students as they get more opportunity to read, by
borrowing the books of their subjects from this library.

Emphasizing the advantages of class library, secondary education commission remarks,

“The class library is an important and essential adjunct to the central library. It is clearly organized and
in the hands of a teacher of imagination it can do within its own limitations as much good work as the
central library.”

Subject library

Subject library is a small collection of subject books including textbooks, reference books, specialized works,
books on related subjects and allied fields, located in the subject room under the direction and control of

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senior subject teacher. Thus subject library has the treasure of its own type. Main advantages of subject
library are:-

1. The teacher has an easy access to the books. He gets knowledge about the titles and contents
about all the books on his subject. He can improve his teaching.

2. The subject teacher can suggest books to the students according to their interests and intellect.
The students can select books out of a great variety available at their beck and call.

Conclusion:- To conclude we can say that library plays very important role in schools and colleges. It has been
regarded as the core of the heart and the hub of the academic life of every educational institution.

Que:- Write a short note on reference book.

Meaning of reference book

Atlas, dictionary, directory, encyclopedia, handbook, thesaurus, or any other work designed to be used in
finding specific items of information, rather than for cover to cover reading. You need to have some sort of
reference book around so that you can figure out the answers you need quickly. Reference books are used to
find factual information on a subject, and are not usually read all the way through or chapter by chapter. In a
K-12 library, reference books are usually located in a special reference collection area, and cannot be checked
out. Reference books include dictionaries, encyclopedias, thesauri, almanacs, atlases, and directories, so a
reference book or periodical (or its electronic equivalent) to which one can refer for confirmed facts. The
information is intended to be found quickly when needed. Reference words are usually referred to for
particular pieces of information, rather than read beginning to end. Reference books are designed for
accessing specific facts or information and can take the form of indexes, dictionaries, encyclopedias,
bibliographies, almanacs, directories, handbooks etc.

Ques:- Field Survey

Field survey involves collecting data outside of an experimental or lab setting. This type of data collection of
most often done in natural settings or environments and can be done in a variety of ways for various
disciplines. Field survey are known to be expensive and timely; however, the amount and diversity of the data
collected can be invaluable.

Filed survey collect original or unconventional data via face to face interviews, surveys, or direct observation.
This research technique is usually treated as an initial form of research because the data collected is specific
only to the purpose for which it was gathered. Therefore, it is not applicable to the general public.

Method

Field survey should be carefully planned and prepared in order to ensure that the data collected is accurate,
valid, and collected efficiently. The equipment needed will depend on the type of study being conducted. The
process first starts with clearly stating the problem and defining the area of study. From there, a hypothesis, or
a theory of explanation, is set forth to explain any occurrences, expected for the specified group or
phenomena. This is why, before a field survey is conducted, it is important to identify the data/phenomena to
observe.

Once the hypothesis has been established, the data can be classified and scaled so that it will be easy to
know how to categorize information. Observations are classified because not all field observations will be
needed; therefore the observer can know what to look for and what to disregard. Observations are also scaled
to give the observer a way to rank the importance or significance of what has been observed. Once field
observations are concluded, this data will be analyzed and processed in order to resolve the problem initially
presented or to accept or reject the hypothesis that was presented.

Observer roles

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An important component of a field survey is the role the observer serves. Depending upon his or her
involvement, how the observer interacts with the natural elements of the study can influence the data. Most
field observers are known as complete observers because they make observations of what is being studied
without interacting with what is observed. The observer who chooses to interact is a participant observer and
makes it clear that he or she is a researcher. Field observers who choose to participate in their study
environment are known as complete participants. This is when the researcher is fully immersed in what is
being studied. Complete observers are often used for ethnological, or cultural, studies.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of surveys?

Surveys are easy to develop, especially when using the advanced survey software solutions available today.
Many researchers are tempted to do much of their data collection online; however, it is not always the
preferred mode of data collection, especially if respondents are in hard to reach areas. Whether a researcher
uses an online survey, mobile survey, paper survey, or a combination of all modes, the mode should depend on
the type of study and the demographics of respondents.

Online surveys and mobile surveys tend to be the most cost-effective modes of survey research, yet they may
not reach those respondents that can only respond using alternate modes. Results of online surveys and
mobile surveys may suffer and differ greatly if important respondents are left out of the research. Hard to
reach respondents may be easier to reach using more traditional methods such as paper surveys or face to
face interviews.

Advanced survey software solutions have multi mode capabilities for online surveys, mobile surveys, email
surveys, paper surveys, kiosk surveys, and more, giving researchers the ability to survey even the hardest to
reach consumers, and analyze data from all survey modes collectively.

The ability to reach respondents is one challenge of surveys. However, surveys have several advantages and
disadvantages. They are as follows:-

Advantages

● Relatively easy to administer.

● Can be developed in less time (compared to other data collection methods)

● Cost effective, but cost depends on survey mode.

● Can be administered remotely via online, mobile devices, mail, email, kiosk, or telephone.

● Conducted remotely can reduce or prevent geographical dependence.

● Capable of collecting data from a large number of respondents.

● Numerous questions can be asked about a subject, giving extensive flexibility in data analysis.

● With survey software, advanced statistical techniques can be utilized to analyze survey data to
determine validity, reliability, and statistical significance, including the ability to analyze multiple
variables.

● A broad range of data can be collected (e.g. attitudes, opinions, beliefs, values, behavior, factual.)

● Standardized surveys are relatively free from several types of errors.

Disadvantages

The reliability of survey data may depend on the following factors:-

● Respondents may not feel encouraged to provide accurate, honest answers.

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 ● Respondents may not feel comfortable providing answers that present themselves in a
unfavourable manner.

● Respondents may not be fully aware of their reasons for any given answer because of lack of
memory on the subject, or even boredom.

● Surveys with closed ended questions may have a lower validity rate than other question types.

● Data errors due to question non responses may exist. The number of respondents who choose to
respond to a survey question may be different from those who chose not to respond, thus creating
bias.

● Survey question answer options could lead to unclear data because certain answer options may be
interpreted differently by respondents. For example, the answer option ‘somewhat agree’ may
represent different things to different subjects, and have its own meaning to each individual
respondent. ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer options can also be problematic. Respondents may answer ‘no’ if the
option ‘only once’ is not available.

● Customized surveys can run the risk of containing certain types of errors.

Ques:- What do you understand by group discussion ? Explain its parts, types, purpose, procedure, merits and
demerits.

Ans:- Discussion popularly known as group discussion is considered as a democratic instructional method
which has been used in the teaching learning process since times immemorial. It was widely used at the
famous Nalanda University. The Greek scholars in their talk used to discuss various problems and issues with
their disciples.

Meaning and Nature of Group Discussion :

1. Webster’s View:- To discuss is “to consider, examine or investigate the various sides of a question,
topic or problem. The discussion method ranges all the way from a narrow question and answer
technique to a non-directive approach with the teacher playing a laissez-faire role. This technique is
an essential part of the democratic process.”

2. Risk’s view:- “Discussion means the thoughtful consideration of the relationships involved in the
topic or problem under study. The relationships are analysed, compared and evaluated and
conclusions may be drawn.

3. Good’s dictionary of education:- Discussion means “an activity characterized by adherence to a

topic, question, or problem about which the participants sincerely wish to arrive at a decision or
conclusion……”

4. Johnson’s view:- “Discussion is social action in its pure form.”

The following characteristics highlight the meaning and nature of discussion:

1. Thoughtful consideration of relationships: Discussion has been described as a thoughtful

consideration of the relationships involved in a topic or problem under study. It is concerned with the
analysis, comparison, evaluation and conclusions of these relationships.

2. Exchange of opinion:- In discussion there is exchange of opinion accompanied by a search for its
factual basis. Discussion involves study and preparation, selection and organization of subject-
matter, exchanging ideas and learning procedures. “Two heads are better than one” but when a
number of heads combine to solve a problem, wonderful results can be achieved. An exchange of
ideas and opinions offers valuable training to students in reflective thinking.

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 3. Competitive co-operation:- The participants are engaged in the process of competitive co-operation.

4. Agreement:- Agreement is the declared purpose of discussion. Discussion is in fact, an ordered

process of collective decision making. It often results in pooling opinion and joint action. It seeks
agreement but if it is not reached, it has the value of clarifying and sharpening the nature of
agreement.

5. Organizing and relating facts:- Discussion is carried out by organizing, outlining and relating the
facts to be studied.

6. Solution of the problem:- Discussion aims at uniting and integrating the work of the class. It
encourages the students to direct their thinking process towards the solution of a problem.

7. Utilization of experiences:- Discussion encourages the students to use their experiences for a
further clarification and consolidation of learning material.

8. Wide range of activities:- The wide range of activities, both physical and mental are discussed by
the pupils and the teachers mutually and the procedures are agreed upon before they are given a
practical shape.

9. Activeness:- The students are active in discussion. Teacher’s job is to supervise, and to provide
guidance to student’s activities.

10. Conversation:- A good discussion in fact is a well planned and well mannered conversation. As such,
every participant in a discussion must be courteous, clear, good natured, tolerant and sincere.

11. Objectives:- The affective objectives and higher order cognitive objectives may be achieved.

12. Structure:- Discussion may be organized formally as well as informally. In formal discussion, proper
schedule is prepared and certain rules are observed. Discussion may be organized on any educational
problem of curriculum. Teacher acts as leader of the group, but in the absence of a teacher, pupils
have to select a student to act as a leader of the group. The leader of the group prepares a plan for
discussion. In the discussion, due weightage is given to the questions and answers of the pupils.

13. Principles:- Group discussion method (strategy) is based on the following principles of teaching:

i.Principle of active participation

ii. Principle of freedom for work.

iii. Principle of group and equal opportunities to ask questions and to answer them.

Essential parts or constituents of discussion

1. The leader (The Teacher):- The teacher himself is the leader of discussion. The preparation and
planning of the discussion, selection and organization of the subject matter is all done by the teacher
in his capacity of leader. Teacher’s role of leadership in holding the said discussions is quite
responsible one. The teacher must not dominate the entire scene. Such an attitude will block rather
facilitate the “meeting of minds”. The teacher should watch carefully while discussion is going on
and act as prompt guide when the students are face to face with difficulties. The teacher by way of
his personal contact with the students enters into their life experiences.

