EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS ON

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF JUTE

AND COIR FIBER REINFORCED
HYBRID COMPOSITES

A Project Report

Submitted by

KARTHI T 20ME013
VARUN K R 20ME042
ARULKUMAR M 20MEL05
HARIPRASATH S 20MEL25

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

NANDHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(An Autonomous Institution, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)
ERODE – 638052.

MAY 2024
 NANDHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)
ERODE-52
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS ON

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF JUTE AND COIR FIBER
REINFORCED HYBRID COMPOSITES "is the bona-fide work of

KARTHI T 20ME013
VARUNKR 20ME042
ARULKUMARM 20MELO5
HARIPRASATH S 20MEL25

who carried out the project work under my supervision. Furher that to the best of
my knowledge the work reported here in does not fon part of any other project
work on the basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier
Occasion on this or any other candidates.

SIGNATURE `içNTURE
[Link],M.E.,Ph. D., [Link],M.E,Ph.D.,
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR
DEPT OF MECHANICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICL ENGG.
NANDHAENGINEERING COLLEGE NANDHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
ERODE - 638 052. ERODE - 638 052.

Submitted for the End Semester Project Viva-Voice Examination held

Internal Examiner External Examiner

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We first and foremost, our heart full thanks to our Parents for giving usan
opportunity to do this engineering course successfully.

We wish to express profound gratitude to [Link],

Chairman, Sri Nandha Educational Trust, Thiru. S. Nandhakumar Pradeep,
Secretary, Sri Nandha Educational Trust and Thiru. S. Thirumoorthi,
Secretary, Nandha Educational Institutions for providing opportunities in all
possible ways for our improvement.

We wish to convey our gratefulness to our cherished Principal, Dr.

[Link]., M.E., Ph.D., for his strong support and motivation towards a
great level of success in our career.

We take this opportunity to express our thanks to our Head of the

Department, Dr. M. Easwaramoorthi, M.E., Ph.D., who have been the key
spring of motivation to us throughout the completion of our project work.

We articulate our genuine thanks to our Project Co-ordinator, Mr.

B. Velliyangiri, M.E., Assistant Professor for his continuous monitoring,
motivation and priceless assistance during the course of our project work.

We sincerely thank to supervisor Dr. S. Magibalan, M.E., Ph.D.,

Associate Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering for his valuable
guidance to complete this project.

We express our sincere thanks to all the Faculty Members of Mechanical

Engineering Department for their help in completing this project.
 ABSTRACT

Nowadays, natural fibers have emerged as a new category of material,

gradually displacing synthetic fibers in a variety of contexts. Synthetic fibers

have the potential to lower the price of hybrid composites while enhancing their

use with natural fibers. Coir and jute fibers were used to create the hybrid

composites in this investigation. Epoxy LY556 and Hardener HY951 were used

in a compression moulding process to create composites with alternating stacks

of coir and jute [Link] recent development in the manufacturing industry

focusing to change to complete automation with modern and precise machinery

to achieve higher productivity without compromising lead time. Several studies

reveal that the attention on accomplishing higher productivity by the automated

manufacturing process used to compromise the mechanical properties and

required surface integrity of the machined surface. Even the machining process

becomes automated still there is a problem in the selection of machining process

parameters. The improper selection of machining process parameters leads to

affects the mechanical properties as well as surface integrity. The proper

selection of machining process parameters and its optimization must become a

challenge over mechanical properties and surface finish. In the growing demand

for high precision and accuracy components for its functional applications,

surface roughness has a predominant role during material processing techniques

in modern machines.

i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
NO. NO.
ABSTRACT i

LIST OF FIGURES v

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 NATURAL FIBER COMPOSITES 1

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS 2

1.2.1 Metal Matrix Composite (MMC) 2

1.2.2 Ceramic Matrix Composite (CMC) 3

1.2.3 Polymer Matrix Composite (PMC) 4

[Link] Advantages of PMC 5

[Link] Disadvantages of PMC 5

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES BASED ON 5

REINFORCEMENT

1.3.1 Continuous Fiber Reinforced Composites 5

1.3.2 Short Fiber Reinforced Composite 6

1.3.3 Particulate Composite 7

1.3.4 Matrix of Composite 7

1.3.5 Reinforcement of Composites 7

ii
1.4 FUNCTION OF A FIBERS 8

1.5 TYPE OF FIBER REINFORCEMENTS 8

1.5.1 Carbon Fiber 8

1.5.2 Glass Fiber 8

1.5.3 Ceramic Fiber 8

1.5.4 Natural Fiber 9

1.6 FILLER MATERIAL 9

1.6.1 Graphene Powder 9

1.6.2 Basalt Powder 10

1.7 COMPOSITE MANUFACTURING PROCESSES 10

1.7.1 Hand Lay-up Proces 10

1.7.2 Spray up Process 11

1.7.3 Filament Winding Process 12

1.7.4 Resin Transfer Moulding Process 13

1.7.5 Pultrusion Process 14

1.7.6 Vacuum Injection Moulding 14

1.7.7 Vacuum Bag Moulding 15

1.7.8 Autoclave Process 16

1.7.9 Compression Moulding Process 17

iii
 [Link] Advantages of a Compression Moulding 19

Process 19

1.7.10 Thermoforming Process 19

1.8 ADVANTAGES OF FIBER REINFORCED 20

COMPOSITES
2. LITERATURE SURVEY 22

2.1 LITERATURE BASED ON NATURAL FIBER 21

REINFORCED COMPOSITE
2.2 LITERATURE BASED ON EFFECT OF 26
HYBRIDIZATION
2.3 LITERATURE BASED ON MACHINING OF 30
COMPOSITES
3. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION FROM 41

LITERATURE REVIEW
4. POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS FOR IDENTIFIED 42

PROBLEMS
5. METHODOLOGY 43
6. MATERIALS AND METHODS 44

6.1 Resin and Hardner 44

6.2 Coir Fiber 45

6.3 Jute Fiber 46

6.4 Composite Manufacturing 47

6.5 Testing Methods 48

iv
 6.5.1 Tensile Test 48

6.5.2 Compression Test 48

6.5.3 Flextural Test 49

6.5.4 Impact Test 49

6.5.5 Water Absorption Test 49

7. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 50

7.1 Tensile Properties 52

7.2 Impact Properties 54

7.3 Flexural Properties 56

7.4 Compressive Properties 58

7.5 Water Absorption Properties 60

8. CONCLUSIONS 62

REFERENCES 63

v
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE FIGURE NAME PAGE

NO. NO.
1.1 Banana/sisal Polymer matrix hybrid composite 4

1.2 Classification of composite based on disperse phase 6

(reinforcement)
1.3 Hand lay-up process 10

1.4 Spray-up process 11

1.5 Filament winding process 12

1.6 Resin transfer moulding process 13

1.7 Pultrusion process 13

1.8 Vacuum injection moulding 14

1.9 Vacuum bag moulding 15

1.10 Autoclave moulding process 16

1.11 Compression moulding process 17

1.12 Thermoforming process 19

1.13 Resin and hardener 44

1.14 Coir Fiber 45

1.15 Jute Fiber 46

1.16 Fabricated Composite Boards 48

1.17 Composite plate for various percentage 50

v
1.18 Water absorption test images after test 50

1.19 Compression test images after test 51

1.20 Impact test images after test 51

1.21 Flexural test images after test 51

1.22 Tensile test images after test 52

1.23 Comparison of ultimate tensile strength of various composites 54

(a) Ultimate strength and % Elongation (b) Peak Tensile load
1.24 Comparison of impact strength of various samples 55

1.25 Comparison of flextural properties of the various samples (a) 57

ultimate flexural strength (b) flexural modulus
1.26 Comparison of compressive strength of various samples(a) 59
ultimate compressive strength (b) compressive peak load
1.27 Comparison of water absorption of various samples 61

v
 CHAPTER 1

1. INTRODUCTION

This chapter highlights the introduction of the natural fibers,

the importance of natural fiber-reinforced composite materials, and their
different manufacturing process in detail. Brief literature related to
research work is also provided in detail.

1.1 NATURAL FIBER COMPOSITES

The natural fiber composite material is an emerging material

that is prepared by the various fibers using epoxy resin as a matrix.
Various industrial products have been prepared by natural fibers due to
the advantages such as lower weight, higher strength, and fiber
reinforcement, ability to mould into complex shapes, better corrosion
resistance, and hardness. These properties fulfill the economic interest of
an industry (Sahar and Sapuan 2011). Natural fiber-reinforced
composites are used in many applications as the alternative for wood,
metallic materials, and synthetic fiber composites (Sathishkumar etal
2014). The demand for replacing the available synthetic fibers with
biodegradable, natural fibers pave the way for Natural Fiber Composite
(NFC) due to increasing environmental concerns. Natural fibers such as
sisal, jute, abaca, pineapple, and the coir has an adequate specific
strength, low density, low abrasion, multi-functionality, good thermal
properties, enhanced energy recovery and cause less skin and respiratory
irritation(Zamanetal.2011;Jawaidetal.2011;Huqetal.2011; Chin et al.
2009). NFC material produces by the hand lay-up

1
 process provides an opportunity for replacing existing
materials with higher strength, low-cost alternative, and also
environmental friendly Hybridization of natural fibers is used to
overcome the drawback like lower tensile, flexural, and impact
strengths. Last few years Nano-based reinforcements are sublimated in
traditional ablative composite materials to accomplish the enhancement
of properties(Bahramianetal.2014; Sanoj et al. 2014; Subhani et al.
2015).

