ENUGU STATE UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

ASSIGNMENT

 DISCUSS ABOUT THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR

 CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR WITH THE YEAR OF

THE WAR AND THE AFTER EFFECT OF THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR

BY

NAME: IFENZE STEPHANIE ADAEZE

REG NO: 2023030214607

LEVEL: 200

COURSE TITLE: EUROPEAN HISTORY AND DIPLOMACY IN THE 19TH

AND 20TH CENTURY

COURSE CODE: HIS 207

LECTURER: DR. PRIMUS EZEODILLI

FEBRUARY, 2025

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THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR

INTRODUCTION

The American Civil War (1861–1865) remains one of the most defining and transformative
conflicts in the history of the United States. Fought between the Union (the North) and the
Confederacy (the South), the war fundamentally reshaped the nation's political, economic, and
social landscape. It was the deadliest conflict in American history, resulting in the deaths of over
600,000 soldiers and countless civilian casualties (McPherson, 1988). The war emerged from
deep-seated sectional tensions that had been building for decades, particularly over the issues of
slavery, economic disparities, states' rights, and political power. These tensions ultimately led to
the secession of eleven Southern states from the Union and the outbreak of a brutal and
protracted conflict.

At its core, the Civil War was a struggle over the future of slavery in the United States. The
Southern states, whose economies were deeply dependent on slave labor, sought to preserve and
expand the institution of slavery, while the Northern states, increasingly industrialized and
opposed to slavery’s expansion, aimed to prevent its spread into new territories. The election of
Abraham Lincoln in 1860, who was perceived as an opponent of slavery, acted as the final
catalyst for Southern secession (Foner, 2010). This led to the formation of the Confederate States
of America, which declared its independence from the Union.

The war officially began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter in
South Carolina. Over the next four years, the nation witnessed some of the most intense and
bloody battles in history, including Gettysburg, Antietam, and Shiloh. The conflict saw the
extensive use of new military strategies and technologies, including railroads, ironclad ships, and
the telegraph, making it one of the first modern wars (Catton, 1961).

Beyond the battlefield, the Civil War had profound implications for American society. It led to
the abolition of slavery through the Emancipation Proclamation (1863) and the Thirteenth
Amendment (1865), fundamentally altering the social and economic fabric of the South. The war
also strengthened federal authority over the states, redefining the balance of power in the United
States (McPherson, 2007). Despite the Union's victory, the war left lasting scars, including
widespread economic devastation in the South, deep racial tensions, and a long and painful
Reconstruction era.

To fully understand the American Civil War, it is essential to examine its root causes. These
causes were not singular but rather a combination of economic, political, and social factors that
had been building for decades. The following sections will explore these causes in detail,
beginning with the economic and social differences between the North and South.

CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR

The causes of the American Civil War were complex and multifaceted. While slavery was the
central issue, it was deeply intertwined with broader economic, social, and political conflicts.

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These included differences in economic structures between the North and South, disputes over
states’ rights versus federal authority, the expansion of slavery into new territories, the election
of Abraham Lincoln, and ultimately, the decision of Southern states to secede from the Union.

Economic and Social Differences

One of the fundamental causes of the Civil War was the stark economic and social contrast
between the North and the South. By the mid-19th century, the Northern states had developed
into an industrial economy, while the Southern states remained largely agrarian. These economic
disparities created conflicting interests that fueled sectional tensions (Bensel, 1990).

The Northern economy was based on manufacturing, commerce, and wage labor. Cities like New
York, Philadelphia, and Boston became industrial hubs, producing goods such as textiles,
machinery, and firearms. The region also had an extensive railway system, which facilitated
trade and economic growth. As a result, the North favored policies that promoted industry, such
as protective tariffs on imported goods, which helped American manufacturers compete against
European products (Huston, 2003).