2. The group (the students):- The students in the class form the group. They differ in their interests,
abilities, aptitudes, temperaments and habits. There are backward and the gifted, shy and
courageous, delinquent and obedient, and the talkative and silent students in the class. Each and
every member of the group may be encouraged by the leader to express his views frankly.

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 3. The problem:- The problem or topic for discussion must be one which the students feel their own. It
should be the problem of the group and not of the leader. The problem should be made as precise and
exact as possible. The selection of the problem should be made by the teacher with the co-operation
of his students. It must be real and functional and within the capacity and comprehension of the
students. The teacher should not thrust the problem on the students.

4. The contents:- The contents of the discussion according to Johnson is “the body of knowledge –
the facts and generalizations which must be drawn upon if any problem is to be discussed and
resolved.” It should also include maps, charts, pictures, diagrams and other audio-visual aids. In
discussion what matters most is constant resort to facts and generalizations without which a
common bond of agreement cannot be established. Facts remain facts. But sometimes the
statements are made by twisting the facts according to one’s whims. This creates the difference of
opinions. Such statements are to be discussed and interpreted as to their validity and importance with
regard to human relationships.

5. Evaluation:-At the end of discussion each participant should evaluate whether discussion about the
particular problem or topic has added to his knowledge and information, changed his ideas, attitudes
and prejudices and increased the range of his interest. A good discussion must bring change in ideas
and attitudes and make the participant more active than before.

Types of discussion

Discussion in teaching social studies may be informal or it may assume the form of a class-room
discussion, a debate, a symposium, a panel discussion or brain-storming.

1. Debate:- A debate is a programme in which two or more students holding contradictory opinions on a
particular problem present arguments. They are also given an opportunity to rebut the opposite side.
After this the rest of the class is encouraged to ask questions from the debaters or engage in brief
discussion with them. A debate has a moderator. To get significant results, the teacher should work
both with the debaters and the class.

2. Symposium:- In symposium the participants present to the audience their views about various
aspects of a selected problem or topic through speeches or proper reading. According to Struck, “We
think of a symposium as a group of comments, either spoken or written, which portrays contrasting or
atleast different points of view.” The main purpose of symposium is to clarify thought upon
controversial questions. The general audience listens to the discussions, and each person forms his
own conclusions concerning the validity or value of the points of view presented. The ideal number of
student participants in a symposium is four or five.

3. Panel discussion:- Panel discussion is a discussion among a selected group of four to six persons,
a large enough for variety and a small enough for purposeful deliberations. Usually eminent members
of their fields present various points of view before an audience which joins the discussion
subsequently. The purpose of such a discussion is to get important facts from different angles, to
stimulate thinking and lay a basis for wide participation. Therefore no speeches are made by the
members or by the leader but informal conversations take place.

In a panel discussions, either the rotation system can be followed where each member
expresses his opinion in turn or the members may speak briefly as the thought comes to them one
after the other. The panel discussion method should provide a natural setting in which people have the
opportunity to ask questions, to evaluate replies and to contribute constructively.

4. Brain storming:- In brain storming, the brains of the students are stimulated to create a storm of
ideas and suggestions regarding the topic without any deliberation to find whether or not they are
meaningful and purposeful. The principle behind brain storming is that when the brain is let go thus
without social institutions, it would be able to give expressions to some of the most useful and
practical suggestions.

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Purposes of group discussion - Discussion may be used for the following purposes:-

1. Sharing i.e. to share ideas, information and exchange views to arrive at the correct solution of a
problem.

2. Evaluative i.e. to evaluate the achievement by obtaining and giving respect for various points of view.

3. Clarification i.e. to clarify ideas.

4. Inspirational i.e. to inspire interest based upon factual sources.

5. Decisive i.e. to deal with the topic, problem or subject that has significance for learners and for the
society, and to make decisions concerning future action.

6. Evaluative i.e. to evaluate the achievement by obtaining and giving respect for various points of view.

7. Achieving i.e. to achieve cognitive objectives pertaining to higher order, and affective domain.

Procedure of group discussion:-

1. Plan grouning:- Discussion requires a good deal of planning and use of well directed procedure.
Discussion can produce the desired results if the teacher and the student representatives do
considerable planning.

2. Preparation:- Thorough preparation is needed for the discussion. The teacher should prepare the
material conscientiously. Points to be discussed should be arranged logically. They should be written
on the blackboard for guidance of the students. The problem to be discussed should be a felt
problem. If the students do not initially feel its need, they should be brought to do so.

3. Conducting:- While conducting the discussion, discipline should be maintained. The arrangement of
seats should ensure face to face talk. Since the strength of the discussion is obtained from the
information and viewpoint of all members of the group, it is essential that all contribute to its
progress. The teacher must see that every member of the group participates in the discussion. He
should encourage sincere questions and comments. The discussion must be geared to the
achievement of specific objectives and development of proper skills and methods.

The teacher must understand that an informal, relaxed and congenial environment is
essential for achieving the desired results. The teacher should know that the discussion is truly a co-
operative experience, not a competitive quarrel. He must continually discourage attack upon persons
and seek to bring the participants to focus their comments on the proposition, not the person. He
must ensure that discussion is objective-oriented. His questions should be skillful and direction
should be sound. He should make certain that a rapport is established between the teacher and the
taught.