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

The composite materials are classified based on many

parameters and it is prepared by different processing techniques. The
classification has been discussing in this chapter based on the types of
matrix and reinforcement used. The composite materials are classified
based on the matrix into three types, are

1. Metal matrix composite

2. Ceramic matrix composite

3. Polymer matrix composite

1.2.1 Metal Matrix Composite (MMC)

Metal Matrix Composite (MMC) is one of the constituents,

metal as a matrix and the reinforcement maybe a metal or ceramic. The
most commonly used matrix material in MMC’s are aluminum, steel,
magnesium, cobalt, cobalt-Nickel, titanium. Reinforcement used in the
process is alumina, silicon carbide, zirconia, titanium carbide (TiN),
Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN). Particulate, short fiber, or whisker
continuous fiber composite type of composites are prepared in the

2
MMC. MMC’s are always demand in aerospace application since it has
lightweight, high strength height stiffness, low density high young
modules, high compression, and tensile strength good process ability,
mechanically compactable with the thermal stability. Some of the
processes for manufacturing MMC’s are Stir Casting, Infiltration,
Diffusion Bonding, Sinter-forging, Powder Processing or Powder
Metallurgy, Spray Forming, Electroplating, In-situ Fabrication of Metal
Matrix Composites.

1.2.2 Ceramic Matrix Composite (CMC)

Ceramic matrix composites are materials in which one or

more district ceramic phases are intentionally added to enhance some
properties that are not possessed in the monolithic ceramic. CMC’s has
been used for centuries together. Commonly used matrix materials in
CMC are silicon nitride, silicon carbide, Aluminium nitride,
Molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2). Titanium nitride, Titanium boride,
Titanium carbide.

Reinforcement somewhere nearly close to powder form,

mostly used particulate, whisker, and nano-powder, zirconium oxide,
silicon nitride, niobium as reinforcement in CMC. The CMC’s has better
properties like high strength to weight ratio, very good wear resistance,
corrosion resistance, fatigue strength, low electrical conductivity,
anisotropic property, easy for processing, and it has been used for high-
temperature application. The process used for the manufacturing of
CMC’s are polymer infiltration and pyrolysis (PIP), chemical vapor
infiltration, hot press sintering techniques, Selective laser sintering.

3
1.2.3 Polymer Matrix Composite (PMC)

Polymer Matrix Composite (PMC) is the material consisting

of a polymer (resin) matrix combined with a fibrous reinforcing
dispersed phase. PMC’s are very popular due to their low
[Link]’shave60%reinforcing fiber by
volume. The commonly used reinforcement fibers are fiberglass,
graphite, and aramid. Fiberglass has a relatively low stiffness at the
same time exhibits a competitive tensile strength compared to other
fibers. The cost of fiberglass is also dramatically lower than the other
fibers which is why fiberglass is one of the most widely used fiber.
Commonly used resins in PMC’s are polyester resins, phenolic resin,
and epoxy resin. Prepared banana/sisal Polymer matrix hybrid
composite with graphene filler as shown in Fig 1.1.

Fig1.1 Banana/sisal Polymer matrix hybrid composite

4
[Link] Advantages of PMC’s
 High tensile strength
 High stiffness
 High fracture toughness
 Good abrasion resistance
 Good puncture resistance
 Good corrosion resistance
 Low cost

[Link] Disadvantages of PMC’s

 Low thermal resistance;

 High coefficient of thermal expansion

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OFCOMPOSITES BASED

ON REINFORCEMENT

Fibers or reinforcements which are used during the

preparation of composite material to enhance the mechanical properties
Fibers are classified as per the aspect ratio (length to diameter) L/d, the
minimum L/d ratio for the fiber is 10:1. The detailed classification of
reinforcement is shown in Fig 1.2.

1.3.1 Continuous Fiber-Reinforced Composites

Long-fiber or continuous fiber-reinforced composites consist

of a matrix reinforced by a dispersed phase with the L/d ratio infinity.
The reinforcement fibers are continuous from one end of the matrix to
the other end. The properties of the composite are generally superior for
higher aspect ratios for longer fiber or smaller diameter. Continuous
fibers provide the best mechanical properties when loaded parallel to the

5
 fiber direction since fiber bear the maximum load. Commonly
available forms of continuous fibers are chopped roving’s, chopped-
strand mat, swirl mat, woven fabrics, non-crimp fabrics, or even knitted
pre-forms, tailored to the shape of the eventual component and Prepregs.

1.3.2 Short Fiber /Whisker Reinforced Composite

Short fibers are chopped from the continuous roving’s of

fiber. The lengths of short fiber commonly used in the range 0.1 - 10
mm. Short fiber composites have diffident strength and stiffness
compared with the continuous fiber composite and it offers a planar
isotropic form. The end of the fibers always carries less amount of load
than the center of the fiber. In the short fiber composite, many ends are
implying that the reinforcing is not as effective.

Fig 1.2 Classification of composite based on disperse phase

(reinforcement)

6
1.3.3 Particulate Composite

Particulate reinforced composites consist of a matrix

reinforced by a dispersed phase in the form of particles. In this type of
composites, the load can be taken care of in both fiber and
reinforcement. Particles can have virtually any shape, size, or
configuration and have heterogeneous nature, predominantly isotropic in
their physical and mechanical behavior. Particle reinforcing in
composites has not as much effective means of strengthening than fiber
reinforcement.

1.3.4 Matrix of Composites

The matrix material binds the fiber together and makes the
load is uniformly transferred across the fiber. It provides shape and
rigidity, and also it provides a good surface finish aid to near-net-shape.
The matrix materials are majorly classified into ceramic, polymer, and
metal. Good bonding is required between the fibers and the matrix to
ensure that the load is properly transferred through the composite.
Bonding is also required to ensure that the fibers do not separate from
the matrix during loading.

1.3.5 Reinforcement of Composites

Fiber reinforcement is one of the major members, in which

they are added in the composite such that the required mechanical
properties can be improved. The reinforcement is used in the
manufacturing of composite in many forms such as raw fiber, woven
fabric, short and long fibers with different orientations.

7
1.4 FUNCTION OF A FIBERS

The function of a fiber is to carry the load, provide the

required stiffness, strength, thermal stability, and other structural
properties of a composite. It can also provide electrical conductivity or
insulation depending upon the choice of fiber.

1.5 TYPE OF FIBER REINFORCEMENTS

The major category of the reinforcement material comes

carbon fibers, glass fibers, ceramic fibers, and natural fibers.

1.5.1 Carbon fiber

Carbon fibers have excellent tensile modulus, high strength,
high strain to failure, low coefficient of thermal expansion offers a good
resistance at very high temperatures.

1.5.2 Glass fiber

Glass fiber is very economical and it has been in the market
for quite a long time. Glass fiber is widely used in fiber-reinforced
composites. It can be in a roving and sheet form, it can be in a three-
dimensional form also. The bulk glass has high hardness, moderate
stiffness transparency. The fiber form of glass fiber has very high
strength and good flexibility.

1.5.3 Ceramic fiber

Ceramic fibers are polycrystalline fibers with a grain size of
less than one micron and a diameter of less than twenty microns. The
production cost of the fiber is significantly less than that of a single
crystal fiber or a whisker. It has high temperatures is tance and high

8
 modulus than MMC. Ceramic fiber is classified into oxide
or non-oxide. Commercially available oxide ceramics are alumina-silica
and non- oxide ceramic fibers are silicon carbide.

1.5.4 Natural fiber

Natural fibers are extracted from renewable resources. It
has several advantages such as high stiffness, strength, biodegradable,
and desirable fiber aspect ratio. The source of natural fibers are plants,
animals, and minerals. The most common natural fibers are extracted
from plants and animals. Natural fibers sourced from the plant are
cotton, flax, hemp, bamboo, sisal, and jute. Fibers like wool, silk,
angora, and mohair are extracted from animals.

1.6 FILLER MATERIALS

Filler materials are particles added with matrix materials

during composite preparation, to improve mechanical properties by
reducing organic content in composite laminates, reduce the cost, and
also used to dimensional control of moulded parts. The important
properties of the material like moisture obsession, surface finish,
stiffness, dimensional stability, and temperature resistance, can also be
improved through the proper selection of fillers, and two filler materials
are used in to prepare the hybrid composite are given in detail.

1.6.1 Graphene Powder

Graphene is an allotrope of carbon in which carbon atoms

chains in two-dimension thickness with sp2 hybridization. These carbon
chains show superior chemical, physical and electrical properties (Lee et
al. 2008).

