🪀
Orthography
Category Analysis of the English Language
Definition The conventions of spelling and writing in a language.
Noting Completed?
Revision Completed?
Type Notes
(NOTE: These are collected from reviewing past papers from MJ 24 to ON 19. You
don’t necessarily have to memorize ALL of these)
In 9093 English Language, orthography is key in analysing variations in spelling,
especially in texts that represent different dialects, time periods, or informal online
communication. Candidates might encounter examples of non-standard
orthography, such as deliberate misspellings in advertisements or text messages,
which they must evaluate for their stylistic or rhetorical effects.
In Papers 3 and 4, orthography can be linked to audience, purpose, and context,
particularly in comparing linguistic features across texts or assessing stylistic
choices in written communication.
HISTORICAL
FEATURE EXAMPLE THEORY
IMPORTANCE/EVENT
Functional Theory
(Michael Halliday):-
Compounding
Hyphenation → to e-mail, on-line, Making things simpler,
removes visual clutter
Compounding make-up efficient
inside words (
🍄 Morphology point
aswell)
Orthography 1
HISTORICAL
FEATURE EXAMPLE THEORY
IMPORTANCE/EVENT
- Sometimes the same
words with the same
<i> and <j>
meaning were spelt
iust and just
differently in the same
<u> and <v>
text by the author.
loue and love
Interchangeability of Shakespeare was
<c> and <ck>
letters famous for doing this.
public and
- 1569, John Hart, set to
publick
fix the many abuses of
<w> and <vv>
English, and brought
(two v’s)
them to the version we
know today.
- indicate the
shortening of a
preceding vowel sound
- to indicate
pronunciation/which
syllabus the stress is on
- to differentiate
Double Consonants
hopp, lett, sitt between homophones
(at end of words)
e.g. reinn (horse) and
rain
- to reflect the
etymology of words
such as "possess" from
the Latin word
"possidere”
🐞 The Great Vowel 🐞 The Great Vowel The Random
Shift Shift Fluctuation Theory
(Charles Hockett):
-
🐞 The Great Vowel
Shift was not driven
by external factors or
systematic linguistic
rules
- rather emerged
Orthography 2
HISTORICAL
FEATURE EXAMPLE THEORY
IMPORTANCE/EVENT
through a series of
chance events.
Use of s and ſ (long -🏭 The Industrial
Functional Theory (
s)- appeared at start Revolution : spellings
Michael Halliday):
or middle of words were standardized, and
ſaid → said - long s abandoned;
- while modern s amount of letters +
ſureneſs → no longer served
was used at the end. types of letters were
sureness. useful function —
- no impact on reduced to improve
🗼 Phonology efficiency and lower
created confusion
rather than clarity.
production costs
Noah Webster’s reforms
colour / color, in early 1800s to create
-our vs -or endings favour / favor, a distinct American
labour / labor identity through
spelling.
Functional Theory
(Michael Halliday):
- er
British retained French removes french
centre / center, influence, while influence
-re vs -er endings theatre / theater, American English - aligns with
metre / meter simplified it pronunciation pattern
phonetically. - thus fulfilling
functional need,
giving clarity and
simplicity.
-ise vs -ize endings organise / American English American spelling
organize, realise favours Greek root (- reforms dropped
/ realize, ize), while British unnecessary doubled
recognise / English uses French- consonants to
recognize derived -ise. streamline writing
and reduce visual
clutter. Functional
Theory is directly
relevant here — the
change improves
processing speed
Orthography 3
HISTORICAL
FEATURE EXAMPLE THEORY
IMPORTANCE/EVENT
and reduces
redundancy,
especially in
typesetting and print.
It’s a function-driven
efficiency gain,
typical of the broader
standardisation push
in American English.
travelled /
American spelling
traveled, Functional Theory
Double L vs Single L reforms dropped the
cancelled / (simplification for
in verbs double letters to
canceled, fuelled economy and ease)
simplify.
/ fueled
plough / plow, Webster simplified to
Aesthetic
mould / mold, match sound, rejecting Functional Theory
Simplification
cheque / check “archaic” British forms.
British: naïve, British retained
coöperate vs. traditional forms;
Use of Diacritics
American: naive, Americans dropped
cooperate diacritics for simplicity.
defence / Reflects American trend
Ence vs Ense defense, licence toward phonetic
endings / license, offence spelling and
/ offense morphological clarity.
learnt / learned, American English Jean Aitchison’s PIDC
Past participle dreamt / regularises verbs, – “Infectious Disease”
spelling dreamed, spelt / British keeps older metaphor (spread of
spelled forms. forms)
anaemia /
anemia, US simplifies None (historical
paediatric / Latin/Greek spellings; derivation, not driven
Ae / E spellings
pediatric, British retains classical by a change
aesthetic / form. mechanism)
esthetic
Orthography 4
HISTORICAL
FEATURE EXAMPLE THEORY
IMPORTANCE/EVENT
Mr., Dr. (US uses
Linked to
period), Mr, Dr
printing/typographic
Abbreviation Style (UK omits it if
norms and punctuation
ends in last
habits in both countries.
letter)
Orthography 5
