REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

Prepared by Mr. Kapiji

Follower on Facebook/Instagram/twitter: @kapijidavy
WhatsApp 0979670485
12.3. REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
• All living organisms must reproduce to exist as a species.
• Different species achieve reproduction in different ways.
• All vertebrates reproduce sexually.
• Sexual reproduction involves the production of gametes (sex cells) by
gonads (sex organs).
• Sex cells from a male and a female fuse during fertilization to form a
zygote that develops into a living organism
Reproduction in a frog
• Frogs require water in order to
reproduce.
• Male frogs attracts females for
mating to a pond by making
croaking sounds.
• Once the male has attracted a
female, the male jumps on the
females back and holds her
tight.
• During copulation, the female
produces a large number of eggs
which are then fertilized by
spermatozoa from the male
outside the females body.
• This is called external
fertilization.
• Once the eggs have been laid,
there is no parental care but
they are left to develop on their
own.
• Frogs lay a lot of eggs to increase
the chance of survival of
offspring.
• Each egg contains egg yolk which
is rich in food needed for
development of the embryo
until it hatches into a tadpole.
• The tadpole moves in through
water by using a tail and obtains
oxygen from water using
external gills
• Before the water dries up,
the tadpoles change into
frogs, developing lungs
and losing their external
gills and tail
Reproduction in Humans
• The human bodies are equipped with sexual organs (gonads) that are
used for reproduction.
• The male gonads are called testes (singular testis) while the female
gonads are called ovaries.
• The female and male gonads occur on separate bodies and are part of
the reproductive system.
Male reproductive system in humans
• Scrotum protects the testes and
holds the testes outside the
body for effective production of
spermatozoa.
• Testes produce male gametes
(sperm cells) and the hormone
testosterone which develops the
secondary sexual characteristics
of males.
• Epididymis is the high coiled
tube where the sperms mature
and are temporary stored. The
tube contains cilia which move
the sperms
• Sperm duct (vas deferens) helps
transport sperms from the
epididymis to the urethra during
ejaculation
• Seminal vesicle secretes an
alkaline fluid which contains
nutrients like fructose, proteins
and other chemical that form
semen. The fluid nourishes the
sperms
• Prostate gland produces a fluid
that contains enzymes anti-
agglutination factors that
contribute to production of semen
• Cowper’s gland produces a clear
secretion before ejection to
clean the urethra before the
release of sperms during
ejaculation.
• The penis introduces the semen
into the female in the vagina
during copulation or coitus. It
becomes erect when the male is
sexual excited due to the
presence of erectile tissue.
The structure of sperm cell
• Nucleus contains half the
genetic material of the zygote.
• Acrosome contains enzymes
which digest the walls of the
ovum
• Middle piece that contains many
mitochondria to produce energy
needed for the sperm to swim
• Tail is used for swimming to the
ovum.
Female reproductive system in humans
• Ovary forms the female gametes
called ovum and produces
oestrogen and progesterone.
Oestrogen is responsible for the
development of secondary
sexual characteristics of female
and progesterone is responsible
for maintaining the pregnancy.
• Fallopian tube (oviduct) is a
tube where fertilization occurs.
It contains cilia which help move
the ovum to the uterus.
• Uterus is where development of
the foetus takes place.it is supplied
with dense network of blood
vessels for nourishment of the
foetus.
• Cervix is a muscular ring in
between the vagina and uterus. It
is closed by a mucus plug to keep
bacteria out and during pregnancy
to prevent the foetus from being
expelled before full development.
• Vagina is both a copulatory canal
and birth canal.
 Structure of the ova
• Nucleus which fuses with the
sperm nucleus to form a zygote
during fertilization
• Vitteline wall which is dissolved
Nucleus
by acrosome enzymes to allow
the sperm cell to penetrate the
ovum. After this, series of
chemical reactions harden the
vitteline wall preventing entry of
other sperm cell this ensures
that only one sperm cell can
Vitteline wall fertilize the ovum.
Secondary sexual characteristics in males
• Deepening of the voice
• Growth of beards, pubic, chest
and in armpits hairs.
• Penis and testes increase in size
• Testes begin to produce sperm
cells
• The body becomes more
muscular.
• Shoulders broaden
Secondary sexual characteristics in females
• Enlargement of breasts
• Widening of hips
• Hairs grow under armpits and
pubic region.
• Enlargement of vagina.
• Menstrual cycle commences.
• Skin becomes more tender and
supple
The menstrual cycle
• The menstrual cycle is a series of
changes in the endometrium
caused by interactions of several
hormones.