9
 Graphene is used to enhance the conductivity and strength of
bulk materials and manufacture composites with superior qualities and
increase the resistance to heat and pressure. Major benefits of the
graphene powder have high purity, better conductivity, high strength,
high aspect ratio, ease to handle, fragile exfoliated sheet.

1.6.2 Basalt Powder

Basalt powder has a fine grain structure and it has hard phases
like diopside and augite, due to this reason, basalt powder has superior
abrasion, wear, and chemical resistance properties. Basalt rocks are
mostly available in Poland and many regions of Europe. Basalt powder
has high tensile strength, alkali resistant, high thermal conductivity, no
carcinogenic risk or other health hazards, completely inert with no
environmental risks, resistant to acids and aggressive chemicals, high
young’s modulus resulting in excellent specific tenacity, three times that
of steel fiber, good fatigue resistance and electro- magnetic resistant
(Hafsa Jamshaid and Rajesh Mishra 2015).

1.7 COMPOSITE MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

The composite material is manufactured using several

processing techniques. The most commonly used composite
manufacturing processes are given in detail.

1.7.1 Hand Lay-Up Process

The hand layup process showninFig1.3 is one of the primary

processes of the composite manufacturing process, where the
reinforcement is placed by hand and the resin is applied to wet the

10
 fibers, then the rollers are rolled over the fibers to distribute
the resin even lyto theen tire surface. The fibers are manually laid so the
production rate is low. The mould has a shape of the product and the
product has a better surface finish over the side that is in contact with the
mould surface. The mould will be in an open form, so it is called an
open mould process. It requires less equipment for the process. This
process used mainly used to fabricate fiber reinforces composite. It is
possible to prepare glossy, mat, and texture types of surface finish by
using a respective mould.

Fig1.3 Hand lay-up process

1.7.2 Spray up Process

The spray-up process shown in Fig 1.4 is an open-mould low

to medium volume composite manufacturing process where the chopped
fiber and resin are simultaneously deposited on the open mould.
Usually, glass fiber rovings are used in the process. The resin and glass
fibers are applied in a combined stream from a chopper gun and several
small fragments of the glass fiber roving are fed through a chopper and
propelled into the resin stream which is directed towards the mould so
the mixing can happen inside of the mixing chamber and then it can
spray.

11
 The large size part geometry with simple to complex shapes
can manufacture and surface finish can move from good to excellent and
a tooling cost is also low.

Fig 1.4 Spray up process

1.7.3 Filament Winding Process

The Filament Winding process is shown in Fig 1.5 is one of

the most important composite manufacturing process, used to prepare
cylindrical surfaces and axis symmetry parts. The resin is impregnated
with fiber in a resin bath and it is wound over a rotating mandrel at the
desired angle. The roving feed runs on a trolley that travels the length of
the mandrel. The mandrel can be made up of wood or metal. The
filament is laid down in a predetermined geometric pattern to provide
maximum strength in the directions required and when sufficient layers
have been applied, the laminate is cured on the mandrel. The moulded
part is then stripped from the mandrel.

12
 Fig1.5 Filament winding process

1.7.4 Resin Transfer Moulding Process

Resin Transfer Moulding (RTM) is a closed mould semi-

mechanical composite manufacturing process, used to manufacture
thermo set polymer products. The fibers are placed inside the mould
with the required orientation and transfer of resin happening into the
mould through injection, wets the fiber completely and then cures. RTM
can be done at room temperature; however, heated moulds are required
to achieve fast cycle times and product consistency. Commonly glass
fiber is used in the RTM process. RTM process shown in Fig 1.6 gives a
faster production rate than the hand lay-up process since fast curing
resins are used. This process gives the best sound quality products and
the process can be automated. The large parts and very high strength in
materials can be achieved in RTM.

Fig 1.6 Resin transfer moulding process

13
1.7.5 Pultrusion Process

Pultrusion process shown in Fig 1.7 is the Low cost, high

volume composite manufacturing process, in which the resin-
impregnated fibers are pulled through a heated die and its cures. This
process is similar to the metal extrusion process. The fibers are
uniformly wetted with resin and then allow inside the die. The axis
symmetry parts of complex thin-wall shapes with a constant cross-
section and continuous length can be produced through pultrusion
process. The parts produced from pultrusion are final products, there is
no secondary process required, and less amount of scrap produced
during the process.

Fig 1.7 Pultrusion process

1.7.6 Vacuum Injection Moulding

The vacuum injection moulding process shown in Fig 1.8 is a

combination of vacuum impregnation and resin injection process. The
lower half of the mould is rigid and the upper half of the mould is more
flexible. The vacuum Chanel is built around the periphery of mould for
better mould closer. Themo lten plastic catalystres in injected in to the

14
 Cavity to produce apart of the catalystres in is injected
under a pressure of 3 MPa. The upper half of the mould is sucked out by
vacuum and the resin starts flowing inside the mould. The flexible top
half force there’s in to flow through the reinforcement instead of through
the space between the reinforcement and the mould surface. The resin is
injected until the impregnation happens and the vacuum is maintained
till the resin is cured. This process is used for producing complex parts
with large and small sizes. The multi injection can be used to
manufacture a large component.

Fig 1.8 Vacuum injection moulding

1.7.7 Vacuum Bag Moulding

The vacuum bag holding process shown in Fig 1.9 is used for
producing complex parts in smaller numbers, both large and small parts
also can be made. The products that are fabricated by hand lay processes
can be consolidated by this process.

15
 The products that are fabricated using prepregs are also
consolidating using vacuum bag moulding. The pressure, temperature,
and other parameters can be control in a precise manner.

Fig 1.9 Vacuum bag moulding

1.7.8 Autoclave Process

The autoclave process shown in Fig 1.10 is the extension of

the vacuum bag process. The autoclave is a closed vessel in which the
curing occurs under high temperature and pressure. It is a furnace where
pressure time temperature can be [Link] temperature initiates
the curing reaction and the pressure aids in consolation. The mould may
a negative or positive one. The temperature and the pressure range are
100-400°C and 1-20 bar respectively for the preparation of polymer
matrix composite. The prepregs are commonly used in this process.
During the moulding process, the viscosity of their resin decreases due
to this it starts flowing to fills and voids created due to the removal of
air. The quality of the product made from the autoclave process is very
good as compare to all other processes. Autoclave mould is preferred for
aerospace industries.

16
 Fig 1.10 Autoclave process

1.7.9 Compression Moulding Process

The compression moulding process shown in Fig 1.11 is a

closed mould composite manufacturing process in which part is
produced by the use of dies. A predetermined quantity of a mould
charge of polymer and reinforcing agent placed in a die cavity. The
reinforcement agent can be a chopped strand mat and the polymer can be
thermoplastic or thermo set. Prepreg also can be used to produce
composite parts in the process. There are three important parameters are
to be optimized in the compression moulding process, they are pressure
time and temperature and it has weightage over a sound quality output.
The pressure range of 2000-3000 psi, temperature 100- 200°C can be
used and the curing time varies depending upon the size of the pat.
There are two types of press are used in this process, hot press, and cold
press.

17
 In a hot press the two die plates start applying heat because
they wanted to have a small thermal gradient, this gradient will try to
increase the flow ability inside the cavity. The mould charge is heated
while it is getting shaped and then the plates keep continuing to apply
the heat for some more time until the die moment is locked. If the
required time is reached the die is removed and then the component is
being released from the die plate.

In a cold pressing, the product is cured without applying heat,

the heat has a direct influence over the polymer matrix and more the
heat for a thermo set charring will happen, more the heat for a
thermoplastic, the viscosity, and the flow pattern changes.

The heat has to be handled carefully. The product is cured

without applying heat, the soundness of the product is better. If no heat
is applied, it has to compensate it by the load and pressure. A heavy load
to be applied to the component. The parts are made up by hand layup
process are cold-pressed for better consolidation and better surface
finish.

Fig 1.11 Compression moulding process

18
[Link] Advantages of a compression moulding process

 It can be used to manufacture both thermo set and

thermoplastic polymer matrix composites.

 Compression mould is one of the fastest, and low-cost

polymer composite processing methods.

 Both the top and bottom side of the composite material has
the same good surface finish.

 Composites produced from the compression moulding

process are free from crazing, cracks, fracture, edge chips,
and porosity.

 It is popular in the automobile industry because of its

similarity in the stamping process and requirement of large
surface area parts.

 The reinforcement is uniformly dispersed in-phase and the

composite has a uniform density, high impact strength, and
minimum warpage.

1.7.10 Thermoforming Process

Thermoforming is a process (Fig 1.12) that uses temperature

and pressure to transform a flat thermoplastic sheet into the required
shape. The blank is preheated near to the melting point temperature of a
thermoplasticmatrixandquicklytransfersahintoapresscontainingdies of
the desired shape. The contour shape of the heater is used to make
uniform heating of the blank.

