Flexible AC Transmission

Systems (FACTS)
(EE623 and EE441)

Dr. Jiwanjot Singh

Asst. Prof.
EE Department
Module 1 part 1
FACTS Syllabus
AC transmission line and reactive power compensation: Transmission
interconnection, flow of power in AC system, brief description and definitions of
FACTS controllers

Module 1 part 2

analysis of uncompensated line: transmission line equations, performance of a

line connected to unity power factor load, performance of a symmetrical line,
passive reactive power compensation: distributed and discrete power
compensation, compensation by a series capacitor connected at the mid-point
of the line, shunt capacitor compensation connected at the midpoint of the line,
comparison between series and shunt capacitor compensation
Module 2

Static Shunt Compensators: Objectives of shunt compensation: midpoint voltage

regulation for line segmentation, end of line voltage support to prevent voltage
instability, improvement of transient stability, power oscillation damping, analysis of
SVC, methods of controllable VAR generation: variable impedance type static VAR
generators: TSC and TCR, voltage source converter type VAR generators: Static
Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM); hybrid VAR Generators: voltage source
Module 3
Static Series Compensators: Objectives of series compensation:
voltage stability, improvement of transient stability, power
oscillation damping, sub synchronous oscillation damping, variable
impedance type series compensators: Thyristor-Controlled Series
Capacitor (TCSC),GTO Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor
(GCSC),voltage source converter type series compensators: Static
Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC).

Module 4

Combined Shunt and Series Compensators: Basic operating

principles and characteristics: Unified Power Flow Controllers
(UPFC), Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC)
 Prerequisites & Books:

1. Power Electronics
2. Electrical Power Transmission & Distribution
(Power System)
Text and Reference Books

• N. Hingorani. Understanding FACTS. IEEE Press

• K. R. Padiyar. FACTS controllers in power transmission and distribution.
New Age
• R. Mohan Mathur, Rajiv K. Varma. Thyristor-based FACTS controllers for
electrical transmission systems. IEEE and Willey-Interscience
Course Outcomes (Cos):
At the end of the course the students will be able to
1. examine the interconnection system of the transmission line with their
limitations
2. analyze the effect of series and shunt passive compensators
3. performance evaluation of different static, shunt and series
compensators
4. evaluation of different configurations of combined compensators
 Module 1, Part 1
Transmission interconnection, flow of power in AC system, brief
description and definitions of FACTS controllers,
 Transmission Interconnections
• If a power delivery system is made up of radial lines from individual local generators
without any interconnection

- More generators are required

- Cost will be high
- Less reliable
- More reserve capacity
FACTS Device

IGBT based STATCOM

Photographer: Copyright:
ABB
HOW STATCOM CAN SOLVE DYNAMIC GRID PROBLEMS – YouTube
Transmission Interconnections
• Most of the world’s electric power systems are widely interconnected

• Interconnected transmission lines- Grid Interconnections

– Inside utilities’ own territories- Inter utility

- Inter regional
- International
Transmission Interconnections
• Economic Reasons
• To reduce the cost of electricity
• To improve reliability of power supply
• Diversity of loads
• Availability of sources
• Fuel Price
 Transmission Interconnection
in India

• State Grids- Interconnection in state owned

power plants - e.g PSPCL

• State Grids Interconnected to form regional grids-

ER,NR,SR,WR and NER

• National GRID

• International connections
 Evolution of National Grid in INDIA

• Grid management on regional basis started in sixties.

• Initially, State grids were inter-connected to form regional grid and India was
demarcated into 5 regions namely Northern, Eastern, Western, North Eastern
and Southern region.

• In October 1991 North Eastern and Eastern grids were connected.

• In March 2003 WR and ER-NER were interconnected.

• August 2006 North and East grids were interconnected thereby 4 regional grids
Northern, Eastern, Western and North Eastern grids are synchronously
connected forming central grid operating at one frequency.

• On 31st December 2013, Southern Region was connected to Central Grid in

Synchronous mode with the commissioning of 765kV Raichur-Solapur
Transmission line thereby achieving 'ONE NATION'-'ONE GRID'-'ONE
FREQUENCY'.
• The Indian Power system for planning and operational purposes is divided
into five regional grids.

• The integration of regional grids, and thereby establishment of National Grid,

was conceptualized in early nineties.

• The integration of regional grids which began with asynchronous HVDC back-
to-back inter-regional links facilitating limited exchange of regulated power
was subsequently graduated to high capacity synchronous links between the
regions.
• Synchronisation of all regional grids will help in optimal utilization
of scarce natural resources by transfer of Power from Resource
centric regions to Load centric regions.

• Further, this shall pave way for establishment of vibrant Electricity

market facilitating trading of power across regions.

• One Nation One Grid shall synchronously connect all the regional
grids and there will be one national frequency.
 Opportunities for FACTS
• FACTS is defined by IEEE as: AC transmission systems
incorporating power electronic based static controllers to
enhance controllability and increase power transfer capability

• FACTS controllers are designed to overcome the limitations of the

present mechanically controlled ac power transmission systems
by using reliable, high speed power electronic controllers
 Opportunities for FACTS
• P=V1.V2 / X.Sinδ
• Conventionally there is no high speed control over these
parameters
• Phase angle control is rarely utilised by means of slow
mechanical phase shifters
• Tap changers, reactors and capacitors are generally
mechanically switched are “slow” methods
• There is no control for line impedance
 Opportunities for FACTS

• For controlling power

• For enhancing the usable capacity of the present
transmission lines

• As FACTS controllers control: Series Impedance, Shunt

Impedance, Current, Voltage, Phase Angle and Damping
of Oscillations
 What limits the Loading Capability?
• Thermal
For overhead line, thermal capability is a function of ambient temperature, wind
conditions, conditions of conductor, and ground clearance. The FACTS
technology can help in making an effective used of newfound line capability.

• Dielectric
Being designed very conservatively, most lines can increase operation voltage by
10% or even higher. FACTS technology could be used to ensure acceptable over-
voltage and power flow conditions.

• Stability
The stability issues that limit the transmission capability include: transient stability,
dynamic stability, steady-state stability, frequency collapse. Voltage collapse, and
sub-synchronous resonance.
The FACTS technology can certainly be used to overcome any of the stability
limits.
Power Flow control in parallel lines
 Power Flow control in Mesh Network
• Suppose the lines AB, BC, and
AC have continuous ratings of
1000 MW, 1250 MW, and 2000
MW, respectively
• If one of the generators is
generating 2000 MW and the
other 1000 MW, a total of 3000
MW would be delivered to the
load center. For the impedances
shown, the three lines would carry
600, 1600, and 1400 MW,
respectively, as shown in Figure

• For the impedances shown, the three lines would carry 600, 1600, and 1400 MW,
respectively, as shown in Figure Such a situation would overload line BC (loaded at
1600 MW for its continuous rating of 1250 MW), and therefore generation would
have to be decreased at B, and increased at A, in order to meet the load without
 Solution 1
If, however, a capacitor whose reactance is -5 ohms at the synchronous
frequency is inserted in one line it reduces the line's impedance from 10
ohm to 5 ohm, so that power flow through the lines AB, BC, and AC will
be 250, 1250, and 1750 MW, respectively.
 Solution 2 Solution 3

As another option, a thyristor-controlled phase-angle

Similar results may be obtained by increasing the regulator could be installed instead of a series
impedance of one of the lines in the same meshed capacitor or a series reactor in any of the three lines
configuration by inserting a 7 ohm reactor to serve the same purpose. In Figure, the regulator is
(inductor) in series with line AB . Again, a series installed in the third line to reduce the total phase-
inductor that is partly mechanically and partly angle difference along the line from 8.5 degrees to
thyristor-controlled, it could serve to adjust the 4.26 degrees. As before, a combination of mechanical
steady-state power flows as well as and thyristor control of the phase-angle regulator
damp unwanted oscillations. may minimize cost.
Gyugyi, Laszlo, et al. "The unified power flow controller: a new approach to power transmission control." IEEE
Transactions on power delivery 10.2 (1995): 1085-1097.
Follow this paper for the Unit 4
 EL= E1-E2 and called as
Driving Voltage
I=EL/X and lags EL by 900
The current flow on the line can be
controlled by controlling ELor X or δ

• If the angle between the two bus voltages is small, the

current flow largely represents the active power.
Increasing or decreasing the inductive impedance of a
line will greatly affect the active power flow.
• Thus impedance control, which in reality provides
current control, can be the most cost-effective means of
controlling the power flow. With appropriate control
loops, it can be used for power flow control and/or
angle control for stability.
Varying X will vary P 1, Q1 and , for a given power flow, varying of X
vary the angle between the two ends.
Power flow control using Voltage injection method

Method 1

Power/current flow can be

controlled by regulating
the magnitude of voltage
phasors E1 or E2.

