What do we know so far?

● Overview of what living things are and what they do

● Biomolecules, what said living things are made up of

So, what’s next?

 Cells,
a deeper dive
With Anne Leung :)
RECAP: What have we
already learnt about cells?
● All organisms are made up of cells.
● The cell is the fundamental unit of life.
● Cells are made up of biomolecules and come from preexisting
cells.
 RECAP:
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Nucleus No (nucleoid region) Yes

Transcription
Cytoplasm Nucleus
location
Translation
Cytoplasm Cytoplasm
location

Size Small (1-2 micrometers) Larger (10-20 micrometers)

Ratio of surface area to High (when compared to Low (when compared to

volume eukaryotic cells) prokaryotic cells)
No organelles (some contain
Internal organization Contains organelles
plasmids)

Chromosomes single circular DNA multiple linear DNA

 Lecture 4:
Structures and
Functions of the Cell
What does cells look like, and how does this help it do
what it does?
Structures we will cover
over the following weeks:
● Plasma membrane ● Vacuoles
● Nucleus ● Peroxisomes
● Ribosome ● Mitochondria
● Endoplasmic Reticulum ● Cytoskeleton
● Golgi apparatus ● Chloroplasts
● Lysosomes ● Cell wall
01 What does it do?

The plasma membrane, or the cell

Plasma
membrane exists in all cells. It
protects the cell from its
surrounding environment and

membrane
forms the boundary between a
cell’s contents and the outside of
the cell. It is semi-permeable and
regulates the materials that enter
and exit the cell.
What is the plasma membrane made of?
The fluid mosaic model
describes the cell
membrane as a dynamic
and flexible structure,
where lipids and proteins
can move laterally within a
fluid lipid bilayer, creating a
mosaic of different
molecules.
What is the plasma membrane made of?
The Plasma Membrane:
The Phospholipid Structure
The Hydrophilic "Head" The Hydrophobic "Tails"
The hydrophilic heads face outward. The The hydrophobic tails face inward. These
phosphate group in the "head" of the are the long fatty acid chains that are
phospholipid is polar, meaning it has a nonpolar, meaning they do not have
partial electrical charge that allows it to charges that attract water. They prefer to
interact well with water molecules. interact with other nonpolar substances
like fats.
Structures phospholipids
can form
Although phospholipids can form many different
structures, the bilayer is what our plasma membrane looks
like.
This arrangement allows the cell membrane to:

● Maintain structure: The bilayer forms a stable

barrier between the cell and its surroundings.

● Control permeability: The hydrophobic core

prevents many substances from freely crossing the
membrane, while proteins and other components
regulate what enters and exits the cell.
Cholesterol in the plasma membrane
 Cell membrane additions
● Animal cells contain
cholesterol for
membrane fluidity and
integrity, and reducing
permeability.
● Plants contain
phytosterols, which are
plant steroids similar to
cholesterol. Both are
sterols.
● Prokaryotes have
hopanoids, which are
also lipid molecules.
Cholesterol
Animal cells contain cholesterol to maintain membrane fluidity and
integrity, and reducing permeability
● At high temperatures, it restricts the movement of phospholipids,
helping to stabilize the membrane. Cholesterol’s shape and rigid,
ring-like structure inserts itself between phospholipids,
restricting their movement.
● At low temperatures, it prevents phospholipids from packing
tightly, thus increasing membrane fluidity. Its structure disrupts
the tight packing of phospholipids by sitting between them.
Proteins in the plasma membrane
Proteins play a variety of roles in the plasma membrane. In line with the fluid mosaic model, we
know that proteins can move around. One experiment proving this is the Frye-Edidin experiment
from 1970.

● Researchers fused a mouse and a human cell, each with membrane proteins labeled with
different fluorescent markers. Initially,
the proteins were segregated, but over
time, the they mixed across the hybrid
cell membrane, indicating that
membrane proteins could move
within the fluid lipid bilayer.
Or we can also do
this one, that
doesn’t require
mice, or humans
(less fun)
 Proteins in the Plasma Membrane
Types:
● Channel - allows molecules/ions through the plasma membrane with facilitated
diffusion.
● Carrier- selectively transfers molecules/ions with facilitated diffusion or active
transport
● Cell Recognition– Glycoprotein involved in recognition
● Anchor - provide structural support, maintain cell shape, and facilitate
cell-to-cell adhesion
● Receptor- allows attachment of specific molecules
● Enzymatic - catalyses a specific reaction
 Why understanding these proteins and their
functioning are important
Channel Proteins Cell Recognition
Carrier Proteins Protein
Faulty chloride (Cl-) protein
channels causes cystic fibrosis Faulty sodium (Na+) and potassium Unique glycoproteins from
mucus build up in airways and (K+) ion carrier proteins can cause each person is what makes
pancreatic and liver ducts. excess energy which may lead to organ transplant so difficult
obesity

