Ghassis Service,and

Wheel Alignment

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

> Explain the procedure for removing a powertrain from unibody and fullframe vehicles.
> Describe how suspension and steering systems work.

> Diagnose and service a steering system.

> Name the service procedures for the major parts of a cooling system.

> Diagnose and service an emission control system.

> Answer ASE-style review questions relating to chassis service.

INTRODUCTION another shop or to the mechanical repair area next to the

body shop.
Todays collision repair technicians often have to service This chapter will give you the basic knowledge needed
mechanical chassis parts when doing major auto body to seruice mechanical components in a body shop envi-
repairs. To gain access to structural panels for replacement ronment. You will learn which mechanical parts are typi-
or during full frame replacement, they must remove and cally damaged in a collision and how to replace [Link]
install engines, transmission assemblies, drive axles, sus- will learn when, why and how mechanical assemblies are
pension systems, axle housings, fuel lines, emmission con-
removed while doing collision repairs.
trol devices, brake assemblies, and other mechanical units.
Body technicians frequently complete minor mechani-
cal repair tasks such as replacing a damaged water pump, 21"1 POWERTRAIN CONSTRUCTION
a smashed radiator, or a broken engine motor mount. The
mechanical components are often ruined by the crushing
The powertrain includes all of the parts that produce and
transfer Dower to the drive wheels to propel the vehicle.
force of a major collision.
In many cases, major drive line parts such as engines,
transmissions, and drive axles are mounted directly to
structural unibody panels or the frame (Figure 21-1).ln
When diagnosing and repairing me-
other cases, these parts are mounted to supporting cross
members, subframe assemblies, or cradle assemblies that chanical parts, always refer to factory or
are mounted to the unibody or frame. aftermarket service information for the
Collision repair technicians must often remove and specific vehicle. The service manual or
install these mechanical assemblies when doing major computer-based repair information provides the
structural repair work. However, more complex mechani- detailed procedures and specifications essential
cal repairs may require the special skills and tools of a cer- for doing competent work.
tified auto mechanic. In such cases, vehicles are senr ro

601
602 Chapter 2'1

A The car bodv orovides an attractive exterior. lt can be made of steel, fiberglass, plastics, and composlte mater a s

Phantom

B tne body has been sectioned away to show the engine and othet m€chanical/electrical assemblies under the body

Powertrain
(chassis)

b.
;--
r_#
!*

L%J

C This view shows the chassis and powertrain for the same car. lt is a tront-engine, rear-wheel-drive, high-performance conf !L'ai

FIGURE 21-t Three photos show different views of how a car is made. (Courtesy of Ford Motor Company)
 Chassis Service and Wheel Alignment 603
This includes the engine, transmission or transaxle, drive HNGINE
axle, differential, and other related parts. The driuetrain typ-
ically includes all of the assemblies that send power to the The engine provides energy to move the vehicle and
drive wheels. except the engine. power all of its accessories (Figure 21*2). Most cars and

lgnition coils
Intake
manifold

Camshaft
timing
belt

Piston

Connecting
rod

Throttle
body

Oilpan

Cylinder
block

Crankshaft
Water pump
putley

Crankshaft

Serpentine
Intercooler
accessory
drive belt

FIGURE 21-2 This phantcrn view shows the internal parts of a modern engine. Study the names of the various parls. (Courtesy of
Volkswagen of America, lnc.)
604 Chapter 2'1

light trucks use a gasoline engine; some use a diesel der wall (cylinder surface). A connecting I.-'. i-,.:-::.:s
engine. The basic parts of a typical internal combustion the piston to the crankshaft.
piston engine include: The engine cronkshaft, which changes the r.- :. --.--
ing (up and down) motion of the piston dllC . l ..-. :,
!' The engine b/ocft, which is the foundation of the engine; more useful rotary (spinning) motion. Poi',=:' - -r...
all the other engine parts are either housed in or the driving wheel comes from the reat" c, :',= -:.,.,,,-
attached to the block. The cylinder is a round hole bored shaft and accessories are driven off the ilol.
(machined) in the block that guides piston movement. A cylinder head, which covers and seals the ., : - :
F The engine piston, which transfers the energy of com- cylinder. It contains valves, rocker arms, a-.: j .:':'
bustion (burning of air-fuel mixture) to the connect- times, the camshaft. The combustion cha:'.-- =: : :
ing rod. Circular seals called rings are installed around small enclosed area between the top of the :... ,r ,
the bottom of the cylinder head. The bur.r-'.-= ''
the top sides of the piston. They keep combustion pres- =

sure and oil from leaking between the piston and cylin- air-fuel mixture occurs in the combustion c:..'-.- =:
lntake
manifold

lgnition system
distributor

Cam
cover T_
i.C ^i

Dipstick

Exhaust
manifold

Valves

Balancer
Harmonic
shaft uaLottugl
Oil pan /^/^^1,l^ nl o
\Uld.l Pu s-'

FEG{-lRE Eg'!-3 Eve:rthoughasabodyiechnicianyoumaynerrerlvorkontheinternai parlsoran engine. r'l rs inieresl - j :., ' -,

erlgrrie works. (Ccurtesy af Anteflcan Hortda Motcr Cc., lnc.)
 Chassis Service and Wheel Alignment 605
Engine DalDes, which are flow control devices that In a collision, the oil filter, oil pan, and related parts are
open to allow the air-fuel mixture into and exhaust sometimes damaged. They are made of thin metal and
out of the combustion [Link] springs hold the can be easily crushed and ruptured.
valves closed when they do not need to be open. They
also return the valve train parts to the at-rest position.
The camshall which controls the operation of valves. It
can be located in the block or the cylinder head. The When starting an engine before or
lifter is a cylindrical-shaped part that rides on the after repairs, check the oil level with the
camshaft lobes and transfers motion to the push rods. oil dipstick. Also, always look under the
The push rods are hollow tubes that transfer motion vehicle for oil leakage. lf you find an oil leak,
from the lifters to the rocker arms. The rocker arms are shut off the engine right away. Find and fix the
levers that transfer camshaft action from the push rods source of the oil leak.
to the [Link] Figure 21-3.
The flywheelis a hear,y metal disc used to help keep the
crankshaft turning smoothlSz It also connects engine
power to the transmission. A larger gear on the outside DRIVETRAI N CONSTRUCTION
of the [Link] engages the starting motor when crank- The drivetrain includes everything after the engine-the
ing the engine for starting. Look at Figure 21-4. clutch, transmission, drive shaft, and drive axles. Drivetrain

Oilfiller
cap
Intake
manifold
Engine

Clutch
Spark
plug

Manual
transaxle

Air-conditioning
compressor

CV
drive
axte

Differential

FIGURE 21'4 fhe transaxle or transmission bolts to the rear of an engine. The clutch or torque converter fits between the engine and the
transmission. The differential is part of the transaxle. With a rear-drive transmission, the differential is in the rear axle assembly.
Wjth-front-drive,
CV-axles transfer power to drive the wheel and lires. (Courtesy of American Honda Motor Co., lnc.)
606 Chapter 21

designs var;z Some cars use a manual (hand shifted) trans- the transmission to the rear axle assembly It has U-joints at
mission. Others use an automatic transmission, which both ends that provide flexibility to the suspension while
shifts gear automatically using internal fluid pressure. maintaining driving force.
The transmission is an assembly with a series of gears The rear axle assembly is the housing that contains
for increasing torque to the drive wheels so the car can the ring gear, pinion gear, differential assembll: and a,rles.
accelerate properly It provides high power for accelera- Rear suspension springs attach to the housing.
tion in lower gears and good gas mileage in higher gears. A differential assembly is a unit within the drir e arie
Look at Figure 21-4 again. assemblylt uses gears to allow different amounts oi toru.-.
With an automatic transmission. a toroue conerter (turning force) to be applied to each drive rvheel r','i.-.
(fluid coupling) is used in place of a clutch. the vehicle is making a turn.
A transaxle is a transmission and differential com-
bined into a single housing or case. Both automatic and
manual transaxles are available. After collision repairs,
[Link] DRIVE
check the transmission or transaxle fluid level before test- In a typical FWD application, two CV joints are *s.-
driving the vehicle. each half shaft, for a total of four CV joints. T\r'o c-,:,
A clutch is a device used to couple and uncouple joints are installed near the wheels and two inboar: ' ,
engine power to a manual transmission or [Link] uses are installed near the transaxle. The outboard i,,.:.s
a friction disc, pressure plate, flyr,'rheel face, and release usually fixed and the inner ones are generaih' :.-..=
bearing for activation. types.
Front-wheel-drive (FWD) vehicles use a transaxle to Front-wheel-drive half shafts can be solid or :-., -,::
transfer engine torque to the front drive wheels. Constant equal or unequal length, and with or withou: -.- -
velocity axles, or CV-axles, transfer torque from the weights (Figure 21-5). Equal length shafts he.: :=-
transaxle to the wheel hubs. They can be found on vehi- torque steer-lhe tendency to steer to one side ..-. .--
cles with independent suspension at the drive wheels. power is applied. In these applications, an in,=r:-.=-
Constant velocity (C[ joints have overcome the design shaft links the transaxle to one of the half sha::-. .-
limitations of conventional universal joints (U-joints). They outer end is a support bracket and bearing as,s=--,: ',
eliminate the vibration problem typical of older cross and sure to inspect these drivetrain comporer.S t:-,:
roller-type U-joints. loose bearings and/or brackets vibrate.
Front-engine, rear-wheel-drive (RWD) vehicles use a Because the half shafts on a front-wheel':r'.', = : - :
conventional transmission, drive shaft, and rear axle turn at roughly one-third the speed of the dri';e s: :,: - :
assembly to transfer power to the rear drive wheels. rear-wheel-drive vehicle. half shaft balance otiC r-.. ,' :- :
A drive shaft is a long tube that transfers power from not vela/ imoortant.

Check
universal
(Cardan)joint.
Check
bearing and
Check for bracket assembly
housing or
cover damage.

Transaxle Right sra:

B Left shaft
lntermediate shaft

FIGURE 21-5 This car has (A) unequal- and (B) equal-length FWD half shafts Always inspect these parts for collision da-:- : = = - :
them replaced if necessary
 Chassis Service and Wheel
[Link] DRIVE [Link] the noise gets louder, the outer joint(s) should
There are two basic types of CV joint applications found be replaced.
on RWD unibody vehicles: independent rear suspension A "clunk" when accelerating, decelerating, or when
and solid axle housing. In RWD with independent rear sus- putting the transaxle into drive can come from exces-
pension (lRS), CV joints can be found at both ends of the sive play in the inner joint of FWD applications, either
axle shafts (for a total of four). inner or outer joints in a RWD independent suspen-
The rear axle assembly contains a differential and two sion, or from the drive shaft CV joints or U-joint in a
axles. The differential is a set of gears and shafts that trans- RWD or 4WD powertrain. However, be aware that the
mits power from the drive shaft to the axles. The axles are same kind of noise can be produced by excessive
steel shafts that connect the differential and drive wheels. backlash in the differential gears and transmission.
With a solid axle housing, no U- or CV joints are A humming or growling noise is sometimes due to
required. Solid rear axles are being phased out for the inadequate lubrication in either the inner or outer CV
smoother riding independent rear suspension designs. joint. It is more often due to worn or damaged wheel
bearings, a bad intermediate shaft bearing on equal-
length half shaft transaxles, or worn shaft bearings
[Link] DRIVE within the transmission.
On the typical 4WD vehicle, a tronsfer case is used to send A shudder or vibration when accelerating indicates
power to the front and rear axles. It is mounted to the side, excessive play in either the inboard or outboard joints
underneath, or the back of the transmission. A chain or but more likety the inboard plunge joint. These kinds
gear drive within the case receives the power flow from of vibrations can also be caused by a bad intermediate
the transmission and transfers it to two senarate drive shaft bearing on transaxles with equal-length half
shafts leading to the front and rear axles. shafts. On IIWD vehicles with transverse-mounted
engines, this kind of vibration can also be caused by
loose or deteriorated engine/transaxle mounts. Be sure
POWERTRAIN INSPECTION to inspect the rubber bushings in the upper torque
Begin damage inspection by checking the condition of strap on these engines to rule out this possibility Note,
the CV joint boots. Splits, cracks, tears, punctures, or thin however, that shudder can also be inherent to the vehi-
spots caused by rubbing call for immediate boot replace- cle itself.
ment. If the boot appears rotted, this indicates improper A vibration that increases with speed is rarely due to
greasing or excessive heat, and the boot should be CV joint problems or FWD half shaft imbalance. An
replaced. Squeeze-test all boots. If any air escapes, replace out-of-balance tire or wheel, an out-of-round tire or
the boot. Also replace any boots that are missing. wheel, or a bent rim is the more likely cause. It is possi-
ble that a bent half shaft resulting from collision or tow-
ing damage could cause a vibration, as could a
missing damper weight.
When a CV joint boot is torn or miss-
ing, there is often damage or wear in the POWERTRAIN REPAIRS
jolnt. Check the joint for problems anytime
During a severe collision, powertrain parts are frequently
a boot requires replacement.
damaged or pushed out of alignment. As a body techni-
cian, you must be able to find and correct many of these
The drive shafts should be checked for signs of contact problems. Body technicians often have to replace the fol-
against the chassis or rubbing. Rubbing can be a symptom lowing damaged mechanical parts: crushed radiators, cut
of a weak or broken spring, engine mount, or chassis mis- hoses, cracked water pumps, bent pulleys, broken drive
alignment. belts, engine intake air tubes, engine covers, fan blades,
and related parts. Some of these parts are shown in Fig-
On FWD transaxles with equal-length half shafts,
inspect the intermediate shaft U-joint, bearing, and sup- ure 21-6.
port bracket for looseness by rocking the wheel back and Many mechanical parts such as engine mounts and
transmission supports are through-bolted. The position of
forth and watching for any movement.
Various drivetrain and suspension problems can be these mountings must be maintained parallel to each
confused with symptoms produced by a bad CV joint. The other to allow for the correct movement of the mechani-
following list of symptoms should help guide the techni- cal parts. When these mechanical mountinqs are not in
cian to a proper diagnosis: proper alignment. free movement of pJrts can be
restricted. For instance, misalignment in transmission link-
> A popping or clicking noise when turning signals a ages can easily cause erratic transmission performance.
worn or damaged outer joint. The condition is aggra- Proper drive shaft angles must be maintained to prevent
vated by putting the car in reverse and backinq in a vibration and chatter of the drive shaft and U-ioints.
604 Chapter 2'1

Radiator Support
Radiator Assernbly

Air Cleaner Duct

9__ Oil Filler Cap

?

Timing Belt Cover

Water Pump PulleY Gasket

Coolant Front, Top Timing
Temperature
Switch
Connector
-P Belt Cover
Timing Belt
Gasket
R@
Timing Belt Guide
Hose Clamp (A/T) Drive Belt Tensioner
Oil Cooler Tube ,^,v"T_ Lower, Front Timing
Fan Shroud Belt Cover
Crankshaft
Drive Belt Pulley

lntake Camshaft
Timing Pulley
Exhaust Camshaft
Timing PulteY
Lower
Radiator
Hose

Plate I
ff\Washerl
N.4d
AP *.-
Pul
..."nnrn"r,_i@ldDr
Timing Pulley aPT { ,

Timing Belt Plate LH Headlight Beam

Angle Gauge

.2 Air Tube
Dust Cover

Y
Air Hose
Timing Belt Tensioner

Engine Under
N
FIGURE 21-6 These are some of the mechanical parts that are crushed and must be repiaced after a major fronta co is 3i rqtrrrrr-'ied
with permission)
 Chassis Service and Wheel Alignment 609
Motor mounts prevent minor engine vibrations and Wth the car on the ground, remove the hood so you
noise from being transferred into the body Misalignment have more room to work in the engine compartment.
of motor mounts can cause vibrations to be transferred When removing the drivetrain from a unibody vehicle, pro-
directly to the passenger compartment. Special fasteners ceed as follows:
are frequently used to provide the necessary structural
support mountings for mechanical parts. l. Disconnect both battery cables from the battery and
At times it is desirable to completely remove the drive- the body ground from the battery tray The cables will
train from the unibody to make repairs to the body remain attached to the engine (Figure 21-T).
Removal of the drivetrain allows ready access to structural
unibody panels for repair or replacement. In some cases,
the time taken to remove the drivetrain pays off in consid-
erable time savings during the repair or replacement of
body panels. Repair of a damaged mechanical part is
sometimes easier and faster after the piece is removed
from the car. The decision to remove the drivetrain or to
work around it in the car can be made by the repair tech-
nician or estimator.

POWERTRAIN REMOVAL
Some engines must be removed out the top of the engine
compartment. Others must be removed from the bottom.
Some should be separated from the transmission; others
are removed together. Because procedures vary remember
FIGURE 21-7 Always disconnect the battery cables before
starting any work on a vehicle. lmpact damage can sever or short
to refer to the service manual when in doubt. wires and possibly start an electrical Iire. (Courtesy of Tech-Cor)

6x1.0mm

Cooling fan
motor(s)

Cushion

AtF plug transmtsston

ATF ptug transmission ATF cooler hoses g
cooler hoses
FIGURE 21-8 Two rubber-cushioned metal brackets often secure the radiator to the body. Rubber cushrons atso protect the bottom ol
the radiator. Automatic transaxle lines connect to the lower tank of this radiator. Depending on which is easier, you
can orsconnect radiator
hoses at the engine or radiator tanks. A drain is normally provided at the bottom of a radiator. lf no drain is provided, pull
the lower hose to
drain the coolant. (Courtesy of American Honda Motor Co.. tnc.)
610 Chapter 21

, Remove the air cleaner to gain access to hoses and

cables.
3. Drain the cooling [Link] provided, open the radia-
tor drain cock on the bottom radiator tank. The bot-
tom radiator hose can also be disconnected at either
end. See Figure 21-8 on previous page.
4. Disconnect the vacuum hoses attached from the
body to the engine and transmission. Also, discon-
nect the engine electrical harnesses. If possible, dis-
connect the main engine harness at the bulkhead
connector on the firewall.
). Disconnect the throttle body linkage and the trans-
mission or transaxle linkage (Figure 21-9).Use mask-
ing tape to label where each hose, wire, or cable goes
before removal. Print the name of the part on the
masking tape to simplify reassembly (Figure 21-10).
Mark the same code letter or number on both sides of
what has been disconnected. Once all parts have FIGURE 21-'lO Label hoses, wires, and cables as they are
disconnected to simplify and speed reassembly. Thts can save you
been identified, you can feel assured that everything
time. lf a wire goes to a sensor on the radiator or a specific location
will work properly when all reconnections are made. on the engine, write down where it goes on masking tape and lvrap
6. With a manual transaxle, disconnect the clutch cable, the tape around the wire, hose, or cable so you do not get confused
slave cylinder, or linkage. Refer to Figure 21-11. during reassembly.