In contrast, the Southern economy was primarily agricultural and heavily reliant on cash crops
like cotton, tobacco, and sugar. Large plantations depended on enslaved labor for production,
making slavery the backbone of the Southern economy. The South exported much of its cotton to
Britain and other European markets and opposed tariffs that increased the cost of imported
goods. These economic differences led to conflicting political agendas between the two regions,
with the South fearing that the industrial North would impose economic policies that harmed
Southern interests (Ford, 2008).

The social structures of the North and South also differed significantly. The North had a growing
middle class and was more urbanized, with a higher emphasis on education and social mobility.
In contrast, the South remained a hierarchical society dominated by a planter aristocracy. The
Southern elite viewed slavery as essential to maintaining their social and economic status,
leading to a deep-seated resistance to any threats to the institution.

States' Rights vs. Federal Authority

Another major cause of the Civil War was the long-standing debate over the balance of power
between state governments and the federal government. The Southern states strongly believed in
the principle of states' rights, arguing that individual states had the authority to govern
themselves without interference from the federal government. This belief was rooted in the idea
that the United States was a voluntary union of sovereign states (Ketcham, 2002).

The North, on the other hand, increasingly supported a strong central government that could
regulate national issues, including trade, infrastructure, and slavery. The conflict over states’
rights became especially heated regarding the issue of slavery. Many Southern leaders argued
that states had the right to determine whether slavery should be legal within their borders, while
Northern leaders pushed for federal laws to limit or abolish slavery altogether (Weingast, 1998).

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One of the key moments in this debate was the Nullification Crisis of 1832, when South Carolina
attempted to nullify federal tariffs it deemed unconstitutional. Although the crisis was resolved
through compromise, it demonstrated the growing tensions between federal authority and states'
rights. By the 1850s, these tensions had reached a boiling point, with Southern states
increasingly viewing federal attempts to restrict slavery as an infringement on their sovereignty
(Freehling, 1994).

The Expansion of Slavery

The expansion of slavery into new territories was another significant factor leading to the Civil
War. As the United States acquired new land through westward expansion, debates erupted over
whether slavery should be permitted in these territories. The Missouri Compromise of 1820
temporarily resolved the issue by drawing a line across the Louisiana Territory, allowing slavery
in the South but prohibiting it in the North. However, the compromise did not provide a
permanent solution (Forbes, 2009).

The issue resurfaced with the Mexican-American War (1846–1848), which resulted in the U.S.
gaining vast new territories. The question of whether these lands would allow slavery led to
heated debates in Congress. The Compromise of 1850 sought to address this by admitting
California as a free state while allowing other territories to decide for themselves through
popular sovereignty. However, the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 overturned previous
agreements by allowing settlers in these territories to vote on the issue, leading to violent
conflicts known as "Bleeding Kansas" (Potter, 1976).

The Dred Scott decision of 1857 further escalated tensions by ruling that African Americans
were not citizens and that Congress had no authority to ban slavery in the territories. This
decision emboldened the South while outraging abolitionists in the North (Fehrenbacher, 2001).

The Election of Abraham Lincoln

The election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860 was the immediate catalyst for Southern secession.
Lincoln, a member of the anti-slavery Republican Party, was seen as a direct threat to the
Southern way of life. Although he did not advocate for the immediate abolition of slavery, his
opposition to its expansion alarmed Southern leaders. His victory, despite not winning a single
Southern state, convinced many Southerners that their influence in the federal government was
diminishing (Goodwin, 2005).

Secession of Southern States

Following Lincoln’s election, South Carolina became the first state to secede from the Union on
December 20, 1860. By February 1861, ten more Southern states had followed, forming the
Confederate States of America with Jefferson Davis as their president. The Confederacy justified
secession as a defense of states' rights, but slavery was the central issue underlying their decision
(Dew, 2001).

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These divisions ultimately led to the outbreak of the Civil War in April 1861, when Confederate
forces attacked Fort Sumter in South Carolina. The war that followed would shape the future of
the United States forever.