It is seen from the fig that with change in the magnitude of E1the magnitude of
driving voltage phasor E1- E2 doesn't change much, but its phase angle does.

This also means that regulation of the magnitude of voltage phasor E1 and /or
E2 has more influence over the reactive power flow than the active power flow.
 Method 2

Power and current flow can also be

changed by injecting voltage in series
with the line.

It is seen from fig. that when the injected voltage is in phase quadrature with
the current, it directly influences the magnitude of current flow and with small
angle influences substantially the active power flow
 Method 3
The voltage injected in series can be a
phasor with variable magnitude and phase
relationship with the line voltage.

It is seen that varying the amplitude and

phase angle of the voltage injected in series ,
both the active and reactive current flow can
be controlled.

Voltage injection methods form the most important portfolio of the FACTS controllers.
 Relative Importance of Controllable parameters
• Control of the line impedance X ( e.g with a thyristor controlled series
capacitor) can provide a powerful means of current control and
hence the control of active power.

• Control of angle (with a phase angle regulator), which in turn controls

the driving voltage, provides a powerful means of controlling the
current flow and hence the active power flow when the angle is not
large.

• Injecting a voltage in series with the line and perpendicular to the

current flow, can increase or decrease the magnitude of current flow.
Since, the current flow lags the driving voltage by 900, it means
injection of reactive power in series (with static synchronous series
compensation ) can provide a powerful means of controlling the line
current and hence the active power when the angle is not large.
 Relative Importance of Controllable parameters(cont.)

• Injecting a voltage in series with the line and with any phase angle w.r.t the
driving voltage can control the magnitude and the phase angle of line current.
This means that injecting a voltage phasor with variable phase angle can provide
a powerful means of precisely controlling the active and reactive power flow.
This requires both active and reactive power in series.

• The MVA rating of a series controller will often be a small fraction of the
throughput line MVA.

• When the angle is not large, controlling the magnitude of one or other line
voltages can be a very cost effective means for the control of reactive power flow
through the interconnection.

• Combination of line impedance control with a series controller and voltage

regulation with a shunt controller can also provide a cost effective means to
control both the active and reactive power flow .
Basic types of FACTS Controllers
• Series controllers

• Shunt controllers

• Combined series-series controllers

• Combined series-shunt controllers

General Symbol of FACTS controller

 Series controllers
• The series controller could be a

1. variable impedance such as capacitor, reactor etc. (with power electronics)

2. Power electronics based variable source (frequency, harmonics, desired need
etc)
• In principle, all series controllers inject voltage in series with the line. Even a
variable impedance multiplied by the current flow through it represents an
injected series voltage in the line.
• As long as the voltage is in phase quadrature with the line current, the series
controller only supplies or consumes variable reactive power.
• Any other phase relationship will involve handling of real power as well.

v
 Shunt controllers:
The shunt controller could be a
• variable impedance such as capacitor, reactor etc. or a
• variable source or
• combination of both of these.
In principle, all shunt controllers inject current into the system at the point of
connection. Even a variable shunt impedance connected to the line voltage causes
a variable current flow and hence represents an injection of current into the line.
As long as the injected current is in phase quadrature with the line voltage, the
shunt controller only supplies or consumes variable reactive power. Any other
phase relationship will involve handling of real power as well.

I
 Combined Series-Series controllers
This controller could be a combination of separate series controllers, which are
controlled in a coordinated manner in a multiline transmission system OR a unified
controller in which series controllers provide independent series reactive
compensation for each line but also transfer real power among the lines via the
power link.
The real power transfer capability of the unified series-series controller, referred to
as Interline Power Flow Controller, makes it possible to balance both the real and
reactive power flow in the lines.
Any other phase relationship will involve handling of real power as well.

DC Power Link
 Combined Series-Shunt controllers
This controller could be a combination of separate shunt and series controllers,
which are controlled in a coordinated manner OR a unified power flow controller
series and shunt elements.
In principle, combined shunt and series controllers inject current into the system
with the shunt part and voltage in series in the line with the series part.
However, when the shunt and series controllers are unified, there can be real
power exchange between the series and shunt controllers via the power link.

DC
Coordinated
power Control

link
Unified Series Shunt Controller Coordinated Series Shunt Controller
 Relative Importance of different types of Controllers
• The series connected controller impacts the driving voltage and hence the
current and power flow directly. Therefore, if the purpose of application is to
control the current/power flow and damp oscillations, then the series controller
for a given MVA size is several times more powerful than the shunt controller.

• The shunt controller, on the other hand, is like a current source which draws
from or injects currents into the line. It is therefore a good way to control voltage
around the point of connection through injection of reactive current (leading or
lagging).

• A shunt controller is much more effective in maintaining a required voltage

profile at a substation bus.

• An important advantage of the shunt controller is that it serves the bus node
independently of the individual lines connected to the bus
 Relative Importance of different types of
Controllers(cont.)
• FACTS Controllers may be based on thyristor devices with no gate turn off ( only
with gate turn off) or with power devices with gate turn-off capability. The
controllers with gate turn-off devices are based on the dc to ac converters, which
can exchange active and/or reactive power with the ac system.

• When the exchange involves reactive power only, they are provided with a minimal
storage on the dc side.

• However, if the generated ac voltage or current (from the converter) is required to

deviate from 900 w.r.t the line current or voltage, respectively, the converter dc
storage can be augmented beyond the minimum required for the converter
operation as a source of reactive power only.
• Energy storage source such as a battery, superconducting magnet or any other
source of energy can be added in parallel.
 Relative Importance of different types of
Controllers(cont.)
• All converter based FACTS Controllers ( series, shunt or combined shunt
series) can generally accommodate storage ,such as capacitors, batteries and
superconducting magnets, which brings an added dimension to FACTS
technology.

Unified
Series-
Shunt
Storage Controller
with storage
Shunt Cont. with storage

Series
Storage Controller Storage
with storage
 Relative Importance of different types of
Controllers(cont.)
• The benefit of an added storage system(such as large capacitors,
storage batteries, or superconducting magnets) to the controller is
significant.

