Module 3

Static Shunt Compensators: SVC and STATCOM

After Mid-sem
 Objectives of Shunt Compensation
• The steady state transmittable power can be increased and the voltage profile
along the line can be controlled by appropriate reactive shunt compensation.

• The shunt connected, fixed or mechanically switched inductors are applied to

minimize line overvoltage under light load conditions and shunt connected fixed or
mechanically switched capacitors are applied to maintain voltage levels under
heavy load conditions.

• The ultimate objective of applying reactive shunt compensation in a transmission

system is to increase the transmittable power. This also helps in improving the
stability of the system.

• VAR compensation is thus used for voltage regulation at the midpoint or some
intermediate segment of the transmission line and at the end of the radial line to
prevent voltage instability, as well as for dynamic voltage control to increase
transient stability and damp power oscillations.
 Midpoint Voltage Regulation for Line Segmentation
Uncompensated Case: Let us consider a simplified model of the uncompensated
system.

Let |VS|=|VR|=V. The voltage at the midpoint of the

line is VM which is the minimum voltage in the
voltage profile.

The real power of line

From the phasor diagram,

The line absorbs reactive power Q, as a function of

the line current.
Q=I2X=4V2/Sin2δ/2=2V2/X(1-Cosδ)----------(3)
 P=V2/X Sinδ=Pmax sinδ------------(1)
Q=(2V2/X)(1-Cosδ)=2Pmax(1-Cosδ)

If the line is naturally loaded then the voltage profile would be

flat i.e the voltage magnitude would b e equal at all points along
the line and no c ompensation is requ ired.
Thus the application of line compens ation can be seen as a
means of approximating a flat voltage profile. This , however,
implies that compensation is distribut ed along the line which is
clearly impractical.
So , the next be st approach is to provide compensation at the
midpoint, which will divide the line into two equal sections.
 Mid point compensation

The figure shows the

arrangement of the ideal
midpoint shunt compensator
which maintains a voltage
,VM, equal to bus voltages
such that |VS|=|VR|=|VM|=V

The compensator does not consume any

real power (P=0) since the compensator
voltage VM, and its current IM are in
quadrature.

P=2V2/X Sinδ/2=2Pmax sinδ/2

QP=4V2/X(1-Cosδ/2)
• It is observed that the midpoint shunt compensation can
significantly increase the transmittable power(doubling its
maximum value) at the expense of a rapidly increasing
reactive power demand on the midpoint compensator.
• With long transmission lines a single midpoint compesator
may not be adequate to prop up the line voltage and
several shunt compensator cnnected at intervals down the
line may be needed.
• Theoretically, the transmittable power would double with
each doubling of the segments for the same overall line
length.
• With the increase of the no. of segments the voltage
variation along the line would rapidly decrease approaching
the ideal case of constant voltage profile.
The concept of transmission line segmentation can be expanded to the use of
multiple compensators, located at equal segments of the transmision line as
illustrated for 4 line segments
 End of Line Voltage Support to prevent Voltage Instability
The assumption of adequate reactive power control at the
receiving end to maintain a constant voltage will not in
general apply where the receiving end represents a load
centre with little or no generation

A simple radial system with

feeder line reactance X and load
impedance Z is shown.
The normalised terminal voltage VR
versus power P plot at various load
power factors, ranging from 0.8 lag
to 0.9 lead.
The nose-point at each plot given for a specific power
factor represents the voltage instability corresponding
to that system condition.
 End of Line Voltage Support to prevent Voltage
Instability
It is evident that for a radial line, the end of the line, the end of the line, where
the largest voltage variation is experienced, is the best location for the
compensator.

Reactive shunt compensation is often used in practical applications to

regulate the voltage at a given bus against load variations or to provide
voltage support for the load .
 Improvement of Transient Stability
The transient stability studies involve the determination of whether or not
synchronism is maintained after the machine has been subjected to severe
disturbance. This may be sudden application of load, loss of generation, loss of
large load or a fault on the system.
A method known as the equal area criterion can be used for a quick prediction of
stability.

This method is based on the graphical interpretation of the energy stored in the
rotating mass as an aid to determine if the machine maintains its stability after a
disturbance.

This method is only applicable to a one machine system connected to an infinite

bus or a two machine system.
• With suitable and fast controls, shunt compensation will be able to
change the power flow in the system during and following dynamic
disturbances so as to increase the transient stability limit and provide
effective power oscillation damping
• The potential effectiveness of shunt (as well as other
compensation and flow control techniques) on transient
stability improvement can be conveniently evaluated by
the equal area criterion.