TIMELINE AND COURSE OF THE WAR (1861–1865)

The American Civil War, fought between the Union (Northern states) and the Confederacy
(Southern states), lasted from April 12, 1861, to April 9, 1865. The war was the result of deep-
seated sectional differences, particularly over slavery, states’ rights, and economic policies. After
the secession of Southern states, hostilities erupted, leading to a devastating conflict that
reshaped the United States.

The war can be divided into four major phases:

1. Initial Conflict and Secession (1861)

 December 20, 1860: South Carolina became the first state to secede from the Union.
 By February 1861, six more states—Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana,
and Texas—had seceded, forming the Confederate States of America, with Jefferson
Davis as its president.
 April 12, 1861: The first shots of the war were fired when Confederate forces attacked
Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina.
 April 15, 1861: President Abraham Lincoln called for 75,000 troops to suppress the
rebellion, prompting Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee to join the
Confederacy.
 The war had officially begun.

2. Early Confederate Victories (1861–1862)

 The South had initial success due to superior military leadership and defensive strategies.
 First Battle of Bull Run (Manassas, July 21, 1861): The first major battle, resulting in a
Confederate victory and proving that the war would be long and bloody.
 Peninsula Campaign (March–July 1862): Union General George McClellan attempted
to capture the Confederate capital, Richmond, Virginia, but was repelled by Robert E.
Lee in the Seven Days’ Battles.
 Battle of Antietam (September 17, 1862): The bloodiest single day in American history,
with over 22,000 casualties; ended in a tactical draw but allowed Lincoln to issue the
Emancipation Proclamation.

3. Union Gains the Upper Hand (1863–1864)

 Battle of Gettysburg (July 1–3, 1863): A decisive Union victory that turned the tide of
the war in the North’s favor.
 Siege of Vicksburg (May 18 – July 4, 1863): Gave the Union control of the Mississippi
River, splitting the Confederacy.

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  Sherman’s March to the Sea (November–December 1864): Union General William T.
Sherman led a destructive campaign across Georgia, crippling the South’s infrastructure.

4. Final Campaigns and Confederate Surrender (1865)

 March 1865: The Union captured Richmond, Virginia.

 April 9, 1865: General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox
Court House, effectively ending the war.
 April 14, 1865: President Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth,
throwing the nation into political uncertainty.

MAJOR BATTLES AND TURNING POINTS

1. Battle of Fort Sumter (April 12–13, 1861)

 First battle of the war. The Confederate victory solidified Southern resolve and led to
more states seceding.

2. First Battle of Bull Run (July 21, 1861)

 First major land battle. The Confederate victory shattered Union hopes of a short war.

3. Battle of Antietam (September 17, 1862)

 The bloodiest single-day battle. Though tactically a draw, it provided Lincoln the
momentum to issue the Emancipation Proclamation.

4. Battle of Gettysburg (July 1–3, 1863)

 Turning point of the war. The Union victory ended Lee’s invasion of the North.

5. Siege of Vicksburg (May 18 – July 4, 1863)

 Gave the Union control of the Mississippi River, splitting the Confederacy in two.

6. Sherman’s March to the Sea (November–December 1864)

 Devastated the South’s economy and infrastructure, hastening Confederate defeat.

7. Battle of Appomattox Court House (April 9, 1865)

 Lee’s surrender marked the end of the Confederacy.

STRATEGIES OF THE UNION AND CONFEDERACY

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Union Strategy: The Anaconda Plan

 Developed by General Winfield Scott, this plan aimed to:

1. Blockade Southern ports to cripple the Confederate economy.
2. Gain control of the Mississippi River to divide the Confederacy.
3. Capture Richmond, the Confederate capital.

Confederate Strategy: Defensive War of Attrition

 The Confederacy sought to:

1. Defend Southern territory while inflicting heavy casualties on the Union.
2. Gain international recognition and support, particularly from Britain and France.