• A controller with storage is much more effective for controlling the

system dynamics than corresponding controller without the storage.
Brief Description and Definitions of FACTS Controllers
• For converter based controllers there are 2 principal types of
converters with gate turn off devices: Voltage Sourced
Converters and Current Sourced Converters.
• The voltage sourced converter is represented
in symbolic form by a box with a gate turn-off
device paralleled by a reverse diode and a dc
capacitor as a voltage source.
• The current sourced converter is represented
by a box with a gate turn-off device with a
diode in series and a dc reactor as its current
source.
 Shunt connected controllers (contd…)

• STATCOM: Static Synchronous Compensator: A static

synchronous generator operated as a shunt connected static
var compensator whose capacitive or inductive output current
can be controlled independent of the ac system voltage.
• STATCOM based on a voltag e sourced or current
can be sourcedhowever, from an rall cost point of view
converter, voltageove nverters seem to referred.
sourced co be p led such that it is just
• For VSC, its ac out put voltage is controlw for any bus voltage,
right for the requir ed reactive current flodjuste as required to
dc capacitor volta ge is automatically aer.
serve as a voltage source for the convertt as an active filter to
• STATCOM can be desisgned to also ac
absorb system harmonics.
 Shunt connected controllers (contd…)

• SSG: Static Synchronous

Generator: A static self
commutated switching
converter supplied from poweran
appropriate electric energy source.

• SSG is a combination of
STATCOM and any energy souce
to supply or absorb power.

• A energy source can be a battery,

flywheel, superconducting magnet,
large dc storage capacitor etc.
 Shunt connected controllers (contd..)

• SVC: Static Var Compensator : A shunt connected static

var generator or absorber whose output is adjusted to
exchange capacitive or inductive current so as to maintain or
control specific parameters of the electrical power sysytem-
typically bus voltage.

• This is a general term

for a thyristor
controlled or switched
reactor and /or
thyristor switched
capacitor or
combination without
gate turn off capability
 Shunt connected controllers

• TCR: Thyristor Controlled Reactor : A

shunt connected thyristor controlled
inductor whose effective reactance is
varied in a continuous manner by partial
conduction control of the thyristor valve.

• TSR: Thyristor Switched Reactor: A

shunt connected thyristor switched
inductor whose effective reactance is
varied in a stepwise manner by full or
zero conduction operation of the thyristr
valve.
 Shunt connected controllers (contd..)

• TSC: Thyristor Switched Capacitor : A

shunt connected thyristor switched
capacitor whose effective reactance is
varied in a stepwise manner by full or
zero conduction operation of the thyristor
valve.

• Unlike shunt reactors, shunt capacitors

cannot be switched continuously with
variable firing angle control.
 Shunt connected controllers (contd..)

• TSC: Thyristor Switched Capacitor : A

shunt connected thyristor switched
capacitor whose effective reactance is
varied in a stepwise manner by full or
zero conduction operation of the thyristor
valve.

• Unlike shunt reactors, shunt capacitors

cannot be switched continuously with
variable firing angle control.
 Shunt connected controllers (contd..)

• TCBR: Thyristor
Controlled Braking
Resistor : A shunt
connected thyristor
controlled resistor which is
controlled to aid
stabilisation of a power
power or to minimise
systemacceleration of
a generating unit during
a
disturbance .
 Series connected controllers (contd…)
• SSSC: Static Series Synchronous
Compensator: A static synchronous
generator operated without an external
electric energy as a series
source
compensator whose output voltage is in
quadrature with and controllable
independently of the line current for the
purpose of increasing or decreasing the
overall reactive drop across the line and SSSC
thereby controlling the transmitted electric
power.
• The SSSC may include transiently rated
energy or energy absorbing
storage devices
to enhance the dynamic SSSC with
storage
behaviour of the power system by
additional real power compensation.
 Series connected controllers
• TCSC: Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor: A capacitor
reactance compensator which consists of a series capacitor
bank shunted by a thyristor controlled reactor in order to
provide a smoothly variable series capacitive reactance.

• TSSC: Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor: A capacitor

reactance compensator which consists of a series capacitor
bank shunted by a thyristor controlled reactor to provide a
step wise control of series capacitive reactance.
 Series connected controllers
• TCSC: Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor: A capacitor
reactance compensator which consists of a series capacitor bank
shunted by a thyristor controlled reactor in order to provide a
smoothly variable series capacitive reactance.

• TSSC: Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor: A capacitor

reactance compensator which consists of a series capacitor bank
shunted by a thyristor controlled reactor to provide a step wise
control of series capacitive reactance.
 Series connected controllers (contd…)
• TCSR: Thyristor Controlled Series Reactor: A inductive
reactance compensator which consists of a series reactor
shunted by a thyristor controlled reactor in order to provide a
smoothly variable series inductive reactance.
 Series connected controllers (contd…)
• IPFC: Interline Power Flow Controller: The IPFC
recently introducedis controller.
a
• The possible definition is “ The
combination of two or more
static synchronous series
compensators which are coupled
via a common dc link to facilitate
bi-directional current flow of real
power between the ac terminals
of the SSSCs and are controlled
to provide independent reactive
compensation for the adjustment
of real power flow in each line
and maintain the desired
distribution of reactive power flow
among the lines.”
 Combined shunt and series
connected controllers
• UPFC: Unified Power Flow
Controller: A combination of
static synchronous
compensator (STATCOM) and
a static series compensator
(SSSC) which are coupled via
a common dc link, to allow
bidirectional
power between flow of real
the series
terminals of the SSSC
output
and the shunt output terminals
of the STATCOM and are
controlled to provide concurrent
real and reactive series
compensation without line
external electric energy source. an
 Combined shunt and series
connected controllers
• TCPST: Thyristor Controlled
Phase Shifting Transformer: A
Phase shifting transformer
adjusted by thyristor switches to
provide a rapidly variable phase
angle.
• This is also known as Thyristor
Controlled Phase Angle Regulator
(TCPAR)
• Phase shifting is obtained by
adding a perpendicular voltage
vector in series with a phase. This
vector is derived from the other two
phases via shunt connected
transformers.
 Other controllers
• TCVR: Thyristor Controlled
Voltage Regulator: A thyristor
controlled transformer which
can provide variable in phase
voltage with continuous control.

• This may be a
tranformer regular with a Fig. a
controlled tapthyristor
changer(Fig. a)

• Or with a thyristor controlled ac

to ac voltage converter for
injection of variable ac voltage
of the same phase in series
with the line (Fig. b). Fig. b
Benefits of FACTS technology
Control of power flow as ordered. The use of control of the power flow may be to
follow a contract, meet the utilities' own needs, ensure optimum power flow, ride
through emergency conditions, or a combination thereof.

Increase the loading capability of lines to their thermal capabilities, including short
term and seasonal. This can be accomplished by overcoming other limitations, and
sharing of power among lines according to their capability. It is also important to note
that thermal capability of a line varies by a very large margin based on the
environmental conditions and loading history.
The current flow on the line can be controlled by controlling EL or X or delta. In order to
achieve a high degree of control on the current in this line, the equipment required in series
with the line would not have a very high power rating.

For example, a 500 kV (approximately 300 kV phase-ground), 2000 A line has a three-phase
throughput power of 1800 MV A, and, for a 200 km length, it would have a voltage drop of
about 60 kV. For variable series compensation of say, 25%, the series equipment required
would have a nominal rating of 0.25 X 60 kV X 2000 A = 30 MVA per phase, or 90 MVA for
three phases, which is only 5% of the throughput line rating of 1800 MVA.

However, any series-connected equipment has to be designed to carry contingency overloads

so that the equipment may have to be rated to 100% overload capability
IN PERSPECTIVE: HVDC OR FACTS
Submarine cables
• Cables have a large capacitance, and hence ac cables require a large charging current (reactive power) an order of
magnitude larger than that of overhead lines. As a result, for over a 30 km or so stretch of ac
• submarine cable, the charging current supplied from the shore will fully load the cable and leave no room for
transmitting real power.
• The charging current flowing in the cables can only be reduced by connecting shunt inductors to the cable at
intervals of 15-20 km, thus requiring appropriate land location.
• With HVDC cable on the other hand, distance is not a technical barrier. Also, the cost of de cable transmission is
much lower than that of ac which works to HVDC's advantage to cover new markets for long distance submarine
transmission.
In this area, FACTS technology (e.g., the UPFC) can provide an improvement by controlling the magnitude of one
of the end (e.g., the receiving-end) voltages so as to keep it identical to that of the other one. In this way, the
effective length of the cable from the standpoint of the charging current can be halved.
This approach may provide an economical solution
for moderate submarine distances, up to about 100 km, but for long distance
transmission HVDC will remain unchallenged
Long distance overhead transmission:

• If the overhead transmission is long enough, say 1000 km, the

saving in capital costs and losses with a dc transmission line may
be enough to pay for two converters (note that HVDC represents
total power electronics rating of 200% of the rated transmission
capacity).

