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Rainwater Harvesting System Implementation for Domestic Water Use: The

Environment and Financial Benefits

Chapter · August 2017

DOI: 10.1007/978-981-287-661-4_41

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 RAINWATER HARVESTING SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION FOR
DOMESTIC WATER USE: THE ENVIRONMENT AND FINANCIAL BENEFITS

Imroatul C. Juliana1, M. Syahril Badri Kusuma2, M. Cahyono2, Hadi Kardhana2, Widjaja M3

1
Ph.D Student, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Institut Teknologi Bandung
Email : icjuliana76@[Link]
2
Lecturer, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Institut Teknologi Bandung
3
Lecturer, School of Architecture, Planning, and Development Policy, Institut Teknologi Bandung

ABSTRACT
Rainwater harvesting (RWH) system is a technology that focuses on sustainability and support the
sustainable environment development. The implementation of RWH systems provides many
environment and financial benefits. Some of the environment benefits of RWH system are the
reduction of surface runoff, reduce the burden of soil aquifer, and provide the availability of clean
water. This study analyzed the RWH system implementation benefits both in environment and
financial side. The financial benefits of RWH system implementation are calculated based on a
number of rainwater that can be used to replace the need for clean water. The environment benefits
defined by the reduced of main water tap use and the reduced of generated roof runoff volume. This
study used a simple RWH system that use the roof as a catchment area, the pipeline as a distribution
system, and tank as the storage system. The water use is for domestic potable and nonpotable for a
household with up to four occupants in Bandung. The catchment area is taken 70 m2. A water
balance model for various scenarios was developed to calculate the algorithm of the system. The
costs taken in RWH system includes the construction, installation, maintenance and operational
costs. The analysis shows that the implementation of RWH systems provides advantages over the
use of conventional systems. It can save clean water use up to 54,92% and provide runoff reduction
up to 71,53%. RWH system applied requires additional costs approximately only 0,66% from the
value of the house. It was found that it is possible to achieve payback in RWH system
implementation under several scenarios.

Keywords : Rainwater harvesting, benefits, environment, financial, domestic use

1. INTRODUCTION
Water is a vital element in human life. A person cannot survive without water because water is
one of life support for humans. Although water covers the earth, more than 97% tastes salty, 2% of
fresh water is locked in snow and ice, so that only 1% can be used for human needs (National
Geographic, 2010). The availability of water resources is waning. Projected by 2025 there will be a
water crisis in several countries, including Indonesia even though Indonesia is a country with lots of
water (National Geographic, 2010). Increased human population growth push the use of natural
resources without regard to availability for future generations. In addition, problems of water
resources become more serious because of the lack of good management in water resources.
Rainwater is one natural resource that is often neglected. Rainwater is a source of high quality
and quantity water which is available every rainy season and has the potential to reduce the use of
freshwater sources. Rain is often regarded as a nuisance that should be promptly disposed of.
Therefore, potential rainfall often redundant into a runoff. These paradigm needs to be changed with
regard rainwater as an asset that needs to be collected as much as possible. Rainwater can be
harvested, stored for then reused for further use. The concept of rainwater harvesting is a concept
that emphasizes sustainability. Previous studies have shown that the utilization of rainwater
provides economic and environmental benefits. By the concept of rainwater harvesting, rainwater
can be used for nonpotable water use, which will reduce the use of groundwater and provide
financial benefits (Roebuck 2006, 2010). The concept of rainwater harvesting gives a good impact
on the surrounding environment (Sara Angrill et al., 2011) and considered as one of the adaptive
strategy for climate change related to water shortage (Trenberth et al, 2007)
In Indonesia, the reuse of rainwater is rarely performed. Many factors and obstacle arise. One is
the assumption that the installation of RWH system is expensive and not significantly provide
benefits from the financial side. Stakeholders are still reluctant to apply the concept and utilizing
ground water or tap water is still the best preference. The absence of a comprehensive study on the
use of rainwater and lack of proof causing many people still hesitate to implement the concept.
People do not realize the benefits that can be obtained with the use of rainwater. This study aims to
analyze the benefits of implementing RWH systems for household or domestic water use, especially
in terms of environment and financial overview so that the benefits of RWH systems
implementation can be more evident.

2. RAINWATER HARVESTING (RWH) SYSTEM CONCEPT

The term of water harvesting is used to describe the process of collecting and storing water from
an area that has been treated to increase precipitation runoff (Frasier [Link], 1983). RWH system has
several major components, the catchment area to catch rainfall, the water delivery system from the
catchment area to storage, storage tanks for storing water and tools to flow water to storage (Gould
and Niessen, 1999). RWH concept has traditionally been long applied in arid areas. As an example,
in Taiwan, the practice of rainwater harvesting has traditionally applied in areas that have limited
surface water or ground water (Liaw and Tsai 2004). In India, RWH system has been carried out
more than a hundred years ago in a very arid area known as the Golden Desert (Anupam Mishra,
2009). In Gunung Kidul Indonesia, due to the nature of the area that causing water shortage, one of
the way that made by the community to meet the water demand is collecting rainwater.
Several years ago, RWH is only used as an alternative way to compliance water in areas with
water shortage. Along with the advances in technology and the increasing environmental awareness,
the concept of RWH started to be used as an alternative source to meet the needs of the primary and
supplementary source of water. RWH concept can be applied into a large and small scale catchment
areas. Rainwater harvested from roofs can still be used for drink, cook and bath because it has a
quality that is not much different from the water coming from the taps (Meera and Ahammed,
2006). The main usefulness of RWH is divisible as a major source of clean water, additional water
sources for the use of clean water, and additional water sources for use instead of clean water
(Fewkes, 2006)

3. METHODOLOGY
This study used a simple RWH system (figure 1). The storage tank capacity is an important
component because it determines the overall system performance and cost. The tank's performance
is influenced by the characteristics of the catchment area, rainfall, and water demand required
(Roebuck, 2010)
 Adapted : Roebuck, 2010
Figure 1. Simple RWH System

3.1. System Performance Model

Effective rainfall volume is obtained by multiplying the rainfall with the wide of the catchment
area and the ratio between the water that and can be caught from the roof and the water that flowing
out as :

ER = R . A. C (1)

Where ER is the effective runoff (m3), R is the rainfall (mm), A is the area of the catchment area
(m2) and C is the ratio between the volume of water that is captured by the catchment.
RWH system performance calculated based on the concept of water balance. Water balance
simulation algorithms are used to explain the operation of RWH systems performance. The changes
of the storage tank volume can be expressed with :

Vt = Vt-1 + Qt – Dt – Et - Lt (2)

In this study, the storage tanks are below ground level so that the effect of evaporation and
losses can be eliminated as :

Vt = Vt-1 + Qt – Dt (3)

Where 0 ≤ S ≤ Vt, and Vt is storage volume at time t (m3), Vt-1 is the storage volume at time t - 1
(m3), Qt is the volume that enters the storage in a time interval t (m3), Dt is a water requirement
release in lapse of time t (m3), Et is evaporation (m3), Lt is the losses (m3) and S is the storage
capacity (m3).
The volume of water that will be collected in a time equal to the volume of water in the past (t-
1) plus the incoming water flow and reduced with the outflow at a certain time. A model of
behavioral analysis simulates an algorithm of the system operation volume in storage tank based on
the concept of mass balance by a certain time interval.
RWH system performance indicators can be expressed with the reliability and effectiveness of
the tank. The storage tank reliability can be expressed in units of time or volume (Fewkes and
Butler, 1999). Time indicator reliability can be used as a basis for proper system performance for
domestic RWH system, which, in this case, do not use too much water (Liaw and Tsai, 2004). In
this study, the system performance is in the unit of time which is expressed by the number of days
where the RWH system met with the water needs. This system performance indicated with the
storage tank performance which expressed the behavior of the tanks. The system behavior shows
the storage tank volume per day and from the results it can draw a number of days which the RWH
system met the water need.

3.2. Financial Analysis

The RWH system implementation will provide economic benefits. The more use of rainwater
will increase the financial benefits (Aataur Rahman et. al, 2010). Financial analysis is performed to
calculate the economic feasibility of the system. There are various economic methods that can be
used to calculate the investment feasibility. The benefits cost ratio method can be used to calculate
the financial benefits of RWH system implementation. Benefits cost ratio (BCR) is a method that
often used in the early stages of investment plan evaluation or as an additional analysis with the
aim to validate the results of the evaluation that has done previously (Giantman, 2006). BCR
method gives an emphasis to the aspect ratio between the value of benefits that would be obtained
with the aspect of cost (and losses) incurred by these investments. BCR values can be calculated
from the year that the system would return on investment.
The cost component is the capital cost, maintenance, and operational costs. Annual cost is all
cost spent along the age of the system. Benefits were calculated based on the number of rainwater
volume that can be used to replace the water use.

4. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

4.1. Study Site Overview
The study area is the city of Bandung which has two seasons, dry season between April to
October and rainy season in October through April. Bandung is the capital city of West Java
Province with the surface area 16730 ha, comprises of 30 districts and 152 sub-districts. The total
population is 2.455.517 people; with average population density is 14,676 people/km² (BPS Kota
Bandung, 2012). Clean water supplies for the community generally provided by main water taps
and by utilizing groundwater. The average annual rainfall ranges from 1000 mm in the central and
southeast regions to 3500 mm in the north of the city (Balai Data, 2012). The case study is in Ujung
Berung, a small district in East Bandung with the area of 18500 m2. The area had been selected as a
pilot project of a Rainwater harvesting system.

4.2. Rainfall Data

Point daily rainfall data in Ujung Berung station in 2000-2012 were analyzed. From the
analysis, the year of 2012 has taken because it was considered as a dry year that is expected to
reflect a critical condition of the RWH system. Maximum daily rainfall in 2012 was equal to 80 mm
with an average 6,8 mm.

4.3. Domestic Water use

The average daily domestic water consumption per each person in Indonesia is 144
L/person/day (Directorate of Water Development, 2006). Further research suggests that the
consumption can reach 147,74 L/person/day (Mangiring, 2007). Based on the results, in this study,
the approach of required amount of total water use is taken 150 L/person/day (0,15 m3/person/day)
and the need for nonpotable taken by 60% (Roebuck, 2010) of the total water requirement.

4.4. RWH Systems Performance

The calculation is divided into a number of scenarios based on tank capacity, the number of
occupants of the house and water use. The water use is divided into total and nonpotable water use.
The needs for total water use is 0,15 m3/person/day and nonpotable is 0,09 m3/person/day. The
catchment area is 70 m2 with the ratio of rainfall captured by the roof is 0,95 (Frasier [Link], 1983).
The number of occupants is divided into 1 and 4 persons per house. Based on the storage tank
performance analysis for several capacities, the size of 2 m3 capacity was taken. The size is
considered feasible for a household to build. The 2 m3 size is taken with the consideration that for
each water demand, the average performance of the RWH system with 2 m3 storage tank has
reached 65,2% (figure 2). Rainwater use, runoff volume, system performance, and financial
analysis will also be analyzed for each scenario.
Initial analysis is conducted by analyzing the system behavior for each scenario. System
performance is calculated based on the time, which is the number of days that water needs to be met
by the RWH system. This result shows with a small number of deficit days (figure 3). From figure
2, it can also be seen that the less rainwater used, the system performance will be greater. With 2 m3
tank capacity, the best system performance is 80% for 1 person nonpotable water use (NP1), and
followed by 1 person total water use (P1), 4 persons nonpotable water use (NP4) and 4 persons total
water use (P4), respectively for 70%, 64% and 43% system performance (figure 2). If the reliability
value of the system is 60%, then the RWH systems with 2 m3 storage tank capacity could meet the
water needs up to 0,36 m3/day/house (P1, NP4 and NP1).

Figure 2. Storage Tanks Performance for Each Water Use

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
 Annotation :
NP1 = 1 person nonpotable water use P1 = 1 person total water use
NP4 = 4 persons nonpotable water use P4 = 4 persons total water use (P4)
Figure 3. System Behavior for (a) P4, (b) P1, (c) NP4 and (d) NP1
The implementation of RWH system can reduce the used of main water taps or groundwater.
RWH system can replace 99 m3 water use for 4 occupants with total water need is 219,6 m3, or it
can save 54,92% of water use. RWH system can save water need from 28,96% (NP1) to 54,92%
(P4). The implementation of RWH system can also reduce the runoff volume. The more use of
rainwater, the more reduction of runoff generated. With the conventional system without RWH, the
volume of roof runoff is 157,39 m3/year from total potential rainfall 174,88 m3/year. With RWH
system implementation for 4 persons potable water use, the generated roof runoff 44,81 m3/year or
in another way there’s a 71,53% reduction in runoff volume. Conversely, when rainwater is used
only for 1 person nonpotable water use, the runoff reduction is only 15,97%. The detail of saved
clean water use and reduced roof runoff can be seen in table 1.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 4. Generated Roof Runoff Volume for (a) P4, (b) P1, (c) NP4 and (d) NP1

Table 1. The System Performance, Saved Clean Water use and Reduced Run
System
Reduced
performance Reduced runoff
Water use Rainwater use clean water
(Y) to met with RWH
use
water need
Volume
Person % Volume (m3/year) % %
(m3/day)
P4 0,60 47% 99,00 71,53 54,92
P1 0,15 71% 36,15 25,11 34,15
NP4 0,36 61% 75,96 52,25 42,35
NP1 0,09 76% 23,40 15,97 28,96
4.5. Financial Analysis
Financial analysis conducted on the costs and benefits. Cost consists the initial capital cost,
maintenance cost, operational cost, and rainwater treatment price. Maintenance is primarily
important for performance and safety reasons. Annual maintenance cost is the cost per year at 4%
(USEPA, 2013) and operational cost is the cost of rainwater treatment with the water treatment
plant is taken Rp. 2.000/m3 (PDAM Tirtawening, 2013). The interest rate is 12% and depreciation
rate is 4.,5% (BI, 2013). Benefits are taken from the number of main water taps volume that can be
replaced by rainwater multiplied by the price of water Rp. 6.000, - (PDAM Tirtawening, 2013).
From the simulation results, it can be seen that with the higher use of rainwater, the system will
become more profitable as more benefits are generated so that the breakeven point value more
quickly obtained. For the value of BCR > 1, the most rapid payback years are for the use of P4
which is within 9 years, the system will have more benefit than the cost to be incurred.
Successively, the fastest payback value is for NP4, P1 and NP1 was 11 years, 17 years, and 22 years
(table 3)
If the capital cost of RWH system is Rp. 5.185.000,- and the sales price of type 70 house in
Bandung for an average are Rp 707.000.000,- ([Link], 2014) the initial costs to be
incurred to construct RWH system is less than 1% or only 0,73% of the sales price. This analysis
shows, that the housing developers should build RWH systems because the cost is quite cheap and
affordable. Detail analysis of the cost and benefits of RWH system can be seen in table 2 and 3.

Table 2. Cost Items

Capital Cost Maintenance Cost Operational cost
Items
Unit Price volume Unit Total Total / year Total / year

Storage tank (2 m3 ) Rp 2,500,000 1 pc Rp 2,500,000 Rp 100,000

Pipes Rp 25,000 20 m Rp 500,000 Rp 20,000
Elbow Rp 10,000 3 pc Rp 30,000 Rp 1,200
Pump & Accessories Rp 600,000 1 pc Rp 600,000 Rp 24,000
Gutter Rp 45,000 5 pc Rp 225,000 Rp 9,000
Gutter Filter Rp 30,000 1 pc Rp 30,000 Rp 1,200
3
Soil excavation Rp 75,000 4 m Rp 300,000
Man labor Rp 100,000 10 man/day Rp 1,000,000

Rainwater use
Potable 4 Rp 2,000 99.00 m3 Rp 198,000
3
Potable 1 Rp 2,000 36.15 m Rp 72,300
3
Nonpotable 4 Rp 2,000 75.96 m Rp 151,920
3
Nonpotable 1 Rp 2,000 23.40 m Rp 46,800
Total Rp 5,185,000 Rp 155,400

Table 3. Benefits of The RWH System

Payback
Water use Rainwater use RWH Benefit BCR
year
Volume
Person Volume (m3/year) Rp / year Years
(m3/day)
P4 0,60 99,00 Rp 594.000 9 1,09
P1 0,15 36,15 Rp 216.900 17 1,02
NP4 0,36 75,96 Rp 455.760 11 1,09
NP1 0,09 23,40 Rp 140.400 22 1,05
5. CONCLUSION
At the case study, the RWH systems with 2 m3 storage tank capacity could meet up to 0,36
m3/day/house water needs. From the previous analysis, a conclusion could be drawn that the
implementation of RWH systems provides an environment and financial benefits. The more
rainwater used, the more the benefits. On the environment side, RWH system can save clean water
use up to 54,92% and reduce the volume of runoff comes from the roof up to 71,53% per year when
compared to conventional systems. The implementation of RWH systems also provide financial
benefits where the initial capital cost is only 0,73% of the house sales price, and at a certain stage,
the amount of benefits generated will be bigger than the costs. The intangible benefit of the system
can be bigger if viewed for further environmental sustainability.

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