ROLE OF KEY FIGURES

Abraham Lincoln

 President of the United States; preserved the Union and abolished slavery through the
Emancipation Proclamation and Thirteenth Amendment.

Jefferson Davis

 President of the Confederacy; struggled with limited resources and internal conflicts.

Ulysses S. Grant

 Union general; his aggressive strategy led to victory. Later became the 18th U.S.
president.

Robert E. Lee

 Confederate general; renowned strategist, but ultimately surrendered to Grant in 1865.

AFTERMATH OF THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR

1. Abolition of Slavery

The Civil War led to the formal abolition of slavery through the passage of the Thirteenth
Amendment in 1865. This was a major victory for the abolitionist movement and marked a
significant step toward racial equality (Foner, 2010).

2. Reconstruction (1865–1877)

The Reconstruction era aimed to rebuild the South and integrate formerly enslaved individuals
into society. However, it was met with significant resistance, particularly from white supremacist
groups like the Ku Klux Klan. The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments sought to grant

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citizenship and voting rights to African Americans, but their enforcement was inconsistent
(Blight, 2001).

3. Economic and Social Impact

The Southern economy was devastated, with agriculture and infrastructure in ruins. The war
accelerated industrialization in the North, leading to the rise of a modern economy. Socially, the
war reshaped American identity, emphasizing national unity and federal authority over states'
rights (Richardson, 2007).

4. Political Consequences

The Civil War solidified the power of the federal government over the states. The Republican
Party emerged as a dominant force, and the South faced decades of political and economic
challenges due to Reconstruction policies and later, Jim Crow laws (Guelzo, 2012).

LONG-TERM IMPACT ON AMERICAN SOCIETY

The American Civil War left an indelible mark on the United States, shaping the nation’s
political, economic, and social structures for generations. The war resolved the fundamental
question of whether the Union could survive a sectional divide, but it also introduced new
challenges. The long-term effects of the Civil War include federal government expansion,
industrialization, racial tensions, and shifts in American identity.

One of the most significant consequences of the Civil War was the reaffirmation of federal
authority over states. Before the war, debates over states’ rights fueled conflicts, but after the
Union’s victory, the supremacy of the federal government was solidified. The war also redefined
citizenship, as the Thirteenth (abolition of slavery), Fourteenth (equal protection under the
law), and Fifteenth (voting rights for Black men) Amendments fundamentally transformed
American democracy (Foner, 2010). However, despite these constitutional gains, African
Americans faced continued oppression through segregation and disenfranchisement, particularly
in the South.

In addition to social and political changes, the Civil War propelled economic shifts. While the
war devastated the Southern economy, the North experienced rapid industrial expansion. The rise
of factories, railroads, and mechanized agriculture created a foundation for America’s emergence
as a global economic power. These changes set the stage for the Gilded Age, a period of
immense wealth but also significant inequality and labor struggles (McPherson, 1988).

THE RISE OF INDUSTRIAL AMERICA

The American Civil War accelerated the transition from an agrarian to an industrial economy.
Before the war, the Southern economy was primarily based on slave labor and agriculture,
particularly cotton plantations. In contrast, the North had already begun industrializing, with a
growing emphasis on manufacturing, banking, and transportation infrastructure.

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1. Expansion of Railroads and Infrastructure

The war highlighted the importance of efficient transportation networks, leading to an expansion
of railroads. By 1869, the Transcontinental Railroad was completed, linking the East and West
coasts and facilitating commerce and migration. The railroad boom contributed to the rise of
industrial cities such as Chicago, Pittsburgh, and Detroit (Bensel, 1990).

2. Growth of Factories and Mechanized Production

During the war, the Union relied heavily on industrial production for weapons, uniforms, and
supplies. This demand led to technological innovations and factory expansion. After the war,
industries such as steel, coal, and oil flourished, leading to the emergence of powerful business
figures like Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller. The rise of industrial America brought
significant economic opportunities but also widened the gap between the rich and the poor
(Weingast, 1998).