• This distance is known as the break-even distance. This break-

even distance is very subject to many factors including the cost of
the line, right-of-way, any need to tap the line along the way, and
often most important, the politics of obtaining permission to build
the line.

• Nevertheless, it is important to recognize that while FACTS can

play an important role in an effective use of ac transmission, it
probably does not have too much influence on the breakeven
distance.
Thus, the principal role of FACTS is in the vast ac transmission
market where HVDC is generally not economically viable
 Underground transmission.
Because of the high cost of underground cables, the break even distance for HVDC is more like 100 km as
against 1000 km for overhead lines. Again, FACTS technology probably does not have much influence in
this break-even distance. In any case, to date there have been no long distance underground projects, either
ac or de, because, in an open landscape, overhead transmission costs so much less than underground
transmission (about 25% of the costs of underground transmission). Cable transmission, on the other hand,
has a significant potential of cost reduction, both in the cost of cables and construction cost

Connecting ac systems of different or incompatible frequencies: For historical reasons, the oceans
in effect separate the globe's electric systems into 50 Hz and 60 Hz groups. The 60 Hz normal
frequency pervades all the countries of the Americas, excepting Argentina and Paraguay. Those two
countries and all the rest of the world have a 50 Hz frequency except Japan, which is partly 50 Hz and
partly 60 Hz. In general, the oceans are too huge and deep to justify interconnections of 50 and 60 Hz
systems. Thus there is a limited market for HVDC for connecting 50 and 60 Hz systems
 Module 1, II part
Transmission Line and compensation

In this Module, the reactive power control in AC power transmission

lines is
examined. The requirements are to
(a) transmit as much power as feasible on a line of specified voltage and
(b) to control the voltage along the line within limits.

The steady-state characteristics of a transmission line are first studied

based
on equations derived from first principles. The benefits of reactive power
compensation (both shunt and series) are described with analysis and
exam-
ples.
Analysis of Uncompensated AC Line

• it is assumed that the sending end is connected to a

generator and the receiving end is connected to a
(unity power factor) load.
• The line has series resistance r and inductance l,
shunt conductance g and capacitance c (all
parameters expressed per unit length).
• It is assumed that in steady state all the voltages
and currents in the line are sinusoidal of frequency
(w rad/sec) and expressed in phasors.
 STATIC SHUNT
COMPENSATORS
 Objectives of Shunt Compensation
• The steady state transmittable power can be increased and the
voltage profile along the line can be controlled by appropriate
reactive shunt compensation.
• The shunt connected, fixed or mechanically switched inductors
are applied to minimize line overvoltage under light load
conditions and shunt connected fixed or mechanically switched
capacitors are applied to maintain voltage levels under heavy
load conditions.
• The ultimate objective of applying reactive shunt compensation
in a transmission system is to increase the transmittable power.
This also helps in improving the stability of the system.
• VAR compensation is thus used for voltage regulation at the
midpoint or some intermediate segment of the transmission
line and at the end of the radial line to prevent voltage
instability, as well as for dynamic voltage control to increase
transient stability and damp power oscillations.
 Midpoint Voltage Regulation for
Line Segmentation
Uncompensated Case: Let us consider a simplified model of
the uncompensated system.

Let |VS|=|VR|=V. The voltage at the midpoint of the line is VM

which is the minimum voltage in the voltage profile.

The real power exported along the line is P=V2/XSinδ

------------(1)
From the phasor diagram, Sinδ/2=I.X / 2V I=2V / X Sinδ/2 -----
-------(2)
The line absorbs reactive power Q, as a function of
the line current.
Q=I2X=4V2/Sin2δ/2=2V2/X(1-Cosδ)----------(3)
 P=V2/X Sinδ=Pmax sinδ------------(1)
Q=2V2/X(1-Cosδ)=2Pmax(1-Cosδ)-----------(3)
The voltage profile of the uncompensated transmission line is
a maximum at the line ends ‘V’and a minimum at the midpoint,
VM
If the line isrally loaded then the voltage profile would be
natu flat i.e thee magnitude woulde equal at all points
voltag the lineb ompensation isalong ired.
and no c requ ation can be seen as a e
Thus the application of line compensprofile. This , however,
means of imating a flat voltaged along the line which is
approx implies pensation is
that com distribut al. vide compensation at the
clearly impractic
midpoint, which st
will divide the
approach is line into two equal sections.
to pro
 Mid point compensation
The figure shows the
arrangement of the ideal
midpoint shunt
compensator
which maintains a voltage
,VM, equal to voltages
bus that |VS|=|VR|=|VM|=V
such

The compensator does not consume any

real (P=0) the compensator
power since current IM arein
voltage and
V M, its
P=2V2/X Sinδ/2=2Pmax sinδ/2
quadrature.

QP=4V2/X(1-Cosδ/2)
• It is observed that the midpoint shunt compensation
can significantly increase the transmittable
power(doubling its maximum value) at the expense of
a rapidly increasing reactive power demand on the
midpoint compensator.
• With long transmission lines a single midpoint
compesator may not be adequate to prop up the line
voltage and several shunt compensator cnnected at
intervals down the line may be needed.
• Theoretically, the transmittable power would double
with each doubling of the segments for the same
overall line length.
• With the increase of the no. of segments the voltage
variation along the line would rapidly decrease
approaching the ideal case of constant voltage profile.
The concept of transmission line
segmentation can be expanded to the
use of multiple compensators, located
at equal segments of the transmision
line as illustrated for 4 line segments
 End of Line Voltage Support to
prevent Voltage Instability
The assumption of adequate reactive power control at the
receiving end to maintain a constant voltage will not in
general apply where the receiving end represents a load
centre with little or no generation

A simple radial system with feeder line reactance X and load

impedance Z is shown.
The normalised terminal voltage VR versus power P plot at
various load power factors, ranging from 0.8 lag to 0.9 lead.
The nose-point at each plot given for a specific power
factor represents the voltage instability corresponding
to that system condition.
 End of Line Voltage Support to
prevent Voltage Instability
It is evident that for a radial line, the end of the line, the
end of the line, where the largest voltage variation is
experienced, is the best location for the compensator.

Reactive shunt compensation is often used in practical

applications to regulate the voltage at a given bus against
load variations or to provide voltage support for the load .
 Improvement of Transient Stability
The transient stability studies involve the determination of
whether or not synchronism is maintained after the
machine has been subjected to severe disturbance. This
may be sudden application of load, loss of generation,
loss of large load or a fault on the system.
A method known as the equal area criterion can be used for a
quick prediction of stability.

This method is based on the graphical interpretation of the

energy stored in the rotating mass as an aid to determine if the
machine maintains its stability after a disturbance.