Disconnect Remove
cable end. throttle cable.

Disconnect
brake booster
vacuum nose.

Adjusl
Loosen locknut.
Disconnect
engine ground
cable.
Unplug
subengine harness
connector.

Remove
harness clamp.
Disconnect
fuel return hose.

/\) \
Rear mounting Front pump
bolt mounting bolt
Power steering pump

FIGURE 21-9 Serviceliteraturewill detail howthethrottlecable,wiringharness, lines,andhosesmustbedisconn[Link]'-

removal. (Courtesy of ,American Honda Motor Co., lnc.)
 Chassis Service and Wheel Alignment 611
Spring pin
Clutch cable
adjust nut
(manualonly)
Pin retainer
Wheelwellsolash
shield Shift rod
Shift lever
torque rod

8-mm pin punch

/
( a Self- locking nut
:(

Gasket Balljoint nut

-tu
tu
\r /
q--.']

\u
a
Cotter pin
Y,

Exhaust pipe A
Engine splash shield
Self-locking nuts Nofe; Coat all precision-finished surfaces with clean
engine oil or grease. Tie plastic bags over the drive
shaft ends.
Ff GURE 21-11 These mechanical parts must normally be removed for removal o{ engine-transaxle
assembty. Note how splash shieros,
CV-axles, exhaust system, clutch cable, and transaxle linkage must be disconnected. (Courtesy of American
Honda Motor Co., lnc.)

7. Disconnect the speedometer cable. It is often fas-

tened to the side of the transmission case. Disconnect
the transaxle or transmission cooling lines at the When disconnecting lines (fuel, power
radiator. steering, transmission, air-condition-
8. Disconnect the heater hoses. If connected to the ing, etc.), use two wrenches if needed.
heater core, be careful not to damage the heater core
One is used to hold the fitting while the other turns
by twisting and pulling too hard.
the flare nut. This will prevent you from twisting,
9. If needed, disconnect the power steering pump lines
kinking, and damaging the metal line.
where accessible. It may be easier to remove the
pump from the engine.
10. Remove the air-conditioning (A/C) [Link] the racks allow you to quickly raise a vehicle using builL
A/C system is not damaged and a recharge is not in jacks or a scissor tift inside the rack. The vehicle
required, remove the A/C compressor from its mount- can be placed on stands or a mechanical safety
ing bracket and leave it with the body If there are catch must be engaged on a scissors lift before work-
open lines, they should be plugged. Remove the radi- ing. Dolly wheels can also be used to move the vehi-
ator fan and shroud for additional clearance if neces- cle to other areas in the shop for part removal.
sary Double-check for any individual wires attached If using older equipment, you might have to use a
to the engine and traveling to the vehicle body floor jack under the car and place jack stands in posi-
I l. Disconnect the fuel lines between the engine and tion on the cross tubes before removing some parts.
body Plug the fuel lines to prevent leakage. 13. Once the vehicle is in the air and on jack stands,
t2. To get the vehicle up in the air, use frame straighten- remove any other parts that prevent powertrain
ing equipment if possible. Most racks and bench- removal (Figure 21-12). This might include the
612 Chapter 21

Exhaust pipe
bracket

):'a Remove
l cable holder.
Disconnect shift
control cable.

Ff GURE 21-14 An air ratchet or air impact wre'.-

time on smaller fasteners, such as on the upper stru: ::,',3-
"' :: 3

Do not lose
control roller.
f6. To remove motor and transmission mounts. liii the
FIGURE 21-12 This vehicle must have the torque converter
cover removed to disconnect the transmission shift control cable weight of the powertrain off the unibodv or irame
(Courtesy of American Honda Motor Co., Inc.) This can be done with a hydraulic or scretr-ir':e iack
as shown in Figure 21-15.

CV-axles, exhaust system, steering linkage, suspen-

sion system, brake calipers, and so on. Transaxle

Wire the struts together inboard after

removing the engine. This will prevent
damage to the CV joints and rubber
boots. Also, place plastic bags over the CV joints
for protection.

When removing a drive shaft joint, mark its align-

ment to maintain balance. Your marks must be jack
realigned during reassembly to prevent vibration.
Refer to Figure 21-13. A
14. Disconnect the exhaust pipe at the coupling behind Fnnrno or Dan
the engine. Refer back to Figure 21-11.
15. If required, remove the three upper strut tower mount-
ing bolts from each side (Figure 21-i4).Remove other
oarts that orevent drive train removal as needed.
Wooc
oroc<s
Align match marks
during reassembly.

FIGURE 21-15 To service motor moulri:

weight of the engine or transaxle off of the n.r.--:-'
Mark shaft and joint. sion jack is used to raise the transaxle to ren':.: :-
mount. (B) Here a screw jack with a block of
,'.':::
Ff GURE 21-13 When disconnecting a drive shaft, scribe the
alignment of parts. The drive shaft is often balanced and must be pan is used to raise the engine for removal of :': -
( Rep ri nted with pe rm ission )
realigned to prevent possible vibration. (Reprinted with permission)
 17. With the weight of the assembly raised, you can Subframe
remove the cross members or mounts that secure the
drivetrain. See Figure 21*16.
18. Double-check that everything is disconnected before
trying to remove the engine/drivetrain assembly (Fig-
ure 21*17).
19. An engine support fixture is sometimes used during
powertrain seruice. Sometimes the fixture is designed
to mount under the engine, or it might be used on the
top (Figure 21-18).
20. Attach the lifting cable or chain to the engine. Hang-
ers are often provided on the engine for the lift chain.
Look at Figure 21-19.
Figure 21-20 shows how one auto maker recommends
connecting the lift chain and how to remove the motor Lifting table
mounts. Figure 21-21 shows how to lift engines with vary- and frame
ing mounting configurations. alignment
When starting to remove a drivetrain from any unibody tool
perform the actual separation very slowly while constantly A
Engine support
fixture
Cross member Transmission

Remove
rear mounting
bolts.

FIGURE 21-16 With the engine and transmission supported,

you can remove the rear cross member" (provided bv Subaru of
America, lnc.)
B

FIGURE 21-1f3 A lifting tabte or an engine support fixture will

support the weight of mechanical assemblles as they are serviced.
(A) A lifting table is recommended during powertrain service on this
make and model vehicle. (B) The engine support fixture mounts
across the engine compartment to hold the engine-transaxle
assembly while working. (Courtesy of Mitchell 1)

walking around the entire vehicle to make sure everything

is clear and disconnected. Care must be taken when lifting
the body away from the drivetrain or when lifting the pow-
ertrain out of the body As the lifting is continued, keep
checking all sides for wires or hoses that mieht not have
been disconnected.
FIGURE 21-17 Remove the transmission shift and speedome- To prevent loss of transmission fluid, install a plug over
ter cables. Various methods can secure them to the linkage arms and the transmission output shaft. This will keep fluid from
the case. leaking out all over the shop floor. Refer to Figure 21-22.
614 Chapter 21

While the body is being repaired, an auto mechanic

can service damaged parts of the drivetrain if needed
(bent engine pulleys, a broken alternator, damaged CV-
axles, etc.). See Figure 21-23 and Figure 21-24.
It is much easier to access and repair many structural
body parts with the powertrain removed. Look at Figure
21-25. Make sure you accurately measure body panel
Iocations before final welding.

Transmission
1. Front engine hanger Transmission mount nut
2. Rear engine hanger mount bracket
FIGURE 21-19 When lifting an engine, keep your hands and
feet out from under the heavy assembly at all times. Connect the
chain or cable to recommended lift points. (Provided by Subaru of
America, Inc.)

Transmission mount
bracket bolt Transmission
hook

Remove bolts. Transmission

mount rubber
Loosen mount bolt Rear torque rod
and raise side Remove
mount bracket. bolt.

\'\ \'\ l-,

/ ,'
Side engine mount - A\I
bracket
VI%;l+-' Rear engine
mounl nul
Front engine
mount nut Motor
mount

FIG URE 21-20 Note how the enqine and transmission mounts secure this engine to the unibody structure. (Caurtes'' -' : - =' - :
-

Motor Co.. lnc.)

 Transmission
or transaxle
Outpu t shaft

-\
=J
I -7\
t_\, (
I
Plastic cap
oil seal

FIGURE 21-22 Plug the transmission to prevent loss of fluid.

Front side
member or

Front suspension cross member

FIGURE 21-23 The vehicle powertrain must sometimes be

removed to repair major structural damage io the body or f rame.
(Courtesy of Tech-Cor)

Engine mounting center member

FIGURE 21-21 Note the mount locations for two engine

mounting arrangements. (A) With a longitudinally mounted engine in
a front-wheel-drive vehlcle engine, the mount locations can be seen
with the engine raised out of the compartment. (B) A transversely FIGURE 21-24 Once the drivetrain has been removed.
mounted engine in a front-wheel-drive vehicle has mounts in different replace all damaged parts while the assembly is out of the vehicle. It
locations than the longitudinal arrangement. is easier to service at this time. (Courtesv of Tech-Cor)
616 Chapter 21

An engine/transaxle or transmission
assembly is very heavy. lf dropped, il
can easily sever toes and fingers or crush
bones. Keep your hands and feet out from
under the engine assembly while moving it.

21.2 SUSPENSION AND STEERING

SYSTEMS
As shown in Figure 21-26, a vehicle's suspension and steer-
.,. ...,tir:.r .. l ,
ing systems perform three basic functions:
.l

Ff GURE 21-25
With the powertrain removed, you can use 1. Act as the overall connection betrveen the rvheels
frame straightening equipment to bring the struc{ure back into and the vehicle body
alignment and to more easily weld in new structural panels. (Cour- 2. Damp and control the ride; that is. act to partially
tesy of Tech-Cor)
absorb road shock and sway
3. Provide directional control of the vehicle

]'O\AIERTRAI N I NSTALLATI ON
SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
Reinstallation of the drivetrain can be accomplished by
reversing the removal procedure. After the unibody struc- The suspension system allows the rt'heels and tires to
ture has been accurately repaired, the cradle can be move up and down over road irregularities irith minimal
quickly and correctly positioned by using the lineup holes vibration entering the passenger companment Proper col-
located at the right front and right rear cradle mounting lision repairs of suspension systems and supponing uni-
points. An incorrectly positioned cradle can give the cus- body structural panels must restore the abilir' oi these
tomer a wheel alignment problem. panels to support the high dynamic loads e-rferjenced

Sway oar

Steering column

s'

Rack-an Control arm

FIGURE 21-2.6 Here you can see the major parts of the steering and suspension systems, which otten must be re-
during repair of surrounding body panels. (Courtesy of American Honda Motor Co., lnc.)
 Chassis Service and Wheel Alignment 617

Strut assembly

Coilspring

Shock
Upper -----;
absorber
control
arm

Drive axle

Wheel

Brake
caliper

Lower
control Brake rotor
arm or disc

Ff GURE 21-27 Study the major parts of a modern suspension system. (Courtesy of American Honda Motor
Co.. tnc.)

during operation of the suspension system. Most body FRONT SUSPENSION

repair technicians focus their attention during suspension
system repairs on the ability to restore traditional wheel There are several basic types of suspension systems used
alignment angles to specification. in passenger cars and light-duty trucks (Figure 21-29).
The major parts of a modern suspension system shown Most frame bodies use either the coil spring, leaf spring, or
in Figure 21-27 include the following: torsion bar system. The strut suspension is widely used in
unibody cars. Light-duty trucks sometimes use the twin
b Control arms, which mount on the frame and swivel uo I-beam system.
and down. The coil spring suspension often uses both an upper
> Ball joints, which are located on the outer end of the and lower control arm (Figure 21-28A). These arms are
control arms and allow the steering knuckles to swivel attached with pivots to a structural component, such as
and turn. the frame or side rails. The outer ends of the control arms
> Seering knuckles, which hold the wheel bearings and are attached to the spindle and steering knuckle assembly
wheels. with ball joints. The spring is usually placed between the
> Hubs, which mount on the wheel bearings to hold the lower control arm and the frame. Some types place the
wheels or rims. The wheels hold the tires. spring above the upper control arm and others use torsion
) Suspension system springs, which support the weight bars. A separate shock absorber is connected to one of the
of the car and allow suspension flexing. control arms and a structural member.
> Shock absorbers, which are dampening devices that The torsion bar suspension system (Figure 21-2BB)
absorb spring oscillations (bouncing) to smooth the uses torsion bars instead of coil [Link] weight is
vehicle s ride quality They may be gas, oil, or air filled. supported by a twisting action of the torsion bar. The front
614 ChaDter 21

Upper control Upper ball

Upper joint
arm shaft
balljoint Upper control arm
bushings
Lower control
arm bushing

Torsion
Stabilizer bar
assembly
Coil Lower control
Strut Lower Stabilizer arm bushing
spring Strut rod and
rod and balljoint assembly
bushing bushing

A B

Coil

Strut and Steering

shock assembly knuckle
Shock
Steering Sway
knuckle oar
Balljoint

Lower balljoint
/ lt
Lower control 'Stabilizer link
arm and bushing \\\\\\ assembly
tJ D

Ff GURE 21-ZA Study the various front suspension systems: (A) conventional coil spring system, (B) conventional torsion bar system,
(C) conventional strut system, and (D) modified strut system.

of the bar is attached to the lower control arm and the rear strength and dependability of the mono beam axle. Twin
is attached to the frame. Torsion bars installed in this man- I-beam axles allow each front wheel to absorb bumps and
ner are commonly called "longitudinal" because they run road irregularities independently while providing sturdy
lengthwise in the vehicle. simple construction. The outer ends of the l-beams are
The most commonly used front suspension system for attached to the spindle and to the radius arms. The inner
unibody vehicles is the MacPherson strut suspension (Fig- ends are attached to a pivot bracket fastened to the frame
ure 21-28C) and a modified version of it (Figure 21-2BD). near the opposite side of the vehicle.
The design and operation of a strut suspension system are Front suspension ball joints (Figure 21-29) are used to
simple compared with the parallel arm suspension system. connect the spindle to the upper and lower control arms.
Like the parallel arm suspension, the MacPherson strut They provide a pivot for the wheel to turn and also allow
suspension has a lower control arm and spring. The strut for vertical movement of the control arms as the vehicle
replaces the upper control arm. The strut suspension sys- moves over irregularities in the road.
tem uses a coil spring that is part of the strut assembly In
some cases, the coil spring is placed between the lower
REAR SUSPENSION
control arm and the unibody structure. In either case, the
loads generated by the strut suspension are transferred Generally rear suspensions require no special service. Bro-
directly to the unibody structure through the spring ken or worn parts should be replaced. Remember that rear
mounting. wheels, just like front wheels, are affected by road shock,
The twin l-beam front suspension was developed to acceleration, and braking forces. Control arm or leaf
combine independent front wheel action with the spring bushings are constantly flexing. In addition, bush-
 Coil spring or Coil spring or MacPherson Coil spring mounted
torsion bar mounted torsion bar mounted strut on lower control arm
on upper control arm on lower control arm with modified strut
Ff GURE 21-29 Study balt joint location variations.

ings keep the rear wheels in line with the front wheels and
when worn or damaged can upset the settings of the entire with solid axle front systems. However, the effect is not
suspension and drive shaft systems. nearly as dramatic since the rear wheels do not pivot.
Loose, worn, or broken attaching parts allow the rear Table 21-1 gives diagnoses of suspension problems.
wheels to shift, causing premature tire wear as well as Figure 21-31 shows various rear wheel suspension svs-
short U-joint service life. A metallic jingling sound when tem variations.
driving over small bumps or unusual tracking (sometimes
called dog tracking) also indicate the need for inspection. SUSPENSICIN SYSTEM SERVICE
Usually a visual inspection is enough to determine repair
requirements. The exact procedures for servicing a suspension system
The coil spring and leaf spring nonindependent rear will vary with the make and model vehicle. Always refer to
suspensions are the most common today on rear drive factory instructions when servicing a suspension system.
vehicles (Figure 21-30). The solid axle design will exhibit Figure 21-32 shows a service manual illustration for serv-
some of the same teeter-totter characteristics as noted icing one type of suspension.
A coil spring compressor is often needed when remov-
ing and installing a coil spring. A coil spring compressor is
a special tool for squeezing the spring coils to reduce their
height. This will give you enough room to slide the spring
out of the control arm. It will also keep the spring from
shooting out when you disconnect the lower ball ioint.

A compressed coil spring has a

tremendous amount of stored energy.
Use extreme caution when removino a
coil spring. Never unbott the ball joint
without first compressing the coil spring. lf the
spring is not compressed, the lower controt arm
and spring could move downward, possibly caus-
ing serious injury or even death.

To remove a coil spring from most front suspensions,

place the car on jack stands. Remove the shock absorber.
B Install the spring compressor, then unbolt the lower ball
joint.
FIGURE 21-30 These are two of the more popular rear
suspension systems: (A) leaf spring nonindependent and Use a fork tool or ball joint separator and hammer
(B) coil spring nonindependent systems. A large hollow axle housing blows to remove the lower ball joint from the steering
holds the differential, solid axles, wheel bearings, and rear oraKe knuckle. Special pullers and drivers are also available for
assemblies. ball joint separation. See Figure 21-33.
620 Chapter 21

Problem
Excessive
Pulls to Steering Hard
Check Noise Instability One Side Play Steering Shimmy

Tires/ Road or tire Low or uneven Low or Low or LOW OT Wheel out of
Wheels noise arr pressure; uneven air uneven uneven air balance or uneven
radials mixed pressure; air pressure tire wear er over-
with belted bias mismatched pressure worn tires: radials
ply tires tire sizes mixed with belted
hi^^ ^t., +i.^^
utdD Pry uIsJ

Shock LOOSe Or WOrn Loose or worn Loose or worn LOOSe Or Worn or damaged
Dampers mounts or mounts or mounts or worn mounIS struts or shock
(Struts/ bushings bushings; worn bushings or bushings aDSOrOers

Absorbers) or damaged on strut

struts or shock assemblies
absorbers

Loose or worn LOOSe Or WOrn

Strut Rods Loose or worn LOOSe Or WOrn
mounIS or mounis or mounIS or mounts or bushings
bushings bushings bushings

Springs Worn or Worn or Worn or Worn or

damaged damaged damaged, damaged
especially rear

Control Steering knuckle Worn or Worn or Worn or Worn or damageo

Arms control arm stop; damaged damaged damaged mounts or bus!",.9s
worn or dam- mounls or mounts or mounIS or
aged mounts or bushings bushings bushings
bushings

Steering Component Component Component Compo- Component VUI llPVl lEl i

^^"9^^^^^+ ,
' =a
ui

System wear or wear or wear or nent wear wear or oamage

oamage damage damage or oamage damage

Fronl Front, Fr^ni 6enc. t

Alignment Front and rear, Front, camber Iv,,r, vePve J _r

especially and caster especially caster

caster caster

Wheel On turns or Loose or worn Loose or worn Loose or Loose oll,c'. rrront
Bearings speed changes (tront ano rear) (front and worn and feail
front'wheel rear) (front)
bearings

Brake On braking On braking

System

Other Clunk on speed Balljoint Loose cr ',.;oi'l:

lubrication frlnline h:), .i.:r
changes:
lransaxle; click
on turns: CV
joints; ball loint
lubrication
 Chassis Service and Wheel Alignment

Shock absorbers

Coil springs

Cross member

Trailing arms Stub axle

B

Shock absorber
Shock

4_
II--
Subframe
or unit Diagonal
body (swing) arm Torsion bar

c D Controlarm

FIGURE 21-31 compare rear suspension systems on lront-wheel-drive vehrcres (A) independent rear suspension, (B)
independent rear
axle suspension, (c) swing arm rear suspension, and (D) strut rear suspension.