3. Labor Movements and Social Struggles

The transition to an industrial economy also introduced harsh working conditions, long hours,
and low wages. By the late 19th century, labor unions, such as the Knights of Labor and the
American Federation of Labor (AFL), began organizing strikes and advocating for workers'
rights. The rise of industrial America thus created new economic opportunities while also leading
to major labor conflicts.

RACIAL SEGREGATION AND THE JIM CROW ERA

Despite the abolition of slavery, African Americans continued to face systemic discrimination in
the post-war era. The Reconstruction period (1865–1877) initially aimed to integrate freed
slaves into society, but after federal troops withdrew from the South, white-dominated state
governments enacted discriminatory laws known as Jim Crow laws.

1. The End of Reconstruction and the Rise of White Supremacy

After the war, Radical Republicans in Congress passed laws to protect the rights of freed slaves.
However, by 1877, the federal government abandoned its commitment to racial equality in the
South. This led to the rise of segregationist policies, racial violence, and the disenfranchisement
of Black voters.

2. Legalization of Segregation: Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

In 1896, the Supreme Court upheld racial segregation in Plessy v. Ferguson, ruling that
"separate but equal" facilities were constitutional. This decision legitimized segregation in
schools, transportation, and public spaces, further marginalizing African Americans.

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3. Resistance and the Early Civil Rights Movement

Despite oppression, African Americans organized resistance movements. Leaders such as

Booker T. Washington, W.E.B. Du Bois, and later Martin Luther King Jr. fought for racial
justice. The foundations of the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s can be traced
back to the struggles of the post-Civil War era.

THE LEGACY OF THE WAR IN MODERN AMERICA

The impact of the Civil War is still evident in contemporary American society. Issues of racial
inequality, federal authority, and regional identity remain relevant. The war also left behind
cultural and historical legacies, shaping how Americans view their past and national identity.

1. Racial Tensions and Civil Rights

Although slavery was abolished, racial discrimination persisted through segregation and
economic disparities. The fight for civil rights continued into the 20th century, leading to
landmark legislation such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965
(Foner, 2010).

2. Political and Constitutional Legacy

The Civil War strengthened federal authority and redefined citizenship. The Fourteenth
Amendment, which guarantees equal protection under the law, has been a cornerstone of civil
rights cases throughout American history.

3. Cultural and Historical Commemoration

The Civil War remains a deeply studied and commemorated event in American history.
Monuments, reenactments, and debates over the Confederate flag and statues continue to
influence national discourse.

CONCLUSION

The American Civil War (1861–1865) was one of the most defining events in U.S. history. It
resolved the conflict over secession, abolished slavery, and set the stage for industrial and social
transformations. However, the war also left behind deep racial and regional divisions that
persisted for decades. The Reconstruction era attempted to rebuild the South and integrate
African Americans into society, but systemic racism and segregation delayed true equality.

The war’s legacy is still evident today in discussions of race, civil rights, and federal authority.
The sacrifices made during the war reshaped the United States, ensuring that the country
remained unified. The Civil War remains a pivotal chapter in American history, symbolizing
both the nation’s greatest challenges and its enduring resilience.

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REFERENCES

Bensel, R. F. (1990). Yankee Leviathan: The Origins of Central State Authority in America,
1859–1877. Cambridge University Press.

Catton, B. (1961). The Civil War. Houghton Mifflin.

Foner, E. (2010). The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery. W. W. Norton &
Company.

Franklin, J. H. (1988). Reconstruction: After the Civil War. University of Chicago Press.

McPherson, J. (1988). Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. Oxford University Press.

Weingast, B. R. (1998). "Political Stability and Civil War: Institutions and Commitment in the
American South." Journal of Economic History, 58(3), 635–667.

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