19
 Fig 1.12 Thermoforming Process

The part must be held under pressure until it cools below the
glass transition temperature (Tg) to avoid warpage. The few millimeter
box and cover can be produced in this process. The preheating
techniques used in the thermoforming process are Infra-Red (IR)heaters,
conventional ovens, and heated platen presses. IR heating is
recommended for the thin pre-consolidated blanks having moderate
contour.

1.8 ADVANTAGES OF FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES

Fiber Reinforced Composites (FRC) are used in many fields

like aerospace, automobiles due to their significant material properties.
FRC is used as a substitute for metals, due to the superior mechanical
characteristics. While using different combinations of fibers, the
following advantages of the material can be achieved.

 High stiffness

 Low density

20
 High strength

 Good toughness or durability

 Light Weight

 Good creep Resistance

 Dimensional Stability

 High damping coefficient

 High corrosion and chemical resistance

 High thermal isolation

 Good functional performance

21
 CHAPTER 2

2. LITERATURESURVEY

2.1 LITERATURE BASED ON NATURAL FIBER REINFORCED

COMPOSITE

Faruk et al. (2012) [13] carried out a study on bio-composites

reinforced with natural fibers and reported the natural fiber-reinforced
bio-composites were the high-value materials that have developed
significantly, due to their significant advantages such as
biodegradability, low cost, low relative density, high specific strength,
and renewable nature. The new environmental regulations and
sustainability of the governmental concepts of ecological, social,
awareness, used to develop the bio-based composites.

Paivi Lehtiniemi et al. (2011) [31] prepared the flax/viscose-

natural fiber-reinforced epoxy composites by filament winding process
and investigated the mechanical properties. Two different epoxy resins
of bio-based and standard epoxy to study the material properties. Bio
epoxy-based composites produced the tensile strength of 152 MPa and
the standard epoxy 191 MPa. The water operation rate of the material
reported after 35 days for bio epoxy is 28.1 (wt. %) and the standard
epoxy composite is 30.5 (wt. %).

Al-Oqla et al. (2014) [7] reported the application of natural

fiber- reinforced date palm polymer composites in automobile industrial
applications. Comparing the specific modulus of elasticity per cost ratio
with other selected types of date palm fibers hasan85 %improvement.

22
 Comparing the cost of date palm fibers toother fiber types used
in the automotive industry, the date palm fiber has 15 times less than coir
and 60 times less than hemp. Consequently, there is no doubt that date
palm fiber is the most competitive one in the automotive industry.

Sahari et al. (2011) [38] conducted a review on natural fiber

reinforced biodegradable polymer composites and reported, these bio-
composite materials have a very bright future in a wide range of
applications due to their various interesting properties. NFC’s are going
to compete with the existing fossil plastic materials. The hydrophilic
properties present in the natural fibers make the real challenge to design
the product which can be a good candidate for outdoor applications. The
research and improvement used in biodegradable NFC are helpful for
environmental issues.

Huq et al. (2011) [17] investigated the thermo-mechanical

characterization and degradation of Jute fiber -reinforced PET-based
composite. The sandwich composites are prepared using the PET sheet
and jute fibers by compression moulding process repowered the tensile
strength of 56- 73 MPa. From the degradation test using soil medium, it
was found that the composites lost 3.6 % of their mass in 6 months.
Because of this biodegradability of the green composite, the
environment can be preserved from pollution.

Graupner et al.(2008) [16] investigated the influence of fiber

fineness, fiber maturity of cotton fiber-reinforced composite by cold-
setting laminate resin system. The fiber maturity values of 83 % were
measured for the cotton CIS-ELS but cotton Greece only 70 % and
improved tensile strength.

23
The better impact characteristics of these examined composites can be
used especially impact claimed areas in the car interior. Because of the
high elongation at break, cotton can also be used as admixtures to basalt
fibers for improving the impact strength of composites. In today's time,
cotton plays an important role in technical applications.

Alomayri et al. (2014) [6] analyzed the effect of water

absorption on the mechanical properties of cotton fabric-reinforced geo
polymer composites. Cotton fabric reinforced geo-polymer composites
are fabricated with fiber loadings of 4.5, 6.2, and 8.3 wt. %. The flexural
strength, flexural modulus, impact strength, hardness, and fracture
toughness are increased as the fiber content increased. The better
mechanical properties were achieved for the fiber content of 8.3 wt. %.
The magnitude of maximum water uptake and diffusion coefficient is
increased with an increase in fiber content.

Agunsoye et al. (2013) [3] studied the morphological and

mechanical properties of bag as se-filled recycled polyethylene bio-
composites of un carbonized and carbonized bagasse particles in the
range of 10 to 50 wt. %. Increasing of bagasse percentage in composite
preparation, increased the tensile strength, bending strength, hardness
but the impact energy and fracture toughness decrease. Best properties at
optimum service conditions were achieved for 30 wt. % of bagasse
particle addition.

Ali Imran et al. (2019) [4] carried out a study on the quasi-
static punch shear behavior of aramid/epoxy composites prepared by the
Vacuum-Assisted Resin Transfer Moulding (VARTM) process.

24
 It was found that aramid composite has the maximum tensile
strengthof577MPa, compression strength of 110, and shear strength of
125 MPa at the thickness of 2-4 mm. Kink band formations and the
fiber-matrix de bonding were observed at the edge of a compression and
shear test.

Tamrat Tesfaye et al. (2017) [44] studied the physical,

morphological arrangement of a chicken feather. It has the feasibility of
using it as reinforcing material during the production of composite
material, due to its honeycomb structures, very low-density,
compatibility, and reliability in manufacturing lightweight plastics
products.
Choudary et al. (2018) [10] investigated the micro structural
characteristics of the Chicken Feather Fiber (CFF), it was found that it
has a required characteristic to use as a reinforcing material, and also it
has good acoustic and better thermal insulation properties. The CFF has
a low specific gravity due to the availability of honeycomb structure.

Venkateshwaran et al. (2010) [46] studies the mechanical

properties of banana fiber s and reported that it has high tensile strength
and low elongation at break. Therefore, these fibers when used as
reinforcement for resin-based composites could bring new possibilities
in many engineering applications. Since banana farming is very popular
in India reusability of these pseudo stems could be very healthy for the
economy. From the different natural fibers, sisal and banana have good
mechanical properties.

25
2.2 LITERATURE BASED ON EFFECT OF HYBRIDIZATION

Nalini Ranganathan et al. (2016) [28] investigated the effect

of the fiber content, fracture toughness, and the fatigue properties of
jute/viscose hybrid bio-composites. Direct long fiber thermoplastic,
extrusion process followed by compression used to manufacture the
hybrid composite. Fracture toughness and the fracture energy of the PP–
J30 composites were significantly improved to 133%and514%.Fatigue
life improved three times higher while compared with that of the
unmodified jute composites for the addition of 10 wt. % of viscose
fibers. Addition of 2 wt. % maleated polypropylene (MAPP) average
length of viscose fibers increased to 8.1 mm, and the fracture toughness
and fracture energy increased.

Nalini Ranganathanetal.(2016)[29]analyzed the impact of

the toughness and visco elastic behavior of polypropylene (PP) jute-
viscose hybrid composites. The viscose fiber was used as an impact
modifier and maleated PP as a compatibilizer. The incorporation of
viscose fibers improved the impact strength and the toughness
compared to the PP– jute composites. The addition of 2 wt. % MAPP to
the impact- modified composite improved the
impactstrength144andthetoughness to 93%. Due to the hybridization of
PP, jute with viscose fibers the impactperformance was improved.

Matykiewicz et al. (2017) [24] investigate the influence of

basalt powder addition on thermo mechanical properties of basalt fiber
reinforced epoxy composites by hand lay-up process with 2.5, 5,10 wt.
% of basalt powder. It was observed that basalt filler addition increases

26
 the elasticity modulus of the composites and reduces their
elongation at break. The high elasticity modulus and tensile strength
value was found forthe2.5wt.% of basalt powder addition. But the
impact strength of the composites decreases for the 10 wt. % of filler
powder.

Niaki et al. (2017)[30] investigated the mechanical properties

of epoxy polymer concrete with basalt addition. The evaluation of
polymer concrete, with basalt powder, shows the improvement in the
mechanical properties with increasing epoxy to basalt powder weight
percentage by 25 %, but it shows the reduction in flexural strength and
the raise in the compressive strength.

Mahesh Babu et al. (2018) [23] investigated the mechanical

properties of glass fiber hybrid epoxy composites with basalt filler. The
addition of basalt powder in the glass fiber reinforced epoxy composites
shows superior mechanical and visco elastic properties. The addition of
basalt powder enhances the mechanical and dynamic mechanical
thermal properties of the composite. The hybrid effect was obtained by
introducing the basalt powder into epoxy resin and reinforcing it with
glass fiber.