• The action of one hormone
stimulates or inhibits the
production of another.
• The menstrual cycle involves
four phases: a follicular phase,
ovulatory phase, luteal phase
and menstrual phase.
Menstrual phase
• Uterus sheds its inner lining of
soft tissue and blood vessels
which exits the body through
the vagina in form of menstrual
fluid.
• Abdominal cramps are caused by
contraction of the uterine and
the abdominal muscles to expel
the menstrual fluid.
Follicular phase
• Ovaries are activated on day one
by the rising concentration of FSH
from the pituitary gland
• Several follicles start to develop
but one follicle takes over and the
rest becomes dormant
• The walls of the ovarian follicle
become an endocrine gland and
secreted Oestrogen. Oestrogen
decreases the level of FSH and
starts to repair the walls of the
uterus.
Ovulatory phase
• The concentration of oestrogen
increases which also cause the
pituitary gland to secrete FSH and
LH. This causes the maturation of
the graafian follicle.
• Ovulation takes place on day 14
releasing the ovum. LH causes the
empty follicle to form a yellow
body called corpus luteum which
secretes progesterone.
Progesterone further thickens the
walls of the uterus for implantation
and decreases the level of FSH and
LH.
Luteal phase
• The egg cell released during
ovulation phase stays in the
fallopian tube for 24 hours.
• If a sperm cell does not fertilize the
egg cell within that time, the egg
cell disintegrates.
• The hormones that causes the
uterus to retain its endometrium
get used up by the end of the
menstrual cycle. This cause the
menstrual phase of the next cycle
to begin.
Hormones of the menstrual cycle
• Follicle stimulating hormone
stimulates the growth of the follicle
in the ovary.
• Oestrogen promotes the repair and
growth of the endometrium in the
uterus.
• Luteinising hormone stimulates
growth of the follicle, promotes
ovulation and helps the
development of the corpus luteum.
• Progesterone maintains the
thickness of the endometrium.
Fertilisation in humans
• The male ejaculates semen
during sexual intercourse. The
semen contains sperm cells
which swim from the vagina,
through cervix and into the
uterus
• When the sperm cell reaches the
egg in the oviduct, enzymes in
the acrosome digest the jelly
layer of the ova and the sperm
cell wriggles through the
membrane.
• The sperm cell loses its tail,
moves towards the nucleus of
the egg and fuses with it. This
fusion is fertilization and results
in a diploid zygote.
• Afterwards a hard fertilization
membrane forms to prevent
other sperms from entering.
Implantation in humans
• After fertilization, rapid cell
division starts increasing the
number of cells but not the size
of the zygote.
• The ball of cells moves down the
oviducts by peristalsis and
flicking of cilia.
• When the ball of cells reaches
the uterus a few days later, it
develops into a blastocyst.
• The blastocyst makes contact
with the uterus lining and
secretes enzymes that
partially digests the
endometrium implanting
itself and brings blood vessels
into contact to extract
nutrients.
• This is the start of pregnancy.
Development of the embryo
• Implantation of the zygote in the
uterus occurs after 2 – 5 days
after fertilization.
• The zygote develops into an
embryo and obtains
nourishments from the mother
through the placenta where
exchange of material occurs.
• The umbilical vein
provides the embryo with
nutrients while the
umbilical artery carries
metabolic waste away
from the embryo.
• The embryo is surrounded by
the amniotic fluid enclosed by
two membranes; the amnion
and chorion.
• The amniotic fluid cushions the
foetus and absorbs shock.
• When the embryo develops
human features it is called a
foetus.
• The period from fertilization to
birth is called the gestation
period. In humans it is about
270 days (9 months).
Health risks associated with foetal
development
• Poor nutrition will not provide
sufficient nutrients to ensure
proper development
• Smoking reduces
the amount of
oxygen to the
developing foetus
resulting in
premature birth
and low birth
weight.
• Alcohol consumption can
cause foetal alcohol
syndrome FAS which
results in mental and
physical defects
• STIs such as gonorrhea and
syphilis can cause
miscarriage
• Pharmaceutical drugs like
thalidomide cause limb
deformities.
• Herbal medicines such as
sedatives and pain killers during
pregnancy can cause birth
defects if the effects are not
known.
Healthy pregnancy and safe childbirth
• Antenatal services for VCT,
ultrasound, injections to protect
against tetanus.
