GEN BIO 2

Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering: Changing the DNA in living organisms to create something new.
This organisms are called Genetically
Modi ed Organism (GMO)
Example:
• Bacteria that produce human insulin
• Genetically Modi ed organism are called transgenic organism; since genes are transferred
from one organism to another.

This is called transformation: when a gene from one organism is transferred to di erent
organism.
The organisms that have DNA transferred to them are called transgenic organisms.
trans: means di erent,
genic: refers to genes

Genetic engineering has given rise to a new technological eld called biotechnology
(technology of life)

Some genetic engineering techniques are as follows:

1. Arti cial selection
• selective breeding
• hybridization
• inbreeding
2. Cloning
3. Gene splicing
4. Gel electrophoresis: analyzing DNA

Arti cial selection

• breeders choose which organism to mate to produce o spring with desired traits.
• They cannot control what genes are passed.
• When they get o spring with the desired traits, the maintain them.

A. Selective breeding: when animals with desired characteristics are mated to produce
o spring with those desired traits.
• Passing of important genes to next generation.
• Example: Champion race horses, cows with tender meat, large juicy oranges on a tree.

Selective breeding occurs when you choose the best male and female to breed.
• This allows you to ne tune and control the traits
• The o spring or babies will then have the best traits.
• Then you continue to breed those organism with the best traits, those traits will be
maintained.
Examples of selective breeding:
• Angus cows are breed to
• increase
muscle
mass so that we get more meat,
• Egg-Laying Hen produces more eggs than the average hen
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 B. Hybridizations: two individuals with unlike characteristics are crossed to produce the best
in both organisms.
• Example: Luther Burbank created a disease resistant called potato called the Burbank
potato.
• He crossed a disease resistant plant with one that had a large food producing capacity.
• Result: disease resistant plant that makes a lot of potatoes.

C. Inbreeding: breeding of organism genetically similar to maintain desired traits.

• Dog breeds are kept pure this way.
• It's how a Doberman remains a Doberman.
• It keeps each breed unique from others
• Risk: since both have the same genes, the chance that a baby will get a recessive genetic
disorder is high.
• Risks: blindness, joint deformities.

Variation: di erence between individuals of a species.

• The di erences are in the genes but we see the physical di erences.
For example: Some humans have blond hair and some have brown. This is a variation among
humans.
• Some nches have short beaks, some have long beaks.
• Inbreeding decreases variations.

2. Cloning: creating an organism that is an exact genetic copy of another.

• There are human clones in our school.
• identical twins are naturally created clones.
Clone: group of cells or organisms that are genetically identical as a result of asexual
reproduction
•They will have the same exact DNA as the parent.
Since Dolly, cats and other organisms have been cloned. The cat that was cloned had the
same exact DNA but di erent color fur than the mother.
How can this be? Environment plays a huge part in the way organisms develop.

Eggs are haploid

Haploid: half the chromosomes, 23 in humans
Body cells are diploid:
Diploid: two sets chromosomes, one of from mom and one set from dad 46 in humans.

C. Glow-in-the-dark cats
Scientist used a virus to insert DNA from jelly sh
The gene made the cat produce a uorescent protein in its fur.

How could you clone a human?

• Step 1: An egg is removed from a female human
• Eggs are haploid: 23 chromosomes.
• The nucleus of the egg is removed and is thrown away.
• Step 2: A body cell is removed from another person.
• The nucleus of the body cell is removed
• Body cells are diploid: 46 chromosomes.
• Step 3: The nucleus of the diploid body cell is put into the egg.
• This egg no longer needs to be fertilized since it has all 46 chromosomes.
• Step 4: The egg is then charged with electricity to start mitosis.
• Step 5: Its then put into a surrogate mother so it can grow.
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 • Its going to be genetically identical to the parent of the body cell. But it will be a baby.
• Plants and animals can be cloned.

2. Transgenic bacteria: gene inserted into bacteria so they produce things humans need.
• For example: insulin and clotting factors in blood are now made by bacteria.

3. Transgenic plants: plants are given genes so they meet human needs.
A. Transgenic corn: given a gene so corn produces a natural pesticide. Now they don't have to
be sprayed with cancer causing pesticides. • 25% of all corn is like this.

B. Venomous cabbage
• gene from a scorpion tails inserted into cabbage.
• Cabbage now produces that chemical.
• Why? Limit pesticide use while from still preventing insects from damaging crops.
• Corporations state the toxin is modi ed so it isn't harmful to humans.

C. Banana vaccines
• virus is injected into a banana, the virus DNA becomes part of the plant.
• As the plant grows, it produces the virus proteins - but not the disease part of the virus.
• When people eat a bite, their immune systems creates antibodies to ght the disease - just
like a traditional vaccine
• Vaccines for hepatitis and cholera

Bene ts of cloning:
1. you can make exact copies of organisms with strong traits.
2. Increase food supply
3. Medical purposes: clone organs for transplants.
4. Bring back or Stop species from going extinct.
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 Gene therapy: when disease causing genes are cut out and good gene are inserted.
• Restriction enzymes are used to cut out bad genes.
• Viruses are used to insert good genes.
• Not approved for human use yet.
• Some possible side e ects.

Risks of cloning:
1. Decreases genetic diversity
2. If one of your clones gets a disease, they all get it: same immune system.
3. Ine cient: high failure rate: 90%+
4. Expensive

3. Gene splicing: DNA is cut out of one organism and put into another organism
• A trait will be transferred from one organism to another.
• For example: the human insulin gene can be removed from a human cell.
• It can be put into a bacterial cell.
• The bacterial will now make human insulin.

4. Gel electrophoresis: a technique used to compare DNA from two or more organisms.
Why compare DNA:
1. Find your baby's daddy
2. Who committed a crime.
3. How closely species are related.

This picture represents gene splicing.

• However, DNA is much smaller.
• It's done with high tech lab equipment since DNA, is too small to hold or see without a
microscope.

How is electrophoresis done?

- The DNA is cut into fragments with a restriction enzyme.
- The cut DNA is then put into the wells of a machine lled with gel.
- The gel is spongy and the DNA squeezes through the pores.
Bene ts:
• insulin is cheaper
• There are no side e ects because it is human insulin.
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 • We once used pig insulin but there are side e ects and it more expensive.

C. The machine is plugged in and the fragments get separated based on their size.
• The smaller fragments move further than the large.

How are genes cut for gene splicing?

• A bacterial plasmid is used.
• Plasmid: circular DNA in a bacteria cell.
• It is very simple and easy to manipulate.

• A restriction enzyme: enzyme that cuts the DNA at a speci c code.

• There are thousands of restriction enzymes.
• Each cuts DNA at a di erent sequence.
• Some look for GGCC and cut in between the G and C.
• Every time GGCC is found in the DNA it is cut by the restriction enzyme

Your DNA is so unique its considered to be a DNA ngerprint. Gel electrophoresis will separate
your DNA di erently from anyone else.