Idicula Maries et al. (2010) [18] studied the dynamic

mechanical characteristics of randomly oriented banana/sisal short fiber
reinforced hybrid polyester composites by hand lay-up method using a
compression moulding process. It was found that the better results of
storage modulus, tensile modulus, and flexural strength of 0.40 volume
faction composite. The optimized volume fraction, were 1:1 banana and
sisal, with 0.4 vf. It was also observed from the comparison of hybrid

27
 and non-hybrid composites the banana fiber filled composite
and the hybrid composites have better interface bonding. The highest
tensile strength, flexural modulus, lowest impact strength, and highest
activation energy, better fiber/matrix adhesion, and stress transfer were
found in the composite with the relative volume fraction of banana and
sisal 3:1.

Alkbir et al. (2016) [5] reported the review of the fiber

properties and crashworthiness parameters of natural fiber-reinforced
composite structures. The overall tensile and flexural properties of
natural fiber-reinforced polymer hybrid composites were highly
dependent on the aspect ratio. Crash-worthiness parameters and specific
energy absorption of natural fiber reinforced polymer composite was
depended on the geometry, shapes, triggering and non- triggering, and
filled and non-filled of the material. The woven flax fabric circular tube
exhibits high energy absorption capability. The use of natural fibers in
vehicle manufacturing increases sustainability in the industrial sector.

Jawaid et al. (2011)[19] investigated the chemical resistance,

void content and tensile properties of oil palm/jute fiber reinforced
hybrid composites. The void content of composites decreases with the
hybridization of oil palm composite with jute fibers. The tensile strength
was increased by 7.6% for the composite having jute as skin and oil
palm as core material. The hybrid composite has higher tensile strength
and modulus compared to pure oil palm composite.

Jerrold E. Winandy et al. (2007) [21] prepared hybrid

Medium Density Fiberboard (MDF) panels using Chicken Feather Fiber
(CFF) and as pen fiber with different weight percentages using 5 %

28
 phenol-formal dehyde resin as an adhesive. An addition of 20-
50% CFF restricts moisture absorption in the composite material, this is
due to the presence of amino acids in CFF keratin monomer probably
increasing the hydrophobic nature of the material. The reduction of
moisture content in MDF/CFF was used to reduce the brown-rot decay
during the 12-week ASTM D 143 soil-block test.

Wang et al. (2013) [47] investigated the thermal and

mechanical at tapulgite (ATP)–graphene oxide (GO) reinforced hybrid
filler epoxy composites. The thermal and mechanical properties of the
material were increased through the introduction of ATP–GO hybrid
fillers. 1 wt. % of ATP and 0.2 wt. % GO composition provides the
improvement of 36 % of Young’s modulus, 16% of tensile strength, 27
% of critical stress intensity factor, and 19% of critical energy release
rate.

Sumeshet al. (2019) [43]prepared alumina nano-powder from

Muntingia Calabura leaf using the biosynthesis process and used it as a
nano-filler in sisal, coir, and banana fiber-reinforced hybrid composites.
It was found the addition of 3 wt. % of biosynthesized nano-powder in
sisal/coir hybrid composite shows an improvement of 30.86 % in tensile
strength, 13.34 % in flexural strength, and 16.49 % of impact strength.
Sisal/banana hybrid composite has an improvement of 35.64 %, in
tensile strength, 12.20 % in flexural strength, and 8.24 % in impact
strength. It was also observed that the addition of nano-powder in the
composite materials, reduces the void gaps between matrix/fiber
surfaces used to improve the stiffness and provides good friction and
energy dissipation properties during higher strain conditions used to
improves the damping properties.

29
 Mohd Nurazzi et al. (2018) [27] developed a hybrid
composite of sugar palm yarn/glass-reinforced fiber using unsaturated
polyester resin. It was observed that while glass fiber loading increasing
from30 wt. % to 40wt. %, the density of the composites increased from
1.332g/cm3 to 1.370g/cm3, and also the tensile strength, tensile modulus,
flexural strength, flexural modulus, and compression strength increased.

Abhishek K. Pathak et al. (2016) [1] reported the

improvement of mechanical properties in Carbon Fiber (CF) polymer
composites with graphene oxide (GO) epoxy hybrid composite. The
prepreg was prepared using CF fabric impregnated with an epoxy-GO
mixture with different wt. % of GO from 0.1 to 0.6 wt. % by the
compression moulding process. It was reported that the Flexural
Strength (FS) increases by 66% and the flexural modulus (FM)increased
by 72 %, at 0.3 wt. % of GO hybrid composites. The utilization of GO in
polymer composites is one of the techniques used to improve the
properties.

2.3 LITERATURE BASED ON MACHINING OF COMPOSITES

Sitarama Chakravarthy et al. (1999) [42] developed a

multi-criteria optimization technique using fuzzy logic and the Genetic
Algorithm (GA) for the selection of optimal process parameters in
abrasive water jet cutting of granite to any predetermined depth. These
optimization techniques are suggested for the increase of production
rate, reduce the consumption of abrasives, and maintain the desired
depth of cut within the specified limits. Predicted depth was found
within a range of 10% from the actual depth.

30
 Selvam et al. (2017) [40] carried out the performance of
AWJM of E- glass/ carbon fiber reinforced hybrid composites prepared
by the hand-lay- up process using response surface methodology. The
optimum combination of cutting parameter levels of 137 mm/min of
transfer speed, 300 MPa of water pressure, 454 g/min of abrasive mass
flow rate, and 2 mm of standoff distance was used to manufacture the
composite with 0.408 kerf taper and 3.38μm surface roughness. It was
found that increasing water pressure increases the kinetic energy and
reduces the size of the abrasive particles in the waterjet, this results in
the clean removal of material at the machined surface used to improve
the surface finish.

Prasad et al. (2015) [33]investigated the factors affecting

the machining quality of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic (CFRP) on
Abrasive Water jet Machining using response surface methodology.
The output quality of machining performance was affected by the
process parameters of standoff distance, feed rate, jet pressure, and
orientation of fiber. The kerf taper was found to be 0.029 for 45° fiber
orientation, 0.036, and 0.038 for 60° and 90°. The material removal
rate was 18.95mm3/sec for 45° fiber orientation compared to
18.26mm3/sec for 60° and 17.4mm3/sec for 90° fiber orientation. The
surface roughness value for 45° fiber orientation was found 4.911𝜇m,
for 60° and90°fiber Orientation, it was 4.927𝜇 mand 4.974𝜇m. The
delamination factor was found to be more for 45° fiber orientation, that
was, 2.238, but for 60° and 90°, it is 2.029 and 2.196.

Shanmugha Sundaram (2014) [41] studied the influence

of Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM) parameters on eutectic al-si
alloy–graphite composites.

31
 It was found that the water pressure was the highest influence
on surface roughness followed by traverse speed and standoff distance.
The surface roughness of the composite decreased with increasing water
pressure. The lowest surface roughness values occurred at the lowest
traverse rate and the standoff distance.

Ramulu (1993) [35] compared the performance of Water jet

and abrasive water jet cutting of unidirectional graphite/epoxy
composite. Abrasive Water Jet (AWJ) surface characteristics of
graphite/epoxy were found to be significantly different from those of the
water jet cutting process. It was found that the surface roughness valves
increased with water jet penetration depth, whereas the abrasive water
jet cut surface roughness decreased with jet penetration. The principal
material removal mechanism of water jet material failure is associated
with micro bending- induced fracture and out-of-plane shear and AWJ
machining material removal mechanisms including shearing,
micromachining, and erosion. AWJ machining was found to be the
feasible machining process for unidirectional graphite/epoxy due to its
material removal mechanisms.

Metin Kok et al. (2011) [25] analyzed the surface roughness

of particle reinforced MMC’s using genetic expression programming
(GEP). It was found that there was a good agreement between the
predicted and experimental surface roughness within a reasonable well
correlation coefficient values approximately 90% for Ra, Rz, and RSM
during the abrasive water jet machining. The depth of cut was the
influential parameter on the surface characteristics.

32
 Ra, Rz, and RSM values were increased considerably with
increasing the depth. The main mechanism behind the material removal
was a combination of scooping induced ductile shear and plowing
actions of the abrasive particles.

El. Hofy et al. (2018) [12] studied the AWJM process

parameters during the machining of multidirectional CFRP laminates. It
was observed that the pressure (31 %) was the most influential
parameter affecting the kerf taper followed by standoff distance (27 %).
High pressure, small standoff distance, and high feed rate were
recommended for the narrow kerf taper. Better surface quality was
obtained for the high operating pressure, low feed rate, and small
standoff distance. AWJM was a cheaper machining process for CFRP
compared with milling.

Rajmohan et al. (2012) [34] developed a desirability

function-based approach for the multiple performance optimizations of
machining characteristics of drilling hybrid Al356/SiC mica composites
produced through a stir casting process. Minimum burr height and
surface roughness achieved at the optimized process parameters of
medium spindle speed, low feed rate, and high wt. % of SiC. The force-
induced at high spindle speed was higher, which was used to cut the
material smoothly and produce better surface roughness.

Kuldip Singh Sangwan et al. (2015) [22] developed an

approach to optimize the solid cylindrical turning process parameters of
Ti- 6Al-4V (grade 5) alloy for the minimum surface roughness by
Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Genetic Algorithm (GA).

33
 A feed is the main influencing parameter for the effect of
surface roughness. The mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of the
developed ANN model is 1.79 % and the RSM model is 4.30. The
prediction capability of the ANN model was found to be the best while
comparing the RSM model.

Girish Kant et al. (2014) [14] developed a multi-objective

predictive model for the minimization of power consumption and
surface roughness during the machining of AISI 1045 steel. It has been
observed that the predictive model provides a reduction of 6.59 % in
power consumption and a 2.65%improvementinsurfaceroughnessover
the best experimental run. It was also observed that the feed was the
main influencing machining parameter for the minimization of power
consumption and surface roughness followed by the depth of cut and
cutting speed.

Asilturk et al.(2012)[9] developed a model for the prediction

of cutting forces and surface roughness during turning 4041 steel using
neural networks and support vector regression (SVR). The ANN model
provides the mean absolute error (MAE) of 0.0631 and the root means
square error (RMSE) value of [Link] SVR model provides the
MAE and RMSE values of 0.0898 and 0.0795. Regression coefficient R2
has been found 90.13% for ANN, 92.73 % for SVR. Comparing both the
prediction model, SVR is more accurate than that ANN.

Thirumalai Kumaran et al. (2017) [45] analyzed the surface

roughness in abrasive water jet machining of Carbon-Fiber-Reinforced

34
 plastic (CFRP) composites using regression analysis. Abrasive
water jet machining was carried out over the unidirectional (UD) and
UD with a woven fabric surface. The developed predicted regression
model showsa95%[Link] higher level of pressure with
lower transfer speed and standoff distance produced a better surface
finish. Machining of UD with woven fabric surface of CFRP composite
provides the minimum roughness. The major parameters affecting the
surface roughness was jet pressures followed by the standoff distance.

Wang et al. (1999) [47] studied the parameters of Abrasive

Water jet Machining of metallic coated steel sheets using a statistically
designed experiment. It was a viable technology for good productivity
and kerf quality in processing metallic-coated steel sheet. It was found
that the optimum parameters were the water pressure with a small
standoff distance. The cutting rate was increased with the help of higher
traverse speed. A large amount of burr formation takes place at 240 MPa
of water pressure. The heights of the burrs were decreased with the
decrease of traverse speed and standoff distance.

Djavanroodi et al. (2013) [11] investigated the Artificial

Neural Network (ANN) modeling of Equal Channel Angular Pressing
(ECAP) of pure aluminum. ANN trained with the parameters of die
channel angles and the number of passes. The feed forward back-
propagation ANN training algorithm improved the efficiency of the die
design process of ECAP. The optimum architecture was developed
based on the mean square error of the ANN results.

35
 Jenarthananetal. (2016)[20] did a comparative study on the
prediction of delamination factor on end milling of GFRP composites
using RSM and ANN. GRPF laminates of 3mm thickness were
produced with different fiber orientations of15°, 30°, 60°, 90°,and 120°
by the hand lay-up process. It was found that delamination increases for
the increase of feed rate, increase of fiber orientation angle, and
decreases with the increase of cutting speed. Cutting speed of 67–88
m/min and feed rate 0.08 to 0.11mm/rev produced the delamination of
1.1. The increased cutting speed range of 68 to 100 m/min and fiber
orientation angle range from 15° to 40° provides the delamination values
1.04. The feed range of0.04 and 0.058 mm/rev and the fiber orientation
of15°to40°, providesdelamination1.02, delamination tends to increase
for the increase of both fiber orientation angle and feed rate. Two hidden
layers with neurons in each (4-30-30-1) trained with ANN Leven berg–
Marquardt algorithm was found to be the optimum network since ANN
has an error value of 0.259% and RSM models have an error value of
0.769 %.

Ranganathan et al. (2010) [36] studied the hot machining

characteristics of stainless steel 316 by different heating methods at a
lathe. Artificial neural networks and response surface methodology were
used for the prediction of surface roughness at a different work piece
temperature range of 200°C, 400°C, and 600°C. Observed that feed rate
contributes 51.3% at 200°C, 29 % at400°C, and 20.1% at 600°C for the
effect of surface roughness of hot turning of stainless steel (Type 316).
The increase of feed rate results in poor surface roughness, it was found
that feed rate was the most significant parameter for the effect of surface
roughness.

36
 The predicted surface roughness of ANN and RSM models was
in good agreement with experimental results, and also it is used to save
time and cost.

Adam Khan et al. (2011) [2] studied the machinability of

glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) composite prepared by the filament
winding process. Ti[C, N] mixed alumina (CC650) and a SiC whisker
reinforced alumina (CC670) cutting tool s were used for the machining
of GFRP. Tool wear occurs during the machining of GFRP composites
in the turning process, due to the rubbing of the cutting tool edge with
the hard fibers impregnated in the matrix materials. Higher flank wear
was found at the higher cutting speed in the alumina cutting tools. The
tool failure noticed for the Ti[C, N] mixed alumina cutting tool at a
cutting velocity of 250 m/min was 8 minutes of machining and 300
m/min was reduced to 6 mins. But the SiC whisker reinforced alumina
cutting tool with stands up to 9 minutes. Increasing cutting velocity was
used to increase the surface roughness in the range of 6.5 to 4.5 μm but
it was very limited.

Paulo Davim et al. (2004) [32] studied the effect of cutting

parameters of glass-fiber -reinforced plastics tubes during the turning
process for the wet filament winding tubes produced with a fiber
orientation of 45° and hand lay- up process with a fiber orientation
parallel to the longitudinal axis. It was found that the feed rate has a
higher influence of 91 % over the hand-lay- up process and 65.9 % at
the filament winding process. The surface roughness increases with the
increase of feed rate and decreases with the cutting velocity, composites

37
prepared by hand-lay-up produces the least surface roughness compared
with the filament winding process during turning of tubes in a lathe.

Sathishkumar et al .(2019) [39] carried out a study on

drilling parameters optimization to minimize the thrust force, torque,
and delamination of untreated jute fiber reinforced plastic polyurethane
foam prepared by sandwich composite technique. It was observed that,
comparing HSS and titanium aluminum nitrate (TAN)-twist-drilled hole
performance, the TAN drilled hole has the minimum thrust force of
88N, for the speed of 1500 rpm with a feed rate of 80 mm/min. Speed of
1000 rpm and feed rate of 120mm/min for the drill hole size of 4mm
was found to be the optimized process parameters for the HSS and TAN
drills by Taguchi but the gray regression analysis provides the optimum
drilling parameters were speed of 1000 rpm, 150mm/min feed and 3mm
diameter hole.

Ming Chu Kong et al. (2013) [26] investigates the influence

of AWJM process parameters of NiTi shape memory alloy. The milling
process was carried out by Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM) and
the cleaning of the AWJM surface by Plain Water Jet (PWJ). It was
found that there was a significant reduction (90%) in the grit embedment
after the first 6 PWJ passes and further reduction noticed after12 passes,
negligible grit presence has occurred with 18 passes. micro-cracks were
seen after 1st pass of milling, the severity of the crakes was reduced
gradually with the increase of the number of PWJ passes which make
the surface smoother. But the increased number of PWJ passes produces
pores on the surface. The best combination parameters used to produce
the homogeneity and the straightness of the kerf profile were 345 MPa

38
of water pressure, the abrasive flow rate of 0.26 kg/min, and the stand
off distance of [Link] surface roughness of 2 µm during the AWJ and
5.4µm during milling was noticed. The countersunk head manufacture
through the AWJM process produces the circularity and the
concentricity was 0.037mm and within 0.1–0.15 mm. The heat
generated by the macroscopic force during the AWJM process was
relatively low compared with all other contact- type conventional
machining processes.

Yuvaraj et al. (2015) [48] developed a multi-response

optimization model of AA5083-H32 aluminium alloy on abrasive water
jet machining parameters using the technique for order preference by
similarity ideal solution (TOPSIS) approach. It was found that the
optimum parameters such as water pressure 300 MPa, nozzle transfer
speed 120mm/min, abrasive flow rate 360g/min, and standoff distance 1
mm for the better surface quality. Water pressure has the maximum
influence on the output response, high water pressure produced the
maximum depth of penetration and minimum top kerf width, taper cut
ratio, and surface roughness.

Arvind Kumar et al. (2018) [8] studied the impact of AWJM

process parameters and its surface quality of Inconel 718 using the RSM-
BBD approach. The traverse speed and abrasive flow rate were the most
considerable parameters on the surface quality. Water Pressure has an
interaction effect on surface roughness. The optimized process
parameters of water pressure, flow rate, SoD, and traverse speed of
40757 psi, 1.25 lb/min, 0.6 mm, and 20 mm/min, produced the surface
roughness of 2.75–4.94 μm.

39
 At low traverse speed, abrasive particles possess enormous
kinetic energy which is sufficient to penetrate; this was used to obtain
minimum surface roughness.

