COURSE OUTLINE

1. Introductory Concept
Weather climate (Definition and differentiation)
Climatology, Meteorology, Agro meteorology, Agro climate.
2. Agricultural Climatology (Importance --> Scope Aims)
* Meteorological institutions.
* Atmospheric & Pressure variation.
(a) Nature (b) composition (c) Extent (d) structure (e) measurements.
3. The elements of climate (Rotation, Revolution, Seasons)
Radiation in the Atmosphere
(a) Sources of heat (b) electromagnetic spectrum (c) fundamental laws (d) solar constants (e)
seasonal / Latitudinal variation (f) factors affecting distribution of solar radiation (g)
measurement & radiation balance.
4. Meteorological elements / weather.
(a) Air temperature (b) humidity (c) wind & circulation patterns (d) water balance (i.e
precipitation ---> rainfall systems warm regions, evaporation, onset and cessation of rainfall
duration of cropping season.
5. Equipment and Maintenance of Standard Meteorological stations
(a) Instruments & time of observation.
6. West African Climate
Agricultural Meteorology its scope & aims
Aims
The primary aim of agricultural meteorology is to extend and utilize fully our knowledge of
atmospheric and certain associated processes with the objective of maximizing food production
and almost equally important secondary aim relates to maximizing the production of timber and
other forest products certain vegetable fibres e.g. cotton, flax and sisal, natural rubber and animal
by-products e.g hides.
The very proper concern with the conservation of natural resources and protection of the
environment from detrimental usage or even destruction may place constraints upon a particular
form of land use in a particular place and time (definition of sustainability).
The agricultural meteorology may be and indeed should be constructed when questions of land
use come up of the exploitation of resources and the deployment of technological processes are
being examined.
Short period benefits from the cultivation of semi-arid grasslands may well be at the expense of
long period damage of erosion by wind and water.
A meteorologist must be prepared to take into consideration processes having very different time
scales.
The subject of meteorology: The subjects include:
(a) The earth (physical sciences; specifically; the physics of the atmosphere i.e the
meteorology and the climatology) but also soil sciences and hydrology.
(b) Certain biological sciences specifically botany, animal physiology and pathology and
associated technologies of agriculture. Agricultural meteorology is concerned with interaction
between meteorology and hydrological factors on one hand. Agriculture in the widest sense
including horticulture, animal husbandry and forestry on the other hand. Its objects is to
discover and define such effects and thus to apply such knowledge of the atmosphere to practical
agric. Use.
N.B: Its field of interest extends from the soil layer of the deepest plant and tree roots through
the air layer near the ground in which crops and wood grow and animals live to the highest level
of interest in aerobiology. The latter with particular reference with effective transport of seeds,
spores, pollens and insects in addition to natural climate and its local variations.
Agric. meteorology is also concerned with artificial modifications in environment as brought
about e.g. by wind breaks and shelter belts, irrigation and glass houses. Greenhouse allows
radiation of light. Air does not flow freely. (covered by glass) and traps heat, while screenhouse
is covered by wire netting and protects plants from insect attack.

The manual consideration of the relationship between weather and agriculture involves
enterprises that may be conveniently classified under 6 main headings.
1. Soil 2. Plants 3. Farm animals 4. Diseases and pests of crop and animals 5. Farm
buildings and equipments 6. Artificial modifications of weather and environment
A brief discussion of these 6 items from an agrometeorological point of view:
1. Soil: Weathering is an important factor in creating and determining the nature of a soil.
Climate and weather affect the mechanical, physical and chemical properties of the soil, the
organisms it contains and its capacity for retaining heat & moisture. Rainfall on the other hand
adds chemical constituents to the soil and on another hand washes out (leaches) soil nutrients.
The mechanical state of the soil as affects cultivation, pest control, harvesting of crop plants.
Management of pastures (i.e. stocking density, which is the number of animals per unit grazing
land) is much influenced by local weather conditions. The worldwide problems of erosion both
by wind and water are seriously influenced by regional and local weather conditions. The extent
to which a given trace of land succumb to erosive agents or agencies is largely determined by the
presence and vigour of vegetative cover. In all regions with marked seasonal variation in
weather, the seasonal changes decisively influence soil conditions and hence the farming
programme “Calender”. e.g. the beginning and end of rains.
2. Plants: is affected at every stage of its growth by environmental conditions. The weather
influence further extends to the period before planting and after harvesting (for storage
purposes). The quality of the seed sown depends on meteorological conditions during the year in
which it was produced and even during previous years while the productivity of certain
plantation crops e.g. vines, grapes, apple, citrus, timber can be affected by weather over many
previous seasons.
Post-harvest operations such as drying of grains and other crops are affected by seasonal
weather, also is the capacity of food, vegetables and farm products to retain their quality in
storage.
Weather factors play an input role in the occurrence of defense against forest and grass figures.
3. Farm Animals: Apart from the direct effect of climate in all styles of growth and
condition of both the healthy and well fed as well as the ill-fed and diseased animals, it is
expressed through the effect of excess heat or cold. Weather affect livestock critically through
the food supply (i.e. the crops in terms of their food supply and the soil on which they are kept).
It affects their feeding, growth, fecundity (ability to reproduce/lay eggs) and health, and in
consequence their geographical distribution. The yield and quality of animal products and their
processing are affected. The capacity for storage and transport are also affected.
4. Diseases and Pests of Crops and Animals: Here the effect is 3-fold. Weather
influences the susceptibility of plants and animals (i.e. the host) to attack by pest and diseases.
It also enters into the biology of the insect and disease organisms thus affecting the nature,
numbers and activities of pests and the extent and virulence of the disease (spread and
persistence).
In important cases of epidemiology of the disease (spread & aerial transport) and its control or
eradication depends upon atmospheric agencies.
5. Farm buildings and Equipment: Climatic conditions must be taken into account in the
planning of farm buildings and particularly in the design of farm housing and stores for
agricultural produce. The choice of farm machinery, its upkeep and the optimum deployment in
any situation of both machinery and labour is weather-sensitive.
6. Artificial Modifications: Artificial modifications of meteorological and hydrological
regimes e.g. artificial rains in which silver iodide is sprayed into the air and changes climatic
condition of the atmosphere causing condensation. Wind breaks and shelter belts, storage and
conservation of snow and water (water harvesting). Also, soil cultural practices have an
important influence on certain aspects of the local environment such as soil moisture, wind
velocity and atmospheric humidity. The greatest degree of control of environmental condition is
exercised by the use of glass houses and in intensive animal housing. While varying degrees of
independence of external ambient conditions are achieved (at times, at very high degree the cost
in materials and energy to achieve this independence will tend to increase as the difference
between the desired internal climate and the weather and climate in impinging on the outer shell
of the structure becomes greater.
Included under this heading is the assessment in relation to agriculture both qualitative and
quantitative of climate change aided by or triggered off by man’s activities e.g changes in the
CO2 content of the atmosphere due to the consumption of fossil fuels such as coal and oil.
Types of Agrometeorological Problems
1. Protection against or avoidance of adverse production or conservation should be given.
This is because disaster always arouse more commonly than success. Many potential disasters
can to a significant extent be avoided or at least its impact reduced by human action. This danger
include: The incidence and extent of pest and diseases of animal and crops. The pollution of the
air, soil, the crops and animals, soil erosion, the environmental stress on crops and the animals
and the limits and constraint imposed on all farm operations. The danger of forest and bush
fires, loses during storage or transport.
In Sudan, a few economic benefit are given i.e. in the Sudan gezira irrigation scheme, the
traditional crop growing sequence is groundnut - June, July. Then Dura (Sorghum) in July.
Cotton in July, August and finally wheat in November to the extent that irrigation H 2O remains
available. In early 1960. The total H 2O area under wheat is established so that in some years the
amount of H2O is insufficient to properly irrigate the wheat field. While in other years unused
H2O flow down the river.
More recently fairly precise calculation of the total H 2O required by the cotton, sorghum and
groundnut crops for the remainder of their growth cycles have been made in October compared
with the irrigation H2O available and the remaining volume of H 2O and the potential area of
wheat that could be irrigated correctly will be calculated. The net effect have been that an
average of about 20,000 acres have been grown under wheat in addition to the area grown earlier
adding about 20,000 metric tonnes of more than 2 million Us dollars to the national economy.
Gambia – In Gambia farmers store their groundnut in heaps in the open air after harvest until the
buying agents pass to collect the crops, such heaps could be seen until January.
Storage in the open air is favoured because it permits continuous ventilation with the relatively
dry air. If the dry pods are subsequently wetted, the risk of contamination with Aspergillus
flavus and Subsequent aflatoxin development is great. The price of aflatoxin infected groundnut
is often as low as 60% of the price of good groundnut.
During these months seasonal rain can occur if there is an incursion of polar air at altitude.
Provision of weather information by local weather broadcast can warn farmers of an impending
chance of rain so that they can temporarily cover the crop with plastic sheetings, saving about 60
US dollars per tonne. Thanks to such broadcast for each % of production saved. The benefit is
about 60 thousand US dollars.
Meteorological Institutions
WMO: World Meteorological Organization: Is a specialized agency of UN with the
responsibility of collection and exchange of meteorological observation, information and
publication to enhance and promote meteorology throughout the world. The main objective of
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) include: (1) to facilitate worldwide cooperation in
the establishment of meteorological station network (2) to keep abreast of and promote
meteorological development in relation to agricultural meteorology in the scientific and practical
field (3) to provide standard methods, procedure, techniques in meteorology including
agricultural meteorology (4) to promote rapid exchange of weather information and the
standardization and publication of weather observations (5) to study and formulate requirements
in the field of agricultural meteorology (6) studying questions relating to observations,
measurements, evaluation and suitable presentation of simple or complex factors of weather or
climate as they affect soil, plants, animals and their enemies (7) consider the meteorological
implications of biological observations (8) applying knowledge of all branches of meteorology to
agriculture and provision of advice in these fields (9) provision of advice on weather including
forecasting and warning for agricultural purposes.

National Meteorological Service

The national meteorological service is a scientific institution which discharges all public services
related to meteorology at both National and International Level.
Nigerian Meteorological Agency- NIMET
Major Functions:- (1) to organize, operate and maintain a network of surface or other
observation stations (2) to evaluate, process and store observation data (3) establishment,
operation, maintenance of an effective telecommunication system. For collection and
dissemination of both observed and processed data (4) to promote meteorology throughout the
world by international cooperation (5) the national weather service also provides meteorological
information and advice including weather forecast; climatological statistics and information of
physics on the atmosphere.

Others are:
FAO- Food and Agriculture Organization
WWW- World Weather Watch
WCP- World Climate Program
AGRHYMET- WMO Regional Center for Training in Agricultural Meteorology and Hydrology
CAgM -Commission for Agricultural Meteorology
UNEP- United Nations Environment Programme
FCCC- Framework Convention on Climate Change
INSAM- International Society for Agricultural Meteorology
CGIAR- Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research
ICRISAT- International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
CCAFS- Climate Change Agriculture and Food Security
Atmosphere
The composition of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere can be described as a thin layer of odourless, colourless and tasteless gases held
to the air by force of gravity.
The atmosphere comprises a stable mechanical mixture of gases. The most important of which is
Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon, CO2, Ozone and Water vapour. Other gases occur in very small
proportion and they include: Krypton, helium, methane, hydrogen.
The Nitrogen : 78.09%.
O2 : 20.95%.
Argon : 0.93%.
CO2 : 0.03% (variable).
Neon : 0.002%.
Krypton & Helium : Less than 0.001% (<0.001%).
Hydrogen : < 0.0001%
Ozone and Xenon : <0.00001%
N.B: Ozone is also variable and tends to increase with height.
It can be seen that N2 & O2 together comprise over 99% of air. Once an inert gas is added with
them less 0.04% remains generally almost that 90% of that small amount is CO 2 although this
gas is so important in biological processes and can reach conc. of 0.1%. with corresponding
reduction in other components.
Another fundamental component is water vapour which comprises so much as 4%. It is
interesting to note that variations in the concentration of the minor constituents have great impact
upon the climate elements such as temperature, humidity, precipitation, clouds,
evapotranspiration and others. Recent emphasis sometimes take into extremes on the roles
played in the atmosphere by CO, CH4 and O3 among others which indicate the importance that
must be placed on particulate matter in the air. Those particles can be man-made or natural and
include NaCl from the ocean, soil, smoke and soot from fires, pollens and volcanic dust and ash.
Their special influence is typically the depletion of the incoming solar radiation (insolation).
changing both intensity and distribution.
N.B: Read up the structure of the atmosphere
Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere
Exosphere