Module V
Basic design concepts of sandwich construction
A sandwich-structured composite is a special class of composite materials that is fabricated by attaching
two thin but stiff skins to a lightweight but thick core. The core material is normally low strength
material, but its higher thickness provides the sandwich composite with high bending stiffness with
overall low density. Sandwich composites are becoming more and more popular in structural design,
mainly for their ability to substantially decrease weight while maintaining mechanical performance. This
weight reduction results in a number of benefits, including increased range, higher payloads and
decreased fuel consumption.
THE SANDWICH PRINCIPLE
The sandwich is analogous to an endless I-beam in the sense that when subjected to bending, the flanges
carry in-plane compression and tension loads (as do the sandwich skins or laminates) and the web carries
shear loads (as does the structural sandwich core). As with a traditional I-beam, when the flanges (skins)
are further apart, the structure gains more proportional stiffness. A thicker core achieves the same, but it
also provides an overall low density, resulting in a high stiffness-to-weight ratio.
Faces (outer and inner skins)
The faces carry the tensile and compressive stresses in the sandwich. The local flexural rigidity is often so
small it can be ignored. Conventional materials such as steel, stainless steel and aluminum are often used
as face material. It is also suitable and common to choose fiber or glass-reinforced plastics as face
materials. Faces also carry local pressure. When the local pressure is high, the faces should be
dimensioned for the shear forces connected to it.
Core
The core’s function is to support the thin skins so they do not buckle (deform) inwardly or outwardly, and
to keep them in relative position to each other. To accomplish this, the core must have several important
characteristics. It has to be stiff enough to keep the distance between the faces constant. It must also be so
rigid in shear that the faces do not slide over each other. The shear rigidity forces the faces to cooperate
with each other. If the core is weak in shear, the faces do not cooperate and the sandwich will lose its
stiffness. Strength in different directions and low density are not the only properties the core must have.
Often there are special demands for buckling, insulation, absorption of moisture, aging resistance, etc.
The core can be made of a variety of materials, such as wood, aluminum, and a variety of foams.
Adhesive (Bonding layer)
To keep the faces and the core cooperating with each other, the adhesive between the faces and the core
must be able to transfer the shear forces between them. The adhesive must be able to carry shear and
tensile stresses. It is hard to specify the demands on the joints. A simple rule is that the adhesive should be
able to take up the same shear stress as the core.
Materials used for sandwich construction
FACING MATERIALS:
The facings of a sandwich part serve many purposes, depending
upon the application, but in all cases they carry the major
applied loads. The stiffness, stability, configuration, and, to a
large extent, the strength of the part are determined by the
characteristics of the facings as stabilized by the core. To
perform these functions the facings must be adequately bonded
to a core of acceptable quality. Facings sometimes have
additional functions, such as providing a profile of proper
aerodynamic smoothness, a rough non-skid surface, or a tough
wear-resistant floor covering. To better fulfil these special
functions, one facing of a sandwich is sometimes made thicker
or of slightly different construction than the other. Any thin,
sheet material can serve as a sandwich facing. A few of the
materials usually used are discussed briefly in the following:
1. Aluminum Alloys.
The stronger alloys of aluminum, such as 7075-T6, 2024-T3, or
2014-T6, are commonly used as facings for structural as well as
for non-structural sandwich applications.
2. Steel Alloys.
Stainless steel sheets are finding increasing use as a facing
material in airframe sandwich construction. The chief advantage
of stainless steel sheet is its high strength at elevated
temperatures. Alloys such as 18-8, 17-7PH, and PH15-7Mo are
currently finding use because high stresses can be realized. The
18-8 alloys can be rolled to various degrees of hardness to
produce high strength but it should be understood that a sheet
rolled full hard has a longitudinal compressive yield stress about
one-half of the compressive yield stress in the transverse
direction. This discrepancy can be closed by subsequent stress
relief. Alloys of the 17-7PH and PH15-7Mo are precipitation
hardenable and can be strengthened by heat treatment–usually to
condition TH1050.
3. Titanium Alloys.
Alloys of titanium are currently of interest as facing materials
because of their high strength-weight ratios and because they
can be utilized for moderately high temperature applications.
4. Magnesium Alloys.
Magnesium alloy sheets have been used only experimentally as
facing materials, but may find increasing application because of
their low density.
5. Nickel Base Alloys.
Nickel base alloys such as René 41 can be utilized for heat
resistant sandwich at temperatures of 1200°-1500° F. René 41 is
a precipitation-hardening alloy that needs protection from the
atmosphere during heat treating. The alloy can be welded.