RECOMBINATION OF DNA #2

What is DNA?
DNA= Deoxyribu-Nucelic Acid
• DNA is a very large molecule, made up of smaller units called nucleotides
• Each nucleotide has three parts: a sugar (ribose), a phosphate molecule, and a
nitrogenous base.
• The nitrogenous base is the part of the nucleotide that carries genetic information
• The bases found in DNA are four: adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine ( ATP, СТР,
GTP, and TTP)

What is gene?
• A gene is a stretch of DNA that codes for a type of protein that has a function in the
organism.
• It is a unit of heredity in a living organism..
All living things depend on genes
• Genes hold the information to build and maintain an organism's cells and pass genetic traits
to o spring.

What are gene components?

• Genes contain:
EXONS: a set of coding regions...
INTRONS: Non-coding regions removed sequence and are therefore labeled split genes
(splicing).

What is the genome?

• The genetic complement of an organism, including all of its GENES, as represented in its
DNA

What is the gene expression?

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 • Is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene
product (proteins)
• The process of gene expression is used by all known life - eukaryotes, prokaryotes, and
viruses - to generate the macromolecular machinery for life.

Steps of gene expression

• (1) Transcription (mRNA synthesis),
• (2) Post-transcriptional process (RNA
splicing),
• (3) Translation (protein synthesis)
• (4)post-translational modi cation of a protein.

What are the genetic changes?

• An alteration in a segment of DNA, which can disturb a gene's behavior and sometimes
leads to disease.
• It may be:
• (1) Small genetic change, genetic drift (mutation)
• (2) large genetic change, genetic shift (recombination)

What is mutation?
Are changes in the DNA sequence of a cell's genome caused by radiation, viruses,
transposons
and mutagenic chemicals,

What is recombination?
The exchange of corresponding DNA segments between adjacent chromosomes during the
special type of cell division that results in the production of new genetic make up...

In genetic engineering, recombination can also refer to arti cial and deliberate
recombination of pieces of DNA, from di erent organisms, creating what is called
recombinant DNA.

Application of genetic engineering in Medicine

(1) Treatment of genetic diseases (gene therapy)
e.g. SCID girl Severe combined immunode ciency (SCID) is very rare genetic disorder that
causes life-threatening problems with the immune system. It is a type of primary immune
de ciency (also called an inborn error of immunity)

(2) Production of medically useful biologicals (e.g. insulin)

(3) Vaccines production

• Firstly, the gene in a pathogenic virus that stimulates protective immunity should be
identi ed.
• That portion of DNA is then isolated and incorporated into an established harmless virus
(e.g. vaccinia virus).
• This new recombinant virus is used as a vaccine.
• These vaccines are much safer since they do not expose the patients to the actual virus and
do not risk to infection.
• This method may be useful in vaccines against malaria and schistosomiasis and many
viruses (e.g. HBV)

(4) Pharmacogenomics
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 Deals with the in uence of genetic variation on drug response in patients by correlating gene
expression with a drug's e cacy or toxicity

#1
geologic time scale
The geologic time scale is a chronological representation of Earth's history, divided into eons,
eras, periods, and epochs. These divisions are based on signi cant geological and biological
events, such as mass extinctions, major shifts in climate, and the appearance of new life forms.
While the exact dates are constantly re ned with new research, a generally accepted sequence
and approximate dating system exists. This report outlines that system.

eons
The largest divisions of geologic time are eons. Earth's history is broadly divided into four eons:

Hadean Eon (4.54 – 4.0 billion years ago)

This eon represents the earliest period of Earth's history, characterized by the formation of the
planet and its initial cooling. Life is not believed to have existed during this time. Dating is
challenging due to the scarcity of surviving rocks from this period.

Archean Eon (4.0 – 2.5 billion years ago)

The Archean Eon saw the formation of the rst continents and oceans. Crucially, this is the eon
where the earliest evidence of life appears, in the form of single-celled prokaryotes.
Photosynthesis evolved later in this eon, fundamentally altering Earth's atmosphere.

Proterozoic Eon (2.5 billion – 541 million years ago)

This eon is marked by the rise of more complex life forms, including the rst eukaryotic cells
(cells with a nucleus). Signi cant events include the Great Oxidation Event (a dramatic increase
in atmospheric oxygen) and the development of multicellular life towards the end of the eon.

Phanerozoic Eon (541 million years ago – present)

This is the most recent eon and the one most familiar to us. It is characterized by the explosion
of diverse, complex life forms, including plants, animals, and fungi. The Phanerozoic is further
subdivided into three eras: Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.

The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into three eras:

- Paleozoic Era (541 – 252 million years ago): This "ancient life" era saw the Cambrian
explosion, a rapid diversi cation of life forms. Major events include the colonization of land by
plants and animals, and several signi cant mass extinction events. The Paleozoic is subdivided
into periods such as the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and
Permian.
- Mesozoic Era (252 – 66 million years ago): Known as the "age of reptiles," the Mesozoic Era
saw the rise and dominance of dinosaurs. Other signi cant events include the break-up of the
supercontinent Pangaea and the evolution of owering plants. The Mesozoic is divided into the
Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods.
- Cenozoic Era (66 million years ago – present): This "recent life" era is characterized by the
diversi cation of mammals and birds following the extinction of the dinosaurs. The Cenozoic is
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 divided into the Paleogene, Neogene, and Quaternary periods. The Quaternary period is further
subdivided into the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs.

The geologic time scale provides a framework for understanding the vast history of Earth and
the evolution of life. While the dates assigned to speci c events are subject to ongoing
re nement, the overall sequence of events and major divisions remain relatively consistent,
o ering a valuable tool for geologists, paleontologists, and other scientists studying Earth's
past. Further research and technological advancements will continue to improve the accuracy
and detail of this crucial timeline.

Hadean and Archean Eons (4.54 - 2.5 billion years ago):

Life during these early eons was exclusively microbial. The de ning characteristic was the
absence of complex cellular structures. - Prokaryotes: These single-celled organisms lacked a
nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Early prokaryotes were likely anaerobic
(surviving without oxygen), but the evolution of photosynthesis in cyanobacteria (blue-green
algae) fundamentally changed Earth's atmosphere, leading to the Great Oxidation Event. These
early prokaryotes laid the foundation for all subsequent life.

Proterozoic Eon (2.5 billion - 541 million years ago):

The Proterozoic saw the emergence of more complex life forms.
- Eukaryotes: The de ning characteristic of eukaryotes is the presence of a nucleus and other
membrane-bound organelles. The endosymbiotic theory suggests that mitochondria and
chloroplasts originated from symbiotic relationships with prokaryotes. Eukaryotes allowed for
greater cellular complexity and specialization.
- Multicellular Organisms: Towards the end of the Proterozoic, the rst multicellular organisms
appeared, representing a signi cant step in biological evolution. These early multicellular
organisms were relatively simple, but they paved the way for the explosion of life in the
following era.