Make sure you also remove any other component Figure 21-35 shows how a floor jack can be used to
(brake line, strut rod, or steering linkage) that could be lower and remove a rear axle assembly Note how the vehicle
damaged when the control arm is lowered. pull the spring is supported on jack stands for safetSz The floor jack will sup-
and compressor out as a unit (Figure 21-34). port the weight of the hear,y differential and axle housinq.
Install the compressor on the new spring. Slip the
spring into place and position the coil ends in the same
location as the old spring. Reassemble the ball joint and STEERING SYSTEMS
other components. Then, unscrew the spring compressor The steering system transfers steering wheel motion
while guiding the coil into its
seats. Keep your fingers out through gears and linkage rods to swivel the front wheels.
from under the spring! When you turn the steering wheel, a steering shaft extends
An air ratchet can be used to run suspension system down through the steering column and rotates the steer-
fasteners down. However, make sure you use a rorque ing gearbox.
wrench to tighten them to recommended torque specifi- The steering gearbox, either a worm or rack-and_
cations. pinion type, changes the wheel rotation into side movement
 Chapter 21

Upper inner bushing

Check for deterioration Stabilizer bushing
or damage. Check for deterioration
Stabilizer bar or damage.
9. Check for bending
E=-
,.N or oamage. .,-j@f{ (Silicone)
\.1 N

Upper arm
Check for bending
or damage.
Lower arm B
Check for bending Balljoint
or oamage. Check for play or damage.
Trailing arm brackel Stabilizer bushing
Check for damage. Check for deterioration
or damage.

..'..@l{ (Silicone)
Lower arm bushing
Check for deterioration
or damage.
.'@ll lSilrconeT

Knuckle
Check for damage.
Lower arm A
Check for bending Spindle ring
or oamage. Knuckle bushing
Trailing arm Check for deterioration
Check for damage. or damage.
Trailing arm Hub bearing unit
bushing Check for play or damage.
Check for deterioration
or damaoe.
"'* (Silicone)
..{@{ Stabilizer
bushing
Check for deterioration
or damage.
(siticone)
-6ll

FIGI,JRE 21-32 Study how this rear suspension system is constructed. Note the lubrication recommendations. (Courtesy of Amerrcan
Honda Motor Co.. lnc.)
 Chassis Service and Wheel Aliqnment

1r'

Lower
control
arm.

Hang puller
pawls on lugs
on tower arm.

-l-n"^'
'^ +^
!vrvuE ^^^^
ru DPEU Bearing Floor jack
and replace cotter pin. puller
Tighten handle to
separate balljoint.

[Link] up and down movement is excessive, toe change

might exceed the manufacturer's limits. thereby creating
premature and rapid tire wear.
Tie-rod ends attach the linkage to the steering knuck-
les. They are the final wearable pivots of the system. Loose-
ness in the ball sockets causes steering play If you can
wiggle the tires sideways during the inspection (car off the
ground, hand pressure only) the tie-rod ends are worn or
damaged and should be replaced.
The rack-and-pinion steering system is the most com-
mon type of system found on unibody vehicles (Figure
21-37).
Rock-and-pinion steering uses a smail pinion gear
attached to the steering column and the rack gear in the
steering gear housing. This rack gear is moved right to left
within the housing by the rotation of the pinion gear. The
ends of the steering rack are attached to the front wheel
spindles by [Link] unibody construction, the rack-and-
pinron steering gear assembly on some cars is mounted to
the cowl [Link] other cases, the rack-and-pinion steering
gear is mounted to the front suspension cross member or
the engine cradle assembly The rack-and-pinion steering
gear must be mounted securely because any rnovemenr
will cause the car to wander as it travels down the road.
The automobile industry is now offering four-wheel
steering systems, which allow the rear wheels to also help
turn the car. This is done bv either electrical or mechani-
cal means.

for turning the wheels. A series of Iinkage rods connect the

steering gearbox with the steering knuckles.
The (Figure 21-36) is To check a rack-and-pinion system, begin by raising the car
still used on some full frame cars and larger pickup trucks. and taking the weight off the front suspension. Visually
A pitmon arm attaches the steering box to the linkage inspect the steering system for any physical damage. Check
rods. Steering action is relayed via the center link, again the boots for leaks, inspect the tie-rods, and examine the
attached by either ball sockets or bushings. The idler arm mounting points for any [Link] the tie-rod ends.
supports the center link at the opposite end, holding the Crab the tie-rod near the tire and try pushing it up and
system parallel and transmitting horizontal steerinq down. Any vertical looseness indicates damage or wear.
624 Chapter 2'1

ldler arm
Pitman arm
Center link

Inner tie-rod end

Adjusting sleeve
Outer tie-rod end
FIGURE 2'l-36 Memorize the parts of a parallelogram steering system. lt is still found on large pickup trucks and a few luxur,,,cars
(Reprinted with permission of American lsuzu Motors, lnc.)

Steering
wheel
Fluid
reservorr
Power
steering
lines
I steering
andgear
rack-

f
I assemblv
-
Steering
cotumn

Fluid
cooler

FIGURE 21-37 Notethepartsof arack-and-pinionsteeringsystem,Thesteeringgearorrack,steeringcolumn,hoses [Link]

can be damaged in a high-speed collision or if a tire hits a curb. (Reprinted with permission)

Check the inner tie-rod socket by squeezing the bel' Asteering play check involves measurir.q - '., :ar the
lows until you can feel socket. With your other hand, push steering wheel can be rotated without causi:q :r ,.. '.,.'heel
and pull on tire. Looseness in the socket indicates damage or tire movement (Figure 21-38A).
or wear. Take a front tire in each hand to see if they can be Start the engine and rotate the steerirq ..,,.,=.. back
moved back and forth in opposite directions. If excessive and forth without causing the front r.,.:--. , - iu1n.
movement is noted, wear or damage is likely Observe the Compare how far the steering wheel ca. :: ,[Link]
rack-and-pinion at the same time. Any movement might without causing steering action at the .,:-=s. l-.':.callr.
indicate a problem. steering wheel play should not exceed a: _ -: . :: r 12
If you suspect damage to the steering system, check mm). However, always refer to the man,j..::_r'=:., s:ecifi-
steering wheel rotational play and measure steering effort cations.
or force.
 Chassis Service and Wheel Aliqnment 625
A steering effort check involves using a spring scale to POWER STEERING
measure the force needed to turn the steering wheel. This
Power steering uses hydraulic or electric energy to reduce
is shown in Figure 21-388.
the amount of effort required to turn the steering wheel. It
If the amount of effort to turn the steering wheel is
also reduces driver fatigue on long drives and makes it eas-
higher than the manufacturer's specifications, something
was probably damaged in the collision. Quite often, the
ier to steer the vehicle at slow road speeds, particularly
1,,,":'^^ ^^..1-;.-*
uurlllS
steering rack assembly is bent, which increases steering Pdrr\ltlN.
Power steering can be broken down into two design
effoit. The steering rack would normally have to be
arrangements: hydraulic and electrically controlled.
replaced with a new or rebuilt unit.
Misalignment of the rack and pinion will cause
In the conventional arrangement, hydraulic power
changes in the steering geometry during jounce/rebound,
(fluid under pressure) is used to assist the driver. Power
which are discussed later in this chapter. This condition steering hoses carry the oil to and from the pump. A
hydraulic piston on the steering linkage or in the gearbox
cannot be corrected by changing the length of the tie-
rods.
helps turn the wheels. Hydraulic valves control power
assist.
With the electric-type assist, a motor and electronic
Rotational play controls provide power assistance in steering.

POWER STEERING SERVICE

Here are some power steering service tips that you should
keep in mind:

Protect the system. Protect the system from invasion by

dirt and moisture. If the system must be open, be sure
to plug or tie off all openings with a plastic sheet or
rubber plugs.
[Jse recommended fluid. Always replace the fluid lost
with the manufacturer's recommended type to protect
the warranty Most vehicles require either Dexron or
Type F fluid. Some fluids claim to meet the specifica-
tions for both of the above types.
A Bleed the system. Many systems are self-bleeding. Some
have specific bleeding procedures, outlined in the
service manual, to eliminate air. Air in the system can
cause noise, vibration, and erratic performance.
Check the hose routing. Check the hose routing when
I -'-'- .,-=--7-\---==\
reassembling power steering systems. Always route
//\\
//--\ a\ and hang hoses the same way as in the factory installa-
lr ,l--l'' tion. Avoid contact with other [Link] particular, look
for rubbing against moving parts.
> Check for leaks. After making repairs, always check for
fluid leaks before releasinq the vehicle to the cus-
tomer.
To perform a diagnostic check of possible steering
problems, see Table 21-2.

STEERING RACK REPLACEMENT

B
To remove a rack-and-pinion steering gear, separate the
FIGURE 21-34 Note two easy ways to check for steering outer tie-rod ends from the steering knuckles. Then, unbolt
system damage- (A) See how far you can rotate the steering wheel the steering gear mounting brackets from the frame, uni-
before causing the f ront tires to move. lf you can wiggle the steering body or cross member. Also, disconnect the steering col-
wheel over about'/, inch without tire motion. check for worn or umn coupler or U-joint. Rotate the steering gear and slide
damaged steering system parts. (B) To check for bent or binding
it out of the chassis. Refer to Figure 21-39.
steering system parts, use a spring scale to measure the force needed
to turn the steering wheel. lf more than specified for that vehicle, you Refer to service literature for additional information.
would know to check for steering system problems caused by collision You may have to remove the front wheels or slide the gear
damage.(Reprinted with permission by American Isuzu Motors, lnc.) out one particular side of the vehicle.
 Chapter 2'1

Problem
Pulls to Excessive Hard
Check Noise Instability One Side Steering Play Steering Shimmy
Tires/ Road/tire noise Low/ Low/ LoMuneven air Low/uneven tire Unbalanced
Wheels uneven tire uneven tire pressure pressure wheel; uneven
pressure; pressure; tira \l/atr'
radial tire radial tire overworn tires
lead lead

Tie-rods Squeal in turns: Incorrect Worn ends Worn ends Worn ends
worn enos tna'+ia-
rod length

Mounts/ Parallelogram ldler arm Parallelogram Parallelogram Parallelogram

Bushings steering: steerine bushing steering: steering steering: steering steering: steering
gear mounting gear mounting gear mounting gear mounting
bolts, linkage bolts, linkage bolts, linkage bolts, linkage
connections; connections; rack- connections; rack- connections;
rack-and-pinion and-pinion and-pinion rack-and-pinion
steering: rack steering: rack steering: rack steering: rack
mounts mounts mounts mounts

Steering BenVdamaged lncorrect Incorrect Worn idler arm, ldler arm Worn idler arm,
Linkage steering rack center center center link, or binding center link, or
Compo- link/rack lint</rack pitman arm studs; pitman arm studs
nents height height worn/damaged racl

Steering lmproper yoke lmproper yoke Parallelogram

Gear adjustment on adjustment on rack- steering: low
rack-and-pinion and-pinion steering: steering gear
sieering worn steering lubricant, incorrect
gear/incorrect gear adjustment; rack-
adjustment on and-pinion: bent
parallelogram rack, improper
steering; loose or yoke adjustment
worn steering shaft
coupling

Power Fluid leaks,

Steering loose/worn/glazed
steering belt, weak
pump, low fluid leve

Alignment Unequal Excessive positive lncorrect caster

caster/ caster, excessive
camber scrub radius
(incorrect camber
and/or SAI)
 Chassis Service and Wheel Alignment

Steering gear
Steering gear
/,/--\
/)v

Rubber Spindle arm

insulator
Yoke
COVET

Rubber Spindle
insulator arm
Grip in this
tsellows Insulator area only when
Pinion boot Connecting wasner setting toe. Do Connecting
bearing rod end not grip on threads. rod end
cover
FIGUFqE A"!-SC l-Jereareihetypical attachingrnethodsfor;rmanual [Link],,efiice-specrf cservlce ,rtli,ma
tron when irr dcubt.

wfH"fiffiHL ,ANM T"!ffi€ SEMVgffiffi XVheei !:!.Bn&rat is caused by a bent, damaged rim.
A cut in a tire can result in a high-speed blowout (rapid Rodial runout causes the diameter of the wheel to change
loss in air pressure). A blowout can cause a driver to lose as it is [Link] runout causes the wheel to wobble
control of the vehicle, possibly causing a serious accident. sideways as it rotates. A dial indicator can be used to
Wheels can be bent and cracked in a collision. Closely quickly check for wheel runout (Figure 2141).
inspect the wheels for problems (nicks, dents, bent lips, If you find problems with the wheels or tires, have
cracks, and other damage). Use a dial indicator to check them replaced. Most body shops send them to a tire shop
for wheel runout, which causes vehicle vibration (Fisure for replacement. These specialty shops have tires chang-
21-40). ers, wheel balancers, and other equipment (Figure 2l-42).
When installing wheels, especially lightweight alu-
minum ones, use a torque wrench to tighten lug nuts in a
Tread star or crisscross pattern. This will prevent you from warp-
r{anth na r rna ing the hub and wheel and causing runout vibration (Fig-
ure 21-43).

Cffi E-LAPS$ BLffi STtrtrffi B N& GffiE*A.B ruH nuqs

To reduce the chance of injury automotive engineers have
designed collapsible steering columns that crush when hit
by the driver's body during a collision.
The steering wheel is often held on by a large nut and
a press-fit. A wheel puller is used to remove a steering
wheel. This is a common task in a body shop since steer-
ing wheels are frequently damaged. Use hardened bolts to
hold the puller into the steering wheel. Then, tighten down
the large bolt in the center of the puller to force the steer-
Inspect for tire damage and ing wheel off its shaft.
correct inflation pressure.
sT"ffi Hffi e tu{G q}ffi LLiMdhd sffi ffiwgffi ffi
tr!ffi[.!Flg #'$-,4& lnsp-^ct tires for iianragel cuts, spiits. tears,
and broken plies or cords -qllow Llp as small bulges in ihe [Link]. lf a Steering column service is needed after a collision (crush-
tread wear gauge shows a tire is urcrn, inforn ihe customer. ing of collapsible steering column) or when internal parts
624 Chapter 21

Front and rear wheel axial runout Front and rear wheel radial runout

Standard: Standard:
aluminum wheel:0-0.3 mm (0-0.01 in) aluminum wheel:0-0.3 mm (0-0'01 in)

Rotate tire. Dial indicator on

Dial indicator on
side of wheel top of wheel liP
Rotate tire.

FfGUFfE 2,1-41 Atwayscheckforwheel damagewhenthevehiclehassufferedmajorstructural [Link]:: '':''-'''

'
runout. Specs shown here are typical, but refer to lhe service manual Ior a specific vehicle. (Courtesy
of American Honda l''lclc' C - '

Lug nuts

\ Torque sequence
N*
,\1
?o Df Tnrnrro rrrronah
,v,Yuv
\\u

2
9
\,.. Cr' ''
FIGIiFEE 21-43 Always use a torque \rrie-:- . '
tighten lug nuts to [Link] is critical with toca' . .-' =

aluminum "mag wheels." lt ensures the velilc e s ::.-: :' :

that soft aluminum wheels are not warped Dy ex[Link] -': -

lug nuts down lightly with air impact. Then use a
{inal tighten them. (Courtesy of DaimlerChrysie 'f
-- - -' --

of the column fail. Most steering column re:a. t's can be

FIG[JRE 21-42 A high-speed balancer is being useci to locate done with the column mounted in the reh-cl= Horrever,
wheel weights after tire and wheel replacement Some body shops
some repairs require steering column renlo', a.
send damaged wheels out for replacement, whereas many larger
shops clo this repair in house" (Cottrtesy of Hunter Engineering
A wheel puXler is used to remove a s:e.l. :q rvheel
Company) from its shaft. After removing the horn bu:1,':- - r ail bag
 9_l:3:,"i_"_9-":"1"*9 glglylg"t Atisnment 6as
Match marks Ii'id*lill1r ti:i'"."rrrFj:lFfm ,,tr;lr.,,,t tr,litlrr;rtr-rrii ts ilt;rrt tu,'f!ne-
;';1i,ii.1 !ir:ri:i..[Link],itilr5 'l]ill, ir,,i., "lll ili,., CilJltSli;ri
'" f,;1,,.ir.,,r,itilii;::,
f .r'l'.il! ;'ir'.'f illi;1'ltii il 11:,'[Link];il, :t,u;.ff l,;lili t:ilr:rr,.:ti:inii
ttitt it,t:
lirli'..i'i,trii{il i,ltiai,iiii:' liriiga,l.,; r'r-.i':r i,; tiii:!,f;.eti fftti;eflt,.