This method is only applicable to a one machine system

connected to an infinite bus or a two machine system.
 Transient Stability-Equal Area Critrion
Consider the machine
operating the
at
equilibrium
δ0,corresponding topoint
the
mechanical powerinput
P =P
m0 e0

Consider a sudden step increase in input power

represented by the horizontal line Pm1 .
At δ= δ2,the decelerating area A2 is equal to the accelerating
area A1. This is known as Equal Area Criterion. The rotor
angle would then oscillate back and forth between δ0 and
δ2 at its natural frequency. The damping present in the
machine will cause these oscillations to subside and the
new steady state operating point would be at ‘b’.
 Transient Stability-Equal Area Critrion
With a sudden change in the
powerinput, the stability
is
maintained only if area
A2(DeceleratingArea) is
atleast equal to A1 can be located above Pm .
If area A2 is less than area the accelerating momentum
never be overcome. A
1,
ca
n
The limit of stability occurs when δmax, is at the intersection
of line Pm and the power angle curve for 900<δ<1800 Once
δmax is obtained, the maximum permissible power or the
transient stability limit is found from Pm= Pmax Sin δ1, where
δ π-δ
1= max
 Transient Stability-Equal Area Critrion
A fault occurring close to the generator will stop the
flow of real power from the generator to the infinite
bus bar via the line.

At δ= δ1 the fault is cleared

we see that δ2 is less than δcrit and thus the extra area
Amargin , is available. This area is referred to as the stability
margin and is a measure of how close to the limit the
system is being operated.
 Transient Stability-Equal Area Critrion
the stability margin is increased compared to the
uncompensated case.

Alternatively, if the uncompensated stability margin is

satisfactory, then these methods can increase the
power transfer without reducing the stability margin.
 Power Oscillation Damping
In the case of an under damped power system, any minor
disturbance can cause the machine angle to oscillate
around its steady state value at the natural frequency of
the electromechanical system.

The angle oscillation, of course, results in a

corresponding power oscillation around the steady-
state power transmitted. The lack of sufficient damping
can be a major problem in some power systems and in
some cases, it may be the limiting factor for the
transmittable power.
Since the power oscillation is a sustained dynamic event,
it is necessary to vary the applied shunt compensation to
counteract the accelerating and decelerating swings of
the disturbed machine .
 Power Oscillation Damping
When the rotationally oscillating generator accelerates
and angle δ increases (dδ/dt>0), the electric power
transmitted must be increased to compensate for the
excess mechanical input power. Conversely, when the
generator decelerates and angle δ decreases
(dδ/dt<0),the electric power must be decreased to
balance the insufficient mechanical input power.
 Methods of Controllable VAR generation
- Variable Impedance type Static Var generators
- Thyristor Controlled Reactor(TCR)
- Thyristor Switched Reactor(TSR)
- Thyristor Switched Capacitor(TSC)

- STATCOM- Switching Converter type VAR generator

 Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR)
The current in the reactor can be
controlled from maximum(
thyristor valve closed) to zero(
thyristor valve open) by the
of firing delay angle
method The closure of the
control.
thyristor valve is delayed with
respect to the peak of the
applied voltage in each half
cycle, and thus the duration of
the current conduction intervals
is controlled.
 Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR)
The current in the reactor can be
controlled from maximum(
thyristor valve closed) to zero(
thyristor valve open) by the
of firing delay angle
method The closure of the
control.
thyristor valve is delayed with
respect to the peak of the
applied voltage in each half
cycle, and thus the duration of
the current conduction intervals
is controlled.
 Thyristor
Controlled
If bothReactor
thyristors(TCR)
are gated at a
voltage maximum then circuit
will behave as though the
thyristor is short circuited and
thus produce a lagging current
of nearly 900.
The inductor current( and its
stored energy) increases until
the voltage reaches zero.
When voltage goes negative, the
current now decreases and the
stored energy is returned to
the system until the current
becomes zero and it no longer
conducts
 Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR)
The delay angle α varies between 900 (full
conduction)
and 1800(no conduction).
The of increasing the gating delayangle is to
effect
decrease the amplitude of the current through the
Since the phase of the fundamental current component
inductor.
remains lagging at 900 to the applied voltage, we can see
that changing the gating delay angle, control the
effective inductance of the circuit.

The instantaneous i = 2XVL (cosα − cosωt) for α <ωt<α

current through the +=δ for α + δ <ωt<α
inductor I is given by. 0 +π
I1I1== VVδπ−(1Xsin
−L δα21 −
The fundamental
component of the ωL π π δ =
current is given by.
 Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR)
The fundamental component of the current is given by:
V 2 1
I1 = (1− α − sin 2α )
ωL π π

It is clear that the TCR can control the fundamental current

continuously from zero (valve open) to a maximum (valve
closed) as if it was a variable admittance.

The effective reactive admittance, BL(α) for the TCR

can be defined as :
1 2 1
B L(α ) = (1− α − sin 2α )
ωL π π
 Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR)

The effective reactive admittance, BL(α) for the

TCR can be defined as :

1 2 1
B L( α ) = (1− α − sin 2α )
ωL π π

The meaning of the above equation is that at each delay

angle α an effective admittance BL(α) can be defined
which determines the magnitude of the fundamental
current I 1(α) in the TCR at a given applied voltage.
 Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR)

In practice, the maximum magnitude of the applied

voltage and that of the corresponding current will be
limited by the ratings of the power components(reactor
and thyristor valve) used
Thus a practical TCR can be operated anywhere in a
defined V-I area, the boundaries of which are
determined by its maximum attainable admittance,
voltage and current ratings as shown below.
 Thyristor Switched Reactor (TSR)

If the TCR switching is restricted to a fixed

delay angle,α=0,then it becomes a
usually thyristor switched
reactor(TSR). TSR provides a fixed inductive
The
admittance.
TSRs can provide a reactive admittance controllable in a
step like manner. If the TSRs are operated at α=0, the
resultant steady state current will be sinusoidal.
 Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)

An inductor when connected to a sinusoidal

stores maximum energy in itsvoltagemagnetic field at
maximum current flow, whereas a capacitor stores
maximum energy in its dielectric at maximum applied
voltage when current flow is zero.
This makes the thyristor switching of capacitors difficult
since the possibility exists of applying the maximum
positive peak A.C voltage to a capacitor charged to
maximum negative peak voltage resulting in very high
currents.
In practice, the use of thyristors to switch capacitors is
strictly limited to allowing conduction for an integral
number of half cycles.
 Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)

Ideal switching waveforms for a capacitor, the capacitor is

switched off by natural commutation of the thyristor, which
leaves a charge Vc on the capacitor.

In order to switch the capacitor again, the gating pulse

must be applied at the supply voltage peak when the
supply and capacitor voltages are equal.
 Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)
Let the supply voltage v is sinusoidal and given by: v =
Vmsin(ω0t+α)----------------(1)

The thyristors may only be gated into conduction at a

peak of the supply voltage, i.e when

dv
dt = ω0Vm cos(ω0t + α ) = 0 − −
− (2)
The current through the capacitor can be stated as

dv
i = C − − − − − − − (3)
dt
So, gating at any instant other than the condition given in
(2) will force the current to assume a discontinuous step.
Thus, to switch capacitors , it is necessary to ensure that dv/
dt=0 and that the capacitor has already charged to the
peak of the sytem voltage. If this conditions are not met,
then a transient will result from the switching action.
 Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)
A single phase thyristor switched capacitor(TSC) is
shown below which contains some series inductance
to prevent high di/dt which may cause the thyristors to
conduct in the absence of a gating pulse.

1 VCO
V (s) = (Ls + ).I (s) −
Cs s
i(t) = Im cos(ω0t + α ) −
nBc(Vco − 2 Vm sin α ) sin
n 2

n − 1 ωn t
-Imcosα.cosωnt −
−(4) 1 Xc
where Im = Vm.Bc, Bc = ω0C, and
LC n= XL
 Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)
In order to attain transient free switching of the circuit, it is
necessary to make the last two terms on the right hand
side of eq.(4) equal to zero.
This can be achieved by simultaneously satisfying the
following two conditions.

cosα = 0 and VCO= ± − −(5) n2

Vm n2 − 1
The first condition implies that the capacitors are gated at
supply voltage peak.