Paleozoic Era (541 - 252 million years ago):

The Paleozoic is marked by the Cambrian explosion, a rapid diversi cation of life.
- Cambrian Explosion (Cambrian Period): A wide array of invertebrate phyla appeared,
including arthropods (trilobites), mollusks, and echinoderms. These organisms exhibited a
variety of body plans and lifestyles.
- Plants Colonize Land (Silurian and Devonian Periods): The evolution of vascular plants
allowed plants to colonize land, leading to signi cant changes in terrestrial ecosystems.

Paleozoic Era (541 - 252 million years ago):

- Vertebrates Colonize Land (Devonian Period): Amphibians evolved from sh, marking the
rst vertebrate colonization of land. This transition required adaptations for breathing air and
supporting their weight on land.
- Reptiles and Insects Diversify (Carboniferous and Permian Periods): Reptiles evolved
from amphibians, possessing adaptations for fully terrestrial life (e.g., amniotic egg). Insects
also diversi ed signi cantly, becoming important pollinators and components of terrestrial food
webs. - Permian Extinction: The largest mass extinction event in Earth's history, wiping out
approximately 96% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrates.

Mesozoic Era (252 - 66 million years ago):

The Mesozoic is often called the "Age of Reptiles."
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 - Dinosaurs Dominate (Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous Periods): Dinosaurs were the
dominant terrestrial vertebrates, exhibiting a wide range of sizes, shapes, and ecological roles.
The evolution of birds from theropod dinosaurs occurred during this era.
- Gymnosperms: These seed-bearing plants, such as conifers and cycads, were the dominant
plants during much of the Mesozoic.
- Marine Reptiles: Large marine reptiles, such as plesiosaurs and ichthyosaurs, thrived in the
oceans. - Cretaceous-Paleogene Extinction: A mass extinction event that wiped out the non-
avian dinosaurs, along with many other organisms. The impact of an asteroid is widely
considered the primary cause.

Cenozoic Era (66 million years ago - present):

The Cenozoic is the "Age of Mammals."
- Mammalian Diversi cation: Mammals diversi ed signi cantly after the extinction of the
dinosaurs, lling various ecological niches.
- Angiosperms: Flowering plants became the dominant plant group, forming complex
interactions with pollinators (often insects).
- Primate Evolution: Primates evolved and diversi ed, leading to the eventual emergence of
humans.

(ADD. INFO)

The Phanerozoic Eon is the only eon that is divided into eras. The other three eons—Hadean,
Archean, and Proterozoic—are not formally subdivided into eras, though informal subdivisions
are sometimes used[__LINK_ICON].

The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into three eras: the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic. These
eras are further subdivided into periods and epochs.

The Paleozoic Era, spanning from about 541 to 252 million years ago, is divided into six
periods:

1. Cambrian Period (541 - 485.4 million years ago): This period is known as the "Cambrian
Explosion," a time of rapid diversi cation of life, marked by the appearance of numerous new
animal phyla, including trilobites, brachiopods, and early vertebrates.
2. Ordovician Period (485.4 - 443.8 million years ago): During this period, marine life continued
to diversify, with the rise of corals, graptolites, and cephalopods. The Ordovician also saw the
rst evidence of land plants and the beginning of the formation of large continents.
3. Silurian Period (443.8 - 419.2 million years ago): The Silurian Period is characterized by the
further evolution of marine life, including the development of jawed sh. Land plants began to
colonize the continents, and the rst terrestrial arthropods appeared.
4. Devonian Period (419.2 - 358.9 million years ago): This period is known as the "Age of
Fishes," with the diversi cation of sh, including sharks, bony sh, and the rst tetrapods (four-
legged vertebrates). Forests began to develop on land, and the rst insects evolved.
5. Carboniferous Period (358.9 - 298.9 million years ago): The Carboniferous is marked by the
formation of vast coal deposits, resulting from the decay of extensive forests. Amphibians
diversi ed, and the rst reptiles evolved.
6. Permian Period (298.9 - 252.2 million years ago): The Permian Period saw the rise of
synapsids, the ancestors of mammals. At the end of the Permian, the largest mass extinction
event in Earth's history occurred, wiping out 96% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial
vertebrates.
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 Permian
Mississippian
Silurian

The Mesozoic Era, often called the "Age of Reptiles", spanned from 252 to 66 million years ago
and is divided into three periods:

1. Triassic Period (252 - 201.3 million years ago): This period saw the recovery of life after the
Permian extinction. Dinosaurs rst appeared, as well as early mammals and ying reptiles
(pterosaurs). The supercontinent Pangaea began to break apart.
2. Jurassic Period (201.3 - 145 million years ago): The Jurassic Period is characterized by the
further diversi cation of dinosaurs, including giant sauropods and theropods. The rst birds
evolved from theropod dinosaurs. The continents continued to drift apart, and the oceans
expanded.
3. Cretaceous Period (145 - 66 million years ago): This period saw the peak of dinosaur
diversity and the rise of owering plants. The rst modern birds appeared, and the rst
mammals began to diversify. The continents continued to drift towards their present-day
positions. The Cretaceous ended with a mass extinction event, caused by an asteroid impact,
which wiped out the dinosaurs and many other life forms.

The Cenozoic Era, which began about 66 million years ago and continues to the present day, is
divided into three periods:

1. Paleogene Period (66 - 23.03 million years ago): This period saw the rapid diversi cation of
mammals after the extinction of the dinosaurs. The continents continued to drift towards their
present-day positions, and the climate cooled signi cantly. The Paleogene is further divided
into ve epochs: Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene.
2. Neogene Period (23.03 - 2.58 million years ago): During this period, grasslands expanded,
and mammals continued to evolve and diversify. The rst hominids (human ancestors)
appeared. The Neogene is further divided into two epochs: Miocene and Pliocene.
3. Quaternary Period (2.58 million years ago - present): The Quaternary is characterized by the
appearance of modern humans and the repeated cycles of glaciation and interglacial periods.
This period is further divided into two epochs: Pleistocene and Holocene. The Holocene epoch,
which began about 11,700 years ago, is the current epoch and is marked by the rise of human
civilization and the signi cant impact of humans on the environment

#2
The mechanism that produce change populations from
generation to generation
Arti cial Selection
evolutionary process in which humans consciously select for or against particular features in
organisms.
Arti cial selection is evident in the selective breeding practices of dogs. By humans deciding
which dogs mated to produce o spring with certain traits or to remove traits, hundreds of
di erent dog breeds were formed.

Natural Selection
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913)
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 The preferential survival and reproduction preferential elimination of individuals with certain
genotypes (genetic compositions), by means of natural or arti cial controlling factors

Preferential survival: There are genes that are maintained by the organism because these are
bene cial or helpful that can help the organism survive and reproduce.
Preferential elimination: loss of traits or characteristics that are useless for the organism.

Evolution
A population is changing in its genetic makeup over generations

Genetic Drift Change

Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution that occurs when the frequency of an allele increases
or decreases by chance in a population.

Gene Pool
Gene Pool -All copies of all the genes in a population. The combination of all the genes
(including alleles) present in a reproducing population or species.

Allele Frequency
Allele Frequency- Refers to how common an allele is in a population or how frequent a certain
trait or characteristic occurs in population.

The gene pool is the sum of all the genes and their alleles in a population, while allele
frequency is the proportion of each allele in a population:
Gene pool: The total number of all the genes and their alleles in a population.
Allele frequency: The proportion of each allele in a population, calculated by dividing the
number of times an allele appears by the total number of copies of the gene.

Gene Flow (Migration)

The transfer of alleles from one population to another, resulting from the movement of fertile
individuals or their gamete.

Population Genetics
• The eld of Biology that studies allele frequencies in populations and how they change over
time.
• It is the branch of biology which focuses on inherited variations in populations of organisms.
• The changes that occur in the genetics of a population or between several populations of
organisms are studied here. Population genetics focuses on the reasons why there is
microevolution which is also the reason why there is large scale evolution.

• Five Causes of Microevolution

- Genetic drift
- Assortative/Random mating
- Mutation
- Natural selection
- Migration (gene ow)

Mutations
A change in the nucleotide sequence of an organism's DNA or in the DNA or RNA of a virus

MECHANISM OF CHANGE
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 1. Mutation is a change in DNA, the hereditary material of life. An organism's DNA a ects how
it looks, how it behaves, and its physiology - all aspects of its life. So a change in an
organism's DNA can cause changes in all aspects of its life. A mutation could cause parents
with genes for bright green coloration to have o spring with a gene for brown coloration. That
would make genes for brown coloration more frequent in the population than they were before
the mutation.

Mutations can be detrimental to individuals, but they can also diversify the population.
Mutations that occur in eggs and sperm are called germline mutations and can be passed on
to o spring. Mutations that occur in body cells are called somatic mutations and are not passed
on.

2. Genetic Drift. This can occur when a small group of individuals leaves a population and
establishes a new one in a geographically isolated region. Fitness of a population is not
considered in genetic drift, nor does genetic drift occur in a very large population.

Bottleneck e ect occurs when there is a sudden sharp decline in a population's size typically
due to environmental factors (natural disasters) ; a genetic event that occurs when a
population's size is signi cantly reduced, resulting in a loss of genetic diversity.

RECOMBINATION
a genetic process that involves the exchange of genetic information between chromosomes or
DNA molecules. This process results in new combinations of genes, which can contribute to
rapid evolution and the e ciency of natural selection.

EXAMPLE: Genetic recombination

When two parents with blue eyes have a child with brown eyes, this is an example of genetic
recombination. This occurs when chromosomes in the parents' sperm or eggs exchange alleles

Pioneers in the Study of Evolution

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
• He developed the theory of evolution by natural selection.
• He documented his observations during his travels. He also collected animals, plants, and
fossils.
• These records and specimens provided evidence as he developed his theory.
Alfred Wallace (1823-1913)
• He also independently developed the theory of evolution through natural selection.
• His 1858 paper, published alongside extracts from Charles Darwin’s earlier writings,
in uenced Darwin’s work and led to the groundbreaking book On the Origin of Species in
1859.
• Wallace’s extensive eldwork began in the Amazon River basin.

Darwin’s theory of natural selection can be summarised as follows: Darwin’s Theory

- Within a species, individual organisms exhibit a wide range of variation for speci c
characteristics.
- Those individuals with traits best suited to their environment have a higher chance of
surviving and reproducing.
- Over time, these advantageous characteristics are passed on to the next generation, driving
evolution through natural selection.

Comparing Macroevolution and Microevolution:

Macroevolution
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 These are large-scale changes that occur over extended periods.
Microevolution
These are small-scale changes that a ect just one or a few genes and happen in populations
over shorter timescales.

Macroevolution
Some examples of macroevolution include:
- The origin of mammals
- The evolution of owering plants
- The evolution of garter snakes to resist the toxin produced by newts
- The evolution of hummingbirds and owering plants to have matching structures
- Bacterial strains evolving resistance to penicillin
- House sparrows in the north are larger-bodied than house sparrows in the south
Microevolution results in subtle changes that are not easily observable, but can be measured
mathematically. Macroevolution results in large-scale changes that require specialized
methods, like fossil examination, to study.

Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884) "Father of Genetics"

Gregor Mendel Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk born in 1822 in Austria. He is known as
the father of genetics and he was the one who began the idea of particulate inheritance which
he used to explain the inheritance of traits. According to him, each parent is able to transfer
one allele to o spring. (Alleles are the alternative forms or versions of genes and the phenotype
or actual appearance of the o spring depends on the dominance of the genes that have been
passed on).

Hardy-Weinberg Principle
stating that the genetic variation in a population will remain constant from one generation to the
next in the absence of disturbing factors.

• No natural selection. All alleles confer equal tness (make organisms equally likely to survive
and reproduce).
• No mutation. No new alleles are generated by mutation, nor are genes duplicated or deleted.
3.
• No migration (gene ow). Neither individuals nor their gametes (e.g., windborne pollen) enter
or exit the population.

#3
DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION AND THE DEVELOPMENT
OF EVOLUTIONARY THOUGHT
Descent with modi cation
refers to the passing on of traits from parent organisms to their o spring. This passing on of
traits is known as heredity, and the basic unit of heredity is the gene.

Genes are the blueprints for making an organism and, as such, hold information about its
every conceivable aspect: its growth. development, behavior, appearance, physiology. and
reproduction.

Theory of Evolution
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 Evolution described as "descent with modi cation" by Charles Darwin refers to the species that
changed over time, giving rise to the new species and share a common ancestor.

According to Charles Darwin, all species descended from only a few life forms that had been
modi ed over time. This "descent with modi cation," as he called it, forms the backbone of his
Theory of Evolution, which posits that the development of new types of organisms from pre-
existing types of organisms over time is how cetain species evolve.

The passing on of genes is not always exact. Parts of the blueprints may be copied incorrectly,
or in the case of organisms that undergo sexual reproduction, genes of one parent are
combined with the genes of another parent organism. That is why children are not exact
carbon copies of either of their parents.

three basic concepts that are helpful in clarifying how descent with modi cation works:
• Genetic mutation
• Individual (or natural)
• Evolution of the population (or species as a whole)
The process looks like this: Genes mutate, and those mutations have consequences for the
individuUals within a species. Those individuals either thrive or die out due to their genetics. As
a result, populations change (evolve) over time.

Clarifying Natural Selection

Natural selection is a mechanism of evolution that explains how organisms adapt to their
environment and change over time. Natural selection comes into play, according to Darwin,
when a species adapts to its environment, thanks to its speci c genetic makeup

The Origin of Species

Darwin never used the word evolution in the rst edition of The Origin of Species, although the
nal word of the book is evolved. Instead, Darwin used the phrase descent with modi cation.
• All living organisms are related to each other due to their descent from a common ancestor
that lived in the distant past.
• Overevolutionary time, the descendants of that common ancestor have accumulated diverse
modi cations, or adaptations, that allow them to survive and reproduce in speci c habitats.
• Over long periods of time, descent with modi cation has led to the rich diversity of life we
see today.

Three important points need to be emphasİzed about evolution through natural selection.
1. Although natural selection occurs through interactions between individual organisms and
their environment, individuals do not evolve. A population is the smalest group that can evolve
over time.
2. Natural selection can act only on heritable traits, traits that are passed from organisms to
their o spring. Characteristics acquired by an organism during its lifetime may enhance its
survival and reproductive success, but there is no evidence that such characteristics can be
inherited by o spring.
3. Environmental factors vary from place to place and fronm time to time. A trait that is
favorable in one environment may be useless or even harmful in another environment.

#4
DEVELOPMENT OF EVOLUTIONARY THOUGHT
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 Development of Evolutionary Thought Many people assume that the theory put forth by Darwin
in Origin of Species is the nal say on evolutionary theory. Biologists, however, know that the
theory of evolution has evolved over time. For example, evolutionary theory dramatically
changed when Darwin's original ideas were merged with ideas from genetics to become the
Modern Synthesis. People will see that evolution makes sense when they realize that the
theory of evolution has been updated. The updated and revised theory becomes easier to
understand, appreciate, and embrace. This more integrated theory of evolution has even
greater power to explain the origins of the great diversity of life on Earth.

Darwin 1859
Three theories of evolution have di erent facts to support Variation, Inheritance, Selection and
Time. Darwin's theory is represented by the color [Link] information supporting the
"Modern Synthesis" is highlighted in blue. Updated information supporting the "Integral Model"
is highlighted in purple.

Antiquity
The history of evolution long predates Darwin and his theory. The belief in a changing or
dynamic universe can be rst seen in ancient Greek philosophy. Heraclitus (c. 500 B.C.E.), also
known as the " ux philosopher," believed that change was a fundamental property of the
universe. His successor, Empedocles (c. 392-432 B.C.E.), rst articulated a crude but dynamic
theory that postulated that the origin of life had taken place in a manner that suggested
evolution.

From Aristotle to Linnaeus

However, beginning with the philosophical worldview established by Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.),
the belief in a changing universe fell into disfavor. Aristotle and his numerous medieval and
Renaissance translators, commentators, and supporters instead believed in a static universe
which held that living organisms were created initially and then remained essentially
unchanged. These ideal types or species were arranged hierarchically in what came to be
known as the "scala naturae," or the ladder of creation.

Bu on, Lamarck, and Transmutationism

During the Enlightenment, the idea of species change, known as transmutationism, began to
develop alongside a belief in a progressive world and advancements in geology. Geologists
proposed that fossils were once-living organisms and that Earth's history was shaped by
constant processes rather than catastrophic events.

Key contributors included Comte de Bu on (1707–1788), who questioned species'

immutability and proposed ideas resembling Darwinian evolution. However, his theories were
rejected due to opposition from Georges Cuvier, a leading paleontologist. Jean-Baptiste
Lamarck later proposed a viable theory, emphasizing adaptation through the use or disuse of
organs, which could lead to new species over time.
By the early 19th century, transmutationism gained wider acceptance, in uencing gures like
Erasmus Darwin, who suggested life originated from a single lament. Other transmutationists,
such as Isidore Geo roy Sainte-Hilaire (1805-1861), theorized that "monstrous births" could
give rise to new species. These early ideas laid the groundwork for modern evolutionary
thought.

Charles Darwin
was the leading transmutationist of the 19th century. After his ve-year voyage on the HMS
Beagle and reading Thomas Malthus's Essay on the Principle of Population, Darwin developed
the core of his evolutionary theory by 1837. However, he delayed publishing it to gather strong
evidence, knowing the theory would be controversial.
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 In 1858, Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace jointly published their similar theories of
species change. The following year, Darwin published his groundbreaking book, On the Origin
of Species or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life, introducing "descent
with modi cation" through natural selection. This mechanism explained how favorable traits
increased in frequency over generations.

Although the book sparked signi cant criticism, it sold out on its rst day and went through six
editions. The rst edition is considered the most accurate representation of Darwin’s ideas.
Darwin also suggested additional mechanisms for species change, including the inheritance of
acquired traits, but natural selection remained central to his theory.

#5
Evidence of Evolution
Comparative Anatomy and Embryology
Darwin thought of evolution as "descent with modi cation," a process in which species change
and give rise to new species over many. generations. He proposed that the evolutionary history
of life forms a branching tree with many levels, in which all species can be traced back to an
ancient common ancestor.

Homologous Features
Homologous if two or more species share a unique physical feature, such as a complex bone
structure or a body plan, they may all have inherited this feature from a common ancestor.
Physical features shared due to evolutionary history (a common ancestor) are said to be
homologous

Analogous Features
Analogous to make things a little more interesting and complicated, not all physical features
that look alike are marks of common ancestry. Instead, some physical similarities are
analogous they evolved independently in di erent organisms because the organisms lived in
similar environments or experienced similar selective pressures. This process is called
convergent evolution.

Comparative Embryology
Comparative embryology is the study of the similarities and di erences in the embryos of
di erent species. Similarities in embryos are likely to be evidence of common ancestry.

Molecular biology like structural homologies, similarities between biological molecules can
re ect shared evolutionary ancestry. At the most basic level, all living organisms share
- The same genetic material (DNA)
- The same, or highly similar, genetic codes
- The same basic process of gene expression (transcription and translation)
- The same molecular building blocks, such as amino acids
Biogeography the geographic distribution of organisms on Earth follows patterns that are best
explained by evolution, in combination with the movement of tectonic plates over geological
time.

Fossils Record
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Fossils are the preserved remains of previously living organisms or their traces, dating from the
distant past. The fossil record is not complete or unbroken: most onganisms never fossilize,
and even the organisms that do fossilize are rarely found by humans.

How can the age of fossils be determined?

First, fossils are often contained in rocks that build up in layers called strata. The strata provide
a sort of timeline, with layers near the top being newer and layers near the bottom being older.
Fossils found in di erent strata at the same site can be ordered by their positions, and
"reference" strata with unique features can be used to compare the ages of fossils across
locations. In addition, scientists can roughly date fossils using radiometric dating, a process
that measures the radioactive decay of certain elements.

Direct observation of Microevolution

In some cases, the evidence for evolution is that we can see it taking place around us.
Important modern-day examples of evolution include the emergence of drug- resistant bacteria
and pesticide-resistant insects.

Direct observation of Microevolution

For example, in the 1950s, there was a worldwide e ort to eradicate malaria by eliminating its
carriers (certain types of mosquitos). The pesticide DDT was sprayed broadly in areas where
the mosquitoes lived, and at rst, the DDT was highly e ective at killing the mosquitos.
However, over time, the DDT became less and less e ective, and more and more mosquitoes
survived. This was because the mosquito population evolved resistance to the pesticide.

Summary
• Homologous structures provide evidence for common ancestry, while analogous structures
show that similar selective pressures can produce similar adaptations (bene cial features).
• Similarities and di erences among biological molecules (e.g., in the DNA sequence of genes)
can be used to determine species' relatedness.
• The fossil record, though incomplete, provides information about what species existed at
particular times of Earth's history.
• Some populations, like those of microbes and some insects, evolve over relatively short time
periods and can observed directly.

#6
Inferring Evolutionary Relationships from Evidence of
Evolution
- Evolutionary evidence shows relationships between living organisms.
- Key biomolecules like DNA and proteins demonstrate these relationships.
- The closer the similarities, the closer the evolutionary relationships.

Biomolecular Evidence: Dna and proteins

- DNA sequences
- Protein structures (e.g., cytochrome c)
- Comparison of these molecules shows similarities and di erences.

Cytochrome c: case study

- A highly conserved protein found in most organisms.
- Essential in the electron transport chain of mitochondria.
- Involved in apoptosis (programmed cell death).

Human cytochrome :
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- 104 amino acids, 37 identical across all sequenced cytochrome c proteins.
- Originated over two billion years ago.

Cladograms and Phylogenetic Trees

Cladograms
- Represent hypothetical relationships (phylogenies) between organisms.
- Show common ancestors and divergence points.

Phylogenetic Trees
- Hypothesize evolutionary past.
- Visualize relationships among organisms and their evolution.

Reading a Phylogenetic Tree

- Rooted trees: Single ancestral lineage at the base. - Branch points: Indicate evolutionary
splits.
- Basal taxon: Lineage that evolved early and remains unbranched.
- Sister taxa: Lineages from the same branch point. - Polytomy: Branch with more than two
lineages (undetermined relationships).

Rooted vs. Unrooted Trees

Rooted Trees
- Show common ancestors.
- Example: Three domains (Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya) diverging from a single ancestor.
Unrooted Trees
- Do not show a common ancestor but display relationships.

Tree of Life
- Phylogenetic trees map evolutionary history.
- Highlight evolutionary relationships and timeline of organismal evolution.
- Example: - Plants and animals occupy a small branch, emphasizing their recent evolution

#7
The structural and developmental characteristics and
relatedness of dna sequence used in classifying living things
the key roles of dna
Prior to being able to sequence DNA, organisms were described and categorized solely by
their distinct morphologies (physical characteristics) and ecological roles. The ability to
sequence DNA has revealed a great deal more about where an organism belongs
taxonomically and helps pinpoint new species.

DNA is now used alongside morphology and ecology to substantiate an organism’s

distinctiveness in the biological world.

structural and developmental characteristics of dna

DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid, which is a molecule that contains the instructions an
organism needs to develop, live, and reproduce. These instructions are found inside every cell
and are passed down from parents to their o spring.
Similar to the way the order of letters in the alphabet can be used to form words, the order of
nitrogen bases in a DNA sequence forms genes, which, in the language of the cell, tell cells
how to make proteins.
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 The shorthand for this process is that genes "encode" proteins. But DNA is not the direct
template for protein production. To make a protein, the cell makes a copy of the gene, using
not DNA but ribonucleic acid, or RNA.

This RNA copy, called messenger RNA, tells the cell's protein-making machinery which amino
acids to string together into a protein, according to "Biochemistry" (W. H. Freeman and
Company, 2002). DNA molecules are long — so long, in fact, that they cannot t into cells
without the right packaging.

To t inside cells, DNA is coiled tightly to form structures called chromosomes. Each
chromosome contains a single DNA molecule. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes,
which are found inside each cell's nucleus.

The DNA molecule consists of two strands that wind around one another to form a shape
known as a double helix. Each strand has a backbone made of alternating sugar
(deoxyribose) and phosphate groups. Attached to each sugar is one of four bases--adenine
(A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T).

DNA has three types of chemical component: phosphate, a sugar called deoxyribose, and
four nitrogenous bases—adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. Two of the bases, adenine,
and guanine, have a double-ring structure characteristic of a type of chemical called a purine.

Whereas pyrimidine is an aromatic heterocyclic organic compound like pyridine. A

molecule of DNA consists of two strands that form a double helix structure. DNA is a
macromolecule consisting of two strands that twist around a common axis in a shape called a
double helix. DNA is made up of molecules called nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a
phosphate group, a sugar group, and a nitrogen base.

If you think of the double-helix structure as a ladder, the phosphate and sugar molecules would
be the sides, while the base pairs would be the rungs. The bases on one strand pair with the
bases on another strand: Adenine pairs with thymine (A-T), and guanine pairs with cytosine (G-
C).

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is widely known as the fundamental building block of life.
These molecules contain a genetic code that dictates cellular activity and biological
development in nearly all living organisms. DNA is passed down from parents and inherited by
o spring.

It dictates speci c traits including what an individual will look like to how long it is likely to live.
The complete human genome is made up of about three billion DNA molecules. Aside from
reproductive cells, every cell contains 46 linear chromosomes. Of the 23 pairs ofchromosomes
(46 total), 22 are similar in size, shape, and genetic content

These chromosomes are known as autosomes. The 23rd pair is known as a sex chromosome.
It is made up of either two X chromosomes or an XY chromosome combination and determines
the sex of an individual. Cells with two X chromosomes yield females and cells with one X and
one Y chromosome yield males.

Four chemical bases make up DNA coding: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and
thymine(T). Base pairs are created when bases A and T pair up and bases C and G pair up.
These base pairs link to a phosphate molecule and a sugar molecule, creating a larger
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 structure known as a nucleotide. Nucleotides are arranged into spiral formations called double
helixes.

The double helix is built similarly to a ladder - the rungs are made of base pairs (either A&T
combinations or C&G combinations) and the sidepieces are made of sugar and phosphate
molecules. DNA replication is critical to new cells. All new cells must have an exact copy of the
DNA that was present in originating cells.

A copy of the hereditary "blueprint" is important because it directs cellular activity and
overall biological development. Fortunately, each strand of the double helix can serve as a
pattern for duplication. DNA sequencing is unique in humans. Aside from rare cases of
identical twins, no two people will share the same exact DNA.