The proper alignment of a suspension/steering system

centers around the accuracy of seven control angles:

i. Camber
::, Caster
.r.. Steering axis inclination (SAI)
Scrub radius
trEG{-lffiR trg-4,4& A whee i i:uller il neeiied jir r-,[Link]!.ri a [Link],. ili Toe (in and out)
steering wheel frurn its:,hail. if seat Leiil wefFr nci htjiitct [Link] .ril Thrust line
a tearj-oil coilis;ion, the sleerii-taj wlicel nay havi: i:reitirai.:rntr-ii,ii-i: Turning radius
drrver's boCy irt-=irrg ihrovrn rnli-. ir. /f{er-r,.,lled wlilt rte r:-i:i.:o, , t,

ii,a,.;i! !i:ii $"-:1i i:I Fl

and steering shaft nut, scribe alignment marks on the [Link];ri-';rr* is the angle represented by the vertical
tilt of the
steering wheel and steering shaft. This will help you posi- wheels inward or outward when viewed from the front of
tion the steering wheel correctly during assembly the vehicle. It ensures that all of the tire tread contacts the
Mount the wheel puller as shown in Figure 21J4. road surface. Camber is measured in degrees. It is usually
Screw the bolts into the threaded holes in the wheel. Make the second angle adjusted during a wheel alignment (Fig-
sure the bolts have the correct thread type. Using a wrench ure 21-45).
or ratchet, tighten the puller down against the steering Camber is usually set equally for each wheel. Equal
shaft. camber means each wheel is tilted outward or inward the
same amount.
Positiue camber means the top of the wheel is tilted out
when viewed from the front. The outer edge of the tire
Wear eye protection when tightening a tread contacts the road.
wheel puller. If one of the bolts were to Negatiue camber means the top of the wheel is tilted
inward when viewed from the front. The inner tire tread
break, bits of metal could fly into your
contacts the road surface more. Note how camber
face.
changes when turning.
Camber is controlled by the control arms and their piv-
ots. It is affected by worn or loose ball joints, control arm
The steering column is bolted to the bottom of the bushings, and wheel bearings. Anything that changes
dash panel and to the firewall. By removing these bolts chassis height willalso affect camber (Figure 21-46).
and disconnecting the column shaft from the steering Camber is adjustable on most vehicles. Some manufac-
gear, you can remove the steering column. Always follow turers prefer to include a camber adjustment at the spin-
service manual directions when servicing a steering col- dle assembliz Camber adjustments are also provided on
umn, and assemble everything in reverse order. some strut suspension systems at the top mounting posi_
tion of the strut. Remember that camber adjustment also
changes SAI or the included angle.
R"f .s we-fiffiffig_ eL*ffiHSffrtrffiF*?:

In collision repair, -whr:ei aXi*gnmlenat involves adjusting Camber Camber

the vehicles tires so that they roll properly over the road angle angre
surface. Wheel alignment is essential to safety handling,
fuel economy and tire life.
Following a collision, a vehicle requires an alignment if
any of the following conditions exist:
P" Damage to any steering and suspension parts
F Damage to any steering or suspension mountinq ioca-

p-
tions camber
Positive camber Negative camber
Engine cradle damage or a position change
F Removal of suspension or steering parts for access to
[Link]*"liir::':,: i")"1*,.:n'i i,l-,1'-toi_',r.1 iftt t,,,vo i!,r{rs if c:}rn!:}er. (,&) ;:ositir,,e
I
lB,' .,.::,;r.,jirre.. ii!'taji,:Ijai ,trt-iri.)iti-:jjjitr:;irytent [Link] wear tft!l inret Cr
bodv oarts ,r,i. Ii 'f::i ili:: ijiit ifiri:t:j.

f.o;:
[&tu
630 Chapter 21

True Y Centerline
vertical -+i
of tire
True Centerline
---,:A vertical of tire
Camber angle 4

fT
tl
JI
.o tijg
?ii o
tr Y',:s
F-.:

Illv

tt
.tl
FIGURE 21-46 When camber is out ol specifications, it can cause inner or outer edge of tire to contact t"e

Very little adjustment will be required if the strut tower Caster has little effect on tire weat. Caster af iects rthete
and lower control arm positions are in their proper place. the tires touch the road compared to an imagirarr centel-
If you find serious camber error but suspension mounts line drawn through the spindle support. Caster is ihe fir-st
have not been damaged, it is an indication of bent suspen- angle adjusted during an alignment.
sion parts. ln this case, diagnostic angle and dimensional Positiue casler tilts the tops of the steering knuckles
checks should be made to the suspension parts. Damaged toward the rear of the vehicle. lt helps keep :he r ehicle's
parts must be replaced wheels traveling in a straight line. The wheeis lesist turning
and tend to return to the straisht-ahead positirJ-

CASTER
Caster is the angle of the steering axis of a wheel from Slide the plate toward
true vertical, as viewed from the side of the vehicle. It is a the front or rear of
directional stability adjustment. Caster is measured in the car until the
degrees (Figure 21-47). desired caster
reading is obtained.

Zero Engrne
caster
At"
*l /-=.--\ Add shims here
I to increase caster.
tr-
I

Nega
caster

Subtract shims
here to increase
Frame UdJTUI

FIGURE 21-47 Study the two types of caster: (A) positive and FIGURE 21-4A On some struts, the caster and camber can be
(B) negative. Positive caster makes tires travel straight ahead on adjusted by sliding a plate to relocate the top of the sirut rod and
uneven road surfaces. Negative caster makes the wheel turn and steering knuckle. With older suspension systems, the caster and
follow uneven road surfaces. The vehicle's manufacturer supplies camber are changed by adding or subtracting shrms or by turning the
caster adjustment for proper vehicle sleering and handling. adjustment nuts or screws.
 Chassis Service and Wheel Aliqnment

Negatiue caster tilts the tops of the steering knuckles of the car forces the wheels back to the straight-ahead
toward the front of the vehicle. Negative caster makes the position.
wheels easier to turn. However, it produces less directional Steering axis inclination is not generally considered a
stability The wheels tend to follow imperfections in the tire wear factor unless there is an extreme change. The
road surface. amount of inclination is preset and should not change
Caster is designedto provide steering stability The unless there is damage to the spindle support arm.
caster angle for each wheel should be almost equal. Camber and steering axis inclination are sometimes
Unequal caster angles will cause the vehicle to steer measured together as the "included anglel'The amount of
toward the side with less caster. Too much negative caster tilt is measured in degrees from vertical.
can cause the vehicle to have "sensitive" steering at high
speeds. The vehicle might wander as a result of too much SCRUB RADIUS
negative caster.
Caster is measured in degrees from true vertical. Speci- The importance of steering axis inclination to steering
flcations for caster are given in positive or negative ease and stability centers around the reduction of scrub
degrees. Typically more positive caster is used with power radius. Scrub radius is the distance between the center-
steering. More negative caster is used with manual steering line of the ball joints and the centerline of the tire at the
to reduce steering effort. Also, a vehicle pulls to the side point where the tire contacts the road surface. When the
with the least amount of caster (Figure 21-48). ball joint centerline (pivot point) is inboard of the point of
With some vehicle designs, caster is adjusted by loos- tire contact, the tire does not pivot where it touches the
ening and moving the subframe or cradle bolted to the road. Instead. it has to move fonrrard and backward to
compensate as the driver turns the steering wheel. Steering
unibody Pushing the entire cradle fonvard or rearward
can be done to change castersettings. effort is greatly increased as the tires scrub against the
road during turns.
If the control arm assembly were designed with no
STEERING AXIS !NCLINATION steering axis inclination, scrub radius would be quite
large.
Steering axis inclination (SAI) is the inward tilt of the
Both positive camber and steering axis inclination
steering axis at the top (Figure 21-49).lt also contributes
combine to reduce scrub radius to a minimum.
to directional stabilitiz Because the steering axis is
inclined, the spindle is forced to move in a downward arc
as the wheel is turned. This action causes the vehicle to roE
rise as the wheel is turned in either direction, so the weiqht
Ioe is the difference in the distance between the front and
rear of the left- and right-hand wheels (Figure 21-50). Toe
00
can be measured in inches (or millimeters) or degrees
Centerline depending on the equipment used. Toe should be the last
True vertical ------>
of tire wheel alignment adjustment made.
Toe adjustment is critical to tire wear If properly
adjusted, toe makes the wheels roll in the same direction.
Camber angle If toe is nor correct, the misaligned wheels will scuff or
drag the tires sideways, causing rapid tire wear.
REMEfVIEEFI dxcessrue toe-in or out-will cause
a soutooth edge rvt the tire tread from dragging the tire
sitle,aays.

7be-rn results when the front of the wheels is set closer

than the rear. The wheels point in at the front. Toe-out has
the front of the wheels farther apart than at the [Link] is the
opposite of toe-in-the wheels point out at the front.
Toe is a critical tire wearing angle. Wheels that do not
track straight ahead have to drag as they travel fonvard.
Toe is normally adjusted by shortening or lengthening the
tie-rod ends. This is done by loosening the locknut on the
tie-rod and rotating the rod, as shown in Figure 21-51.
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles are often adjusted to have
toe-in at the front wheels. Toe-in is needed to compensate
FIGUFlE 21-49 This diagram illustrates steering axis inclina- for tire rolling resistance, play in the steering system, and
Iion. (Courtesy of SAI) suspension system action. The tires tend to toe-out while
 Chapter 2"1

Tie-rod locknut Tie-rod

iUUI
tl
r€

FIGURE 21-51 Toe-in or toe-out is ad;usted by iurnlng the

threaded tie-rod ends. I\4ake sure to retiqhten the ocknut afier
adjustment.

I
I
Toe-in
I

FIGURE 21-5O Improper toe adjustment will cause rapid tire A

wear. Compare toe conditions: (A) Toe-in is the amount that wheels I
are closer together at the extreme front of the tires than they are at Toe-out
the extreme rear. lt is often used on rear-wheel-drive vehicles
I
because tires are pushed rearward when driving. (B) Toe-out is just .l
the opposite of toe-in, with a greater measurement in front than in the
rear, lt is used on front-wheel-drive vehrcles because the drive wheels V
push {orun;ard when driving.

driving. By setting the wheels for a small toe-in of about %o FIGUFIE 21-52 These are typical rear toe condrtrons that
should be checked after repairing a collision-damaged vehicle.
inch (1.5 mm), the tires will roll straight ahead over the
road surface.
Front-wheei-drive vehicles need to have their front Rear camber refers to the position of a rear wheel in or
wheels set for a slight toe-out. The front wheels pull and out at the top as viewed from the rear of the rear wheel. It
propel the vehicle. As a result, they are forced fonvard by might be adjustable depending on the design of the [Link],
drive train torque. This tries to make the wheels point too, has an important effect on the handling of the car.
inward while driving. Front-wheel-drive toe-out of Zo inch
\ 1,J rrrrrrrr rJ LlPrLqr. TI-IRUST LINE ALIGNMENT
Rear toe condition refers to the angle of the rear wheel
in or out at the front of the wheel as viewed from the top A main consideration in any alignment is to make sure the
(Figure 21-52).lt might be adjustable depending on the vehicle runs straight down the road. With proper tracking,
design of the car. However, it has an important effect on the rear tires travel directly behind the front tires when the
the handling of the car. Some cars with independent rear steering wheel is in the straight-ahead position. The geo-
suspensions also have at-rest toe settings to compensate metric centerline of the vehicle should oarallel the road
for play in the rear suspension. direction.
 Chassis Service and Wheel Alignment

Thrust angle

lr
ili il]'
",n
ffi-+fffi
--lltl<- Rear axle thrust line
ti
!
Wheels turning
I I about common
I center
\/\------
-
F$(}WFIffi g{-ffiS
lf the rear axle cr wheel$ are nc,t in aliqnment.
li lvill affeci thr!,ist line aliqnmeni and iracking of ihe vehicie down the
tt)ad. F4f;ad,iffiffi P'i-S4, This is a ilrpic;il [Link] radius. lt is rneasured
by reading the scales cn a tui'nrng ratiiu:r gauge oi'wileel ali!ninent
If rear toe does not parallel the vehicle centerline a fftaci}ne.
"thrust" direction to the left or right will be created (Figure
21-53). This difference of rear toe from the geometric cen- 21-55). For a quick check, unlock the steering wheel and
terline is called the thrust angle. The vehicle will tend to see if it moves during the jounce and/or rebound.
travel in the direction of the thrust line, rather than straight The next diasnoslic check is for cornerins anole. The
ahead. cornering angle check evaluates the proper relationship of
the two front wheels as they are turned through a steering
arc. To measure cornering angle, one wheel is turned a
T3,_$ ffi trrfl H F4dffi ffiAffi r &#S
given amount on a turn plate or protractor. The amount of
lurnfrmg naaiius, or cornering angle, is the amount of toe- rotation of the opposite wheel is measured in a similar
out on turns (Figure 21-54). As a car goes around a cornel, manner. The results are compared right to left to determine
the inside tire must travel in a smaller radius circle than if the two front wheels are rotating through the same arc.
the outside tire. This is accomplished by designing the During a cornering angle check, the left front wheel
steering geometry to turn the inside wheel more sharply should be turned out 20 degrees. Then the right wheel
than the outside wheel during a turn. The result can be rotation is measured. The right wheel should turn in the
seen as toe-out on turns. The purpose is to eliminate tire same amount or about 2 degrees less. The difference
scrubbing on the road surface by keeping the tires pointed accounts for the turning radius difference between the
in the direction they have to move. inside and outside wheels during cornering.
One of the very useful diagnostic checks that can be The process is repeated with the right wheel; the right
made with a minimum of equipment is a jounce-rebound wheel is turned out 20 deqrees. The movement of the left
toe-in change check, which can help determine the condi-
tion of the suspension system.
is the motion caused by a wheel going over a
"Foa,rprce
bump and compressing the spring. During jounce, the
wheel moves up toward the chassis. Jounce can be simu-
lated for in-shop testing by pushing down on the bumper.
The car must be jounced equally on both sides.
$tehounel is the motion caused by a wheel going into
a dip, or returning from a jounce and extending the spring.
During rebound, the wheel moves down away from the
chassis. Rebound can be simulated for in-shop testing by
lifting up on the fender. The car must be lifted equally on
both sides.
This jounce-rebound check will determine if there is }:nffi&-$ffi8 *"!-SS Jounce airo rebound re{er to tile 'eactions of
some misalignment to the rack-and-pinion gear lFigure tlle sjr,jpensron io an iffe!uier roilci suii;lce.
 Chapter 21

wheel is measured on the protractor or turn plate. The left caster angle is incorrect. As a further test for a bent strut,
wheel should turn in the same amount or about 2 deprees perform a jounce-rebound check while the wheels are
Iess. turned in and while they are turned out. Check each wheel
By design, a vehicle might use a different turning and compare the readings. These diagnostic angles are
radius from one side to the other. If in doubt, refer to the especially helpful in determining the cause of vehicle han-
manufacturer's specifications. If these measurements do dling and tracking problems.
not repeat within 2 degrees, damage to the steering arms
or gear is indicated. Cornering angle measurements are
especially useful in determining whether improper toe
ENGINE CRADLE POSITION
conditions are caused by poor wheel alignment or dam- Proper positioning of the engine cradle can affect the
aged suspension components. steering angles. Since the cradle provides the lower pivot
point, movement of the cradle will cause a camber
change. Both wheels will show an equal cambel change:
CAMBER CHECKS one side negative and one side positive. It will also cause
Some camber checks can be made to diagnose the condi- an SAi but not an included angle change. Make sure the
tion of a strut and can be measured easily with a camber cradle's position is within the specifications gir en in the
gauge. One is called a jounce-rebound camber measure- service manual.
ment and can be made by loading the suspension in a The positioning of the drive shaft can also affect the
similar fashion to jounce-rebound toe change and meas- steering and suspension systems. If any of these pai'ts are
uring the camber angle from an individual wheel. bent, shimmy or handling problems can occul. If there is
The suspension is then unloaded as in the any doubt about the positioning of the drive shafts. meas-
jounce-rebound toe check and a second camber reading ure them following factory-recommended procedures.
of the same wheel is made. The two readings are com-
pared; these readings should not differ more than 2
degrees on a MacPherson strut [Link] most cases,
cuRB t"tEtGt'{T
the readings will be the same. For proper alignment, each of the front and rear-rvheels
The jounce-rebound camber change will tell the tech- must carry the same amount of weight. Vehicles are
nician if the strut is bent either inboard or outboard. Check designed to ride at a specific height, sometimes reterred to
each wheel individually before deciding if one strut is bad as curb height (Figure 21-56). Curb height specs ai'e pub-
based on the readings. If the readings differ between lished in service manuals and some alignment specifica-
wheels more than 2 degrees, a bent strut is indicated. tion books.
A swing camber measurement is made by turning the If a vehicle leans to one side or seems to be lorver on
front wheel "in" a given amount and performing a one side than on the other, something is wrong. Either the
jounce-rebound camber check. front or rear suspension on that side of the vehicle can
The front wheel is then turned out the same amount cause the condition.
and the camber angle is measured again. If the camber To isolate the height problem, place a jack in the cen-
angle change differs more than 3 degrees from the left ter of the main cross member in the front of the vehicle.
wheel to the right wheel, it is likely that either the strut is Raise the vehicle several inches and look at the rear of the
bent forward or reanarard of its normal position or the car. If the rear of the car looks level, the problem is in the

Use a tape
measure.

FIGURE 21-56 Note the typical locations for measuring curb or ride height. Service literature will give details for specific makes and
models of vehicles.
 Chassis Service and Wheel Aliqnment 635
front suspension on the side that shows the [Link] the rear Check toe-difference in distance between the front
suspension is not level, the problem is the rear suspension and rear of the tire
on the low side.
Many of today's wheel alignment machines are com-
-fl' puterized (Figure 21-58). They provide exact specs, spec-
Bftf fi4 HH L de. E- H ffi g\d mfg
ffi Sl{ Fs ffi ffi ffir Fg 15 L"$ S€ ii:
ify where adjustments are needed, and may even show a
Before making any adjustment affecting caster, camber, or picture of what is wrong.
toe-in, perform the following checks to ensure correct T urir:it ilrig e rii,r r.'rui; q-'lu{ gt1rl, m e aSU re h oW m any d e g reeS
ri:

alignment readings and adjustments: the front wheels are turned right or left. They are com-
'i, Make sure the vehicle is sitting on a level surface monly used when measuring caster, camber, and toe-out
(side to side and front to rear). on turns (Figure 21-59).
2" Rotate the tires if needed. (Check the tires for similar A 1:[Link]'{ct;-{:ii-u:irer" g,,:rnqe iS uSed with the tUrning
radius gauge to measure caster and camber in degrees.
size, tread design, depth, and construction.)
The gauge either fits magnetically on the wheel hub or
3" Make sure all tires are inflated to recommended pres-
may fasten on the wheel rim. Normally caster and camber
sure.
are adjusted together, since one affects the other.
4. Inspect for worn or bent parts and replace. Much of
To measure caster with a caster-camber gauge, turn
this should be checked during body/frame correc-
tion.
one of the front wheels inward until the radius gauge
reads 20 degrees. Turn the adjustment knob on the
5. Check and adjust wheel bearings if necessary; spin
caster-camber gauge until the bubble or indicator is cen-
tires, and check for looseness or unusual noises.
tered on zero. Then, turn the wheel out 20 degrees.
6. Check for unbalanced loading (proper chassis
The degree marking next to the bubble or indicator
height). This should be checked after body/frame
correction.
will equal the caster of that front wheel. Compare your
reading to specifications and adjust as needed. Repeat this
operation on the other side of the car.
To measure camber with a bubbletype caster-camber
Caster and camber angles are meas- gauge, turn the front wheels straight ahead (radius gauges
ured with gauges available from spe- on zero). The car must be on a perfectly level surface or on
cialty tool manufacturers. They must an alignment rack.
be used as directed to get proper measurements. Read the number of degrees next to the bubble on the
Figure 21-57 shows how to use one type of align- camber scale of the gauge. It will show camber for that
ment gauge. [Link] not within specs, adjust camber.
If shims are used, add or remove the same amount of
shims from the front and rear of the control arm. This will
?" Check for loose ball joints, tie-rod ends, steering relay keep the caster set correctly Double-check caster, espe-
rods, control arms, and stabilizer bar attachments. cially when an excessive amount of camber adjustment is
ii" Check for runout of wheels and tires. needed.
!). Check for defective shock absorbers. To measure toe with a tram gauge, raise the wheels and
l &" Consider excess loads, such as toolboxes. rub a chalk line all the way around the center rib on each
I l. Consider the condition and type of equipment being tire. Then, using a scribing tool, rotate each tire and scribe
used to check alignment and follow the manufac- a fine line on the chalk line. This will give you a very thin
turer's instructions. reference line for measuring the distance between the
tires. Lower the car back on the radius gauges.
The adjustment sequence of caster first, then camber,
First, position the tram gauge at the back of the tires.
and finally toe is recommended regardless of the vehicle
Move the pointers until they line up with the lines you
make or its type of suspension. Methods of adjustment
scribed on the tires. Then, without bumping the gauge,
vary from vehicle to vehicle and, in some cases, from year
position the gauge at the front of the tires. The difference
to year of the same make car. Refer to the manufacturer's
in the distance between the lines on the front and rear of
service manual for details. A typical alignment procedure
the tires shows toe.
follows:
For example, if the lines on the front of the tires are
l. Obtain manufacturer's specifications closer together than on the rear, the wheels are toed-in. If
?. Check camber-tilt of wheel inward and outward the lines are the same distance apart at the front and rear,
S. Check caster-fonrrard or rearward tilt of steering toe is zero.
axis Using service manual instructions, adjust the tie-rods
4. Check steering axis inclination-inward tilt of steer- until the tram gauge reads within specs.
ing axis at the top Modern equipment saves time and requires less train-
5. Check turning radius-wheel angles white turning ing. Many alignment machines will give instructions,
 Chapter 2'1

A N,4easure passenger side to driveas side at the front and rear of the C Checr the rear suspension

B Read the bubble level for camber. D Read the camber with the car on a level surface.