The second condition implies that the capacitors must be

charged to a voltage higher than the supply voltage
prior to gating.
 Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)
Under steady state conditions,when the thyristor valve is
closed and the TSC branch is connected to a sinusoidal
voltage source, v=Vmsinωt, the current in the branch is
given by.

i(t) = n2 ωC.cos − −(6)

Vm n 2 − 1 ωt

The amplitude of the voltage across the capacitor is

VC = Vm − −(7)
n 2
n
Xc
n2 − 1 = XL
 Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)
The TSC branch can be
disconnected “switched
out” at any current zero by
prior removal of the gate
drive to the thyristor valve.
At current zero crossing, the
capacitor voltage is at its
peak value,
VC , i = 0 =n2
Vm n2 − 1
The disconnected capacitor
stays charged to this voltage
and consequently, the
voltage across the non
conducting thyristor value
varies between zero and
peak to peak value of the
 Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)
If the voltage across the
disconnected capacitor
remained unchanged, the
TSC bank could be
switched in again at the
appropriate peak of the
applied a.c voltage
without any transient.
But normally, the capacitor bank is
discharged after disconnection. Thus the reconnection of the
capacitor may have to be executed at some residual voltage between
zero and V.n 2/n2-1.
This can possible with minimum transient disturbance if the thyristor
valve is turned on at those instants at which capacitor residual
voltage and the applied a.c voltage are equal, i.e when the voltage
across the thyristor valve is zero.
 if the residual capacitor voltage is lower
than the peak a.c voltage(V C<V m), then the
correct instant of switching is when
instantaneous a.c voltage becomes equal
to the capacitor voltage.
if the capacitor
residual
voltage is equal to higher
than the peak a.c voltage,
then the correct instant
of switching is at the
peak of the a.c voltage
at which thyristor valve
voltage is minimum.
 Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)
• It is clear that firing delay angle control is not applicable to
capacitors, the capacitor switching must take place at that
specific instant in each cycle at which the condition for
minimum transient are satisfied i.e when the voltage across the
thyristor valve is zero or minimum.

• A TSC branch can provide only a step like change in the

reactive current it draws(maximum or zero).

• TSC branch represents a single capacitive admittance which is

either connected to or disconnected from the a.c system.
 Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)
The current in the TSC branch varies linearly with the
applied voltage across according to the admittance of the
capacitor as shown below by V-I plot.

The maximum applicable voltage and corresponding

current are limited by the rating of the TSC
components(capacitor and thyristor valve).

To approximate
continuous current
variation several
branches TSC in
parallel
(which would increase in
a step manner
like
capacitive the
admittance)
may be employed.
 Static Var Compensators(SVC)
• Static Var Compensator is considered as the first generation
FACTS controller. It is a variable impedance device where
the current through a reactor is controlled using back to
back connected thyristor valves.
• A SVC has no inertia compared to synchronous condensors
and can be extremely fast in response. (2-3 cycles)

• There are two types of SVC:

1. Fixed Capacitor –Thyristor Controlled Reactor(FC-TCR)

2. Thyristor Switched Capacitor-Thyristor Controlled
Reactor(TSC-TCR)
 Fixed Capacitor –Thyristor
Controlled Reactor(FC-
The current in the TCR)
reactor is varied by
controlling the firing angle delay.
The constant capacitive var
generation(QC) of the fixed capacitor is
opposed by the variable var absorption
(QL) of the output TCR to yield the total
var output (Q) required.
At α=900 when the TCR is off, the output
is maximum capacitive var.

To decrease the capacitive output, the

current in TCR is increased by
decreasing delay angle α.
 Fixed Capacitor –Thyristor
Controlled Reactor(FC-
The V-I operating area of the FC-TCR var
generator
defined by is
the
TCR)
maximum attainable capacitive
and current
ratings ofadmittances
inductive and components.
the major power by the voltage and
 TSC-TCR type SVC

A basic single phase TSC-TCR arrangement is shown,

consists of ‘n’ TSC branches and one TSC. The no. of
branches, n, is determined by practical considerations
that include the operating voltage level, maximum var
output, current ratings of the thyristor valves etc.
The total capacitive output range is divided into n intervals.
In the first interval, the output of the var generator is
controllable in the zero to Qcmax/n rannge, where Qcmax is
the total rating provided by all TSC branches. In this
interval, one capacitor bank is switched in(by firing, e.g
SW1) and simultaneously the current in the TCR is set by
the appropriate firing angle delay angle so that the sum of
TSC var output (negative)and TCR var output(positive)
equals the capacitive o/p required.
 TSC-TCR type SVC

Operating V-I area of the TSC-TCR type var generator with

two thyristor-switched capacitor banks
 STATCOM
Basic Operating Principles
Principle of reactive power
generation by a VSC is akin to
the conventional rotating
synchronous machine.
For purely reactive power flow,
the three phase induced emfs
ea , eb and ec of the
synchronous rotating machine
are in phase with the system
voltages va, vb and vc. The
reactive current I drawn by the
synchronous compensator is
determined by the magnitude
of the system voltage V,
internal voltage E and X.
 STATCOM
I=V−E
X
The corresponding reactive
power Q exchanged is

E
1−
V
Q= V2
X
By controlling the excitation of the machine, and hence the
amplitude E of its internal voltage relative to the amplitude
V of the system voltage, the reactive power can be
controlled. Increasing E above V (operating overexcited)
results in a leading current, i.e the machine becomes a
capacitor.
STATCOM
From a dc input voltage
source,
provided by the charged
capacitor CS, the converter
three phase output voltages is in
produces a of controllable
phase with and coupled to
set ac system by the
corresponding
leakage reactance X.
By varying the amplitude of
output voltages the
produced, reactive
power the
exchange
between the converter and the ac
system can be controlled in a
manner similar to that of the
rotating synchronous machine.
STATCOM
If the amplitude of the output voltage
is increased above the
voltage, then current system
through the tie reactance fromflows
the
converter to the ac system and
the converter generates
capacitive reactive power.
If the amplitude of the output
voltage is decreased below the
system voltage, then current
flows from the ac system to the
converter. The converter absorbs
inductive reactive power.
If the amplitude of the output
voltage is equal to the ac system
voltage, the reactive power
exchange is zero.
The 3-phase output voltage is generated by a voltage sourced dc to ac
converter operated from an energy storage capacitor.

All of the practical converters employed in actual transmission lines are

composed of a number of elementary converters, i.e single phase H-
bridges or 3-phase 2-level 6-pulse bridges or 3-phase 3-level 12-pulse
bridges.