• The meaning of the equal area criterion is explained with the

aid of the simple two machine (the receiving end is an infinite
bus), two line system shown in Figure.
Assume that the complete system is
characterized by the P versus delta curve
"a" and is operating at angle delta1 to
transmit power PI when a fault occurs at
line segment "I.“
During the fault the system is characterized
by the P versus delta curve "b" and thus,
over this period, the transmitted electric
power decreases significantly while
mechanical input power to the sending-end
generator remains substantially constant
corresponding to P1;
As a result, the generator accelerates and the
transmission angle increases from delta1 to delta2 at
which the protective breakers disconnect the faulted
line segment "1" and
the sending-end generator 'absorbs accelerating
energy, represented by area "A1."
After fault clearing, without line segment "1" the degraded system is
characterized by the P versus B curve "c." At angle delta2 on curve "c" the
transmitted power exceeds the mechanical input power PI and the sending
end generator starts to decelerate; however, angle delta further increases due
to the kinetic energy stored in the machine.
The maximum angle reached at delta3, where the decelerating energy,
represented by
area "A2, "becomes equal to the accelerating energy represented by area "AI".

The limit of transient stability is reached at delta 3 = delta cri, beyond which the
decelerating energy would not balance the accelerating energy and
synchronism between the sending end and receiving end could not be
restored. The area "Amargin," between B3 and deltacri represent the transient
stability margin of the system.
From the above general discussion it is evident that the transient stability, at a
given power transmission level and fault clearing time, is determined by the P
versus delta characteristic of the post-fault system.

Since appropriately controlled shunt compensation can provide effective voltage

support, it can increase the transmission capability of the post-fault system and
thereby enhance transient stability.

Suppose that this system of Figure with and without the

midpoint shunt compensator, transmits the same
steady-state power.
Assume that both the uncompensated and the
compensated systems are subjected to the same fault
for the same period of time.
Prior to the fault both of them transmit power Pm (subscript m stands for
"mechanical") at angles delta 1 and deltap1, respectively. During the fault, the
transmitted electric power (of the single line system considered) becomes zero while
the mechanical input power to the generators remains constant (Pm).Therefore, the
sending-end generator accelerates from the steady-state angles delta1 and deltap l
to angles delta2 and deltap2, respectively, when the fault clears
During the fault, the transmitted electric power (of the single line
system considered) becomes zero while the mechanical input
power to the generators remains constant (Pm).Therefore, the
sending-end generator accelerates from the steady-state angles
delta1 and deltaPl to angles delta2 and deltaP2, respectively, when
the fault clears
The accelerating energies are
represented by areas Al and Ap1.
After fault clearing, the transmitted electric power
exceeds the mechanical input power and the sending-
end machine decelerates, but the accumulated kinetic
energy further increases until a balance between the
accelerating and decelerating energies, corresponding
to areas A1, Apt and A2, Ap2, respectively, is reached
at delta3 and deltap3, representing the maximum
angular swings for the two cases.
Comparison of Figures (a) and (b) clearly shows a substantial increase in the
transient stability margin the ideal midpoint compensation with unconstrained
var output can provide by the effective segmentation of the transmission line.
Alternatively, if the uncompensated system has a sufficient transient stability
margin, shunt compensation can considerably increase the transmittable power
without decreasing this margin.
 Power oscillations damping
In the case of an under-damped power system, any minor disturbance can
cause the machine angle to oscillate around its steady-state value at the
natural frequency of the total electromechanical system.
The angle oscillation, of course, results in a corresponding power oscillation
around the steady-state power transmitted. The lack of sufficient damping
can be a major problem in some power systems and, in some cases, it may
be the limiting factor for the transmittable power.

when the rotationally oscillating generator accelerates when the generator decelerates and angle
and angle delta increases, the electric power transmitted delta decreases the electric power must be
must be increased to compensate for the excess decreased to balance the insufficient
mechanical input power mechanical input power.
 Momentarily disturbance cause the
Power system angle oscillate

As the illustration shows, the var output is controlled in a "bang-

bang" manner (output is varied between the minimum and
maximum values). This type of control is generally considered the
most effective, particularly if large oscillations are encountered.
However, for damping relatively small power oscillations, a strategy
that varies the controlled output of the compensator continuously, in
sympathy with the generator angle or power, may be preferred.

Waveform c shows the reactive power output Qp of the shunt-

connected var compensator.
The capacitive (positive) output of the compensator increases
the midpoint voltage and hence the transmitted power when
dδ/dt > 0, and it decreases those when dδ/dt<o.
 Summary of Compensator Requirements
The functional requirements of reactive shunt compensators used for increased power transmission,
improved voltage and transient stability, and power oscillation damping can be summarized as follows:

• The compensator must stay in synchronous operation with the ac system at the compensated
bus under all operating conditions including major disturbances. Should the bus voltage be
lost temporarily due to nearby faults, the compensator must be able to recapture synchronism
immediately at fault clearing.

• The compensator must be able to regulate the bus voltage for voltage support and improved
transient stability, or control it for power oscillation damping and transient stability
enhancement, on a priority basis as system conditions
• may require.

• For a transmission line connecting two systems, the best location for var compensation is in
the middle, whereas for a radial feed to a load the best location is at the load end.
Methods of Controllable VAR generation
• Variable Impedance type Static Var generators
1. Thyristor Controlled Reactor(TCR)
2. Thyristor Switched Reactor(TSR)
3. Thyristor Switched Capacitor(TSC)

• Switching Converter type VAR generator

1. STATCOM
The Thyristor-Controlled and Thyristor-Switched Reactor (TCR and
TSR).

It consists of a fixed (usually air-core) reactor of inductance

L, and a bidirectional thyristor valve (or switch) sw.
Currently available large thyristors can block voltage up to
4000 to 9000 volts and conduct current up to 3000 to 6000
amperes.

Thus, in a practical valve many thyristors (typically 10 to 20)

are connected in series to meet the required blocking
voltage levels at a given power rating.

A thyristor valve can be brought into conduction by

simultaneous application of a gate pulse to all thyristors of
the same polarity. The valve will automatically block
immediately after the ac current crosses zero, unless the
gate signal is reapplied.
The current in the reactor can be controlled from maximum (thyristor valve
closed) to zero (thyristor valve open) by the method of firing delay angle
control.

That is, the closure of the thyristor valve is delayed with respect to the peak of
the applied voltage in each half-cycle, and thus the duration of the current
conduction intervals is controlled.

This method of current control is illustrated separately for the positive and
negative current half-cycles
• in Figure (b), where the applied voltage v and the reactor current iL(alpha), at zero delay
angle (switch fully closed) and at an arbitrary a delay angle, are shown.

• When a = 0, the valve sw closes at the crest of the applied voltage and evidently the
resulting current in the reactor will be the same as that obtained in steady state with a
permanently closed switch.
• When the gating of the valve is delayed
by an angle alpha (0 to pi/2) with
respect to the crest of the voltage, the
current in the reactor can be expressed
with v(t) = V cos wt as follows:

Since the thyristor valve, by definition, opens as

the current reaches zero, is valid for the interval wt
between alpha to pi-alpha
 The amplitude ILF(α) of the fundamental
reactor current ILF(α) can be expressed
as a function of angle α :

It is clear that the TCR can control the

fundamental current continuously from zero
(valve open) to a maximum (valve closed) as if
it was a variable reactive admittance.
Thus, an effective reactive admittance, BL(α),
for the TCR can be defined. This admittance,
as a function of angle α, can be written directly
The meaning is that at each delay angle alpha an effective admittance BL(alpha) can be defined which
determines the magnitude of the fundamental current, ILF(alpha), in the TCR at a given applied voltage V.

In practice, the maximal magnitude of the applied voltage and that of the corresponding current will be
limited by the ratings of the power components (reactor and thyristor valve) used.

Thus, a practical TCR can be operated anywhere in a defined V-I area, the boundaries of which are
determined by its maximum attainable admittance, voltage, and current ratings
If the TCR switching is restricted to a fixed
delay angle, usually α = 0, then it
becomes a thyristor-switched reactor
(TSR). The TSR provides a fixed inductive
admittance and thus, when connected to
the ac system, the reactive current in it will
be proportional to the applied voltage as
the V-I plot in Figure
Harmonic mitigation in the TCR

In a three-phase system, three single-phase thyristor-

controlled reactors are used, usually in delta connection.
Under balanced conditions, the triple-n harmonic currents
(3rd, 9th, 15th, etc.) circulate in the delta connected TCRs
and do not enter the power system. The magnitudes of the
other harmonics generated by the thyristor-controlled
reactors can be reduced by various methods
First method to eliminate harmonic in TCR current
• One method, particularly advantageous for high
power applications, employs m (m >= 2) parallel-
connected TCRs, each with 1/m of the total rating
required.

• The reactors are "sequentially" controlled, that is,

only one of the m reactors is delay angle
controlled, and each of the remaining m - 1
reactors is either fully "on" or fully "off," depending
on the total reactive power required, as illustrated
for four reactors in Figure.

• In this way, the amplitude of every harmonic is

reduced by the factor m with respect to the
maximum rated fundamental current. Furthermore,
losses associated with this scheme are generally
lower than those characterizing a TCR with
equivalent rating due to the reduction in switching
losses.
Second method- 12-pulse TCR
• Another method employs a 12-pulse TCR arrangement. In this, two identical three-phase delta connected
thyristor-controlled reactors are used, one operated from wye-connected windings, the other from delta-
connected windings of the secondary of a coupling transformer

• Because of the 30-degree phase shift between the related voltages of the two transformer windings, the 5th,
7th, 17th, 19th, generally the harmonic currents of order 6(2k - 1) - 1 and 6(2k - 1) + 1, k = 1,2,3, ... cancel,
resulting in a nearly sinusoidal output current, at all delay angles, as illustrated by the current waveforms

• Further harmonic cancellation is possible by operating three or more delta connected TCRs from
appropriately phase shifted voltage sets. In practice, however, these 18 and higher pulse circuit arrangements
tend to be too complex and expensive. Also, it becomes increasingly difficult to meet the requirements for
symmetry, due to possible unbalance in the ac system voltages, to achieve significant reduction in the
amplitudes of higher order harmonics. For these reasons, higher than 12-pulse circuit configurations are
seldom used
Third Method: Filters based

• If the TCR generated harmonics cannot be reduced sufficiently by circuit arrangements, such as the four-
reactor system of or the 12-pulse structure, to meet specification requirements for economic or other
practical reasons (which is often the case), harmonic filters are employed.

• Normally, these filters are series LC and LCR branches in parallel with the TCR and are tuned to the dominant
harmonics, such as the 5th, 7th, and occasionally, the 11th and 13th, usually with an additional high-pass
branch.

• The high-pass filter is sometimes implemented by shunting the reactor of one of the LC filter branches with a
resistor in order to maintain reasonable attenuation at higher frequencies where tuned filters are not
effective.

• In many practical applications, due to unbalances, resonant conditions in the ac system network, or
independent (single-phase) control of the three TCRs, a tuned filter branch at the third harmonic frequency
may also be required.
Thyristor Switched Capacitor
Thyristor switched capacitor banks TSC - YouTube
TSC
• A single-phase thyristor switched capacitor (TSC) is shown in Figure 5.13(a). It consists of
a capacitor, a bidirectional thyristor valve, and a relatively small surge current limiting
reactor.

• This reactor is needed primarily to limit the surge current in the thyristor valve under
abnormal operating conditions (e.g., control malfunction causing capacitor switching at a
"wrong time," when transient free switching conditions are not satisfied); it may also be
used to avoid resonances with the ac system impedance at particular frequencies.
Under steady-state conditions, when the thyristor valve is closed and the TSC
branch is connected to a sinusoidal ac voltage source, v = V sinwt, the current
in the branch is given by
Switching of capacitor and Transient free operation
• The reconnection of the capacitor may have to be executed at some residual capacitor voltage

• If the voltage across the disconnected capacitor remained unchanged, the TSC bank could be
switched in again, without any transient, at the appropriate peak of the applied ac voltage, as
illustrated for a positively and negatively charged capacitor in Figure 5.14(a) and (b), respectively.
Normally, the capacitor bank is discharged after disconnection.
• This can be accomplished with the minimum possible transient disturbance if the thyristor
valve is turned on at those instants at which the capacitor residual voltage and the applied ac
voltage are equal, that is, when the voltage across the thyristor valve is zero

• Figure 5.15(a) and (b) illustrate the switching transients obtained with a fully and a partially
discharged capacitor. These transients are caused by the nonzero dv /dt at the instant of switching,
which, without the series reactor, would result in an instantaneous current of ic = Cdv/dt in the
capacitor.
The conditions for "transient-free" switching of a capacitor are summarized in Figure. As seen, two
simple rules cover all possible cases:
(1) if the residual capacitor voltage is lower than the peak ac voltage (Vc < V), then the correct instant
of switching is when the instantaneous ac voltage becomes equal to the capacitor voltage; and
(2) if the residual capacitor voltage is equal to or higher than the peak ac voltage (Vc ≥ V), then the
correct switching is at the peak of the ac voltage at which the thyristor valve voltage is minimum.

It follows that the maximum possible delay in

switching in a capacitor bank is one full cycle of
the applied ac voltage, that is, the interval from
one positive (negative) peak to the next positive
(negative) peak. It also follows that firing delay
angle control is not applicable to capacitors; the
capacitor switching must take place at that
specific instant in each cycle at which the
conditions for minimum transients are satisfied,
that is, when the voltage across the thyristor
valve is zero or minimum. For this reason, a TSC
branch can provide only a step-like change in
the reactive current it draws (maximum or zero).
• The current in the TSC branch varies linearly with the applied voltage according to the admittance of the
capacitor as illustrated by the V-I plot in Figure 5.17. The maximum applicable voltage and the
corresponding current are limited by the ratings of the TSC components (capacitor and thyristor valve)

• To approximate continuous current variation, several TSC branches in parallel (which would increase in a
step-like manner the capacitive admittance) may be employed, or, as is explained later, the TSC branches
have to be complemented with a TCR.
Fixed Capacitor, Thyristor-Controlled Reactor Type Var Generator.
Fixed Capacitor, Thyristor-Controlled Reactor Type Var Generator.

• A basic var generator arrangement using a fixed (permanently connected) capacitor with a thyristor-controlled
reactor (FC-TCR) is shown functionally in Figure

• The current in the reactor is varied by the previously discussed method of firing delay angle control.

• The fixed capacitor in practice is usually substituted, fully or partially, by a filter network that has the necessary
capacitive impedance at the fundamental frequency to generate the reactive power required, but it provides a low
impedance at selected frequencies to shunt the dominant harmonics produced by the TCR.
Control of FC-TCR

One function is synchronous timing. This

function is usually provided by a phase locked
loop circuit that runs in synchronism with the
ac system voltage and generates appropriate
timing pulses with respect to the peak of that
voltage. (In a different approach, the ac
voltage itself may be used for timing.
However, this seemingly simple approach
presents difficult problems during system
faults and major disturbances when the
voltage exhibits wild fluctuations and large
distortion.)
• The second function is the reactive current (or admittance) to firing angle conversion.
This can be provided by a real time circuit implementation of the mathematical
relationship between the amplitude of the fundamental TCR current ILF(a) and the
delay angle a given by (5.5). Several circuit approaches are possible

• One is an analog function generator producing in each half-cycle a scaled electrical

signal that represents the ILF(alpha) versus al[ha relationship. [This approach is
illustrated in Figure 5.19(b).]

• Another is a digital "look-up table" for the normalized ILF(alpha) versus a function
which is read at regular intervals (e.g., at each degree) starting from a = 0 (peak of the
voltage) until the requested value is found, at which instant a firing pulse is initiated.

• A third approach is to use a microprocessor and compute, prior to the earliest firing
angle (alpha = 0), the delay angle corresponding to the required ILF(alpha). The actual
firing instant is then determined simply by a timing circuit (e.g., a counter) "measuring"
a from the peak of the voltage.
• The third function is the computation of the required fundamental reactor current IFL, from the requested
total output current IQ (sum of the fixed capacitor and the TCR currents) defined by the amplitude reference
input IQRef to the var generator control.

• This is simply done by subtracting the (scaled) amplitude of the capacitor current, lc from lQRef' (Positive
polarity for lQRef means inductive output current, and negative polarity means capacitive output current.)

• The fourth function is the thyristor firing pulse generation. This is accomplished by the firing pulse
generator (or gate drive) circuit which produces the necessary gate current pulse for the thyristors to turn
on in response to the output signal provided by the reactive current to firing angle converter.

• The gate drive circuits are sometimes at ground potential with magnetic coupling to the thyristor gates;
more often, however, they are at the (high) potential level of the thyristors.

• In the latter case, in order to provide sufficient insulation between the ground level control and the gate
drive circuits, the gating information is usually transmitted via optical fibers ("light pipes").
Switching Converter Type Var Generators
STATCOM
• The possibility of generating controllable reactive power directly, without the use of ac
capacitors or reactors, by various switching power converters was disclosed by Gyugyi in
1976. These (dc to ac or ac to dc) converters are operated as voltage and current sources and
they produce reactive power essentially without reactive energy storage components by
circulating alternating current among the phases of the ac system.

• Functionally, from the standpoint of reactive power generation, their operation is similar to
that of an ideal synchronous machine whose reactive power output is varied by excitation
control. Like the mechanically powered machine, they can also exchange real power with the
ac system if supplied from an appropriate, usually dc energy source. Because of these
similarities with a rotating synchronous generator, they are termed Static Synchronous
Generators (SSGs)

• When an SSG is operated without an energy source, and with appropriate controls to
function as a shunt-connected reactive compensator, it is termed, analogously to the rotating
synchronous compensator (condenser), a Static Synchronous Compensator (Condenser) or
STATCOM (STATCON)
• A power converter of either type consists of an array of solidstate switches which
connect the input terminals to the output terminals. Consequently, a switching power
converter has no internal energy storage and therefore the instantaneous input power
must be equal to the instantaneous output power

• Also, the termination of the input and output must be complementary, that is, if the
input is terminated by a voltage source (which can be an active voltage source like a
battery or a passive one like a capacitor) then the output must be terminated by a
current source (which in practice would always mean a voltage source with an inductive
source impedance or a passive inductive impedance) and vice versa

• In the case of dc to ac converters the dc terminals are usually considered as "input" and
therefore voltage-sourced and current-sourced converters are distinguished according
to whether these are shunted by a voltage source (capacitor) or by a current source
(inductor)
The major reasons for the preference of the voltage-sourced converter are:

• Current sourced converters require power semiconductors with bi-directional voltage

blocking capability. The available high power semiconductors with gate turn-off capability
(GTOs, IGBTs) either cannot block reverse voltage at all or can only do it. With detrimental
effect on other important parameters (e.g., increased conduction losses).

• Practical current source termination of the converter dc terminals by a current charged

reactor is much lossier than complementary voltage source termination by a voltage-charged
capacitor.

• The current-sourced converter requires a voltage source termination at ac terminals, usually

in the form of a capacitive filter
Basic Operating Principles the system voltage V, that of the internal voltage E, and the
total circuit reactance (synchronous machine reactance
plus transformer leakage reactance plus system short
circuit reactance) X

The corresponding reactive power Q exchanged can be

expressed as follows

By controlling the excitation of the machine, and hence the

amplitude E of its internal voltage relative to the amplitude V of the
system voltage, the reactive power flow can be controlled.

Fig. Reactive power generation by a rotating synchronous compensator

(condenser)
• Increasing E above V (i.e., operating over-excited) results in a leading
current, that is, the machine is "seen" as a capacitor by the ac system.

• Decreasing E below V (i.e., operating under-excited) produces a lagging

current, that is, the machine is "seen" as a reactor (inductor) by the ac
system.

• Under either operating condition a small amount of real power of course

flows from the ac system to the machine to supply its mechanical and
electrical losses.

• Note that if the excitation of the machine is controlled so that the

corresponding reactive output maintains or varies a specific parameter of
the ac system (e.g., bus voltage), then the machine (rotating var generator)
functions as a rotating synchronous compensator (condenser)
STATCOM

A STATCOM is a controlled reactive-power source. It provides

the desired reactive-power generation and absorption entirely by
means of electronic processing of the voltage and current
waveforms in a voltage-source converter (VSC).
 • A single-line STATCOM power circuit is shown in
Fig.(a),where a VSC is connected to a utility bus
through magnetic coupling.

• In Fig. (b), a STATCOM is seen as an adjustable

voltage source behind a reactance meaning that
capacitor banks and shunt reactors are not
needed for reactive-power generation and
absorption, thereby giving a STATCOM a
compact design, or small footprint, as well as
low noise and low magnetic impact.

• The exchange of reactive power between the

converter and the ac system can be controlled
by varying the amplitude of the 3-phase output
voltage, Es, of the converter, as illustrated in Fig.
(c)

Source of figure: Principle of Operation and Advantages- STATCOM ([Link])

• Adjusting the phase shift between the converter-output voltage and the ac system voltage can similarly
control real-power exchange between the converter and the ac system. In other words, the converter can
supply real power to the ac system from its dc energy storage if the converter-output voltage is made to
lead the ac-system voltage

• On the other hand, it can absorb real power from the ac system for the dc system if its voltage lags behind
the ac-system voltage.

• A STATCOM provides the desired reactive power by exchanging the instantaneous reactive power among
the phases of the ac system

• The mechanism by which the converter internally generates and/ or absorbs the reactive power can be
understood by considering the relationship between the output and input powers of the converter. The
converter switches connect the dc-input circuit directly to the ac-output circuit. Thus the net
instantaneous power at the ac output terminals must always be equal to the net instantaneous power at
the dc-input terminals (neglecting losses)

• Assume that the converter is operated to supply reactive-output power. In this case, the real power
provided by the dc source as input to the converter must be zero
• Furthermore, because the reactive power at zero frequency (dc) is by definition zero, the dc source
supplies no reactive power as input to the converter and thus clearly plays no part in the generation of
reactive-output power by the converter

• In other words, the converter simply interconnects the three output terminals so that the reactive-
output currents can flow freely among them. If the terminals of the ac system are regarded in this
context, the converter establishes a circulating reactive-power exchange among the phases. However,
the real power that the converter exchanges at its ac terminals with the ac system must, of course, be
supplied to or absorbed from its dc terminals by the dc capacitor

• Although reactive power is generated internally by the action of converter switches, a dc capacitor must
still be connected across the input terminals of the converter

• The primary need for the capacitor is to provide a circulating-current path as well as a voltage source

• The magnitude of the capacitor is chosen so that the dc voltage across its terminals remains fairly
constant to prevent it from contributing to the ripples in the dc current. The VSC-output voltage is in the
form of a staircase wave into which smooth sinusoidal current from the ac system is drawn, resulting in
slight fluctuations in the output power of the converter
• The VSC may be a 2- level or 3-level type, depending on the required output power and voltage . A
number of VSCs are combined in a multi-pulse connection to form the STATCOM.

• In the steady state, the VSCs operate with fundamental-frequency switching to minimize converter losses.
However, during transient conditions caused by line faults, a pulse width–modulated (PWM) mode is used
to prevent the fault current from entering the VSCs . In this way, the STATCOM is able to withstand
transients on the ac side without blocking.
• In a practical converter, the semiconductor switches are not lossless, and therefore the energy stored in the
dc capacitor would be used up by the internal losses. However, these losses can be supplied from the ac
system by making the output voltages of the converter lag the ac system voltages by a small angle. In this
way the converter absorbs a small amount of real power from the ac system to replenish its internal losses
and keep the capacitor voltage at the desired level

• .The mechanism of phase angle adjustment can also be used to control the var generation or absorption by
increasing or decreasing the capacitor voltage, and thereby the amplitude of the output voltage produced by
the converter.
• All of the practical converters so far employed in actual transmission applications are composed of a number of
elementary converters, that is, of single-phase H-bridges, or three-phase, two-level, six-pulse bridges, or three-
phase, three-level, 12-pulse bridges
• Each elementary converter, as discussed, produces a square or a quasi-square or a pulse-width modulated output
voltage waveform
• Final output voltage can be made to approximate a sine
wave closely enough so that no (or a very small amount)
filtering is required. For example,
• Figure 5.31 shows a typical 48-pulse output voltage
waveform generated by the combined outputs of either
eight two-level, six-pulse, or four three-level, 12-pulse
converters
• It is, of course, also possible to equip the converter with a dc source (e.g., a
battery) or with an energy storage device of significant capacity (e.g., a
large dc capacitor, or a superconducting magnet).

• In this case the converter can control both reactive and real power
exchange with the ac system, and thus it can function as a static
synchronous generator.

• The capability of controlling real as well as reactive power exchange is a

significant feature which can be used effectively in applications requiring
power oscillation damping, leveling peak power demand, and providing
uninterrupted power for critical loads. This capability is unique to the
switching converter type var generator and it fundamentally distinguishes
it from its conventional thyristor-controlled counterpart
Basic Control Approaches.
• A static (var) generator converter comprises a large number of gate-controlled semiconductor power switches (GTO
thyristors).

• The gating commands for these devices are generated by the internal converter control (which is part of the var generator
proper) in response to the demand for reactive and/or real power reference signal(s).

• The reference signals are provided by the external or system control, from operator instructions and system variables,
which determine the functional operation of the STATCOM
The internal control is an integral part of the converter. Its main function is to operate the converter power switches so as
to generate a fundamental output voltage waveform with the demanded magnitude and phase angle in synchronism with
the ac system.

In this way the power converter with the internal control can be viewed as a sinusoidal, synchronous voltage source behind
a tie reactor

The reference signals are provided by the external or system control, from operator instructions and system variables, which
determine the functional operation of the STATCOM
• As illustrated schematically in Figure 5.32, the internal control achieves this by computing the magnitude and phase
angle of the required output voltage from IQRef (and IPRef) provided by the external control and generating a set of
coordinated timing waveforms ("gating pattern"), which determines the on and off periods of each switch in the
converter corresponding to the wanted output voltage.