4. Evaluation:- Discussion must result in certain achievements such as expanding information or

removing prejudices, changing attitudes or ideals, increasing the range or his interest, or causing him
to become more active. These motives should be kept in mind while evaluating the discussion.

Merits of group discussion

Clarification:- Discussion helps in clarifying and sharpening the issues. New ground is discovered both for
agreement and disagreement. Old ideas and values may be replaced by new ones.

1. Development of thinking:- Discussion helps the students in crystal-listing their thinking. It activates
their thinking along the lines of self evaluation. It is helpful in developing an attitude of looking
forward to progress and growth.

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 2. Development of problem solving attitude and creativity:- Discussion helps in developing the problem
solving attitude. It also helps in developing the creative ability.

3. Discovery of unknown:- Discussion helps students in knowing what they do not know and what they
have overlooked and where they are mistaken both as to facts and methods of interpreting them.
They may find out what they know and with that surety they know it.

4. Development of knowledge and reflection:- (i) Discussion gives knowledge. It engenders more
reflection than the ‘ping-pong’ of the question and answer recitation. It is the farthest from rote
learning. It employs reasonable persuasion. In discussion many arguments are given and listened to
which definitely add to the information and knowledge, previously possessed. (ii) Pooled knowledge:-
Discussion represents a type of pooled knowledge, ideas and feelings of several persons.

5. Intellectual team work:- Discussion represents a type of intellectual team work resting on the
philosophy and principle that the pooled knowledge, ideas and feelings of several persons have
greater merit than those of a single individual.

6. Development of toleration:- Discussion inculcates toleration. It engenders toleration for different

views. Participation in a discussion develop patience to listen divergent opinion, and tolerant
arguments, contrary to their own.

7. Collective decision making:- A class room discussion is an organised process of collective decision
making. It seeks agreement. But if it is not reached, it has the value of clarifying the nature of
disagreement.

8. Group learning:- Discussion affords opportunities to students to learn together, make suggestions,
share responsibility, comprehend the topic, evaluate the findings and summarise results.

9. Social learning:- Discussion provides opportunities to the students to speak distinctly, stand and sit
correctly, respect the ideas of others, share interests, ask pertinent questions and comprehend the
problem before the group.

10. Useful at all levels:- Discussion is useful both for juniors and seniors.

i.On the lower level, students learn through conversation and discussion to take turns, listen
attentively, act co-operatively, speak distinctly, stand and sit correctly, respect the ideas of
others, share interests, ask pertinent questions, utilize simple information and comprehend
the problem before the group.

ii. On the upper level, students plan and discuss problems with the entire group and in smaller
units. As group learns together and presents important information, makes suggestions,
shares responsibility, comprehends the topic, evaluates the findings and summarises results.

11. Identifying talented students:- Discussion helps in identifying and discovering talented students
who have potential for becoming good leaders.

12. Achievement of objectives:- Discussion helps in achieving the higher order cognitive and affective
objectives.

Limitations of group discussion:-

1. Not suitable for all topics:- Discussion is not suitable for all topics, units or problems included in
various subjects of the curriculum.

2. Chances for deviation:- Discussion has greater chances for deviation from the main topic. It is likely
to go off the track.

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 3. Monopolization:- In discussion there is room for monopolization. Only few students dominate and
monopolise the discussion. A large number of students do not participate in the discussion.

4. Groupism:- Generally the groups are formed in the actual conduct of a discussion. The groups
criticize each other. Thus in discussion method there is more criticism rather than requisite
discussion on relevant topics. It may involve unnecessary arguments.

5. Unpleasant feelings and tensions:- Too much of criticism may lead to unpleasant feelings. It may
create emotional tensions.

6. Not very suitable for secondary classes:- Discussion is not very suitable for lower classes. It is more
suitable for higher classes where in the scholars are fully trained on the basis of self-study which can
also enable them to discuss at understanding and reflective levels.

Suggestions or guidelines for the effective use of group discussion

Group Discussion may be improved and can be effectively used by observing the following precautions:-

1. Acquaintance with significance:- Students should be well acquainted with the significance of the
topic, its nature and causes why the class should discuss.

2. Important aspects:- Discussion should be confined to important aspects. Goals of discussion

should be kept in view.

3. No monopolization:- Only a few students should not be allowed to monopolise or dominate class
room discussion. Personality cult should be avoided.

4. Opportunity for all:- Every student should be provided an opportunity to participate in the discussion.
Ideas may be invited without pressure or embarrassment.

5. Encouragement:- Students should be encouraged and motivated to participate in the discussion.

6. Training to shy students:- Shy students may be given training in discussion in small groups so that
their hesitation is removed while participating in bigger groups.

7. Co-operation and team spirit:- Co-operation rather than competition should be encouraged. Efforts
should be made to develop team spirit.

8. Discouraging irrelevant criticism:- Students should be guided to appreciate difference of opinion and
views. Irrelevant criticism should be discouraged.

9. Removing doubts:- Doubts, mistakes and wrong interpretation should be made clear by the teacher.

10. Summary and evaluation:- Facts and points should be evaluated and summarized.

Conclusion:- It should be noted that discussion method is not the only method of instruction/teaching. It is, of
course, one of the methods. It is more useful with senior students and under the guidance of an intelligent,
hard-working and capable teacher.