1-Ф 2- 3-Ф 2-level 3-Ф 3-level

level H- 6-pulse bridge 12-pulse bridge
 STATCOM
• Each elementary converter produces a square or quasi square
or a pulse width modulated output waveform.
• These component voltage waveforms are phase-shifted from
each other and then combined usually with the use of
appropriate magnetic components, to produce the final output
voltage of the total converter.
• With sufficient design, this final output voltage can be made to
approximate a sine wave closely.
 STATCOM
• The converter supplies only reactive output power(its
output voltages are controlled to be in phase with the
ac system voltages), the real input power provided by
the dc source (charged capacitor) must be zero(as
the instantaneous power on the ac side is also zero).
• Reactive power at zero frequency(at the dc capacitor)
by definition is zero, the dc capacitor plays no part in
the reactive power generation. The converter simply
interconnects the three ac terminals in such a way
that the reactive output currents can flow freely
between them.
• Thus the converter establishes a circulating current
flow among the phases with zero net instantaneous
power exchange.
 STATCOM
• The need for the dc storage capacitor is theoretically due to the
stated equality of the instantaneous output and input powers.
• The output voltage waveform of the dc to ac converter is not a
perfect sine wave. Hence, the net instantaneous output power
(VA) has a fluctuating component even if the converter output
currents were pure sine waves. Thus , in order not to violate
the equality of instantaneous output and input powers , the
converter must draw a fluctuating(“ripple”) current from the dc
storage capacitor that provides a constant voltage termination
at the input.
• In a practical converter, the semiconductor switches are not
lossless, and therefore the energy stored in the dc capacitor
would be used up by the internal losses. However, these
losses can be supplied from the ac system by making the
output voltages of the converter lag the ac system voltage by a
small angle.
 STATCOM
• Similarly, the var generation or absorption controlled by
increasing or decreasing the capacitor voltage and thereby the
amplitude of the output voltage produced by the converter. The
amplitude difference between the converter output voltage and
ac system voltage determines completely the magnitude and
direction of the reactive current flow.
• It is also possible to equip the converter with a dc source (e.g a
battery) or with an energy storage device of significant
capacity(e.g a large capacitor or a superconducting magnet). In
this case, the converter can control both reactive and real
power exchange with the ac system. And thus function as a
static synchronous generator.
• This capability of controlling real as well as reactive power
exchange with the ac system is unique to the switching
converter type var generator and it fundamentally distinguishes
it from its conventional thyristor controlled counterpart.
 STATCOM-BASIC CONTROL APPROACHES
STATCOM comprises a large number of gate-controlled
semiconductor power switches(GTO Thyristors). The
gating commands for these devices are generated by the
internal control in response to the demand for reactive
and/or real power reference signals.
The reference signals are provided by the external or system
control, from operator instructions and system variables,
which determine the functional operation of the STATCOM.
The main function of internal control is to operate the
converter switches so as to generate a fundamental output
voltage waveform with the demand magnitude and phase
angle in synchronism with the ac system.
STATCOM with internal control can be viewed as a
sinusoidal, synchronous source a tie
behind
voltage
reactor, the amplitude and angle of which are
phase
controlled by the external control via appropriate reference
signals.
STATCOM-BASIC CONTROL APPROACHES
The internal control computes the magnitude and phase
angle of the required output voltage from IQRef and IPRef
provided by the external control and generating a set of
coordinated timing waveforms(“gating pattern”), which
determines the on and off periods of each switch in the
converter corresponding to the wanted output voltage.
These timing waveforms have a defined phase relationship
between them, determined by the converter pulse number.
 STATCOM-BASIC CONTROL APPROACHES
The magnitude and phase angle of v0 (converter output
voltage) determines the real and reactive current the
converter draws, thereby the real and reactive power it
exchanges with the ac system.
If the converter only reactive power,then
exchanges reference input to the is the
the internal
reactive current. control required
From this the internal control derives the necessary
magnitude and phase angle of v0 to establish the required
dc voltage on the dc capacitor since the magnitude of the
ac output voltage is directly proportional to the dc
capacitor voltage.
Because of this proportionality, the reactive output current,
can be controlled indirectly via controlling the dc capacitor
voltage which in turn is controlled by the angle of v0.
STATCOM-BASIC CONTROL APPROACHES
The inputs to the internal control are : v, the system bus
voltage, i0, the ouput current of the converter and IQRef, the
reactive current reference.

Basic control scheme for the VSC based STATCOM controlling the reactive output by the
variation of the dc capacitor voltage-indirect output voltage control.
STATCOM-BASIC CONTROL APPROACHES
Voltage v operates a phase locked loop that provides the
basic synchronizing signal, angle Ɵ. The i0 is decomposed
into its reactive and real components and I0Q is compared
with IQRef. The error gives α, which defines the necessary
shift between v0 and v needed for charging or discharging
the capacitor to the dc voltage required. α is summed to Ɵ
to provide Ɵ+ α, the desired synchronizing signal.

Δvdc = 1 idcdt
C
idc = f (Δα )
 STATCOM
STATCOM can be considered as a synchronous voltage
source which will draw reactive current from the ac
system according to an external reference which may
vary in a defined range between the same capacitive and
inductive maxima, independent of the ac system voltage.
The V-I operating of STATCOM is limited only by the
maximum voltage and current ratings of the converter.
 HYBRID Var GENERATORS: STATCOM WITH FC

This arrangement can generate vars in excess of the rating

of the converter, shifting the operating range into the
capacitive region.
 HYBRID Var GENERATORS: STATCOM WITH FR

This arrangement can absorb vars in excess of the rating of

the converter, shifting the operating range into the
inductive region.
HYBRID Var GENERATORS: STATCOM WITH TSC AND TCR
Fixed capacitors or reactors shift the operating range of the
converter based var generator more into the capacitive or
into the inductive region without changing the amount of
controlllable Mvars, TSC and TCR actually increase the
total control range of var output.
The addition of fixed or switched reactive admittances to the
STATCOM undesirably changes the V-I characteristics in
that output current becomes a function of the applied
voltage.
STATIC VAR GENERATORS: SVC AND STATCOM

This arrangement can absorb vars in excess of the rating of

the converter, shifting the operating range into the
inductive region.
Multilevel Inverter(High Pulse Order)
Single-phase diode-clamped five-level bridge multilevel inverter
and switching states
Cascaded multilevel inverter
 Multilevel inverter combine with selective
harmonic elimination

Find switching angles that 5th, 7th, 11th, and 13th harmonics can be
eliminated from the output waveform.
Reactive power compensation using multilevel converter
Back-to-back inverier using two diode-clamped multilevel converters
 TCR, thyristor control reactor (shunt connected controller)

Note: Due to the phase control,

harmonic currents of low order also
appear.
Passive filters may be necessary to
eliminate these harmonics.
Transformers with Y-delta
connections are normally used to at
the sending end to avoid harmonic
injection to the ac supply line.
 TSC, thyristor-switched capacitor (shunt connected controller)

Note:The thyristors can be always turned on

for supplying constant Qc or controlled
with duty cycle for more flexible feature.
SVC, Static VAR Compensator (shunt connected controller)

Note: The control strategy usually aims to maintain the transmission line
voltage at a fixed level.
STATCOM, Static Compensator---Advanced Static VAR Compensator (shunt
connected controller)

The main features:

1. Wide operating range
2. Lower rating than SVC
3. Increased transient
rating and superior
capability to handle
dynamic system
disturbances
 STATIC SERIES
COMPENSATORS
 Objectives of Series Compensation
• The ac power transmission over long lines was primarily limited
by the series reactive impedance of the line. Series capacitive
compensation cancel a portion of the reactive line impedance
and thereby increase the transmittable power.
• Variable series compensation is highly effective in both
controlling flow in line and stability.
power
FACTS technology the improving
variable controllable series line
based
compensation can be achieve full utilization of
applied to assets by controlling the power flow in the lines,
transmission
preventing loop flows and with the use of fast controls,
minimizing the effect of system disturbances, thereby reducing
traditional stability margin requirements.
• It helps damping power oscillations and sub synchronous
oscillations and improve voltage stability .
 Concept of Series Capacitive
Compensation

• The basic idea behind series capacitive

compensation is to decrease the overall effective
series transmission impedance from the sending
end to the receiving end i.e, X in the P=(V2/X)sinδ
relationship characterizing the power
transmission over a single line.
 Concept of Series Capacitive Compensation

For the same end voltages the magnitude of the total voltage
across the series line inductance, Vx=2Vx/2 is increased by the
magnitude of the opposite voltage, VC, developed across the
series capacitor.