Gnanavelbabu et al. (2018) [15] studied the characteristics

of abrasive water jet machining of AA6061-B4C-hBN hybrid metal
matrix composite prepared by stir casting technique. It was observed that
the kerf taper was minimized at the higher water pressure. The traverse
speed has a direct effect on surface roughness since the maximum garnet
abrasive particles were not involving in the machining process.
Increasing an abrasive flow rate reduces the surface roughness of the
composites but at the lower abrasive flow rate the garnet particles
individually eroding the cutting surface used to improve the surface
roughness quality.

40
 CHAPTER 3

3. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION FROM LITERATURE

SURVEY

The following problems were identified from the past literatures.

 Poor bonding between matrix, reinforcement and filler materials.

 Moderate mechanical and water absorption properties.

 Poor load shifting capability between matrix, reinforcement

and filler materials.

41
 CHAPTER 4

4. POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS FOR IDENTIFIED PROBLEMS

The following solutions are possible to overcome the problems in the

exiting – composites.

 Changing of the matrix, reinforcement and filler materials.

 Changing of the matrix, reinforcement and filler material concentration

percentage.

 Changing of the Bio–composites manufacturing methods. 

The above the possible solutions were implemented in this research work
to overcome the exiting problems in Bio – composites.

42
 CHAPTER 5

METHODOLOGY

SELECTION OF MATERIAL
Jute and coir fiber-reinforced hybrid composites, Epoxy resin grade- Ly556and
Hardener grade-Hy 951

Phase-1
FABRICATION PROCESS
It will be done in compression moulding process. Once the composite of
material is prepared then it is poured into compression moulding die up to
certain level.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Tensile strength, Compression Strength, Flexural strength, Water Absorption,
Impact tests are undergone with the composite material.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Ph Mechanical properties results are analyzed and discussed.

as
e-
2

CONCLUSION

Fig 5.1Methodology
43
 CHAPTER 6

MATERIALS AND METHODS

6.1 RESIN AND HARDNER

Fig.1.13 Resin and hardener

Figure 1.13 Shows the Araldite LY 556 is an epoxy resin manufactured by

Huntsman, a global chemical company. Epoxy resins are versatile and widely used in
various applications such as adhesives, coatings, and composites due to their excellent
bonding properties and mechanical strength. The hardener you mentioned, HY951, is
manufactured by Atul Ltd. Hardeners are a crucial component in epoxy systems as they
react with the epoxy resin to initiate the curing process, leading to the development of a
strong and durable final product. When Araldite LY 556 is mixed with the hardener
HY951 in the correct ratio and under the appropriate conditions, it forms a cured epoxy
with desirable characteristics such as high strength, chemical resistance, and thermal
stability. It's important to follow the manufacturer's guidelines regarding the mixing
ratio, curing time, and curing conditions to achieve optimal performance. Both of which
had densities of 1.2 g cc-1 and 0.98 g cc-1, respectively. In a ratio of 10:1, epoxy and
hardener were combined.

44
6.2 COIR FIBER

Fig.1.14 Coir Fiber

Coconut husks are the raw material for coir fiber is shown in fig.1.14
The fruit of the coconut palm tree is the coconut. The husk, the coconut's
outermost layer, is removed from the shell. This may be accomplished by hand
or with the aid of a machined ecorticator. For many days, the coir fiber is
submerged in water to loosen and soften the fibers. After the coir husk has been
soaked, the fiber is extracted by pounding it with a wooden mallet or a
mechanical de-fibering equipment [24].After the fibers have been removed, the
coir is washed and cleaned to get rid of any remaining grime. After being
washed, coir is dried in the sun or by mechanical means. At last, the coir fiber is
compacted into bales for easy transport and storage. Coir fiber is a multipurpose
material that may be used in many different ways, such as in the production of
ropes, carpets, brushes, and as a soil amend mentor mulch.

45
6.3 JUTE FIBER

Fig.1.15 Jute Fiber

The Agave jute an a plant is the source of the natural fabric known as jute
is shown in [Link] the plant's natural habit at is Mexico, it is currently
grown in many other nations. Rope, twine, carpeting, and other textiles all benefit
from the versatility of jute fibers. It is recommended to harvest jute plants between
the ages of three and five. The leaves are trimmed low to the ground and then the
cuticle is peeled back to expose the fibers [25]. The pulpy content is removed by
beating and crushing the leaves, leaving long fibrous strands. Decortication is the
term for this procedure. To get rid of any left over contaminants like dirt, dust, or
sap, the fibers are washed. After being cleaned, the fibers are dried either by the
sun or in a drying oven. The fibers are then sorted by length, diameter, and color
once they have dried. Generally speaking, longer and finer fibers fetch greater
prices on the market. The jute strands may be spun in toy arnortwisted in to rope
ort wine after being graded. Jute fibers may be woven into carpets or utilized to
create mats and other flooring options. Fig. 1.13 to Fig.1.15 shows the image of
epoxy resin, hardener, coir and jute fiber respectively.

46
6.4 COMPOSITE MANUFACTURING

In this study, hybrid composites were produced through the hand layup process.
To facilitate the de molding from the processing tool, a mold releasing agent was
applied to the surface of the hybrid composite. The resin and hardener were
combined and spread over the fiber surface, followed by placing another fiber on
top to initiate the curing process. A roller was utilized to evenly apply pressure to
the resin and hardener coating, ensuring a uniform layer across the entire surface.
This sequence was repeated iteratively until the desired stacking order was
achieved, as presented in Table 5.1, which illustrates the stacking order and
corresponding labels for each layer. The experimental procedure followed a
stacking strategy akin to that employed by the authors [26], with variations in the
sequential order and the use of a 300 mm x 300 mm mold. Subsequent to
stacking, the fibers underwent compression in a press for 24 hours at a constant
pressure and room temperature. Figure 5.4 depicts the resulting composite boards
fabricated through this process.

Table 1.1 Composition ratio of the composites in wt.%

Sample Epoxy Coir Jute

Number Resin Fiber Fiber

1 65 0 35
2 65 10 25
3 65 17.5 17.5
4 65 20 15
5 65 35 0

47
 Fig.1.16 Fabricated Composite Boards

6.5 TESTING METHODS

6.5.1 Tensile Test

The appropriate standard, ASTM D3039, was used to fabricate the tensile
test specimens. Each sample was 250 mm in length and 25 mm across. The
gripper spacing was 100mm, and the average thickness of the composite
employed in the samples was 6.8mm (within arrange of 0.2mm).At across-head
speed of 5 mm/min, a universal testing machine (Shimadzu 300 KN) was used to
apply the load to the sample. In this experiment, authors take an average of the
results from five separate samples.

6.5.2 Compression Test

Samples measuring 80×30×4mm were compressed using the same

equipment in accordance with ASTMD [Link] gauge length was held
constant at 30 mm, and the cross-head speed was held constant at 1.25 mm/min
throughout the study. The average compressive strength from testing five
samples per example.

48
 6.5.3 Flextural Test

A three-point bending test according to ASTM D 790 was performed.

The specimens measured 250 mm x 25mm. Each sample had a distance of 100
mm between its supports and across-head speed of 5mm/min. The statistical
analysis relied on the mean values obtained from testing five duplicates.

6.5.4 Impact Test

For this research, the impact testing standard used was ASTM D
[Link] dimensions are 60 mm in length and 15 mm in breadth [27].
This quality has been tested using the Charpy Impact method.

6.5.5 Water Absorption Test

The ASTMD 570 [28] standard was used to determine the maximum
water absorption percentage for the fabricated hybrid composites. After1day,
the specimen was removed from the distilled water in which they had been
immersed. After drying the samples thoroughly with a clean, dry cloth, they
were weighed. This process was done repeatedly with exposure times ranging
from 24to 312 hours.
The following equation Equation can be used to get the water-absorption
percentage

Water absorption (%) = 𝑚2−𝑚1×100

𝑚1

Where,

m1=Mass of the specimen before being submerge din water (grams)

m2=Mass of the specimen after being submerged in water(grams)

49
 CHAPTER 7

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Hybridized composites made from processed coir and jute fibers were
examined for tensile strength, impact resistance, flexural strength, compression,
and water absorption. The following sections explore the conclusions drawn
from the various analyses. Fig. 6.1 to 6.6 shows an image of composite sample
after testing of various properties.