Ques:- EXPLAIN NATURE OF LEARNER AND LEARNING PROCESS AND SUBJECT MATTER

NATURE OF LEARNER

A learner is one who wants to learn and study to make himself better. The qualities of a good learner are

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explained hereunder:-

1. Self discipline. Self discipline is the most important quality of a learner. With self discipline he will
have very few other qualities. Self discipline means the learner is able to think about the words and
actions and makes such choices which are best for himself as well as for others. A self disciplined
learner knows and understands the importance of time and uses if efficiently. He does the things
which need to be done in time.

2. Attitude. Attitude is basically a genuine desire to learn and willingness to do hard-work to achieve
some goal. It is the ability of the learner which reflects his willingness to learn new things and
subjects even if the subjects are not interesting.

3. Academic skills. Acquiring academic skills is one of the most important duties of the student. It is
one of the most important qualities of the learner. Ability to read comprehensively, to speak fluently, to
write effectively and to communicate clearly are the area in which the learner must be proficient. If
the learner is having these qualities he will shine in the class.

4. Respect for others. A good learner treats others the way he wants to be treated. He has respect for
others. He knows that everyone is best in his/her unique way. He understands that everyone has his
own abilities and potential. Every good learner have a deep respect for others.

5. Initiative. A good learner starts doing things without being told. A good learner doesn’t wait for the
assignments to be assigned in order to start study. A good learner does more problems and exercises
than assigned. A good learner not only follows the instructions of the teacher but looks for
opportunities to discover new things try new ideas and find better methods of learning. When an
opportunity arises to do a project outside the class, the good learner jumps at the chance and doesn’t
even ask whether it will give him some extra credit.

6. A critical bent of mind. Education is more than the acquisition of information. it includes the ability to
acquire new information, to crucially evaluate that information and to correctly and effectively use it. A
good learner has an open mind. His mind is receptive to new ideas and facts. But he doesn’t accept
the ideas and facts as they are stated. He dispassionately and rationally analyzes the new idea and
facts, weighs them objectively against the established knowledge and facts and only if they satisfy
them properly and accurately he accepts them.

7. Objectively. Education enables the learner to set his ego aside and evaluate the facts and interpret
objectively. Mere personal opinions have no value in an academic discussion. So one should learn to
recognize the validity of the facts that one does not like. A good learner understands that the universe
doesn’t revolve around him. He knows that the people of other cultures may interpret things

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differently. Thus he throws away his ego centric view of the world and broadens his worldview.

8. Humility. However much one knows, one must realize that there is much more to be learnt, and that
some of what one ‘knows’ may turn out to be wrong. Knowing a lot of things is good, but knowing the
limitations of one’s knowledge is essential for using it properly. A person is bound to commit an error
if he is proud and over-confident about his knowledge. Education gives the learner humility.

9. Perceptiveness. A good learner is more perceptive than his classmates. He can read between the
lines. He can perceive quickly what a writer or a speaker means, without misinterpreting. He learns to
seek the intended meaning of what he reads or hears rather than trying to impose his own
preconceived meaning. He can see through complexity at the heart of the matter. He can distinguish
the important from the trivial. A good student is not dependent on being shown everything, he can fill
the missing details himself.

10. Wider interests. School provides a great opportunity to broaden the learners interests and exploring
new things. The school contains convenient and comprehensive library; diverse and inexpensive
cultural events and academic activities. A learner can learn a lot of things outside the class. But if the
learner confines himself to the things he has always done, avoiding anything new and unfamiliar, then
he will lose this valuable opportunity. So, a good learner must have wider interests in order to make an
all-round development of his personality.

11. Perseverance. Perseverance is another quality that good learners have. They work hard and never
give up when it gets tough. They stick to something until it is finished. They can sacrifice a lot to
achieve the goal they have already set. In other words, they don’t give up, they keep on trying.

12. Citizenship. A good learner develops and acquires the qualities of a good citizen. He respects
national symbols, songs and national property. He obeys the rules and does his best to make his
country a better place to live.

13. Responsibility. It is one of the most important qualities a good learner should have. A good learner is
always dependable and he makes good choices. He takes care of the thing he is doing. His character
and behavior always show responsibility.

14. Trust worthiness. Trustworthiness is a must for a good learner. He can be counted on to do the right
things even if the teacher is not present. He does what he is asked to do, in a way that is asked by the
teacher. He understands his role and doesn’t play with the rules of the school.

15. Honesty. Honesty is a trait without which a learner is nothing. A good learner is always honest. He is
always truthful and sincere. He doesn’t harm school property and he returns borrowed items. He is
honest not only to the teachers and the school but also to himself.

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 Besides these qualities, a good leaner always works hard at learning whatever is being taught in the
class. A good leaner is a good reader, a good listener, analyzer and has good comprehension skills.
His memory is also good. He utilizes his brain to think, research, study and experiment for himself. He
does not depend on other for solving his problems but thrives on doing his own thinking.

LEARNING PROCESS

Learning process means the activity of learning carried out by the learner/learners. There may be learning by
the learners as a result of teaching done by the teacher. This type is called formal learning. And there can be
learning by the students at their own when they study some material or are doing some activity contained in
the curriculum of their institution. Here learning is through self efforts. That learning is informal type of
learning.