Enzymatic Protein Receptor protein

Cholera releases a toxin that targets Faulty growth hormone
enzymatic proteins. The toxin activates the receptors that can no
enzyme adenylate cyclase, disrupting ion longer interact with the
transport, causing excessive water and growth hormone are what
electrolyte loss and death by diarrhea. causes Pygmies to be short
 Molecule Movement
Outer
membrane

Inner
membrane

ATP
Passive diffusion Facilitated transport
Active transport
Along concentration Along concentration
Against concentration
gradient gradient
gradient
 Diffusion
Gasses (O2, CO2), hydrophobic molecules (benzene) and
small polar uncharged molecules (H2O, ethanol) move
through diffusion. No membrane proteins involved and
direction of flow is based on a gradient.

Osmosis is specifically the diffusion of water.

 Osmosis and
examples of what it
does

● Osmosis ensures that RBCs maintain

their proper shape and function.
● The rigidity of plant cells is
maintained by turgor pressure, which
results from water entering the cell
by osmosis.
 Facilitated
diffusion
Large polar molecules
(glucose), and charged
molecules (Cl–, Na+, K+)
when going with their
gradient, are transported in
by facilitated diffusion
(carrier protein).
 Active
Transport
Charged molecules (Cl–,
Na+, K+), when going against
their concentration
gradient, move by active
transport (needs
ATP/energy with proteins
involved called pumps)
SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Secondary active transport is
when the movement of one
molecule, down its
concentration gradient,
provides the energy to transport
another molecule against its
concentration gradient. Unlike
primary active transport, which
uses ATP, secondary active
transport relies on the energy
stored in the electrochemical
gradient created by primary
active transport.
Molecule Movement: The Big Ones
● Macromolecules (polypeptides, polysaccharides) are too large for carrier
proteins and are transported in and out of the cell by vesicle formation, ie.
membrane-assisted transport.

Substance secreted out → Substance entering →

exocytosis endocytosis or
receptor-mediated endocytosis
Endocytosis:

Phagocytosis: Process by which a cell

engulfs a particle and digests it.
Pinocytosis: Small molecules dissolved
in extracellular fluid are brought into
the cell through an invagination of the
cell membrane.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis: More

specific form of endocytosis. Receptors
on the cell membrane bind to specific
molecules, trigger the formation of a
vesicle, then allows only those bound
molecules to enter the cell. This process
ensures that only specific substances
are internalized. Vesicle loses its fibrous
protein coat in cytoplasm.
02
● Contains the genetic material

Nucleus and controls the cell activities

in eukaryotic cells.
 Nucleus
Some important structures of the nucleus (Part 1):

● Nuclear envelope
○ Consists of the inner and outer
membrane.
○ These are phospholipid bilayers.
○ The outer membrane is connected to the
rough endoplasmic reticulum and
studded with ribosomes.
○ The inner membrane contains unique
proteins that are specific to the nucleus
and are crucial for structure, chromatin
organization, mechanical stability, and
cell signaling.
 Important structures of the nucleus (Part 2): Nucleus
● Chromatin
○ made of nucleosomes (a mix of DNA and proteins such as histones) folding on
top of each other.
○ Depending on the cell cycle, chromatin can either be euchromatin (loose) or
heterochromatin (tight).
○ Chromatin fibers can be
further condensed to
form chromosomes
for better organization
for cell division.
 Nucleus
Important structures of the nucleus (Part 3):

● Nuclear pore
○ mainly allows specific proteins in, and
RNA out. Also allows the travel of small
polar molecules and ions.
○ It’s made of proteins arranged in a
ring-like structure and acts as a filter.

● Nuclear lamina
○ network of protein fibers
○ provides structure and support to the
nucleus, and organizes chromatin.

● Nucleolus
○ site of rRNA synthesis, and forms
ribosomes
CA1 revision
time