Fig.1.17 Composite plate for various percentage

Fig 1.18 Water absorption test images after test

50
Fig.1.19 Compression test images after test

Fig.1.20 Impact test images after test

Fig.1.21 Flexural test images after test

51
 Fig.1.22 Tensile test images after test

7.1 TENSILE PROPERTIES

Mechanical interlocking and the kinds of bonding among the matrix

and the fiber contribute to the tensile strength of composites [29]. The fracture
initiation and crack propagation in a material are crucial factors in material
failure during tensile strength testing. Fig.1.22 displays the maximum tensile
strength of the manufacturing composites. When related to other commercially
available composites, sample 1 has the highest tensile strength. The ultimate
tensile strength of the produced composites ranges from16.991MPa with 0.82%
Elongation for sample1 shown in fig.1.22 (a) and tensile peak load 1274.52 N for
sample1 shown in fig.1.22.(b). The ultimate tensile strength of the produced
composites ranges from 12.881MPa with 0.9% Elongation for sample 2 shown
in fig.1.22 (a) and tensile peak load 965.82 N forsample2 shown in fig.1.22 (b).
The ultimate tensile strength of the produced composites ranges from 12.537
MPa with 1.39 % Elongation for sample 3 shown in fig.1.22 (a) and tensile peak
load 939.98 N for sample3 shown in fig.1.22 (b). The ultimate tensile strength of
the produced composites ranges from 9.29 MPa with 2.3 % Elongation for
sample 4 shown in fig.1.22(a) and tensile peak load 696.687 N for sample 4
shown in fig.1.22 (b). The ultimate tensile strength of the produced composites
ranges from 4.248 MPa with 2.81 % Elongation for sample 5 shown in fig.1.22
(a) and tensile peak load 318.884 N for sample 5 shown in fig.1.22 (b). The

52
tensile strength of any given natural fiber is mostly determined by its cellulose
concentration. Since more celluloseis polymerized into the matrix, the material is
stronger and more resistant to strain when the cellulose concentration is high.
Increased tensile strength can be attributed to the greater cellulose content of
the jute fibres used in this study. The appropriate connection between the matrix
and the fiber is another possible explanation for the increased tensile strength.
The decrease in TS can be attributed to poor bonding between the matrix and the
fibre. Consistent with these findings, the tensile strength of composites
containing kenaffibers with a higher cellulose content was increased when
these fibers wereplaced into the exterior of the composites[30].

53
Fig.1.23 Comparison of ultimate tensile strength of various composites (a) Ultimate
strength and % Elongation (b) Peak Tensile load

7.2 IMPACT PROPERTIES

Energy absorption capability of produced composites is determined

using impact strength testing, wherein the energy absorbed during specimen
breakage is recorded. As the crack grows, it goes through the matrix and the
fiber sin a certain direction, and then through the following layer of fibers as
well [31].The composites impact resistance is displayed in Fig.1.24.

The current study found that pure coir fiber and jute fiber both had
weak impact qualities, but coir fiber stacked with jute fibers had the most impact
strength of any synthetic composite. The sample 2 composite absorbed the most
energy, followed by the sample 3 and sample 4 composites, and finally the
sample 1 composite. The impact properties of a fiber are evaluated by its
structure and the strength of its constituent fibers.

54
 The preceding findings suggest that interfacial adhesion between the
matrix and the fiber is crucial to the impact strength of composites. Sample 2
hybrid composites have a greater ability to absorb energy because they have
improved impact resistant qualities, like superior matrix-to-reinforcing-fiber
bonding due to coir fibers' high elongation and relatively small diameter. In
literature review [32] also found findings that were similar to these. Another
factor is that the stacking sequence of various high-strength fibers helps to delay
the onset of failure. The processing parameters and the location from which a
natural fiber is harvested greatly influence the final product's characteristics.

Fig.1.24 Comparison of impact strength of various samples

55
7.3 FLEXURAL PROPERTIES

Composites flextural properties is measured by its ability to withstand

deformation when bent. The composites' ultimate flexural strengths are displayed
in Fig.1.25. The ultimate flexural strength of the produced composites ranges
from 70.481 MPa for sample 1 shown in fig.1.25 (a) and flexural peak load
3021.368 N for sample 1 shown in fig.1.25 (b). The ultimate flexural strength of
the produced composites ranges from 65.287 MPa for sample 2 shown in
fig.1.25 (a) and flexural peak load 3037.749 N for sample 2 shown in fig.1.25
(b). The ultimate flexural strength of the produced composites ranges from
63.445 MPa for sample 3 shown in fig.1.25 (a) and flexural peak load
2602.831N for sample 3 shown in fig.1.25 (b). The ultimate flexural strength of
the produced composites ranges from 53.829 MPa for sample 4 shown in
fig.1.25 (a) and flexural peak load 818.465 N for sample 4 shown in fig.1.25 (b).
The ultimate flexural strength of the produced composites ranges from 48.943
MPa for sample 5 shown in fig.1.25 (a) and flexural peak load 1227.048 N for
sample5 shown in fig.1.25 (b). Ultimate Flexural strength and flexural modulus
attain its maximum at 70.481 MPa and 98.937 N at sample 1. Enhanced ultimate
flexural strength may also have resulted from the synergistic influence of the
fiber's stiffness, the fiber's smoothness, and the excellent adhesive bonding
between the matrix and the fiber. Increased flexural strength was attributed to
good adhesion between the matrix and the fiber [33].

56
Fig.1.25 Comparison of flextural properties of the various samples (a) ultimate flexural
strength (b) flexural modulus

57
7.4 COMPRESSIVE PROPERTIES

The composites 'compressive strength is depicted in Fig.1.26

.Compressive strength increases from lowest to highest in the stacking order of
sample 1, sample 2, sample 3, sample 4 and sample 5 composites. Because there
is stronger adhesion among the matrix and the fiber in sample 1, there is less
stress transferred to the matrix during compression. Increased adhesion in
sample 1 composites leads to matrix interlocks that boost compressive strength.
The peak compressive load starts at 1232.842 N at sample 1.
According to the research [34], compression strength values decrease
due to insufficient stress transmission caused by poor contact among the matrix
and the fiber Compressive strength was subpar because of insufficient adhesion
among the matrix and the fiber. The stress transmission capability is reduced if
the contact between two fibers is inadequate.

58
 Fig.1.26 Comparison of compressive strength of various samples(a) ultimate
compressive strength (b) compressive peak load

The ultimate Compressive strength of the produced composites ranges

from 16.442MPa for sample 1 shown in fig.1.26 (a) and Compressive peak load
1232.842 N for sample 1 shown in fig.1.26 (b). The ultimate Compressive
strength of the produced composites ranges from 15.029MPa for sample 2 shown
in fig.1.26 (a) and Compressive peak load 1127.14 N for sample 2 shown in
fig.1.26 (b). The ultimate Compressive strength of the produced composites
ranges from 14.646MPa for sample 3 shown in fig.1.26 (a) and Compressive
peak load 1098.798 N for sample 3 shown in fig.1.26 (b). The ultimate
Compressive strength of the produced composites ranges from 12.586MPa for
sample 4 shown in fig.1.26 (a) and Compressive peak load 944.32 N for sample
4 shown in fig.1.26 (b). The ultimate Compressive strength of the produced
composites ranges from 11.821MPa for sample 5 shown in fig.1.26 (a) and
Compressive peak load 886.883 N for sample 5 shown in fig.1.26 (b).

59
7.5 WATER ABSORPTION PROPERTIES

The specimen's water absorption under controlled conditions was

examined with an absorption test. The fiber volume factor, viscosity, and
vacancies in a composite determine its moisture absorption properties. The
weight rise over time of a composite is proportional to its moisture content. The
proportion of moisture is found by dividing the gain in weight by the initial dry
specimen mass. The occurrence of hemi cellulose was the primary determinant
in the high-water absorption of lingo cellulosic fibers.
The length of time a composite is submerged in a liquid medium affects
how quickly its fibers absorbs the liquid. Water absorbency tests were performed
on all four stacking sequences. They were weighed in an electronic scale once
every 24 hours and then returned to the water. Up to 15 days were spent on this
procedure. Fig.1.27 plots the composites' water absorption of before and after
testing of the composites and percentage of water absorption they were swollen.
As the days accumulate, so do the water-absorbing abilities. The water-absorbing
properties improved for 14 days and then stabilized. The term "saturation point"
describes this condition. The gaps and holes let the material absorb water. The
decline in characteristics might potentially be traced back to the existence of
voids and pores.

60
 Fig.1.27 Comparison of water absorption of various samples

Since there is a tight link between the matrix and the fiber in the created
composite sample 3, it absorbs less moisture. This is supported by the tensile
strength data. Good bonding among the matrix and the fiber reduces the moisture
absorption capacity.

61
 CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSIONS

Hand lay-up approach was used to create hybrid composites with

jute/coir fibers reinforced in epoxy matrix. These findings were derived from the
data collected. The ultimate tensile strength of hybrid composites made from coir
/jute fibers was higher than that of conventional man-made composites. The
increased tensile strength might be traced back to the outer layer's greater lignin
jute fiber content. Good bonding between the matrix and the fiber allowed the
coir/jute hybrid composites to exhibit increased flexural strength, impact
strength, and compression strength. Due to poor stress transfer brought on by
insufficient bonding between the matrix and the fiber, quality dropped. Lower
water absorption and faster biodegradation were seen in hybrid composites
formed from coir fibers, and jute fibers because of enhanced adhesion between
the matrix and the fiber. Because there were fewer pores and spaces, the
material's ability to absorb water was reduced.

62
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