Fortunately, each strand of the double helix can serve as a pattern for duplication. DNA
sequencing is unique in humans. Aside from rare cases of identical twins, no two people will
share the same exact DNA. However, of the roughly three billion base pairs that complete the
human genome, more than 99 percent are the same in all people.

The closest living relative to humans, the chimpanzee, shares 96 percent of our DNA. Despite a
seemingly high comparison rate, humans and chimpanzees still have 40 million di erent DNA
molecules.

dna in classifying living things

Very likely your mental image was a visual one like the picture. Humans primarily emphasize
traits that can be seen with their eyes since they mostly rely on their sense of vision. However,
there is no reason that an elephant or any other organism could not be described in terms of
touch, smell, and/or sound as well. Think about an elephant again but this time in terms of non-
visual traits.

The eld of study that determines how living things are classi ed is called taxonomy. When it
is available, we use genetic data to determine how living things are related to each other.
Scientists look the DNA sequence of the organism and compare it to other living organisms. In
some genes, the DNA sequence is the same for all members of the same species.

A DNA barcode is simply the sequence of molecules in a speci c stretch of DNA. It

identi es a species at the molecular level. DNA barcoding improves on Linnaean taxonomy.
Scientists classify living things at eight di erent levels: domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order.
family, genus, and species.

Besides domains, the largest groupings are called kingdoms, and there are ve kingdoms into
which living things t: Monera, Protist, Fungi. Plant, Animal. Scientists can now classify living
things according to DNA.

One of the main tools scientists use to represent the relationships between di erent species
based on DNA is the phylogenetic tree.

Identifying Unique/Distinctive Characteristics of a

Speci c Taxon Relative to other Taxa
What is Taxonomy?
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 Taxonomy is the science and method of naming organisms. It is a fundamental basis for all
biological science and its application.

• By the 18 century, European scientists recognized that referring to organisms by common

names is confusing
• The problem is not having a standard naming system.
• With this problem being encountered, Carolus Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist came up with a
new naming system which we still use until today with some modi cations.

What is Binomial Nomenclature?

What is Binomial Nomenclature? formal system of naming species One name refers to the
genus and the other one refers to the species. The scienti c name is always written in italics.
The rst letter of the word is capitalized and the second word is lower cased. Each specie has
a unique binomial nomenclature to allow for proper identi cation.

What is Taxon?
a taxon (plural: taxa) is a group of organisms classi ed together based on shared
characteristics. A taxon can refer to any level of the biological classi cation system, ranging
from broad categories like kingdoms to more speci c ones like species.

Levels of Classi cation

-domain
-kingdom
-phylum
-class
-order
-genus
-family
-species

Species
• It is the smallest and basic unit of classi cation
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 • Organisms exhibit similarities are grouped together. -
• Show similar characteristics and can breed among themselves to produce a similar type of
organism.
• Can distinguish one species to other closely related species (Miller and levince, 2002).

Characteristics of Species
• Resemble one another more than with individuals of any other species.
• Morphological characteristics are similar.
• They interbreed with other individuals within the same group.
• They share a common gene pool, have similar karyotype and genetic material. They
descended from a common ancestor.
• They are anatomically similar and their biochemistry is similar

Example
A House Crow (Corvus splendens) and Forest Crow (Corvus macrorhynchos)
Example
Horse (Equus cabalus) and Donkey (Eques asinus)

Genus (Genera)
The groups of organisms in a genus share many structural similarities and are very closely
related.
Members of a genus are more closely related to each other than they are to other genera in the
same family

Genus (Genera)
MONOTYPIC - Genera with only one species
POLYTYPIC - Genera with more than two Species

Examples
Rosa - Has Thorns unlike other owers
Nepenthes - Carnivorous plants with pitcher-shaped traps to capture insects

Examples
Panthera (big cats like lions, tigers, leopards)
• Ability to roar due to a specialized hyoid bone structure
Homo (humans and extinct relatives)
• Highly developed brain, capable of abstract thought, language, and culture.
Examples
Saccharomyces
• ferments sugars, while most fungi decompose organic matter di erently.

Family
• A taxonomic group of one or more genera, especially sharing a common attribute.
• There are approximately 20,000 families in biology
Example
Felidae (Family of cats)
• Carnivorous mammals with sharp claws, retractable claws, excellent night vision, and a
exible spine.
• Divided into 14 genera
Example
Cervidae
Notable for having two large and two small hooves on each foot and also for having antlers in
the males of most species and in the females of one species.
Example
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 Orchidaceae
• Their owers exhibit bilateral symmetry (zygomorphic), unlike the radial symmetry seen in
many other families
• A unique structure called the labellum (lip) serves as a landing platform for pollinators.
• Second largest family of owering plants, with about 880 genera

Order
• It is the category higher to the family. It is a group of organisms of closely related families,
which resemble one another in major characters. It should be noted that the order is higher
taxonomic categories. Hence very few similar characters are shown by members.
Example
Carnivora
• Adapted for a carnivorous diet, with sharp canine teeth and strong jaw muscles.
• Specialized molars called carnassials for slicing meat.
Example
Lepidoptera
• Insects with scaled wings, which give butter ies and moths their colors.
• Undergo complete metamorphosis (egg, larva, pupa, adult
Example
Rodentia
• Ever-growing incisors requiring constant gnawing.

Class
• It is the next category higher to the order. It is a group of organisms of closely related
subclasses or order, which order, resemble one another in certain characters. The similarities
in the orders of a class are still less than in the families of an order.
Examples
Mammalia
• Presence of mammary glands to produce milk for o spring.
• Body covered with hair or fur.
• Warm-blooded (endothermic) with a four-chambered heart.
Examples
Aves
• Feathers cover the body; wings adapted for ight (though some are ightless).
• Beak instead of teeth.
• Lay hard-shelled eggs.
Examples
Reptilia
• Scales made of keratin covering the body.
• Cold-blooded (ectothermic), relying on the environment for temperature regulation.
• Lay leathery-shelled eggs or give live birth.
Examples
• All vascular categorized plants Are under Tracheophyta.

Phylum/Division
• The phylum (plural, phyla) ranks below the kingdom and above the class in taxonomy.
• Scientists generally use the term phylum for archaea, bacteria, protists, fungi, and animals,
but they substitute the term division for plants.
Example
Phylum Arthropoda
• Have external skeletons, segmented bodies, and jointed legs. Insects, crabs, and arachnids
are examples of arthropods.
Example
Phylum Chordata
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• These animals have an internal skeleton and a backbone or notochord (a primitive
backbone). Fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals (including humans) are in this
group. (See also vertebrate.).
Example
Phylum Mollusca
• Soft-bodied, often protected by a calcium carbonate shell.
• Body divided into head, visceral mass, and foot.
• Presence of a radula (a toothed, chitinous ribbon) in most species.