6. Cobalt Base Alloys.
Alloys of cobalt with chromium, nickel molybdenum, and
tungsten are available for use in moderately stressed applications
at temperatures of 1000°-1800° F. Alloys such as L605 can be
brazed, or fusion or resistance welded.
CORE MATERIALS
Engineering theory shows that the flexural stiffness of any panel
is proportional to the cube of its thickness. The purpose of a core
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in a composite laminate is therefore to increase the laminate's
stiffness by effectively 'thickening' it with a low-density core
material. This can provide a dramatic increase in stiffness for
very little additional weight.
1. Wood Cores
Wood can be described as 'nature's honeycomb', as it has a
structure that, on a microscopic scale, is similar to the cellular
hexagonal structure of synthetic honeycomb. When used in a
sandwich structure with the grain running perpendicular to the
plane of the skins, the resulting component shows properties
similar to those made with man-made honeycombs. However,
despite various chemical treatments being available, all wood
cores are susceptible to moisture attack and will rot if not well
surrounded by laminate or resin. E.g. Balsa, Cedar
2. PVC Foam
Closed-cell polyvinyl chloride (PVC) foams are one of the most
commonly used core materials for the construction of high
performance sandwich structures. Although strictly they are a
chemical hybrid of PVC and polyurethane, they tend to be
referred to simply as 'PVC foams' PVC foams offer a balanced
combination of static and dynamic properties and good
resistance to water absorption. They also have a large operating
temperature range of typically -240°C to +80°C (-400°F to
+180°F), and are resistant to many chemicals
3. Polystyrene Foams
Although polystyrene foams are used extensively in sail and surf
board manufacture, where their light weight (40kg/m3), low cost
and easy to sand characteristics are of prime importance, they
are rarely employed in high performance component
construction because of their low mechanical properties. They
cannot be used in conjunction with polyester resin systems
because they will be dissolved by the styrene present in the
resin.
4. Aluminium honeycomb
Aluminium honeycomb produces one of the highest
strength/weight ratios of any structural material. There are
various configurations of the adhesive bonding of the aluminium
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foil which can lead to a variety of geometric cell shapes (usually
hexagonal). Properties can also be controlled by varying the foil
thickness and cell size. The honeycomb is usually supplied in
the unexpanded block form and is stretched out into a sheet on-
site. Despite its good mechanical properties and relatively low
price, aluminium honeycomb has to be used with caution in
some applications, such as large marine structures, because of
the potential corrosion problems in a salt-water environment.
Failure modes of sandwich panels
Failure modes in sandwich structures are different from those in monolithic structures. The general failure
modes that might occur in sandwich structures, depending on the design and core material.
1. General Buckling
The general buckling of a panel might occur if the panel thickness is not sufficient or core rigidity is
insufficient.
2. Shear Crimping
This occurs as a consequence of general buckling. It is caused by low core shear modulus or low adhesive
shear strength.
3. Face Wrinkling
In this failure mode, a face sheet buckles acting as a “plate on an
elastic foundation” with core acting as an elastic foundation. The
wrinkling of face sheet may occur inwards or outwards
depending on relative strength of core in compression and
adhesive strength in tension.
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4. Intracell Buckling (Dimpling)
This failure mode occurs in panels with cellular cores due to thin
face sheets or large core cell size. This failure mode may
propagate in adjoining cells and thus causing face sheet
wrinkling.
5. Face Sheet Failure
This failure mode is caused by insufficient panel thickness, face
sheet thickness or face sheet strength.
6. Transverse Shear Failure
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This type of failure mode is caused by insufficient core shear
strength or panel thickness.
7. Flexural Crushing of Core
This is caused by insufficient core compressive strength or
excessive panel deflection.
8. Local Crushing of Core
This failure mode is caused by low core compressive strength.
Bending stress and shear flow in composite beams
Composite beams
Composite beams are constructed from more than one material to increase stiffness or strength (or to
reduce cost). Common composite-type beams include I-beams where the web is plywood and the flanges
are solid wood members (sometimes referred to as "engineered I-beams"). Pipe beams sometimes have
an outer liner made from another type of material.
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Bending Stresses( REFERENCE)
The bending stress in a composite beam can be found by using the moment equilibrium equation at any
internal location. Summing the moments give,
Using the relationship between the bending stress and the radius of curvature, σ = -Ey/ρ, gives,
BENDING OF COMPOSITE BEAMS (from text book for reference)
To study mechanics of beams made of laminated composite materials, we need to review the
beam analysis of isotropic materials. Several concepts applied to beams made of isotropic
materials will help in understanding beams made of composite materials. We are limiting our
study to beams with transverse loading or applied moments.
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