Ff GURE 21-57 An alignment gauge makes it easy to check wheel aiignment while the vehicle is still on the repair bench. (Courtesy of
Steck Mfa. Co. lnc.)
 Wheelalignment
gauge attachment

FIGURE 21-59 Turning radius gauges have scales so you can

measure how far each wheel turns in degrees when doing wheel
alignment. Camber-caster gauges have a bubble float for showing
readings. (Courtesy of American Honda Motor Co., Inc.)

FIGURE 21-54 Sophisticated wheel alignment, once

performed only in alignment specialty shops, is now a common task
at body shops because of unibody construction: (A) a typical four-
wheel alignment system, (B) a computerized system. ([A] Courtesy
of Bee Line Co., Bettandort, bwa; [B] Courtesy of Hunter Engineer-
ing Company)

illustrations, and measurements on a computer monitor

(Figure 21-60). Some wheel alignment machines even
provide a graphic showing which alignment specifications
are not within tolerance (Figure 21-61).
Table 21-2 on page 626, summarizes a typical steering
problem diagnosis. It is important to remember that the
typical customer judges the quality of a wheel alignment
by the position of the "fifth wheel"-the steering wheel in
his or her hands. It must be straight. Make sure all align-
ments end with a properly centered steering wheel.

21.4 BRAKE SYSTEMS

The broke system uses hydraulic pressure to slow or stop
wheel rotation with brake pedal application (Figure
21-62). The brake pedaltransfers the driver's foot pressure
into the master cylinder. The master cylinder develops FIGURE 21-6O Modern wheel alignment equipment will help
guide you through procedures, quickly measuring toe, casrer,
hydraulic pressure (oil pressure) for the system (Figure camber, and other specifications for adjusting wheel alignment after
21-63). Brake lines and hoses carry fluid out to the wheel collision repair. (Courtesy of Hunter Engineering Company)
638 Chapter 21

Hvdraulic pressure
Ford 92-94 Taurus Sedan
n<* *,,
++
-.Jm&S#:' .:dtqtq*s. L , r--,eB#i{*'j Rear
-1.30 *s"su
d#i&i{qss"*- ."

wheel
cylinders
* €
ffi6k.."-,r- [Link]-***$.wsuRf
ffiWT&ffi Toe -n n?@
*
&i#s*ffi :a*f*r,l*ffiS$..l i;$*:l&i;iliri[*-:ff ;]ri:Sjistii:
Brake

0.19" n
U. &e 4*o peoar
TlnrL!$t Angle
Ff,G$FNH pt*63 This simple autornotive l'tydraLrlc system
dragram shows how a L:rake syslem operates. Wnen ycir lr€ss 1ne
br;:ke pedal, the pislon rn the master cylinder is nro\/ed io creveloll
nydrauiic pressure. Fressure is sent out thrcLlgh the iJralke llnes io tir.j
wheei cylinders. The wheel cylinders then slide oLlt to aciivate tne
F!i*i;n;iffi p'{*{sti The scteen of this compuierized wheei wheel brake assembiies.
:rtr:jrrrirent rnaclrine gives specs and insiructicn$ for acijustmeni. Live
i,,:e:,iilrgs allow you tc watch )/oLlr progiess as -voLl adjust casier A power brakes system is a standard hydraulic brake
r;aiiib€r, and toe ier wilhirr faciory talerances. (Courtesy of !'lttnier
system with a vacuum, hydrauiic, or electric assist. A
: n E i r: e e r ing Cainpany ;
booster unit is added to help apply the master cylinder
and brakes.
cylinders. The wheel cylinders use hydraulic pressure to Two basic types of hydraulic brakes are used in uni-
push the brake pads or shoes outward. body vehicles. They are drum brakes and disc brakes.
The brake pads, or brake shoes, have a friction lining
for rubbing on the brake rotor or drum. The brake drums
E3R&JM ffiffiAKffiS
provide hear'y metal friction surfaces bolted between the
hub and wheel. A caliper holds the piston(s) and brake A drum brake assembly consists of a cast-iron drum bolted
pads on disc brakes. to the vehicle axle. A fixed brake backing plate holds the

Master cylinder Brake booster

Antilock
brake unit

Brake lines
Rear brake calioer
Brake hose

Front brake caliper

Brake rolor

[Link] g"$-#dg Siuiv rhe ir-iajlr ;arts of a nifdern brake system. i,iis,9rlllis.l with pe|nttssion)
 Chassis Service and Wheel Alignment 639
Retainer
Wheel
cylinder Wheel Wheel
Wheel piston cylinder cylinder
cylinder cup Upper shoe Extension
boot
return spring lever cup
Bleeder Brake shoe Extension
SCTEW assembly lever relainer
Extension

Shoe hold-
down pin

Adjusting
spring

@ Adjusting
/ lever Parking
Hold-down spring brake strut
Adjusting
cover Lower shoe
return spring

Backing
plate

Return
Adjusting StoPPer spnng
latch
Fl€Ff'"!FIE a1-64 Studythepartsof [Link].

shoes and other components-wheel cylinders, auto- motive disc brakes, this wheel is a separate unit, called a
matic adjusters, linkages, and so on (Figure 2l-64). Addi- rotor, inboard of the vehicle wheel (Figure 21-65).
tionally there might be some extra hardware for parking The reltor is made of cast iron and, since the pads
brakes. clamp against both sides of it, both sides are machined
The broke s/zoes are surfaced with frictional linings, [Link] the two surfaces are separated by a finned
which contact the inside of the drum when the brakes are center section for better cooling. The pads are attached to
applied. The shoes are forced outward against the action metal shoes, which are actuated by pistons, as in drum
of the return springs by pistons or wheel cytinders, which brakes. The pistons are contained within a caliper assem-
are actuated by hydraulic pressure. As the drum rubs bly a housing that wraps around the edge of the rotor. Usu_
against the shoes, the energy of the moving drum is trans_ ally two large bolts secure the caliper to the steering
formed into heat, and this heat energy is passed into the knuckle to keep it from moving when the brakes are
atmosphere. applied.
When the brake shoe is engaged, the frictional drag The caliper is a housing containing the pistons and
acting around its circumference tends to rotate it about its related seals, springs, and boots, as well as the cylinders
hinge point, the brake anchor. If the rotation of the drum and fluid passages necessary to force the friction linings or
corresponds to an outward rotation of the shoe, the drag pads against the rotor. The caliper resembles a hand in the
will pull the shoe tighter against the inside of the drum way it wraps around the edge of the rotor. it is attached to
and the shoe will be self-enerqizins. the steering knuckle. Some models employ light spring
pressure to keep the pads close against the rotor; in other
E!ISC tsRAKES caliper designs this is achieved by a unique seal that
pushes out the piston for the necessary amount, then
Disc brakes resemble the brakes on a bicycle: the friction retracts it just enough to pull the pad off the rotor.
elements are in the form of pads, which ire squeezed or
clamped about the edge of a rotating wheel. With auto-
640 Chapter 21

Remove the old pads. Install antirattle clips on the new

Brake pads, and fit them back into the caliper. Slide the caliper
caliper assembly over the disc. Assemble the caliper mounting
hardware in reverse order of disassembly Make sure all
Brake rotor bolts are torqued properly Install wheels and tighten
on disc wheel lug nuts to specs. Repeat these operations on the
other disc brake assemblies as needed.
Reassemble the disc brake in the opposite order of dis-
assembliz After installing the brake disc, fit the caliper
assembly into place. Make sure the new pads are properly
installed. Torque all fasteners to specs.
Grease
cap
MASTER CYLINDER
The master cylinder is the heart of the hydraulic system (Fig-
ure 21-67).lt is located in the engine compartment, usually
Lug
Brake on the driver's side, and is connected to the brake pedal by
studs
pad a special rod. The master cylinder initiates braking when
the brake pedal is depressed by pushing out a piston inside
the cylinder, exerting pressure that is transferred through the
system. To protect against total failure of the system, all cars
FIGURE 21-65 The typical disc brake has a caliper that
are now required to have two hydraulic systems.
clamps around the rotor. Front and rear disc brakes are now common
The master cylinder must be checked before the car is
because of their superior stopping power over drum brakes.
put back in service. To check the fluid level, clean all dirt
and grease off the unit, then simply pop the wire bracket
BRAKE PAD SERVICE (or whatever locking device is on the top) and remove the
To replace worn brake pads on a floating caliper, first lid. The level should not be more than % inch (6.3 mm)
loosen the lug bolts. Place the vehicle on iack stands and below the top of the reservoir. If the level is below this,
remove the wheels and tires. Before caliper removal, use a check the brake line connections and refill the reservoir
large C-clamp to push the piston back into its cylinder. with fluid. If the system is leaking an),rruhere but at the
Then, the piston will be retracted and out of the way allow-
ing the new, thicker pads to fit into the caliper.
Unbolt and slide the caliper off the disc (Figure 21-66).
To prevent brake hose damage, hang the caliper by a piece Never use the master cylinder and
of mechanics wire if the caliper is not to be removed. other brake mounts as a pulling
attachment. lf a pull must be made to
correct cowl damage, use a plate and different
Caliper mounting bolts bolts to anchor the purr.

Master Pedal support

cylinder bracket

Brake
#t
into piston.
Hose to
engine
vacuum
Power brake
Fire wall
Pushrod

w
FlGl,rRE 21-66 Two large bolts normally secure the brake Floor
caliper to the knuckle. Caliper removal is necessary for rotor and
CV-axle removal. Hang the caliper on a piece o{ wire so that you do not FIGURE 21-67 The master cylinder normally bolts to the
damage the brake hose. (Courtesy of Amerrcan Honda Motor Co., lnc.) firewall. Note the part names.
 Chassis Service and Wheel Alignment 641
brake line connections, the master cylinder should be Most cars use a double flare connection, so check for
replaced or rebuilt by a brake specialist. details carefully Do not use compression fittings in brake
line repairs. Replace all supporting clamps removed dur-
ing the repair. Support springs prevent kinking and serve a
ffig4dLKffi FL$J$ffi
very important role. Be sure to replace them just as they
When brake fluid absorbs moisture, its boiling point is were, and install new ones if the original ones are dam-
drastically reduced. This effect is even more pronounced aged. Always replace brake lines in the original routing to
in hightemperature brake fluids that are used in hear,y_ avoid later damage to the lines.
duty and disc brake service. Most brake hoses have a male fitting on one end and a
To prevent contamination, strictly observe the follow_ female fitting on the other. Disconnect the female end first,
ing precautions when handling brake fluid: remove the clip or jam nut holding it down, then unscrew
p. Keep the master cylinder tightly covered.
the male [Link] the new hose by connecting the male
h" end. If a copper gasket was used, make sure it is rein_
Always recap it immediately after filling.
F stalled. When the male end is tight, connect the female
Use the smallest possible can of fluid. and use it all if
end. Tighten it in such a way as to keep the hose from
possible. For instance, if you have a choice between
touching any part of the chassis or suspension.
using two small cans or a portion of a large can, use
Check for interference during suipension deflection
the two small ones.
and rebound and turninq of the front wheels.
[b'. Tightly cap the fluid container after use.
s** If using a pressure brake bleeder keep its fluid reservoir
tightly closed, just like the master cylinder. [+ ii, l# $i: i,;.i? ; bl,i 4":;i #r ;'+ ;:!., iiil" iF] iiA
P If any fluid has become contaminated, throw it out.
w Do not reuse old brake fluid. To remove or replace a brake component, follow the
F" Do not reuse an old brake fluid container, since it is instructions in the service manual. Remember that any_
time the brake system is open, it must be bled. Keep the
not possible to know what else might have been in the
system open for as short a time as possible to prevent
can.
p Do not transfer brake fluid from its original container to moisture from entering and causing sludge and corrosion.
Bleeding removes air from the brake system. Air is
anything other than a container specifically designed
lighter than liquid, and it seeks high points in ihe hydraulic
to hold brake fluid, such as a pressure bleeder.
system. Bleeder screws are provided at each of these col_
lecting points: calipers, wheel cylinders, and on some mas_
ffiFTdKKffi LHSSffiS ter cylinders. Bleeding involves opening up these screws
in a specific order to let the trapped air escape. Fluid is
The brake lines carry fluid pressure between the master added to the master cylinder to replace whatever is lost in
cylinder and wheel cylinders and related parts. They are bleeding.
generally the major brake component that a body techni_
When the master cylinder is removed for rebuilding or
cian must repair. replacement, bench bleeding is necessary to ensure that
When making a collision inspection check the brake air does not remain in the cylinder when it is reinstalled.
lines for chafing, crimps, loose or missing tube clips, kinks, Mount the cylinder in a vise with the bore angled slightly
dents, and leakage. Leaks are evidenced by fluidseepage
downward (Figure 2 1-63).
at the connections or stains around hose ends. Blockagls
are not so readily apparent but are just as detrimental to
brake system functioning, often acting as a check valve to
prevent proper release of the brakes. During a brake appli_
cation the pressure forces the fluid past the obstruction,
but when the pressure is relaxed the fluid will not readily
flow back past the blockage and the brakes drag. Brake
lines are usually steel, except where they have to flex-
between the chassis and the front wheels, and the chassis
and the rear axle. At these locations, flexible hoses are
used.
When replacing damaged brake lines, use the same
type of material as the original factory installation. This
includes stainless steel, armor plate tubing, or ribbed hose.
Local availability of special types might be limited, but it is
important to try to match the factory materials. Never use a
weaker material to make a brake line or catastroohic
brake failure may result.
642 Chapter 21

Attach two short brake lines or purge tubes to the out- Keep master cylinder full.
let ports so they curl back into the reservoirs with the ends
below the fluid level. Stroke the piston back and forth. This Press slowly on
pumps air out of the cylinder and into the reservoir. Do this brake pedal.
until only clear brake fluid comes out of the tubes. The
same method will work using threaded plugs instead of
purge tubes.
The bleeding sequence at the wheels is different for
dual front/rear systems than for dual diagonal systems. In
addition, each manufacturer might have a preferred
sequence for any given model design. Check the service
manual for each vehicle.
Some four piston calipers have two bleeder screws. In
this case, bleed the lower one first. On diagonal systems,
bleed one system at a time. Do one front disc brake first,
then the diagonally connected rear drum. A
Always check the master cylinder [Link] the brake fluid
lalls below the level of the intake ports, air will get into the
Pressure gauge Adapter
system. Refill the reservoir and pump the brake pedal Air
slowly a number of times. Often this will purge it of all pressure Lines to
unwanted air; if this does not work, bleed the system. wheels
When bleeding modern antilock brake systems. refer
to the service manual. It will give the detailed instructions Brake Diaphragm
needed to do good work. fluid