• Giving birth at a health
facility which can
provide emergency
obstetric and newborn
care. Have trained health
personal, offer
information and
postnatal care
• Good nutrition for proper
growth of the foetus
• Exercises will keep her
muscles strong for the birth
process
• Get enough rest
• Avoid taking harmful
substances such as
cigarette smoke,
chemicals, drugs or
radiation exposure.
Benefits of giving birth at health facility
• Health facilities
provide emergency
obstetric and
newborn care.
• Health facilities have
trained health care
workers and drugs
needed for delivery.
• Health facilities offer
information and
postnatal care.
• HIV testing and
treatment and family
planning services are
offered.
Causes of infertility in females
• Damage to the fallopian
tubes
• Ovulatory problems
• Endometriosis where the
endometrial cells implant
around the outside of the uterus
or ovaries which causes internal
bleeding, pain and reduced
fertility
• Medical conditions
such as diabetes,
epilepsy, thyroid and
bowel diseases
• Lifestyle factors such as
stress, poor eating
habits, being overweight
or underweight, and
smoking
Causes of infertility in males
• Low sperm count or
sperm of poor quality
• Problems with sperm
ducts
• Problems getting and erection
and ejaculating
• Having inflamed testes or
mumps
• Having received medical
treatment such as radiotherapy
or surgery e.g.
• undescended testes
• twisted testicles
• correct a hernia
• Age, diabetes, and STIs
• Lifestyle factors such as
overweight, poor eating
habits, smoking, alcohol
or having a job that
involve contact with
chemicals or radiation
Birth control
• Birth control or contraception is the action taken to prevent
pregnancy.
• The various methods of birth control include: Natural methods,
Mechanical methods, Hormonal methods and Surgical methods
Natural methods
• Abstinence from sexual
intercourse. It is the only
natural method that is
100% effective.
• Rhythm method where a
couple avoid sexual intercourse
around the time of ovulation
(total abstinence for about 7
days).
• This method is unreliable
therefore not effective.
• Withdrawal method
which involves the
withdraw of the penis
from the vagina during
coitus just before
ejaculation.
• Douching with water or other
fluids to wash the semen out of
the vagina. It is not an effective
method and causes injuries to
the vagina wall.
Mechanical method
• Condom a thin latex sheath that
is fitted around an erect penis or
inserted into the vagina before
sexual intercourse so as to keep
semen from being deposited
into the vagina.
• It is the only contraceptive that
can prevent sexually transmitted
infections such as syphilis,
gonorrhea and AIDS.
Steps of how to use a condom
• Tear the condom package
carefully.
• Pinch the tip of the condom
• Row the condom on the penis/in
the vagina
• After sexual intercourse hold the
base in order to pull out of the
vagina
• Remove and throw in trash bin
• Diaphragm (Dutch cap) is a
thin latex cap fitted over the
cervix before sexual
intercourse to block
spermatozoa from entering
the uterus.
• It is more reliable if
used in conjunction
with spermicides.
• Intra-uterine device (IUD) is a
device made of plastic and
copper wire that is inserted into
the uterus to prevent
implantation by irritating the
lining of the uterus.
• This device is fitted by experts
and it may cause discomfort if
wrongly placed.
Hormonal methods
• Contraceptive pills containing
oestrogen and progesterone to
prevent ovulation.
• There are 28 pills for a menstrual
cycle.
• It is among the most effective
method of contraceptive.
• Contraceptive injection
containing progesterone, is given
to a woman every 3 months.
• It stops ovulation and is a
successful birth control method
as long as the injection is taken
every 3 months
• Spermicides are chemicals that
are applied inside the vagina
before sexual intercourse in
order to kill spermatozoa.
• They are more effective when
used with the diaphragm.
Surgical methods
• Vasectomy is the cutting and
tying of the sperm ducts to block
passage of spermatozoa from
the testicles.
• The method is highly reliable but
may be irreversible.
• Tubal ligation (laparotomy) is
the cutting and tying of oviducts
to prevent passage of the egg
from the ovaries to the uterus.
• This method is also highly
reliable and usually irreversible.
Benefits of using contraceptives
• It helps prevent unintended
pregnancies, especially in
teenagers.
• Women are empowered to
decide when they are ready to
have a baby.
• Smaller families
have enough
money for their
children’s
education.
• Some contraceptives, such as
the condom, protects against
STIs.
Risks of using contraceptives
• Disturbed menstrual cycle,
women experience irregular
bleeding or longer, heavier
bleeding.
• Weight gain due to the effects of
progesterone to prepare the
body for pregnancy.
• Hormonal imbalance due to
high levels of synthetic
progesterone.
• It can take 6 months or longer
for fertility to return.
 THE END
THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION