Development Through the Lifespan
Seventh Edition
Adolescent
Development
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Puberty: The Physical Transition to Adulthood (1 of 7)
Hormonal Changes
• Tremendous gains in body size:
– Growth hormone and thyroxine
• Sexual maturation:
– Girls: estrogen and adrenal androgens
– Boys: androgens, especially testosterone
• For both sexes, estrogens combined with androgens
stimulate gains in bone density
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Puberty: The Physical Transition to Adulthood (3 of 7)
Motor Development and Physical Activity
• Girls’ gain in gross motor performance is slow, leveling
off by age 14
• Boys show dramatic spurt in strength, speed, and
endurance throughout teenage years
• Regular sports and exercise improve:
− Motor performance
− Cognitive and social development
− Physical and mental health
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Figure 11.2
Decline in free-time physical activity from ages 9 to 17 among
U.S. boys and girls
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Puberty: The Physical Transition to Adulthood (4 of 7)
Sexual Maturation
• Primary sexual characteristics:
– Maturation of reproductive organs
– Girls: menarche
– Boys: spermarche
• Secondary sexual characteristics:
– Other visible changes signaling sexual maturity
– Girls: breasts
– Boys: facial hair, voice change
– Both: underarm and pubic hair
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Puberty: The Physical Transition to Adulthood (6 of 7)
Adolescent Brain Development
• Expansion of synaptic connections supports gains in
executive function, reasoning, problem solving, and
decision making
• Cognitive-control network still developing: inhibition,
planning, and delay of gratification not fully mature
• Changes in emotional/social network outpace development
of cognitive-control network, resulting in self-regulation
difficulties:
– Stronger response to excitatory neurotransmitters: increased
reactivity to stress and to pleasurable and social stimuli
– Unchecked drive for novelty, leads to sensation-seeking
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Puberty: The Physical Transition to Adulthood (7 of 7)
Changing States of Arousal
• Still need about nine hours, but go to bed later:
– Puberty influences brain regulation of sleep
– More social activities, screen media in bedroom
• Lack of sleep impairs executive function, cognitive
and emotional self-regulation:
– Reduced school achievement
– Increased anxiety, depressed mood
– High-risk behaviors
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
The Psychological Impact of Pubertal Events (3 of 5)
Parent–Child Relationships
• Rise in conflict:
– Has adaptive value: psychological distancing
– Different views of adolescent readiness
for responsibility
• Most conflict is:
– Mild, subsides over time
– Balanced by affection, support
• Positive problem solving
reduces conflict
© Iakov Filimonov/Shutterstock
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
The Psychological Impact of Pubertal Events (4 of 5)
Consequences of Pubertal Timing
Girls Boys
• Popular, athletic stars,
• Unpopular, withdrawn, leaders
low in confidence • More positive body image
Early-maturing • Less positive body image • Viewed as well-adjusted
• More deviant behavior but report psychological
• At risk for lasting difficulties stress, depressed mood
• More deviant behavior
• Popular
• Transient emotional
Late-maturing • Sociable, school leaders
difficulties
• Positive body image
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Health Issues (1 of 18)
Nutrition in Adolescence
• Nutritional requirements increase
• Poor diets are common:
– Skipping breakfast
– Eating at fast-food restaurants
• Iron, vitamin-mineral deficiencies
• Family meals associated with
healthier diet
© artemisphoto/Shutterstock
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Health Issues (2 of 18)
Eating Disorders
• Risk factors for girls:
– Reach puberty early
– Grow up in homes with focus on weight and thinness
– Body dissatisfaction and severe dieting are strong predictors
• Three most serious eating disorders:
– Anorexia nervosa
– Bulimia nervosa
– Binge-eating disorder
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Health Issues (3 of 18)
Anorexia Nervosa
• Starve self due to fear of getting fat:
– Extremely distorted body image; lose 25–50% of body weight
– Denial makes it difficult to treat
• Severe malnutrition, physical complications, possible death
• Influences beyond cultural values:
– Genetics, abnormalities in neurotransmitters
– Parenting style: controlling, high expectations for appearance
– Unrealistic, perfectionistic standards for self
– Ethnicity
• Effective treatments: family therapy; medication to reduce
anxiety and neurotransmitter imbalances
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Health Issues (4 of 18)
Bulimia Nervosa
• Binge eating followed by compensatory efforts to
avoid weight gain:
– Deliberate vomiting or purging with laxatives
– Excessive exercise or fasting
• Experience depression, guilt, and suicidal thoughts
• Influences beyond cultural values:
– Heredity
– Overweight and early menarche
– Impulsive, sensation-seeking tendencies
– Disengaged parenting style
• Easier to treat because individuals want help
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Health Issues (5 of 18)
Binge-Eating Disorder
• Regular binging without compensatory purging:
typically leads to overweight and obesity
• Experience severe distress and suicidal thoughts
• Associated with social adjustment difficulties
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Health Issues (6 of 18)
Adolescent Sexuality
• Hormonal changes lead to increased sex drive
• North American attitudes relatively restrictive: contradictory
messages from media, culture, and family
• Influences of sexualized media exposure:
− More exposure predicts increased sexual activity
− Internet pornography can increase adjustment problems
• Attitudes of U.S. adolescents and adults toward nonmarital
sex have become more accepting
• A substantial percentage of U.S. teenagers are sexually
active
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Health Issues (8 of 18)
Contraceptive Use
• 14% of U.S. sexually active teenagers do not use
contraception consistently
• Reasons:
– Peer pressure and heightened emotions
– Unrealistic about consequences
– Not knowing where to get or how to discuss with partner
• Challenges:
− Believe parents are not supportive
− School sex education offers incomplete information
− Concerned about health practitioner confidentiality
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Health Issues (11 of 18)
Adolescent Pregnancy and Parenthood
• About 625,000 U.S. teenage pregnancies in
most recently reported year; 11,000 younger
than age 15
• 1 in 4 ends in abortion
• 89% of adolescent births to unmarried mothers
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Health Issues (12 of 18)
Factors Associated with Adolescent
Parenthood
• Low parental warmth, neglect, abuse
• Repeated parental divorce
• Poor school achievement
• Alcohol or drug use
• Aggressive and antisocial behavior
• Neighborhoods with deviant peers
• Low SES
© Monkey Business
Images/Shutterstock
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Health Issues (16 of 18)
Adolescent Substance Use and Abuse
• Severe concerns:
– One-time heavy use impairs judgment; risks injury and
death
– Addictive nature of substances can lead to abuse
• By end of high school:
– 6% regularly smoke
– 17% report recent heavy drinking
– 21% have used marijuana
– 21% have used a highly addictive, toxic drug
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Health Issues (17 of 18)
Substance Use vs. Abuse
• Occasional experimenters:
– Psychologically healthy, sociable, curious
• Abusers:
– Impulsivity, hostility in early childhood
– Drug-taking starts earlier
– Low SES
– Family mental health problems, substance abuse
– Child abuse
– Poor school performance
– Weak cognitive control and elevated sensation seeking
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Piaget’s Theory: The Formal Operational Stage (1 of 2)
Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage
• Hypothetico-deductive reasoning:
– Problem solving based on a hypothesis, deducing
logical, testable inferences
– Begins with possibility and proceeds to reality
• Propositional thought:
– Evaluating the logic of verbal propositions without
referring to real-world circumstances
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Figure 11.8
Piaget’s pendulum problem
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Piaget’s Theory: The Formal Operational Stage (2 of 2)
Follow-Up Research on Formal Operational Thought
• School-age children show glimmerings of formal
operational thought:
– In simplified situations; with props in make-believe play
• Adolescents are considerably more competent:
– Reason about more variables simultaneously
– Grasp logical necessity
• Formal operations may not be universal:
– Training and context contribute
– Schooling is powerfully influential
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
An Information-Processing View of Adolescent Cognitive Development (1 of 2)
Information-Processing Gains
• Working memory
• Inhibition
• Attention
• Planning
• Strategies © arek malang/Shutterstock
• Knowledge
• Metacognition: awareness of thought
• Cognitive self-regulation
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
School Transitions in Adolescence (1 of 5)
School Transitions in Adolescence
• Grades decline with each transition:
– Higher academic standards
– Less supportive teaching–learning environment
– For ethnic minorities, fewer same-ethnicity peers
• Decline in liking for school, academic motivation,
and self-esteem
• Additional strains (e.g., poverty, family disruption)
increase risk for self-esteem and academic difficulties
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
School Transitions in Adolescence (2 of 5)
Helping Adolescents Adjust to School Transitions
• Parent involvement, monitoring
• Close friendships
• Fewer transitions, K–8 schools
• Smaller units within schools
• Same-ethnicity peers
• Homeroom teacher relationships © michaeljung/Shutterstock
• Classes with familiar peers or constant group of
new peers
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
School Transitions in Adolescence (3 of 5)
Supporting Academic Achievement
• Authoritative parenting
Child-rearing
• Joint decision making
practices
• Parent involvement in education
Peer influences • Valuing high achievement
• Warm, personal teaching
• Learning activities that promote high-level
School
thinking
characteristics
• Opportunities to break out of low academic
tracks
Employment • Limited hours of part-time employment
schedule • High-quality vocational education
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
School Transitions in Adolescence (4 of 5)
Factors Related to Dropping Out
• Low grades, low academic self-esteem
• Lower attendance, pay less attention
• No extracurricular involvement
• Parents: uninvolved, limited education
• Grade retention
• Large, impersonal schools
• Frequent peer victimization
• General education, vocational tracks
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Erikson’s Theory: Identity versus Role Confusion
Erikson: Identity versus Role Confusion
• Identity:
– Defining who you are, your values, and your direction in life
– A process of exploration followed by commitment: to ideals,
vocation, relationships, sexual orientation, ethnic group
• Role confusion:
– Earlier psychosocial conflicts not resolved
– Lack of direction and self-definition
– Society restricts choices
– Unprepared for challenges of adulthood
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Self-Understanding (2 of 6)
Changes in Self-Esteem
• Continues to add new dimensions:
– Close friendships
– Romantic appeal
– Job competence
• Rises for most young people:
– Increasing sense of mastery
predicts rise © Aleshyn_Andrei/Shutterstock
• Parenting style and teacher encouragement affect
level and stability of self-esteem
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Self-Understanding (3 of 6)
Identity Statuses
High Commitment Low Commitment
Identity
High Exploration Identity moratorium
achievement
Low Exploration Identity foreclosure Identity diffusion
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Self-Understanding (5 of 6)
Influences on Identity Development
• Personality characteristics
• Child-rearing practices:
– Attachment
– Warm, open communication
• Close friends, diverse peers
• Schools, communities:
– Supportive mentors and activities
• Culture
• Societal forces © Goodluz/Shutterstock
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
The Family (1 of 4)
Parent–Adolescent Relationships
• Strives for autonomy:
– Emotional component: self-reliance
– Behavioral component: independent decision making
• Deidealizes parents
• Effective parenting:
– Warm, supportive ties
– Balancing autonomy-granting with monitoring
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
The Family (3 of 4)
Reorganized Parent–Adolescent Relationship
• Conflict facilitates adolescent’s identity and autonomy:
– Signals parents to adjust parenting style
– Harmonious interaction increases by mid- to late
adolescence
• Type of shared activities more important than quantity
of time spent
• In harsh surroundings, adolescents are more
accepting of tighter control as a sign of caring
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Peer Relations (1 of 8)
Characteristics of Adolescent Friendships
• Fewer “best friends”
• Value intimacy, mutual understanding,
loyalty
• Most important source of social support
• Tend to be similar and become more so:
– Identity status
– Educational aspirations
– Political beliefs © bikeriderlondon/Shutterstock
– Deviant behavior
• Cooperation and mutual affirmation increase
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Peer Relations (2 of 8)
Gender Differences in Friendship Quality
• Girls:
– Get together to “just talk”
– Emotional closeness
– Communal concerns
– Self-disclosure, support
• Boys:
– Shared activities: sports, competitive games
– Achievement, status
– Competition, conflict
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Peer Relations (3 of 8)
Friendship Risks
• Corumination:
– More common for girls
– Associated with anxiety, depression
• Relational aggression:
– Conflicts between intimate friends
– Girls’ closest friendships of shorter duration than boys’
• Masculine stereotypes:
– Often interfere with friendship closeness among ethnic
minority boys
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Peer Relations (4 of 8)
Friendships, Cell Phones, and the Internet
• Important context for friendship communication and
closeness:
– Girls: texting, cell calling, social media sites
– Boys: online gaming
• Risks and disadvantages:
– Face-to-face interaction may suffer
– Contexts for expressing jealousies and misunderstandings
– Personal information accessible to third parties
– Excessive social media use linked to unsatisfying face-to-
face experiences and impaired mental health
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Peer Relations (5 of 8)
Benefits of Adolescent Friendships
• Opportunities to explore the self
• Opportunities to deeply understand another
• Foundation for future intimate
relationships
• Helpful in managing stress
• Greater empathy, sympathy, and
prosocial behavior
• Improved attitudes toward and
involvement in school
© oliveromg/Shutterstock
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Peer Relations (6 of 8)
Cliques and Crowds
• Cliques:
– Small tightly knit groups: 5–7
– Similar in family background,
attitudes, and values
– More important to girls
• Crowds: © Robbi/Shutterstock
– Larger: composed of several cliques
– Membership based on reputation, stereotype
– Affiliations reflect abilities and interests (e.g., “brains,”
“jocks,” “populars,” “nonconformists”) or express ethnicity
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Peer Relations (7 of 8)
Dating
• Mixed-sex cliques prepare teenagers for dating
• Cultural expectations determine when dating begins
• Dating goals change with age:
– Early adolescence: recreation, peer status
– Late adolescence: intimacy, compatibility, social support
• Factors influencing dating relationships:
– Relationships with parents and friends
– Security of attachment
– Parents’ marital interactions and conflict resolution
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Problems of Development (1 of 6)
Depression in Adolescence
• Most common psychological
problem: 15–20% have had one
or more major episodes
• Twice as many girls as boys:
gender difference sustained
throughout lifespan
• Majority do not receive treatment:
adults often minimize as a
passing phase
© Jochen Schoenfeld/Shutterstock
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Problems of Development (2 of 6)
Factors Related to Adolescent Depression
• Moderately heritable
• Hormonal changes of puberty: estrogens (girls)
• Gender-typed coping styles and greater
corumination (girls)
• Parental depression and associated maladaptive parenting
• Genetic and hormonal risk factors combine with stressful
experiences
• Learned helplessness
• Negative life events
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Problems of Development (5 of 6)
Delinquency
• Rises over adolescence, declines in early twenties
• Related factors:
– Gender; boys more likely to commit violent crimes
– SES, ethnicity
– Difficult temperament
– Low intelligence, poor school performance
– Peer rejection, association with antisocial peers
– Parenting (inept, harsh, inconsistent), marital transitions
– Lack of supervision
– Poverty-stricken neighborhoods, poor-quality schools
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Biology and Environment
Two Routes to Adolescent Delinquency
• Early-onset: behavior begins in childhood
− Biological risks and inept parenting
combine (mostly boys)
− Linked to serious antisocial activity
• Late-onset: begins around puberty
− Peer influences
− Most abandon antisocial behavior
− Serious offenses can close off
opportunities and perpetuate life of crime © Ardelean Andreea/Shutterstock
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
Problems of Development (6 of 6)
Preventing Adolescent Delinquency
• Start early, intervene on multiple levels
• Zero tolerance policies ineffective
• Effective interventions train parents and provide youth
skill-building experiences:
– Parental communication, monitoring, and discipline
strategies
– Youth experiences to improve cognitive, social, and
emotional self-regulation skills
• Multisystemic therapy: combines family intervention
with positive school, work, and leisure activities
Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.