On the formal learning, the learning process centres round the teacher, the student and the subject matter. And
in informal type of learning, there is interaction between the subject matter and the learner. Excellent
interaction in both the situations formal and informal the major components i.e. the teacher, the learner and the
subject matter have to be thoroughly good. Then only there will be good interaction.

The better the subject matter, the better is the learner. When the subject matter is really very good, the learner
can learn at his own without any guidance of the teacher.

Factors affecting learning

Learning is a process which takes place as a result of teaching. It can also be there without teaching.
Everybody learns on the basis of his experiences in day to day life situations. There are many factors which
affect learning. Some of the factors have been briefly discussed here below:

1. Hereditary factors. Neither we can change nor increase hereditary endowment. Of course, we can
use it and develop it. This differs in different individuals some are very such in the matters of
hereditary endowments which others are very poor. The native intelligence is different in different
individuals. Children vary also in particular abilities. The intelligent children can establish and see
relationship very easily and more quickly. Our ability to learn and the rate of learning are conditioned by
our heredity. Maximum use should be made of the hereditary endowment. Attempts should be made
to see to it that children get opportunities to use and develop their hereditary endowment.

2. Interest and motivation. Interest of the learner in the subject matter helps him to learn things quickly.
When there as self created interest, it helps to learn more and more and that also at a quick speed.
But when some external agency motivates the learner, learning does take place but it may not be of
the type we have otherwise.

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3. Method of teaching. A method of teaching plays an important role in the learning that takes place. A
good method is one in which the student is actively involved in the process. When the students learn
things by play way, they are able to learn well. Experiment performed by a student helps him to have
better grasp of the subject matter.

4. Attitude of the learner. Learning depends upon the attitude of the learner. There will be good learning
when the learner has a favourable attitude.

5. Maturity of a person. Maturity effects learning. A person who is matured can grasp certain things
easily which may not be well understood by an in matured learner. The material is well learnt when it is
according to the maturity level of the learners.

6. Association. When the new material is learnt by associating it with the old one which is already
known, it is properly understood and is also retained for a longer time.

7. Fresh time. Fresh time chosen for learning helps a lot. At fresh time, the mind is fresh, is not
fatigued anyway, and is able to receive the knowledge easily and quickly.

8. Adequate knowledge. A person with adequate knowledge about things is able to learn well. On the
other hand, a person who has better knowledge will find it difficult to catch up even easy material.

9. Imaginative mind. A person with imaginative mind is usually thoughtful and creative. Such a person
is able to learn things well.

10. Attention. Attention plays an important role in the process of education. Education involves
perception and observation which in their turn require attention of the learner. One very aim attention
to one thing and the other things may go to the unconscious or sub-conscious mind. Attention to one
will make a person learn that thing well.

11. Insight. Insight plays a prominent role in learning. Insight is a flash of thought or solution in mind that
helps a person to face a problem solving situation. One learns the material as a whole and then sees
different parts and their relationships with the whole. Insight is developed through more and more
knowledge, thinking, application etc.

12. Incentives. Positive incentives like praise, reward or one type or the other help in better learning. On
the other hand, negative type of incentives such as punishment, fine, etc, hinder in learning well.

13. Proper environment. Proper environment is very important for effective learning. Suppose the learner
is not able to have comfortable seat, he won’t be able to grasp things well. The conductive
environment has a healthy effect on the learning of a person.

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 Thus we find that learning depends upon a number of factors. Four major factors upon which learning
depends.

i.The capacity and motivation of the learner himself.

ii. The meaningfulness and difficulty of the learning tasks.

iii. The methods in which the learning materials are presented.

iv. Interaction between the above variables.

The learner, his willingness to learn and the environment definitely play important roles in his learning
process.

Subject matter

Subject matter is the main thing which the learner has to acquire through the process of schooling. The
subject matter is the main thing in the hands of a teacher with which he handles in the class and uses
different strategies so that it may reach the learner as best as possible. Therefore, it is important that the
subject matter should have the following characteristics:

Characteristics

1. The subject matter is according to the mental level of the learners.

2. It is capable of sustaining interest of the students.

3. It is related to the physical and social environment of the learners.

4. It has a variety of themes.

5. The facts given in it are correct and upto date.

6. It provides new information to the learners.

7. It is free from such incidents and references as may hurt the feelings of the students.

8. It is in accordance with the aims already fixed up for the said study curriculum.

9. It inculcates qualities of good citizenship.

10. It contains enough humorous element in it.

11. It is linked with the next higher grade/class of the learner.

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 12. The subject matter is divided into convenient units so that the teacher may not face any problem
while teaching and the learner may also not face any such problem.

13. The subject matter is well selected and graded in order of difficulty.

14. The title of each lesson is brief, suitable and also meaningful.

15. The language used in the subject matter is simple and understandable for the learners.

The subject matter is easy handle for the teacher. He/she does face any problem while teaching it to the
children.

Ques:- EXPLAIN KNOWLEDGE AND IDEOLOGY IN RELATION TO CURRICULUM AND TEXT BOOKS

Any text book is framed on the basis of knowledge and ideology. But play very important role in its framework.
It is prepared by great philosophers who has deep knowledge and deep ideology. Every text book and
curriculum is related with knowledge and ideology so it becomes useful. Text books and curriculum are
commonly related with knowledge and different ideologies. These are made according to passage of time and
present ideologies of that time when it has been made. There are various different types of knowledge and
ideologies covered in text books and curriculum.