Manual Bleeding of Elrakes Master

Manual bleeding should be done only if a pressure cylinder
bleeder is not available. Begin at the master cylinder. Clean
the cover before removing it and the diaphragm gasket. Fill Air nozzle
the reservoir to % inch (6.3 mm) from the top. Apply pres-
sure to the brake pedal slowly and with a smooth action.
Open the bleeder screw on the first wheel in the B
sequence. Drain the aerated fluid through the bleeder
hose into a jar partially filled with clean brake fluid (Figure
FIGUFIE 21-69 Whenever a brake systeni nose or line has been
disconnected for repairs, you rnust bleed air oui of the hydraulic
21-69). system. (A) To manually bleed brakes, open the wheel cylinder bleeder
Keep up pedal pressure while the bleeder screw is screw. Connect a hose from the screw to a container of brake f luid. By
open. When the pedal bottoms out, close the screw and pumping the brake pedai, you will force aii f roni the system. Keep the
release the pedal. If all the air is not yet purged and air reservoir full. (B) Pressure bieeding is needed with some brake
syslems. ReJer to vehicle-specific service instructions when in doubt.
bubbles can be seen in the fluid, repeat the process. When
you see only clear fluid with no bubbles, go on to the next
wheel jn the sequence. gasket seat. Fill the reservoir and attach the adapter cap
While bleeding the brakes, watch the fluid level in the and hose. Check the coupling sleeve to make sure it is fully
reservoir. About every six pedal applications more fluid engaged before opening the fluid supply valve.
will have to be added so it does not fall below the level of Follow the sequence for bleeding as recommended by
the intake [Link] it does, more air will enter into the system. the service manual. Allow the aerated fluid to flow out of
the bleeder screws through a short bleeder hose into a jar.
Once completed, close the supply valve of the pressure
Pressure Bleeding Efrakes unit.
This procedure is sometimes used or needed to rid a The recommended method of pressure bleeding a
hydraulic system of [Link] is the most efficient bleeding pro- brake system is with a vacuum-type bleeder. This tech-
cedure, requiring only one person to perform it. nique withdraws the fluid from the system rather than
The pressure unit used in this process is a tank divided pumping it. Check the connection pattern of the system's
into two sections by a flexible diaphragm. Bring the pres- wheels. Some cars have the two front and two back wheels
sure unit up to 15 to 20 psi (103 to 138 kPa). Make sure the connected; some are crossed diagonally Others combine
master cylinder cover is clean so that no loose particles of the front two with one rear and the rear two with one front
dirt fall into the reservoir. Remove the qasket and clean the wheel. Always check the service manual.
 Chassis Service and Wheel Alignment 643
POWER BRAKES 21.5 COOLING SYSTEMS
As mentioned earlier, power brakes are nothing more than
a standard hydraulic brake system with a vacuum assist or
A cooling system helps maintain the correct engine oper_
ating temperature. It is often damaged in a frontal collision
booster unit between the pedal and the master cylinder to
help activate the brakes. and must be restored to its preaccident condition. Shown
in Figure 21-71,the basic parts of a cooling system are the
When a unibody car is involved in a collision, the
power brake booster should be carefully inspected. pay radiator, water pump, and heater core.
particular attention to vacuum hoses, check valves, fasten_ The radiator transfers coolant heat to the outside air.
ers, and the master cylinder itself. Replace all damaqed
The radiator pressure cap prevents the coolant from boil_
pieces. ing. A radiator fan draws outside air through the radiator
to
remove heat.
To test the vacuum booster, pump the brake pedal
several times to remove any remaininq vacuum inside The water pump circulates coolant through the inside
the booster. Then, press and hold the brake pedal down of the engine, hoses, and radiator. The water jackets are
as you start the engine. If the vacuum booster is workinp.
passages in the engine for coolant. The thermostat requ_
lates coolant flow and system operating temperature.
the brake pedal will be pulled downward slightly ur roo'n
as the engine starts. If you cannot feel the brake oedal A heater system uses coolant heat and a heater core
(small radiator under dash) to warm the passenger com_
move down when the engine starts, the booster miv Ue
partment. The automatic transmission cooler uses the radi_
faulty
ator to reduce transmission fluid temperature.
Antifreeze is used to prevent freeze_up in cold
PARKING BRAKES weather and to lubricate moving parts. Antifreeze also pre_
The parking or emergency brake uses a steel cable to vents engine overheating. A coolant recovery system
stores an extra supply of coolant for the system.
physically apply the rear brake shoes or pads. The rear
wheel brakes act to hold the car stationary when not
in use. As shown in Figure 21-70, parking brakes are GOOLANT SERVICE
mechanical, not hydraulic. When you press down on the
parking brake pedal or pull on the parking brake handle, One of the most frequently overlooked areas of the cool_
you move a steel cable that mechanically applies the rear ing system is the strength of the antifreeze. A common
brakes.
idea is that the stronger the concentration, the better. This
To adjust the parking brakes, you must normally is not so. Pure water transfers heat better than pure
tighten a small nut on the parking brake cable assembllz antifreeze, but it does not protect the system from freezinq
This will shorten the cable assembly to apply the brakes or corrosion
more. Be careful not to tighten the cable adiustment too In addition, water has a boiling point of only 212.F
much or the parking brake may not release and could Pure antifreeze has a higher boiling point (330"F) than
pure water, but, due to its lack of heat transferabilitv it can
burn up the pads or shoes during driving.
cause an engine to overheat.

Parking brake
pedal

Parking
brake strut
Equalizer

Adjusrment
\
Parking
brake cable

Left rear
brake

or parking brake is simprv a mechanrcal svstem of cabres and revers

;::-"r:ffit;13, ,13".3il::n"n"u
thar appries rear shoes or pads. Note
644 Chapter 2'1

Cooling circuit in
Heater core
cylinder head
Throttle body Cooling circuit in
cylinder block

Thermostat Coolino circuit in

housing radiator and
water gallery

'/4tili:l
r W il
Cylinder Y j;rl

head

Engine
block

Water
outlet Radiator
Water pump
+ Thermostat ooen
€ Thermostat closed
Reservoir tank

FBGt"lFlE At-7t Study cooling system components and flow A belt-driven water pump forces coolant through the internal passages in the
engine, as well as through the hoses, radiator, and heater core.

The ideal antifreeze-to-water ratio is 50:50. This ratio Some systems, such as midengine cars and vans and
provides freezing protection to -34'E while increasing the those having dual heaters, can require up to 3 or 4 gallons
coolant's boiling point to 224'F A, combination of half of antifreeze. Check the manufacturer's recommended
water-half antifreeze also provides the best mix for pre- coolant capacity for the specific vehicle.
venting system corrosion.
An antifreeze testet commonly called a hydromete4 is COOLANT LEAKS
used to determine the freeze-up protection of the coolant
mixture. Pull a sample of the vehicle's coolant solution Coolant leakage often results from frontal collisions. A low
into the tester. Then, read the lowest temperature the coolant level reduces cooling capacity and can cause
coolant will withstand without freezinq. Add more coolant engine overheating.
if needed. An external coolant leak will cause coolant and steam
to spray out of any leakage point after the engine warms to
operating temperature. External leakage is often due to a
split hose, damaged radiator, crushed water pump, and
Do not let anlifreeze, brake fluid, and similar troubles.
olher chemicals drip on painted SUT- Internal cooling system leaks can result from a blown
faces. They can discolor or damage the head gasket, leaking intake manifold gasket, or warped
vehicle's oaint or finish! cylinder heads. Internal leaks are seldom caused by colli-
sion damage.
 Chassis Service and Wheel Alignment 645

/Pelcock

Fan
shroud
Transmission
FIGURE 2",-?g The radiator is often damaged rn a frontal
collision. lf it is not jeaking, you can sometimes straicrhien the
soft
cooler lines metal fins on the radiator core. This radiator requirei repracement
of
€ rts core and had to be sent out to a radiator repair shop.

FIGURE 21-72 Transmission cooler lines often attach to the

lower tank on the radiator. The fan shroud is frequen|y cracked and
broken during a frontal collision. RADIATOR CONSTRUCTION
Another type of internal leak occurs when the auto_ Coolant flows from the engine to tubes located inside the
matic transmission fluid (ATF) cooler tank leaks from the fins of the radiator where the airflow cools it. If these tubes
inside into the radiator (Figure 2l-72).A sure sign of this is become plugged, either by being bent or through mainte_
a thick, pink solution in the radiator caused by the mixinp nance neglect, the flow of coolant throuqh the radiator is
of coolant and transmission fluid. Due to the impact forcel reduced and engine overheating .un ,"rult. This condition
in a collision, this area should be a high priority in any is more noticeable at highway speeds and/or heavier
postrepair inspection. [Link] the vehicle is not air conditioned, plugged areas of
A coolant recovery bottle is normally plastic and the radiator can be identified by cold spots felt on the
can be easily damaged. Check for cracks or abrasions in front of the radiator after the vehicle is warmed up.
the bottle and make sure the hose leading to the radiator Many frontal collision-damaged vehicles will have
is connected and in good shape. These plastic tanks are crushed or bent areas on the radiator (Figure 21_73), even
normally not [Link] cracked or distorted, replace the though leaks might not be present. So always check the
recovery bottle with a new or salvage unit. radiator fins carefully for damage.
Before making any replacements in the cooling sys_ Crushed radiator fins can be straightened with a spe_
tem, drain the coolant from the [Link] dispose of cial tool, and tubes that are not too badly mangled can be
any old coolant (check local regulations). When refilling soldered. But if large hunks of cooling fins have been
the system, make sure that the proper coolant is used in pulled loose or if multiple tubes have been crushed or
vehicles with aluminum engines or radiators. Some war_ ruptured, a new radiator core is recommended. Time is
ranties will not be honored if the coolant recommended money and if the cost to repair core damage begins to
by the manufacturer is not used. approach the cost of a new core, most shops will opt for
After installation of the engine coolant, bleed the cool_ the new radiator core. Besides, a new core offers sieater
ing system of air. Always follow the manufacturer's recom_ reliability especially if the radiator is showins its agJ. Radi_
mendations. ators are normally sent out to a specialty radiator ihop for
repairs or to have a new core installed.
There are two basic types of radiator designs. They are
distinguished from one another by the direction of the
lf the vehicle is not equipped with a coolant flow and the location of the two tanks.
mechanism for bleeding air, you might ln the dounflow rodiator (Figure 21-74), the coolant
be able to jack up the front of the vehi- flows from the top tank downward to the bottom tank. In
cle, which raises the fill point or upper radiator the crossflow radiator, the tanks are located at either side
hose higher than the rest of the system. This will and the coolant flows across the radiator core from tank to
allow the system to be completely filled and bled of tank.
allair.
REPLACING A RADIATOR
When replacing a radiator, make sure the new or salvape
radiator is the same size as the old one. Radiator freisf,t.
length, and thickness must be the same.
 Chapter 2.1

Cross{low radiator

Down-flow radiator

FfGURE 21-?4 Measuringaradiatorwill [Link]-flowdesigns

A stuck thermostat can cause the engine to overheat or

run too cool. A quick way to tell if this is happening is to feel
the upper radiator [Link] it is cold but the engine is hot, the
thermostat is probably stuck closed. On the other hand, if
the thermostat is stuck open, the engine will take a long
time, or possibly fail to, reach proper operating temperature.

WATER PL'NflP
The water pump circulates the coolant throughout the
cooling [Link] has internal blades called impellers lhat
push the fluid through the system. The major parts of a
water pump are shown in Figure 21-76.
A bad water pump will normally have a worn or dam-
aged impeller shaft or shaft bushing. The water pump shaft
FIGURE 21-75 Be very careful when placing a new radiator. lt
will be loose in its housing and will make noise. Quite
can easily be damaged. Lower i1 slowly down into place without
hitting the core on anylhing often with a damaged water pump, coolant will leak out a
small hole in the bottom of the water pump housing.
Be careful not to hit and damage the new radiator
when lowering it down into place. The core tubes are very
thin and can leak if hit even lightly (Figure21-75).
CO()LING S\rSTEIM I{OSES
Use care in reconnecting the transmission lines While working on the cooling system during collision
because they are easy to cross thread. Align the transmis- repair, check that the hoses are in good condition and are
sion line straight into the radiator fitting and then hand securely clamped. The lower radiator hose routes coolant
start the fitting threads. Once started by hand, properly from the radiator to the water [Link] turning water
tighten the transmission cooling lines. pump draws coolant, creating a low-pressure area in the
lower hose. A coiled spring inside the lower hose keeps it
from collapsing. The lower hose should not show signs of
THERMOSTAT collapse during engine operation. Refer to Figure 21-77.
The thermostat controls the engine's operating tempera-
ture by controlling coolant flow through the system. When
COCILING SYSTEM tsELTS
the engine is cold, it stays closed to keep the coolant from
circulating through the radiator. Once the proper engine Always make sure engine belts are not cut or damaged
operating temperature (usually 180" to 195"F) has been before installation. During a frontal collision, metal parts
reached, the thermostat opens up, allowing the coolant to can smash into spinning belts. This can cut the edges of
flow to the radiator for coolins. the belts. requiring their replacement.
 Chassis Service and Wheel Alignment e47
Wire-type

Outlet to
cylinder block

Check for
leakage at small hole Swollen Soft

ff-
in bottom of housino. rGf

Ff GURE 21-76 Note rhe basic parts of a water pump. The Et llill
Rtvt-
housing can be cracked or the bushing damaged
Coolant leakage out of a small hole in tfre notLm
by frontal jmpact. w )nf
19
oi the housing Chafed
means that the bearings and seals are bad
and water pump
Hardened
replacement is required.
FlGt-f RE Z1-ZZ Always check hoses for damage or deteriora_
tion. Hoses should not feel too hard or too soft
If it does not use a spring tensioner, you must when"squeezed.
adjust
belt tension during engine beit installation. Always
refei to
factory instructions for adjusting belt tension. Fan clutches either can be filled with a fluid
Belt tension or use a ther_
gauges are available that will measure mostat spring. The clutch allows the fan to slip
the tightness of the
belt. at highway
speeds when the fan is not needed for added
Generally the belts should be as loose as possible airflow This
with_ reduces drag on the engine, resulting in increased
out slipping. This will place minimal load on the fuel
water economy
pump or other bearings to avoid bearing
damaqe. Always make sure a clutch fan is working.
Allow the
engine to warm up and check that the fan
kicks in and
GOOLING SYSTEM FANS starts blowing air through the radiator. If a fan
clutch does
not work, it could have been damaged during
On vehicles in which the cooling fan is driven the colli_
by belts [Link] might be leaking fluid or have a broken thermosta_
from the engine, proper tension must be maintained tic spring.
or
belt slippage will occur. When this happens the If the vehicle has an electric fan, make sure it turns
cooling on
fan does not turn at full speed, resulting in reduced after the engine warms up.
airflow
through the radiator at idle. The engine may overheat
at
idle. At highway speeds, the airflow is sufficient to
main_
tain cooling.
On vehicles with electric fans, check for loose electri_ Be careful when working around an
cal connections and bare, burnt, or cut wires. Check electric cooling fan. lt can suddenly
to
make sure the fan blades turn with no interference
and turn on, even if the engine is turned off"
that the fan mounts are not rubbing against
the radiator or and cause serious hand injury. Keep your
body Look at Figure [Link] cloling
systems there hands away from the blade at all times. Disconnect
might be two or more fans.
Some vehicles are equipped with a special clutch
the fan if needed.
fan.
644 Chapter 2"1

Radiator
q7s-r----=- R ad iato r caP
VJ

Fan
Test
12V DC applied. Upper radiator
nose
Fan
shroud
Drain plug

O-ring
Replace. Lower
FS radiator
t\ nose
Harness ATF
fu* clip cooler ,a
ffi
//-\\
hose

Temperature
L gauge sending
unil
,/\ /a/'
(z
)=-1
T1 t
\
I

\
rmose nsor
Water pump
inlet pipe
Thermosensor Thermostat
Heater hoses housing

F$CALiRE g"g-7& Stuclyiheperisoiaioolingsyste,nanrJeiectriccccling{[Link] infrontal coilisions (Courtesyof

,4rnericat !1onda lvlatr:r Ca.. lnc.i

not actually overheated. Dried calcium deposits in a radia-

ffi,*hffi EdkT'ffi ffi #A#"$ ffi 8*ffi 6q&YH ffi ru tor cap can make the radiator inoperative. Always inspect
Most cooling systems operate under a pressure of about 15 the radiator cap seal for deterioration or damage"
psi. This is because increased pressure on a liquid raises
its boiling point. With a 50-50 mixture of antifreeze and
PRESS&Jffiffi TffiSYBF*ffi
water, a boiling point of 263"F is achieved. To maintain the
correct pressure in the system, the radiator cap must be
ffiffiffiLgrue svsYffiME
able to hold the required pressure. A cooling system leak test is performed by installing a pres-
A defective radiator cap lowers the boiling point of the sure tester on the radiator neck to check for coolant loss or
coolant. The coolant could boil, even though the engine is leakage. Pump the tester handle until its gauge equals the
 Chassis Service and Wheel Aliqnment 649
cap pressure rating. With the system pressurized, look
around the radiator, hoses, water pump, heater hoses, and
engine to find any coolant leakage. A loss of pressure or
coolant leakage means there is a problem. Refer to Figure Windshield
21-794. defroster
The radiator cap pressure rating is stamped on the cap. If duct
Heater
the cooling system is disassembled during repair or parts are fan
replaced, a pressure test should be performed on the cap.
A radiator cop pressure tesl makes sure the cap will
hold the rated pressure but release above normal pressure
as needed. Use the tester adapter to mount the radiator
cap on the pressure tester. Refer to Figure 21-798. Passenger
Pump the tester handle while watching the pressure compartmenl
gauge. The tester gauge should stop increasing the pres-
sure reading when the cap rating is reached. If the cap
leaks or does not open at its rated pressure, replace it.
Engine Heater
comoartment Heater floor outlet
area return nose

', i'i-,
-!j i {r,li 4.f i 'i i:l .:'l-'i'Jf# :i.:i iF, : :i ri |];iri',r [Link]:-i:i)i if;t1
i::i [Link]'i,,:, ..r' It i llr-:ltl tr, l,rr,'i',': t;L; l. ,;: :rijl. ,. ,;ii i,r;.1'[Link] ,j, i;,1
L-rii-rrrir:.: ;,ii r r i : r Lilir iiie -r:.f-r i-,r'r.r,:r rti ::: :l

A heater uses warm engine coolant flowing through a

heater core to warm the passenger compartment. The
heater core is a miniature version of the radiator mounted
under the dash or on the fire wall (Figure 21-80).
As hot coolant flows through the heater core, a fan
blows air over the tubes, warming it and delivering it to the
passenger compartment. The blower fan, located in the
heater housing, forces air through the heater core and into
the passenger compartment.
The air heating distributor system is a duct system. Out-
side air enters the system through a grille, usually located
directly in front of the windshield, and goes into a plenum
chamber where rain, snow and some dirt are separated
from it. The air from the plenum is directed through the
car's heater core, through the AiC evaporator, or into a
duct that runs across the fire wall of the car. Outlets in the
duct direct the airflow into the passenger compartment.

-]:'i
;g "ft , :rr i'+ ii Fii iqj,"; f-Li i'li i1.,il [ .i""] ll,il il iliq d.,.-li $S 'd s;:.iT $i H#E
"$
Proper handling of the air-conditioning (A/C) system dur-
ing collision repair is one of the most important and least
B understood aspects of working with mechanical compo-
nents. Many needless repairs are caused unknowingly by
FEeSB-$Ftg #'A-?9 ;li p:r3s.1,r1;1.; iarriiir tri-]|.:i,ii.i ir,J u:itd ii, iri i a,i t',, service technicians who do not understand the impor-
coDlrng [Link] aiier :'i:[Link]. (4,j it nirrJal', ii.,r"lllii,[Link] is;tl{;, ltsi:.Jri a tance of following some strict rules for lvorking with A/C
iester on the i"aCiator iilir';i'rieck. Fi-lmp urittl rlte ir:.l-i:tl ;e.i;.i i,1i
'itrj systems. What compounds the problem is that malfunc-
0fessUrq i.;:O i'e;ting. ThCtr, ill!', ri:'r- ic.,ir:t,rl: a,: i,-;:t;s ll' i:i.r{-;i!,iil li:ir
ihe radiatr:r cap it needed. ii sncr.:l':j i-ioii-i ih3 irilel;ir:0 !;r:;iui,1 tions often occur several months after the collision repair
without [Link]. Daf: iil-i:sr;.r|{r i'.: iit.,l:r',il*cl air il'itiitj,:it riti:) ii-).r ri work is completed, so the customer is unaware of who
lhs cap. caused the oroblem.
 Chapter 2.1

A/G OPERATN()N A/C HIGT{. AND LOW-SIDES

An air-conditioning system is designed to cool the passenger The A/C high-side contains high-pressure/high{empera-
compartment. Although designs vary somewhat, all automo- ture refrigerant. Its hoses feel hot to the touch. High-side
tive A/C systems use similar operating principles. The major hoses are generally smaller in diameter than low-side
parts of a modern A/C system are shown in Figure 21-81. hoses (Figure21-82).
An air-conditioning compressor is an engine-driven The A / C lowside contai ns low-pressu rellow-tempera-
pump that forces the refrigerant through the system. Lines ture refrigerant. Its hoses feel cold to the touch. Low-side
and hoses carry the refrigerant to the different parts of the hoses are generally larger in diameter than the high-side
system. hoses.
The condenser transfers refrigerant heat to the outside In the basic A/C system, the heat is absorbed and trans-
air. It is normally Iocated in front of the radiator. It is con- ferred in the following six steps:
structed like a radiator with core tubes and metal fins.
The euaporalor draws warm air out of the passenger
l. Refrigerant leaves the compressor as a high-pressure,
h ightemperature vapor.
compartment to provide a cooling effect. It is normally
located under the [Link] is also like a small radiator.
2. By removing heat via the condenser, the vapor
b ecomes a h igh-pressu re, lower-temperature liqu id.
A receiuer/drier or an accumulator uses a desiccant
bag to remove moisture from the system. The only differ-
3. Moisture and contaminants are removed by the
receiver/dryer, where the cleaned refrigerant is stored
ence is their location. The accumulator is found between
until it is needed
the evaporator and compressor. The receiver/drier is
located between the condenser and expansion device.
4. The thermostatic expansion valve converts the high-
pressure liquid into a low-pressure liquid by control-
Both act as storage tanks.
lino itc flnrrr intn thp or;:nor:tnr
An exponsion uolue or orifice tube causes the refriger-
ant pressure to drop to produce a cooling action in the
5. Heat is absorbed from the air inside the passenger
compartment by the low-pressure, low{emperature
evaporator.
refrigerant, causing the liquid to vaporize.
Air-conditioning systems are divided into two sides:
high and low The dividing points are the compressor and
6. The refrigerant returns to the compressor as a low-
pressure. h i gher-temperat ure vapor.
the expansion device.