Kingdom
• It is the next category higher to the phylum division.
• The kingdom is the second largest and inclusive of Linnaeus's taxonomic categories.
Kingdoms
• Monera
• Protista
• Animalia
• Plantae
• Fungi

Domains
• highest taxonomic rank in the hierarchical classi cation of organisms.
• represents the broadest
• grouping of life forms
Domains
• Bacteria
• Archeae
• Eukarya

Describing species diversity and cladistics, and the

types of evidence and procedures that can be used to
establish evolutionary relationships
Species diversity refers to the variety of di erent species within a particular ecosystem, region,
or on the entire planet. It is often measured using two main components:
• Species Richness: The total number of di erent species in a given area. It is a simple count
of species without considering their relative abundance.
• Species Evenness: The relative abundance of each species within the ecosystem. A high
evenness means that species are more or less evenly distributed, while a low evenness
means some species dominate the ecosystem.

Cladistics is a method of classifying organisms based on\ common ancestry. It focuses on

grouping organisms that share derived characteristics, known as synapomorphies, which are
traits that evolved in a common ancestor and are passed down to its descendants. The goal of
cladistics is to construct a cladogram, a tree-like diagram that represents the evolutionary
relationships between species or groups of organisms. In cladistics, organisms are classi ed
into clades, which are groups consisting of an ancestor and all its descendants. The method
emphasizes the evolutionary lineage of organisms, rather than similarities or di erences in
characteristics alone.
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 The types of evidence and procedures that can be used to
establish evolutionary relationships
Anatomy and Embryology
Anatomical features shared between organisms including ones that are visible only during
embryonic development) can indicate a shared evolutionary ancestry. There are more closely
related species groups with more recent common ancestors, and each group would appear to
share the characteristics that were present in their last common ancestor.

It is said that physical characteristics shared due to

evolutionary history (a common ancestor) are homologous. To give one example, the forelimbs
of whales, humans, and birds are homologous structures.

Not all physical traits that appear identical

are indicators of shared ancestors. Instead, some physical similarities are analogous: in
di erent species, they developed independently because
the organisms lived in similar environments or encountered similar selective pressures.

• Molecular biology
Structural homologies, similarities may re ect shared evolutionary ancestry between biological
molecules. Similarities and variations in various
species between the "same" gene (that is, a pair of homologous genes) will help us decide how
closely the organisms are related.

• DNA evidence for evolutionary relationships.

All living organisms share the same genetic material (DNA), identical genetic codes, and the
same basic gene expression mechanism at the most basic level (transcription and translation).
The sequences.
associated (or homologous) genes are also contrasted by biologists. If the "same" gene is
found. in two animals, it is because they inherited it from a shared ancestor. In general, the
more DNA similarities between the two species in homologous genes, the more closely related
the species is.

• DNA evidence for evolutionary relationships

It is possible to examine segments of DNA using gel electrophoresis, in which fragments of
DNA are
separated by size. Fragments are represented by
horizontal bands. Bands between samples that are identical in size will be on the same
horizontal line and suggest that the sequence of DNA is shared.

• Taxonomy and Systematics

Systematics is the study of the diversi cation of life forms over time, both past and present,
and their relationships between other species. On the other hand, taxonomy is the science of
organizing and categorizing living organisms into classes called taxa. Both a systematist and a
taxonomist provide scienti c names; give detailed descriptions of organisms; collects and
keeps volumes of specimens; o er classi cations for the organisms by constructing
identi cation keys and data on their occurrence and distribution.

The method of taxonomic classi cation (also referred to as the Linnaean system after the
Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus, Zoologist, and doctor) uses a hierarchical model. Moving from
the point of origin, the groups become more precise until the branch terminates as a single
species. For a start, scientists split species into three large groups after the usual beginning of
all life.
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 Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya are groups called domains. After domains, the following
categories of increasing speci city are kingdoms: phylum, class, order, family, genus, and
species

The taxonomic classi cation system uses a

hierarchical model to organize living organisms into increasingly speci c categories. The
common dog, Canis lupus familiaris, is a subspecies of Canis lupus, which also includes the
wolf and dingo.

• Taxonomic Classi cation

The following table shows four species that are classi ed using the Linnaean system of
classi cation. Features are used as bases for classi cation.

Phylogeny
Phylogeny is the study of relationships and their
evolutionary development among di erent groups of organisms. A phylogeny is commonly
represented by a phylogenetic tree called a tree diagram. An early example of a phylogenetic
tree is the "Tree of Life" by Darwin. Darwin's Tree of Life.

This branching diagram represents the evolutionary histories of di erent species. It is the only
diagram that originally appeared in Darwin's famous 1859 book, On the Origin of Species by
Natural Selection.
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 The tree reveals how animals, from the bottom of the tree to the top, developed over time.
They developed new branches on the tree of life as species evolved. Eventually, some of these
species branched into more descendant species.
Others died without leaving any heirs, or went extinct.

To re ect evolutionary history, modern biologists still use phylogenetic trees. The diagram
shows a basic phylogenetic tree. Genetically related species represent the tips of the branches.
Common ancestors re ect the branching points.

Both of these phylogenetic trees show the relationship of the three domains of life-Bacteria,
Archaea, and Eukarya-but the
(a) rooted tree attempts to identify when various species diverged from a common ancestor
while the (b) unrooted tree does not.

In a rooted tree, the branching indicates evolutionary relationships. The point where a split
occurs, a branch point, represents where a single lineage evolved into a distinct new one.

We call a lineage that evolved early from the root that remains unbranched a basal taxon. We
call two lineages stemming from the same branch point sister taxa. A branch with more than
two lineages is a polytomy and serves to illustrate where scientists have not de nitively
determined all of the relationships. Note that although sister taxa and polytomy do share an
ancestor, it does not mean that the groups of organisms split or evolved from each other.

A phylogenetic tree's root indicates that an ancestral lineage gave rise to all organisms on the
tree. A branch point indicates where two lineages diverged. A lineage that evolved early and
remains unbranched is a basal taxon. When two lineages stem from the same branch point,
they are sister taxa. A branch with more than two lineages is a polytomy

• CLADISTICS
The most common way to integrate information into phylogenetic trees is called cladistics.
Based on features of ancestor and descendant species, cladistics explains theories about how
organisms are linked. In the 1950s, a scientist named Willi Hennig established cladistics. It
became very popular over the next few decades, and is still used widely today.

Cladistics is derived from the term clade. A clade is a collection of organisms that include an
ancestor species and all of their descendants. A diagram showing evolutionary relationships is
called a cladogram within one or more clades.

A clade is a relative concept. How a clade is described depends on the species that you are
interested in classifying. Small clades may have as few as two species and a shared
[Link] more species and their shared ancestors may be found in the larger clades
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