1. Different philosophies of great men.

2. Knowledge of past, present and future.

3. Current technology.

4. Developed researches.

5. Religious, cultural and fundamental values.

6. Constitutional knowledge.

7. New ideologies.

8. Knowledge of surrounding and whole.

9. Background experiences.

10. Situational and environmental policies.

11. Natural disasters

12. Local aspects.

All these aspects are connected with every text book. No text book can be made without
knowledge or any ideology. So the formation of text books are directly related with knowledge and
ideologies of that place where these books are printed and published. It creates that environment which is
test for development of every child.

Suggestions/criteria in context of text book:-

There are various suggestions of text book. These are as under:-

1. Useful subject matter:- Reaching on subject is based on wider concept of the knowledge, so it is
duty of teacher to select the text book for the students which is complete on the part of subject

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 matter. It will remove the misconception of the students in the classroom.

2. Based on perfection:- The text books must be based on perfection. It is generally seen that as the
standard of education raises, the level of the text book are decreased. In that position, students want
to take help of books which may be according to the syllabus, which may be complete in syllabus but
not marks scoring. Teacher must select text book which is appropriate according to the level of the
students.

3. Not based on doubts:- Number of books according to different curriculum is not complete in
themselves. Students may be doubtful while reading these books. It happens only when the number
of books shows the different dictation of particular syllabus. At that time, the students cannot
understand what is rigid and what is wrong.

4. Writing style;- The writing style of the book must be simple and bold. The clarity of content matter
must be cleared. Examples must be contained in it. The writing style of the author must be attractive.
It should be connected with the real knowledge.

5. Revision of lesson:- The number of points must be highlighted after completion of chapter which
can clear the whole content matter of the chapter in a paragraph. It can be beneficial for the students
when they will define these questions from the lesson. It will also develop the knowledge of the
students.

6. Based on quality rather than quantity:- Text book must be based on the quality education. It does not
matter, it is written in 100 pages or 500 pages, but the content matter must be cleared according to
the question. If the students will read this book, they can find the proper understanding from the
subject matter.

7. Good in size and effective binding:- It is duty of the students to check the size and binding of the text
books properly. If it is not according to the proper shape and useless binding, it may not be valuable
for a long time because they have paid more for this text book.

8. Use of effective printing and good paper:- The students must know that the printing and the paper of
the book is good or not. If it is not properly prepared, it may be harmful for the students in future. The
paper of the text book must be thick and printing must be effective with good ink.

9. Use of language and good vocabulary:- It may be effective if the text books are enrich in language. It
must be according to the mental level of the students. If the students will read these books, it must
clear their content matter. If it will be based on higher level, that is useless for the students.

10. Based on overview:- The students do not like subjects very much, but a good evaluator can present a
good book with number of activities which creates the curiosity of the students. These pictures,
diagrams, charts, maps, flash cards can attract the students to knowledge. It leaves great impact
over the minds of the students for long time.

11. Based on creativity:- Text books must be artistic or authors creativity. It will cover number of
pictures, symbols, or diagrams. It makes students knowledge effective.

12. Based on good planning:- Text books must be based on planning. It covers the topic sequencly. It
clears the matter properly.

13. Based on examples:- It must be based on various examples. It makes students learning effective. It
clears the concepts of the students.

Conclusion

Text books play an important role in the modern educational system. It is a source of knowledge. These are
helpful for the students as well as the teachers. It fixes the curriculum in general form. Text books contained

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maps, lines, pictures and bar graphs related with the content matter. It is considered a valuable source of
effective teaching and learning. The text books are printed in form. These text books are practical related with
the content matter. The teacher clarifies about the content matter with the help of text books. The students
also get various information(s) from these text books.

Ques:- Explain need and importance of national curriculum framework?

NATIONAL CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK,

he national education policy, 1968 promulgated the 10+2+3 structure of education for the entire country, and
the NCERT, in 1975, prepared core curriculum the first ten years education and published the document. In the
national education policy, 1986, the 10+2+3 structure of education was implemented compulsorily in the role
country. In the mean time, the first ten years core curriculum prepared by NCERT 1975, was implemented in
some states had revealed its merits and demerits, the council prepared a new draft of the first ten years core
curriculum, keeping in view the experiences gained and the provision in the new education policy, and got it
published in 1988. This core curriculum was implemented by different state governments in their own ways.

The national education policy, 1986 declared that the curriculum for any level of education will be
reviewed every five years, and necessary amendments will be effected to it. On the other hand, in 1992, the
central government announced the modified national education policy, 1986. Now, the NCERT was faced with
the question of constructing core curriculum for the first ten years education keeping in view the national
education policy, 1986 and the expectations conceived in the modified national education policy, (9992). It
gave somewhat a new form to the core curriculum for the first ten years, and published it in November 2000.
This is as follows:-

Curriculum for pre primary education

1. Children be kept free from textbooks at this level.

2. Children be given free opportunities to play, they be given nutritious food, their bodies be
strengthened, and their senses be trained.