• These timing waveforms have a defined phase relationship between them, determined by the converter pulse
number, the method used for constructing the output voltage waveform, and the required angular phase relationship
between the three outputs (normally 120 degrees)

• The magnitude and angle of the output voltage are those internal parameters which determine the real and reactive
current the converter draws from, and thereby the real and reactive power it exchanges with the ac system
• From this the internal control derives the necessary magnitude and angle for the converter output voltage to establish the
required dc voltage on the de capacitor since the magnitude of the ac output voltage is directly proportional to the dc
capacitor voltage. Because of this proportionality, the reactive output current, as one approach, can be controlled indirectly
via controlling the dc capacitor voltage

• As another approach, directly by the internal voltage control mechanism (e.g., PWM) of the converter in which case the dc
voltage is kep constant (by the control of the angle)
• The inputs to the internal control are: the ac system bus voltage, v, the output current of the converter, Io and the
reactive current reference, IQRef.

• Voltage v operates a phase-locked loop that provides the basic synchronizing signal, angle theeta.

• The output current, Io is decomposed into its reactive and real components, and the magnitude of the reactive
current component, IoQ , is compared to the reactive current reference, IQRef

• The error thus obtained provides, after suitable

amplification, angle a, which defines the necessary phase
shift between the output voltage of the converter and the
ac system voltage needed for charging (or discharging) the
storage capacitor to the dc voltage level required.

• Accordingly, angle α is summed totheeta to provide angle

theeta+α, which represents the desired synchronizing signal
for the converter to satisfy the reactive current reference.
• Angle (theeta +α) operates the gate pattern logic (which
may be a digital look-up table) that provides the individual
gate drive logic signals to operate the converter power
switches.
Direct Control
The input signals are again the bus voltage, v, the converter output current, io, and the reactive current reference,
IQRef plus the dc voltage reference Vdcref. This dc voltage reference determines the real power the converter must
absorb from the ac system in order to supply its internal losses.

As the block diagram illustrates, the converter output current is decomposed into reactive and real current
components.

These components are compared to the external reactive current reference (determined from compensation
requirements) and the internal real current reference derived from the dc voltage regulation loop.
After suitable amplification, the real and reactive current error signals are converted into the magnitude and angle
of the wanted converter output voltage, from which the appropriate gate drive signals, in proper relationship with
the phase-locked loop provided phase reference, are derived.

Note that this internal control scheme could operate the converter with a dc power supply or energy storage as a
static synchronous generator. In this case the internal real current reference would be summed to an externally
provided real current reference that would indicate the desired real power exchange (either positive or negative)
with the ac system.

The combined internal and external real current references (for converter losses and active power compensation),
together with the prevailing reactive current demand, would determine the magnitude and angle of the output
voltage generated, and thus the real and reactive power exchanged with the ac system.
The V-I operating area of this var generator is limited only by the maximum voltage and current ratings of the
converter
HYBRID Var GENERATORS: STATCOM WITH FC

This arrangement can generate vars in excess of the rating of the

converter, shifting the operating range into the capacitive region.
 HYBRID Var GENERATORS: STATCOM WITH FR(fixed reactor)

• This arrangement can absorb vars in excess of the rating of the

converter, shifting the operating range into the inductive region.
HYBRID Var GENERATORS: STATCOM WITH TSC AND TCR
• Fixed capacitors or reactors shift the operating range of the converter based
var generator more into the capacitive or into the inductive region without
changing the amount of controlllable Mvars, TSC and TCR actually increase
the total control range of var output.
The addition of fixed or switched reactive admittances to the STATCOM
undesirably changes the V-I characteristics in that output current becomes a
function of the applied voltage.
 HYBRID Var GENERATORS: STATCOM WITH FC

This arrangement can generate vars in excess of the rating

of the converter, shifting the operating range into the
capacitive region.
HYBRID Var GENERATORS: STATCOM WITH TSC AND TCR
Fixed capacitors or reactors shift the operating range of the
converter based var generator more into the capacitive or
into the inductive region without changing the amount of
controlllable Mvars, TSC and TCR actually increase the
total control range of var output.
The addition of fixed or switched reactive admittances to the
STATCOM undesirably changes the V-I characteristics in
that output current becomes a function of the applied
voltage.