Receiver/dryer
Discharge assembly
line
Comoressor/clutch Condenser
assembly

Suction line
Liquid line

STV

\S Expansion valve

Evaporator case
assembly
Plenum
assembly

Control
assembly ('i Blower assembly

Air dislribution ducts

Recirculating
air door

FlGl"!RE 21-Al Studythemajorpartsof [Link]-drivencompressorforcesrefrigerantthroughthesystem,A

condenser transfers heat to outside air. An evaporator collects lreat to cool air blowing into the passenger compartmenL. (Courtesy of American
Honda Motor Co.. lnc.)
 Chassis Service and Wheel Al
Ram air

$$$$$
wwwww $6

$$$$ $g$
wwww @#@
Cold air

FIGURE 21-a2 Note the refrigerant flow cycle. High-side

rs from the outret of the compressor
conlrol oevice lexpansion varve) to tne rnreioiirre to the rerrgerant frow contror device. Low-
l:: |A"#i!| :i'i;::;:Xi;"w compressor. Hoses and rines are rarge
diameter on the row-
652 Chapter 21

F{HtrffiEGERANUTS
Due to its possible depleting effect on the Earths ozone
layer, R12 refrigerant is being phased out. Environmental
you install the wrong kind of refrigerant,
regulations call for a gradual phase-out of most ozone-
the A/C system will not work properly.
depleting substances. They allow R12 systems to be serv-
iced using recovered and recycled refrigerant. After
filtering, R12 can be used again in another vehicle. Such Also, R134a oils are not compatible with R12 oils. This
reuse is designed to extend the supply of refrigerant. requires separate service equipment. To avoid a mistake,
R134a is the present replacement refrigerant for [Link] R134a uses metric quick-connect service ports. The high-
is less harmful to the ozone layer. New vehicles are being side port is larger, so the same charging hoses cannot be
designed to run on this new refrigerant. The compressor used.
and other parts are designed to be used with R134a. Refer Mixing of R12 and R134a, even in trace amounts, can
to Figure 21-83. It is important to remember that R134a be fatal to a system. This mistake can cause damage to
and R12 refrigerants are not compatible. seals, bearings, compressor reed valves, and pistons. Mix-
ing refrigerants can also cause desiccants used in R12 sys-
tems to break down and form harmful acids.
Ultraviolet rays

Ozone layer
depletion
Wear hand and face protection when
working on an A/C system. When
refrigerant escapes from the system or
if you touch the supply tank, you can get
severe frostbite burns.

An A/C system sight glass is used to check the amount

of refrigerant in the system. It is often located on the
R134a receiver/drier or in a refrigerant line. Before starting colli-
A/C SYSTEM
sion repairs, you might want to start the system and
inspect the sight glass. This will let you know if the system
has been damaged and has lost its refrigerant charge.
Refer to Figure 21-84.
When looking through the air-conditioning system
sight glass, one of the following four conditions will be
evident:

1" Clear sight gloss-refrigerant completely full or com-

pletely empty
2. Oil streaks on sight glass-no refrigerant
3" Foam or constant bubbles in sight glass-low refriger-
ant charge
4. Clouded sight glass-desiccant being circulated
through the system
CAR AIRCOiDIIPIER
COiPRESSoR Ol,

ND-OIL 8 A/C SERl/tCffi TrpS

Although many A/C repairs and service work are done in
c specialty air-conditioning shops, some larger body shops
do basic service work. Many collision repair shops recover
F;GLJFIE 2f -43 Study basic refrigerant information. (A) Older
refrigerant, remove and install A/C parts, and recharge
R12 ref rigerant was harmf ul to the Earth's r:rzone layer. lt floated up
into the atmosphere and reacted with ultraviolet rays from the sun. A/C systems.
R134a is now used to prevent f urther environmental damage. (B) Here are pointers that the collision repair technician
Older R12 and modern R134a are not compatible and systems are must keep in mind:
designed differently. (C) R12 and R134a systems also require
different compressor oil. The specified amount of oil should be placed ts Most A/C failures are caused by moisture entering the
ln the system as needed. (Reprinted with permission) system. Moisture interacting with refrigerant causes
 Chassis Service and Wheel

Amount of
Item Symptom refrigerant Remedy
1. Bubbles present in sight Insufficient. '1.
Check for gas leakage with gas
gtass
leak tester and repair if necessarv.
z. Add refrigerant until bubbles
disappear.
2. No bubbles present in None, sufficient, Refer to items 3 and 4.
sight glass or too much

3. No temperature difference Empty or nearly 1. Check for gas leakage with gas
between compressor inlet empty leak tester and repair if necessarv.
and outlet 2. Add refrigerant until bubbles
disappear.
4. Temperature between Correct or too Refer to items 5 and 6.
compressor inlet and outlet much
is noticeably differenr

5. lmmediately after air Too much 1. Recoverrefrigerant.

conditioning is turned off, 2. Evacuate air and charge proper
refrigerant in sight glass
amount of purified refrigerant.
stays clear

6. When air conditioning is Correct

turned off, refrigerant
foams and then stavs clear

.Bubbles
in the sight glass with ambient temperarures
higher can be considered normal if cooling
ir-"ufi"i"nt

FIGURE 21-a4 A sight glass will let you check the general
A/c system on high cool wirile viewing tne sigrrt gr".".'[Link]" charge in an air-conditioning system. Run
the engjne at a fast idre and rurn the
symptoms-and ."*"d,u, In the chart. (Rep,nterl
with permission)

sludge and the formation of hydrochloric

acid, which
attacks the delicate parts of the compressor. .fhe
acid
REFRIGEFIANT
also eats away at the aluminu. .ornpon"nts F ISCF{ARG I N G/R ECCDVERV
of the
evaporator and condenser.
Dischargin g ai r-conditionin g systems removes
> When removing or opening up the A/C
unit, seal all from the system and must always be done belore
ref ri gerant
openings. These can be synthetic rubber, tight_fitting parts are
removed. Some compressors use a special
caps, plugs, or plastic wraps. Use sturdy rubber bac[ seating
bands service valve that allows the compressor to
or wire ties to hold plastic wraps in plaie be ,"rouaJ
securely without completely discharging the system.
> If an A/C system has been op"n io the atmosphere
more than a few hours, use the following procedure: -keepArecouery system will capture the used refrigerant
it from contaminating the atmosphere. Most
and
l. Change the oil. systems also filter the refrigerant for reuse.
recovery
2. Flush each component separately with nitrogen gas Since equip_
ment varies, refer to the user,s manual for
before charging. detailed proce_
dures (Figure 21-85).
3. Replace the receiver/dryer or accumularor.
4. Manufacturers' receiver/drier and accumulator
During evacuation, hold the system at high
vacuum for replacement recommendations vary Generally
a minimum of 30 minutes to pull out if an A/C
5.
airind moisture.
Recharge without leaking ."frig"runt.
rlrt"I has been open for several days, the receiver/drier
should be replaced.
652+ Chapter 2.1

The release of R12 into the atmos-

phere is prohibited by current environ-
mental regulations. Never vent the
refrigerant into open air. Use a recovery/
recycling machine.

A/E FsHGF{AFAGEF!G
Euacuating an A/C system removes air and moisture from
the system and allows you to check for leakage. Anytime
air has entered an A/C system it must be evacuated. Evac-
uating is done by connecting a vacuum pump to the vehi-
cle s A/C system. After pulling a vacuum, you close off the
g{-ffi5 pump to see if the system will hold the [Link] the vac-
FEffiuffiH Her-o a bociv technician is removing old
ref rigerant {rorn a s';stem before disconnecting lines and lroses uum drops, the system is leaking and should not be
lJrs or re case reirige;anr ,nto I1e at'r.r'jpherc. charged. Find and correct the leak first (Figure 21-86).
Before charging (filling) the system with refrigerant,
determine the amount and type of refrigerant used. This

Torque to

Torque
receiver
fitting.

Tighten fitting
at evaporator. Expansion
VAIVE

Check plier
f ittings.

Check
conoenser Torque properly.
fitting. Check for leaks.

Fq(kLE$ryE; e{-46 Note th€ possible connections that coulcl leak refrigerant. They should be torqued to tactory-recomrnended specificalions
fo avoid ieakaqe. (freprinteci with permission)
 Chassis Service and Wheel Alignment 655
Low-pressure High-pressure
gauge side gauge side
Low-side Gauge
Accumulator service valve set

Vacuum pump

Decrease of weight
Gauge hose
on scale indicates
charge added.
Drum

Refrigerant

Scale
FIGURE 21-f'7 This setup will allow evacuation and recharging. First the gauge
set varves are opened to alow the vacuum pump to pu, arl
air out of the system Then, the gauge valve to the vacuum pump
is closed to see jf vacuum drops, which indicates leakage.
vacuum pump is closed and the valve on the refrigerant tank Next, the valve to the
is openeti to allow a recommended amount of refrigerant
The scale will show how much refrigerant has been adoeo. to flow into the system.

information is found in the service manual or on the label

1. Electronic leak detector
on the radiator support or [Link] not mix differ_
2. Refrigerant cans with dye
ent types of refrigerants. Charging can be done with a
gauge set or with a charging station. Refer to Figure
3. Soap and water solution in a spray bottle
2l_g7 .
Purging uses refrigerant to push air and dirt out of the Electronic leak detectors are battery_operated instru_
hoses. It prevents air and other contaminants from beinq ments that use a sound to alert you to a gas leak. They
are
pushed into the A/C system. Always purge the gauge hosel designed to detect different types of gases.
before charging. Refridgerant dye can be injected into the A/C system to
Refrigerant oil lubricates moving parts in the A/C help find leaks. The dye wiil stain any point of leakaqe and
sys_
tem. Use only refrigerant oil. Do nol use any other some dyes can be illuminated with a *black light" oi
type of ultra_
oil. Make sure to use the type recommended for the system violet light.
being serviced. For example, some oils are designed Soap ond wateris an"old-fashioned"method of finding
only
to be used with specific types of refrigerant. Using a differ_ refridgerant leaks. Any leaking gas will form bubbles in
the
ent type can result in damage to the compressor and soapy water showing the point of leakage.
seals
and other parts. . When checking for refrigerant leaks, always check
along the bottom of the hoses, fittings, seals, and other
General rules are to add the amount of oil that was
removed during discharge. There are adapters available to possible leakage points. This is because the refrigerant is
use refrigerant pressure to add oil during recharging. heavier than air and is easier to detect below these oarts.
Too much oil causes reduced cooling, because the oil
takes up space normally used by the refrigerant. It also
damages the compressor and seals. Too litile oil causes A/C TROUELESHOOTING
poor lubrication of the system, premature compressor A,pressure gouge sel is used to troubleshoot the operation
wea4 and poor system performance.
of an A/C system. The gauge set typically consists of two
An open can of refrigerant oil can collect dirt and pressure gauges, a manifold, two on_off valves,
moisture. Adding contaminated refrigerant oil to the sys_ and three
service hoses. One is shown in Figure 2i_Bg.
tem causes corrosion, which results in the failure of the
The high-pressure gauge is used to measure comDres_
compressor and other parts.
sor discharge pressure. The low-pressure gauge rn"urur",
There are three ways to find refrigerant leaks:
suction or low-side pressure.
656 Chapter 2'1

senrice valves. The senrice valves may be located on the

compressor fittings or in the refrigerant lines. The seruice
valves for a system using R12 are different than those for a
system using R134a. The R134a fittings are larger.
A static A/C pressure reading will indicate how much
refrigerant is in the system. With the engine off, read the
high-side pressure gauge. If the high-pressure gauge shows
approximately 50 psi (3a5 kPa), then the system should
have an adequate charge. If the pressure gauge reads
below 50 psi (345 kPa), some of the refrigerant charge has
leaked out and the system should notbe operated. Correct
any leak. Add refrigerant before making other tests. Refer
to Figure 21-89.
An A/C performonce lesl evaluates a system's condi-
tion by measuring system pressures with the engine run-
[Link] and fast idle the engine at approximately 1,500
FEGLBRE 2f -Ee Nole the parts of the gauge set for servlclnE an rpm. Set the system for maximum cooling for about 10
Fll 34a air-conditioning system. minutes to allow pressures to stabilize. Close the cars
doors and windows. Leave the hood fully open.
The two outer service hoses connect to fittings on the Place a temperature gauge in one of the air outlets in
A/C system. The center selvice hose is commonly con- the passenger compartment. Place another temperature
nected to a recovery or recycling unit for cleaning or evac- gauge at the condenser to measure ambient (outside) air
uating or to a refrigerant container for charging (filling) temperature. Both temperatllres are usually needed to ana-
the system. Iyze system performance.
A/C seruice ualues provtde a means of connecting the Read the pressure gauges and compare them to factory
pressure gauge assembly for testing, discharging, evacuating, specifications. Figure 21-90 shows some typical A/C sys-
and charging (filling) the A/C system. Most systems have two tem pressure readings with possible causes and remedies.

Rtg+q

Low-pressure side gauge reading:

0"15-0.25 MPa (1 .5-2.5 kgf/cmz)
High-pressure side gauge reading:
1.37-1.57 MPa (14-16 kgf/cmz;

F!GUFfF g.B*Ag Thesearetypical gaugeselreadingsforproperlyoperatinganRl34aair-conditioningsystemonatypical dayM/iththe

enctire at fasl idle and the A/C set to maximum c<tol. iRersrinted with permission)
 Chassis Service and Wheel
Condition:
Periodically cools
and then fails to cool

Symptom Probable Cause

Diagnosis
. During operation, . Remedy
pressure on low_
Moisture entered in . Drier in oversaturateo 1. Replace receiver_drrer.
refrigeration system state
pressure side sometimes 2. Remove moisture in
freezes at expansion
becomes a vacuum and cycle through
sometimes is norma,
vatve orifice and . +
Moisture in refrigeration repeatedly evacuating
temporarily stops cycle, system freezes at
but normalstate is atr.
expansion valve orifice 3. Charge new refrigerant
restored after a time and blocks circulation of
when the ice melts ro proper amount.
refrigerant

Condition:
Insufficient cooling

Probable Cause
Diagnosis
Remedy
Gas leakage at some o I nsuff icient ref rigerant
place in refrigeration 1. Check for gas leakage with
In system
system leak detector and repair if
+ necessary.
Refrigerant leaking 2. Charge refrigerant to proper
amount.
3. lf pressure indicated vatue is
near 0 when connected to
gauge, create the vacuum
after inspecting and repairing
the location of the leax.

Symptom Probable Cause

Pressure low on both low_
Refrigerant flow
and high-pressure sides obstructed by dirt in
Frost on tubes from
receiver
recetver to unit

FtcuRE 21_90 study typicar gauge readings for

common air-conditioning system probrem.
[Link]**J[r*J

ri
654 Chaoter 21

Condition:
Does not cool (cools from time
to time in some cases)

Symptom Probable Cause Diagnosis Remedy

Vacuum indicated on Refrigerant flow . Refrigerant does 1. Check heat sensing tube,
low-pressu re side, very obstructed by moisture not circurate exoansion valve. and EPR.
low pressure indicated or dirt in refrigeration 2. Clean out dirt in exoansion valve
on high-pressure side sysrem by blowing with air. lf not able to
Frost or dew seen on Refrigerant flow remove dirt, replace expansion
piping before and after obstructed by gas vatve.
receiver/drier or leakage from 3. Reolace receiver.
expansion valve expansion valve heat 4. Evacuate air and charge new
sensing tube refrigerant to proper amount. For
gas leakage from heat sensing
tube, replace expansion valve.

Condition:
Does not cool sufliciently

Symptom Probable Cause Diagnosis Remedy

Pressure too high on Unable to develop Excessive refrigerant '1. Clean condenser.
both low- and high- sufficient performance in cycle -> refrigerant 2. Check fan motor ooeration.
pressure sides due to excessive overcharged 3. lf (1)and (2) are in normal
No air bubbles seen refrigerant in system Condenser cooling state, check amount of
through the sight glass, Insufficient cooling of insufficient ---> ref rigerant. Charge proper
even when the engine condenser condenser fins clogged amount of refrigerant.
rpm is lowered or fan motor faulty

Condition:
Does not cool down sufficientlv Note:These gauge indications are
shown when the refrigeration system
has been opened and the refrigerant
charged without vacuum purging

Symptom Probable Cause Diagnosis Remedy

Pressure too high on Air entered in Air present in refrigera- 1. Check compressor oil to
both low- and high- refrigeration system tion system see if dirty or insufficient.
pressure sides + z. Evacuate air and charge
The low pressure piping lnsufficient vacuum new refrigerant.
is hot to the touch purgrng
Bubbles seen in sight
glass
FEffiqJF*H Af *S& (continLieclJ
 Chassis Service and Wheel Alionment

Muffler
Catalytic
converter

Exhaust
manilolds

.,-"' ;' l"',.,,:l dl;r;,.

..-*-i*..i4!rii:.,

Tailpipe
,l.i3
{.d
J"l"$i

Intermediate
| .r tli pipe

Header pipe

FEGLTRE 2f -91 Note the part locattons of a typical exhalrst sysiem.