3. Children be given free opportunities for hearing and speaking, their home language may be improved
upon, and they be inclined towards the use of mother tongue.

Curriculum for primary education

A. Classes I and II

1. One language: mother tongue/regional language.

2. Mathematics

3. Art of healthy and productive living.

B. Classes III to V

1. One language: mother tongue/regional language

2. Mathematics

C. Classes XI to XII

1. Mother tongue (regional language)

2. English

3. Mathematics

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 4. Computer.

5. Physics

6. Chemistry

7. Biology

8. Political science

9. Geography

10. History

11. Economics

12. Sociology

13. Psychology

14. Commerce

15. Accountancy

16. Art education

17. Other optional subjects.

Why and how should the subjects be taught at different levels, in this context, they have put forward
their own suggestions. We are presenting them here in brief.

Languages:- The Indian society is multi lingual, so it is necessary for the students to know more than one
language. Due to this, the national curriculum framework had advocated the teaching of three languages. The
languages skill includes speaking, hearing, reading and writing, and these are necessary right from the primary
classes.

Enriched communication environment is necessary for learning a language. For it enriched textbooks,
class library and books in more than one language should be made available. Also, media support such as
magazines, newspaper articles radio and audio cassettes etc. should be made available. It should be ensured
that the language teacher is skilled in language proficiency.

Mathematics:- Teaching of mathematics is necessary for cultivating useful mathematical abilities in

students, to cultivate their logical thinking to inculcate abstract thinking and to solve problems. Therefore, it
should be taught up to classes 10 compulsorily.

Mathematics should be taught by incorporating suitable imaginative and abstract thinking through
suitable means, and different mathematical concepts should be taught through models, such as those facts
based on calculation, size, form etc., and mathematics should be correlated with other subjects too.

Science:- Science teaching trains the students in observation, hypothesis formulation, drawing inferences,
verification of inferences and formulation of related laws. This helps to cultivate in them the habit of
systematic working and discipline. Also, science study helps in eradicating poverty, superstition and
ignorance. Therefore, it should be compulsorily taught up to class 10.

Teaching work in science should be conducted on the basis of experience related validity, process and
system validity, environmental validity and ethical validity, and content should be selected accordingly.

Social study:- It is every essential to introduce students with the actual situation in the society. Therefore,

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learning in social study is necessary. Its knowledge also helps cultivate social, cultural and analytical skill.

Such methods should be selected for social study teaching which encourage creativity, aesthetics and
critical thinking, also it should cultivate the ability to correlate the past with the present.

Computer:- Looking at the role and importance of compute in the modern society, its study is all the more
important for students.

It should be ensured that the basic elements commonly found in computer science and information
technology should be taught at first.

Work education:- Socialization of both adult and child occurs in the same way, which takes place by working
together cooperatively. Therefore, it is necessary to impart work education to students. Also, work education
should lead to economic progress, this makes work education important.

Work education should be taught in practical terms. In the beginning, the activities such as cutting and
peeling vegetables, cleanliness of the classroom, gardening etc. can be included, which can be made inter
subject to undertaken teaching. Work education should be so imparted that inclination towards logical
thinking, transfer of learning and dignity of labour are cultivated.

Peace education:- Violence is quite prevalent at world, national and local levels. Therefore, peace education
should be given to students looking at its importance from the viewpoint of establishing peace in the society.

Peace education should be so imparted that students are inclined towards peace, they should cultivate
forbearance, tolerance, justice and mutual understanding, and social responsibility. For it, life and anecdotes
of the great people can be organized for hearing and discussion purposes.

Art education:- The teaching of art education is essential for cultivation of artistic skill, and cultural and
aesthetic awareness.

Suitable mens and resources should be made available to teacher for teaching of art.

Health and physical education:- A child’s physical development is influenced by biological, social, economic,
cultural and political factors. Therefore health and physical education is necessary for all round development
or a child.

Under health and physical education, cleanliness drives and games can be organized at the primary level.
Yoga can be taught at the primary level informally; however it should be formally taught from class 6 onwards.
Besides, games like basketball, volleyball etc. can be conducted during and after school hours.

Criticism

This curriculum advocates English along with mother tongue right from class I. the curriculum give the
following arguments for this:-

1. English has been established as a language of the learned and prosperous classes in India.

2. It is used in all fields of the government, industry and commerce in India.

3. Without learning it, people cannot become intelligent, prosperous and cultured and cannot reach the
zenith of success in their areas.

In this context, we only beg to stress that the use of mother tongue is needed by everybody in the country,
but English is needed by only 15-20% of people, so it should not be made a compulsory subject. The
talented students should be given facilities for studying national language Hindi and international
language English from class I, but it should be in the form of only additional subjects to learn these
languages and succeed. While common students would be save from the burden of studying to additional

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languages.

As far as computer education is concerned at secondary level, it is necessary in today’s context. As

far as establishing peace through peace education is concerned, it seems quite ridiculous and absurd. We
only feel pity on the educationists working in the NCERT; they always prepare the curriculum according to
the wishes of the central government, they stressed on value education during the NDA regime, and now
they are stressing on peace education the UPA government. Now is the proper time for them to think in the
national interests.

There is nothing new in whatever has been said in the context of teaching different subjects of the
curriculum, the teachers are already in the know of it.

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