2,f "8 HXS{AUST SVSTHMS ffiX**ALSST" SVS"Fffi BVE Sffi Fglf Hffi ffi

The extnaust systean collects and discharges exhaust The exhaust system can be damaged during a collision,
gases caused by the combustion of the air-fuel mixture requiring partial replacement. Its parts may also need
within the engine. it also quiets the noise of the running removal during major collision repairs.
engine. The major parts of an exhaust system are shown in
Figure 21-91.
The header pipe is steel tubing that carries exhaust
gases from the engine's exhaust manifold to the catalytic When inspecting or working on the
converter. exhaust system, remember that its
The catalytic conL)erter is a thermal reactor for burning parts get very hot when the engine is
and chemically changing exhaust by-products into harm-
less gases (Figure 21*92).
Modern vehicles often have one or two catalytic con-
verters. A small catalytic converter is used next to the
engine exhaust manifold. It heats up rapidly and starts To check the exhaust systems condition, grab the
working before the main converter in the intermediate tailpipe (when cool). Try to move it up and down and side
pipe. to side. There should be only slight movement in any
The intermediote pipe is tubing that is sometimes used direction.
between the header pipe and catalytic converter or muf- To check further, start the engine (never in a closed
fler. shop). Stuf f a rag in the tailpipe and feel around every joint
A muffler is a metal chamber for dampening pressure for leaks. If one is found, try tightening the clamp. if this
pulsations to reduce exhaust noise. The toilpipe is a tube does not stop the leak, it must be repaired.
that carries exhaust gas from the muffler to the rear of the If necessary raise the vehicle. Check the clamps and
vehicle. hangers that fasten the exhaust system to the underbody
660 Chapter 2'1

.l'
FIGLTRE 21-93 Tap on an old muffler to see if it is rusted thin
lf rusted, it will dent easily. Warn the customer of possible dangers
Honeycomb monolith because rust damage is not correred by insurance companies.
olatinum coated
A
hammer or mallet (Figure 21-93). A ringing sound indi-
AKDQ outlet cates that the metal is good. A badly corroded part pro-
Aluminized (expandable) duces a dull thud from thinned metal.
Stainless heat shielo If a loud ticking, clicking, or puffing sound can be
steel casing heard, there is probably a large exhaust leak in the system.
Make sure that fittings are not loose and leaking. If parts
AKDQ inlet
are damaged, loosen the clamps or fittings and separate
(expandable)
each part for replacement.
Heat-resistant Because of constant changes in recommended cat-
catalyst alytic converter servicing and installation requirements,
vibration mat check with the vehicle manufacturer for the latest data
The two-way regarding replacement.
(oxidation)
catalyst
2'r"9 EMTSSION CONTROL
SYSTEMS
Ernission control systems are used to prevent poten-
tially toxic chemicals from entering our atmosphere.
The exhaust gas recirculallon (EGR) valve opens to
allow the engine vacuum to siphon exhaust into the intake
manifold and combustion chambers. The EGR valve con-
sists of a poppet and a vacuum-actuated [Link]
vacuum is applied to the diaphragm, it lifts the poppet off
its seat. Exhaust gas then flows back into the engine. The
exhaust entering the combustion chambers lowers peak
combustion temperatures. This reduces nitrogen oxide air
pollution (Figure 21-94).
The two-way
The positiue crankcase uentilation (PCV) system, chan-
(oxidation)
nels engine crankcase blowby gases into the engine intake
catalyst
manifold. The gasses are then drawn into the engine and
FlGt-8F{E 21-9e Compare the types of catalytic converters: burned. This prevents crankcase fumes from entering the
(A) single-bed, (B) dual-bed, and (C) three-i/vay. Note how they atmosphere (Figure 2 1-95).
convert harmful exhaust gases into l'rarmless water, oxygen, and
The fuel euaporotiue system pulls fumes from the gas
carbon dioxide.
tank and other fuel system parts into a charcoal canister.
The charcoal canister absorbs and stores vaporized fuei
Also, jab at all rusted areas in the system with an old screw- (Figure 21-96). When the engine is started, these vapors
driver. If the blade sinks through the metal at any point, are drawn into the engine and burned, which prevents this
that part is badly [Link] can also tap on parts with a source of pollution from entering the Earth s atmosphere.
 Chassis Service and Wheel Aliqnment 661

Carburetor Carburetor Ported

throttle valve Ported EGR valve throttle valve vacuum EGR valve
Spring
vacuum

Exhaust
1""".+.'- gas lntake manifold
lntake manifold

Time-delay solenoid Amplifier

Heat-operated
Carburetor
vacuum vatve
Venturi EGR valve

hn'IEGaust
lntake manifold gas

Ff GUBE 21-94 An exhaust gas recirculatio'-i sysiem (llLiLi) ioirtes i:rrned exhaust !.tse$ back tnto tne engine inlake maniioicl to lower
::..,_^-:,,s:al.:einperatLjrestoreduceirltl"enrissions i',Joten{l\',[Link]:r,rurnhosei'cutin91 calvaryvviiilvehicl+makeandmodel.

Purge
Filtered air € Air intake
Fueltank
Fueltank
line
vapors

Activated
charcoal
Canister
PCV control
body
VAIVE

Crankcase
hlnrrrhr r

gases

Replaceable filter Purge air

E:=> =-tr iered air 6g!8> Combustible mixture
P a-p'^.,.,,bv oases E@ F + B
'fhe
trCffi4JRH *"{-gS charccal canister captures and stores fuel
Key to PCV system svstei'n funres so ihe:,,can be i:i;rned in ihe i':rrgir"re i-ipon [Link]
piaglic [Link] r cai'r he
':i,[Link] and bi'oken durirg a coilision.
Always ins;;ect it fcr cracks and hreakage whiie ricinq body work.
F GJFE 21-95 ---= rli"r [Link] pievents crarikcase fuirtes

:: : :. :: .: _ ,l i,t i,,rT bui.:tinQ.

 Chapter 21

F[VntsstGnu c0NTRO!- F All replacement parts for emission control systems

sYsT'€tv! sER\f:eH must satisfy the original design requirements of the
manufacturer.
Many times emission control systems are damaged in a
collision and must be serviced as part of the repair. The To make it easier for the technician, manufacturers are
Clean Air Act, which is a federal law, makes the body shop required by law to install emission control identification
responsible for the emission control system. The law labels (Figure 21-97) and labels supplying vacuum rout-
requires technicians to restore emission control systems to
their original. The law also imposes penalties for shops
and technicians who alter emission control systems or fail
to restore them to proper working condition.
The following guidelines must be strictly adhered to
when working on emission control systems:
F Damaged parts must be replaced with good parts.
Eliminating damaged parts to avoid replacing them is
against the law
p* Using parts that prevent proper operation of the emis-
sion control system is against the law.
ts Proper repairs to the emission control system must be
made to the manufacturer's soecifications. FIGURE 21-gZ A typical emission control idenlification label
gives information about equipment on a specific vehicle. it must be
replaced on the new fan shroud during collision repair.

Power brake
vacuum hose

Air ducl
hose
Gas tank
Windshield air vent hose
washer tubing

Heater
nose
Fresh air
intake hose
Radiator
overflow
tubing

Fuel line hose

Gas tank
Power steering filler neck
Headlight return hose hose
VACUUM
tubing
Bypass
nose Transmission
cooler hose
Crankcase
Carburetor ventilation hose
preheater hose

FI(}[rFlE At-gg These hoses should be checked carefullv after a coilisicn. (Courtesv of Dana Corporation)
 Chassis Service and Wheel Alignment
Fuel lines and fuel hoses carry fuel from the tank to the
ttons',',':.:.-.:.^.,-.-: ::: :,:,1i. These labels are considered engine (Figure 21-99).A main fuel line allows a fuel pumo
pan ,:: ,--: :*..:.:..,. : _-.:[Link] s\rstems under the law. The to draw fuel out of the tank. The fuel is pulled through this
labe,s :t-s. :: r::.:i:t \^.hen collision repair services line to the pump and then into the metering section of the
recj.r: ..: t-=-, ..... _r iause damage to the [Link] injection system.
nL:-.:-t: :tt::r , -. -_: -afels aS reqUired bV laW Fuel lines are normally made of stronq, double_wall
steel tubing. For fire safety reasons, a fuel line must be able
21.1O HOSE AND to withstand the constant and severe vibration produced
TUBING INSPECTION by the engine and road surfaces.
Fuel hoses made of synthetic rubber are needed where
i-.- rt : 1-98. there are a number of hoses severe movement occurs between parts. For example, a
, in a car. Before the vehicle is
sizes fuel hose is used between the main fuel line and the
-:--: _ -: -_s:t:tet. they all should be checked. If engine. The engine is mounted on rubber moror mounts.
. . >-: _: , ':. r clamps appear damaged they should The soft mounts allow the engine some movement in the
:= - .: -: - .. .. .s --sreciaih/ true of the fuel lines. car frame or body
A fuel tank can be located under the trunk, in a body
panel, or under the rear seat (Figure
21,11 FUEL SYSTEM SERVICE 2 i-gg).lt may be held
in the vehicle by large metal straps or by bolts passing
, _ r-. f:f ail. r'ou will frequently have to work
-. : :ie, svstem components. The fundamen-
. -=, s-lpli's|stem include:
- r..-s gasoline, diesel oil, gasohol, or some- Do not try to repair a damaged fuel
tank. lf not badly rusted, send the leak-
,..rn. fuel between the tank, pump, and ing tank to a well-trained speciailst.
Even an empty tank can explode when
fuel gum melts, vaporizes, and ignites from the
: ::ei metering device heat of soldering or welding.
:-.::ove COntaminants in fUel

Fuel vapor Fueltank Fuel pump

ptpe

\
Fuel gauge
sending unit

Fuel
Pressure return line
regulator
FIGUr RE 21-99 Notethebasicpartsof afuel [Link]
-:' : : throughlinesandhosestotheengine.
'-'. '-i ntotheengjneintakemanifold.(Courtesyof AmericanHondaMotorCo., lnc.)
664 Chapter 21

Lock plate
Fuel filler cap ---_-_r,-@
n
Fuel filler neck ring ----2"" @q Fueltank
Fuelfiller plale / gauge unit
Fuel filler tube O-ring
Ventilation tube

Ventilation hose
Fuelfiller
hose

Fuel check valve

Fuel outlet tube

Fuel return tube
Fueltank
Evaporation tube Fuel tank &

protector

From fuel To canister

pump

FIGURE 21-1OO Fuel linetubingshouldbevisuallycheckedforleakage,[Link]{[Link] tankshouldalways

be drained before removal . (Courtesy of Nissan North America, lnc.)

through the tank flange. On rear-engine vehicles, the fuel secured. Replace the fuel in the tank and check for leaks.
tank can be located in the front. Vehicle-specific service information will detail exact tank
installation procedures (Figure 21-100).

Before servicing a fuel tank, empty it. A

Some late modelfuel lines have a spe-
full tank is very heavy and can rupture
cial snap-type fitting. Do not try to pry
if dropped. This can result in injuries
the fitting apart or it will be damaged.
You need an inexpensive tool to release the fuel
line fitting for service. This tool can be purchased
To remove fuel from the tank, unscrew the drain plug at most auto oarts stores.
and drain the fuel into an approved safety [Link] a drain is
not provided, use an approved pumping method to draw
Remember these rules when workinq with fuel lines
the fuel out of the tank.
and hoses:
After draining, you can remove the tank from the ve-
hicle. Disconnect the filler neck, fuel lines, wires, and other F Place a shop rag around the fuel line fitting during
components. Then remove the tank straps or bolts secur- removal. This will keep fuel from spraying on you or on
ing the tank to the body or frame. Slowly lower the tank the hot engine. Use a flare nut or tubing wrench on fuel
without spilling any fuel. system fittings.
When installing a fuel tank, make sure you replace the > Only use approved double-wall steel tubino for frrel
rubber insulators. Check that all fuel lines are properly lines. Never use copper or plastic tubing.
 Chassis Service and Wheel A
Make smooth bends when forming a new fuel line. Use
a bending spring or bending tool.
Form double-lap flares on the ends of the fuel line. A Most fuel injection systems have very
singlelap flare is not approved for fuel lines. high fuel pressure. Follow recom-
Reinstall fuel line hold-down clamps and [Link]
mended procedures for bleeding or
not properly supported, the fuel line can vibrate and
releasing pressure before disconnecting
fail.
a fuel line or fitting. This will prevent fuel sprav from
Route all fuel lines and hoses away from hot or moving
parts. Double-check clearance after installation.
possibly causing injury or a fire!
Only use approved synthetic rubber hoses in a fuel sys-
tem. If vacuum-type rubber hose is accidentally used,
fuel can chemically attack and rapidly ruin the hose. A
dangerous leak could result.
Double-check all fittings for leaks. Start the enqine and
inspect the connections closely

l The powertrain includes all of the parts that produce L Camber is the angle represented by the vertical tilt of
and transfer power to the drive wheels. the wheels inward or outward when viewed from the
2, The engine provides energy to move the vehicle and front of the vehicle.
power all accessories. 10. Caster is the angle of the steering axis of a wheel from
3. When starting an engine before or after repairs, check true vertical, as viewed from the side of the vehicle.
the oillevelwith the oildipstick. 11. Steering axis inclination is the inward tilt of tne sreer-
i
t. When a CV-joint boot is torn or missing, there is often ing axis at the top.
damage or wear in the joint. It Toe is the difference in the distance between the
When more time is saved in the repair of adjacent front and rear of the left- and right-hand wheels.
panels than is necessary to remove and reinstall the 13. With proper tracking, the rear tires travel directly
drivetrain, the drivetrain should be removed. behind the front tires when the steering wheel is in
o. An engine-transaxle or transmission assemblv is veru the straight-ahead position.
hear,y If dropped, it can easily chop off toes and fin- 14. The brake system uses hydraulic pressure to slow or
gers or crush bones. A coil spring has deadly force stop wheel rotation with brake pedal application.
when compressed!
15. R134a is the present replacement for Rl2 refrigerant.
a. Visually inspect the steering system for any physical It is less harmful to the ozone layer. A recovery system
damage. Check the boots for leaks, inspect the tie- captures used refrigerant and keeps it from contami_
rods, and examine the mounting points for any dis- nating the atmosphere.
tortion.
16. Emission control systems are used to prevenr poren,
8. In collision repair, wheel alignment involves adjusting tially toxic chemicals from entering our atmosphere.
the vehicle's tires so that they roll properly over road The most common of these are the exhaust qas recir-
surfaces. culation (EGR), catalytic converter, air inject"ion, and
positive crankcase venti lation (PC\l systems.
666 Chapter 2'1

On a separate sheet of paper, complete the following learning activities for this [Link] definitions
for the key terms and answer the ASE-style review questions, essay questions, critical thinking prob-
lemso and math problems. You can also do the outside activities, possibly for extra credit.

KEY TERMS
antifreeze engrne steering axis inclination (SAI)
axial runout ^..L lduSr.
c^l ^.,^r )y)tcl l l ctccrino oearhnv
caliper heater core suspension system
camber jounce thermostat
casler mrctpr crriinder transaxle
caster-camber gauge motor mounts transmission
clutch paralleiogram steering system trrrnino radirrs
coolant recovery bottle powertrain turning radius gauges
curb height rear axle assembly wheel alignment
CV-axles rebound wheel puller
differential rotor wheel runout
drive shaft scrub radius
emission control systems shock absorbers

[Link] REVIEW GIUESTIONS

1. To begin a cornering angle check, Technician A turns the To determine whether an improper toe condition is
left f ront wheel out 20 degrees. Technician B turns the left caused by poor wheel alignment or damaged suspension
front wheel out 70 degrees. Who is correct? components, Technician A makes a cornering angle
A. Technician A check; Technician B makes a jounce-rebound check.
Who is correct?
B. Technician B
C, Both A and B A. Technician A
D. Neither A nor B B. Technician B
C. Both A and B
2. In unibody construction, what provides the critical mount-
ing positions for the suspension and steering systems?
D. Neither A nor B
A, Body panels 5. Which oarts mount on the outer end of the control arms

B. Drivetrain to allow the steering knuckles to swivel and turn?

C. Upper and lower control arms A. Bushings

D. Cradle assembly mounting biscuits

B. Sleeves
C, Balljoints
3. What is the definition of camber?
D. Ball sockets
A. The forward or backward tilt of the steering axis
6. Which of the following statements concerning brake sys-
B. The distance between the centerline of the ball joints
tems is incorrect?
and the centerline of the tire at the point where the
tire contacts the road surface A. All cars are now required to have two hydraulic sys-
tems.
C, The amount of toe-out present on turns
D. The inward or outward tilt of the tire as measured at
B. The major brake component that a technician must
reoair is the brake line.
the too
C. A hose that is blistered does not necessarilv have to
be reolaced.
D. The wheel cylinder converts hydraulic pressure to
mechanical force.
 Chassis Service and Wheel
7. The _ is the foundation of the engine; all the other 10. After recovery from an A"/C system, Technician A uses
engine parts are either housed in or attached to it.
hydraulic caps to keep out moisture. Technician B uses
A, Block plastic wrap held in place with wire ties. Who is correct?
B. Head A. Technician A
C. Rocker arm B. Technician B
D. Piston C. Both A and B
8. Which emission control subsystem is responsible for D. Neither A nor B
channeling blowby gases into the fuel intake area? 11. Which type of camber has the top of the wheel tilted
A. Engine control inward when viewed from the front so the Inner tire tread
B. Positive crankcase ventilation contacts the road surface more?
C. Evaporative A. Reverse camber
D. Exhaust gas recirculation B. Forward camber
9. Which assembly has a transmission and differential com_ C. Positive camber
bined into a single housing or case? D. Negative camber
A. Differential 12- What causes the diameter of the wheel to change as it is
B. Engine rotated?
C. Transfer case A. Radial runout
D. Transaxle B. Lateral runout
C. Oblong runout
D. Eccentric runout

ESSAV qUESTIONS
1. Describe the three functions of a vehicle,s suspenston 3. What is the A/C system low-side?
system.
2. List five power steering service tips that should be kept in
mind.

GRITICAL THINK!NG PROBLEMS

1. A steering wheel has been badly bent by the driver,s 2. You must replace the A/C system compressor. How
body flying forward without a seat belt. What should be should you proceed?
done?

MATH PROBLEMS
1. A worn ball joint moves up and down ./szinch (0.g mm). 2. The front wheels of a car are toed-in %u inch (1.5 mm).
The ball joint moves i/uo inch (0.4 mm). What, if anything,
Specs call lor ,la inch (1.5 mm) toe_out. How much
should be done? Give measurements.
adjustment is needed?

ACTIVITIES
1. Inspect several badly damaged vehicles. Make a list of 2. Make estimates of the costs to repair the damaged
the mechanical parts that have been damaged in the col_ mechanical parts you identified in the previous activitv.
lision.