The transmission Xeff with series

effective impedance the
capacitive compensation is given by:
compensation
X =X-X and XC/X and 0≤k<1
,soXk==(1-k)X , where ‘k’ the degree series
eff C eff
 Concept of Series Capacitive Compensation
Assuming Vs=V r=V, the real power transferred is given by :
P=V2/X . .sinδ=V2/X(1-k) . sinδ

The reactive power supplied by the series capacitor can

be expressed as :

2V 2 k
Q C = I XC =
2
. (1− cos δ
X (1− k ) )
2

The transmittable power

rapidly increased by with the
degree of
series compensation ‘k’.
Similarly, the reactive power
supplied by the series capacitor
also increases sharply with ‘k’
and varies with angle δ
 Concept of Series Capacitive Compensation
• The impedance of the series compensating capacitor cancels a
portion of the actual line reactance and thereby the effective
transmission impedance is reduced as if the line was physically
shortened.

• Alternatively, in order to increase the current in the given series

impedance of the actual physical line( thereby the
corresponding transmitted power), the voltage this
across
impedance must be increased, which is
accomplished by a series connected capacitor.

• An alternating compensating circuit element can be an ac

voltage source in series with line. So, the switching power
converter STATCOM can be applied as a voltage source in
series with the line and can act as a series capacitive
compensator.
 Voltage Stability
Assuming Vs=V r=V, the real power transferred is given by :
P=V2/X . .sinδ=V2/X(1-k) . sinδ

The reactive power supplied he series capacitor can be

by t expressed as :

2V 2 k
Q C = I XC =
2
. (1− cos δ
X (1− k ) )
2

The transmittable power

rapidly increased by with the
degree of
series compensation ‘k’.
Similarly, the reactive power
supplied by the series capacitor
also increases sharply with ‘k’
and varies with angle δ
Power Oscillation Damping
 Subsynchronous Oscillation
• Damping
Sustained oscillation below the fundamental system frequency
can be caused by series capacitive compensation.

• In series compensated transmission lines which are fed by

thermal generation, particularly in cases of high degrees of
compensation, the series resonance frequency may coincide
with some poorly damped torsional vibration frequency of the
turbo generator shaft. Hence it could induce increased
mechanical stresses in the shafts. This phenomenon is known
as Sub Synchronous Resonance(SSR).

• By the use of TCSC, the series capacitor(s) act inductive in the

range sub synchronous frequency band thus almost making
the SSR impossible to occur.
Variable Impedance Type Series Compensators

• Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor(TSSC)

• Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor(TCSC)

• GTO Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor

 Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor(TSSC)
• The basic circuit arrangement of a TSSC is shown

Operating Principle:

• The degree of series compensation is controlled in a step like

manner by increasing or decreasing the no. of series
capacitors inserted. A capacitor is inserted by turning off, and
it is bypassed by turning on the corresponding thyristor valve.
 Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor(TSSC)
• The thyristor valve commutates “naturally”, i.e it turns off when
the current crosses zero. Thus a capacitor can be inserted into
the line by the thyristor valve only at the zero crossings of the
line current.
• Since the insertion takes place at line current zero, a full half
cycle of the line current will charge the capacitor from zero to
maximum and the successive opposite polarity half cycle of the
line current will discharge it from this maximum to zero.
• The capacitor insertion at line current zero due to the switching
limitation of the thyristor valve, results in a dc offset voltage. In
order to minimize the initial surge current in the valve and the
corresponding circuit transient, the thyristor valve should be
turned on for bypass only when the capacitor voltage is zero.
 Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor(TSSC)
• The TSSC can control the degree of series compensation by
either inserting or bypassing series capacitors but it cannot
change the natural characteristics of the classical series
capacitor compensated line.
• A sufficiently high degree of TSSC compensation could cause
sub synchronous resonance.
• The TSSC switching could be modulated to counter act sub
synchronous oscillations, but likely to be not effective due to
relatively long switching delays.
• Therefore, pure TSSC scheme would not be used in critical
applications where a high degree of compensation is required
and the danger of SSR is present.
• The TSSC could be applied for power flow control and for
damping power oscillation where the required speed of
response is moderate.
 Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor(TSSC)
The basic V-I characteristic of the TSSC with 4 series connected
compensator modules operated to control the compensating
voltage is shown:
The reactance of the capacitor
capacitor banks is chosen such that
V =4X .I , in the face of
cmax C min
current over a
decreasing
defined interval Imin<=I<=Imax.
line
As the current Imin is increased toward Imax, the
capacitor banks are progressively bypassed by
the related thyristor valves to reduce the
overall capacitive reactance in a step like
manner and therby maintain the compensating
voltage with increasing line current.
 Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor(TSSC)
The basic V-I characteristic of the TSSC with 4 series connected
compensator modules operated to control the compensating
voltage is shown:
The reactance of the capacitor
capacitor banks is chosen such that
V =4X .I , in the face of
cmax C min
current over a
decreasing
defined interval Imin<=I<=Imax.
line
As the current Imin is increased toward Imax, the
capacitor banks are progressively bypassed by
the related thyristor valves to reduce the
overall capacitive reactance in a step like
manner and therby maintain the compensating
voltage with increasing line current.
 Thyristor Controlled Series
Capacitor(TCSC)
The basic TCSC scheme was proposd in 1986 by Vithayathil
with
others as a method of “rapid adjustment of network
impedance”:
It consists of the series compensating
capacitor shunted by a
Thyristor Controlled Reactor.

In a practical TCSC implementation, several such basic

compensators may be connected in series to obtain
the
desired voltage rating and operating characteristics.
If X L is sufficiently smaller than that of the capacitor XC, it can be
operated in an on/off manner like the TSSC.
The basic ideavariable
continuously behind capacitor
the TCSCby scheme
means isof topartially
provide a
cancellingthe effective compensating capacitance by
TCR. the
 Thyristor Controlled Series
Capacitor(TCSC)
The TCR at the fundamental system frequency is a continuously
variable reactive impedance, controllable by delay angle α.

Thus the steady state impedance of the TCSC is that of a parallel

LC circuit, consisting of a fixed capacitive impedance , XC,
and a variable inductive impedance, XL(α).

(α ) = XC.XL(α )
π
X TCSC
XL ( α ) − X
( α ) = X L.
XC
L
π − 2α − sinα

XL=Ωl and α is the delay angle measured from the crest of the
capacitor voltage or equivalently the zero crossing of the line
current.
 Thyristor Controlled Series
Capacitor(TCSC)
The TCSC thus presents a tunable parallel LC circuit to the line
current.
As the impedance of the controlled reactor, XL(α) is varied from its
maximum (infinity) towards its minimum (ωL) ,the TCSC
increases its minimum capacitive impedance, XTCSC,min=X C=1/
ωC (and thereby the degree of series capacitive
compensation) until parallel resonance at Xc=X L(α) is
established and XTCSC,max theoritically becomes infinite.

XTCSC (α ) = XC.XL(α )
X L (α ) − X C
Deceasing XL further, the impedance of the TCSC, XTCSC(α)
becomes inductive , reaching its minimum value of XL. XC /(XL-
XC) at α=0, where the capacitor is in effect bypassed by the
TCR.
 Thyristor Controlled Series
Capacitor(TCSC)
With the usual TCSC arrangement in which the impedance of the
TCR reactor, XL, is smaller than that of the capacitor, XC, the
TCSC has two operating ranges around its internal circuit
resonance: one is the αClim≤α≤π/2 range where XTCSC(α) is
capacitive, and the other is the 0≤α≤ αLlim range, where XTCSC(α)
is inductive as shown below.
 Thyristor Controlled Series
In Capacitor(TCSC)
a TCSC arrangement, the whole capacitor bank or a section of
it, is provided with a parallel thyristor controlled inductor which
circulates current pulses that add in phase with the line current
so as to boost the capacitive voltage beyond the level that
would be obtained by the line current alone.
Each thyristor is triggered once per cycle and has a conduction
interval that is shorter than half a cycle of the main supply
frequency.
 Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor(TCSC)
Assume that the ‘sw’ is initially open and the
prevailing line current ‘i‘ produces voltage
vco across the fixed series capacitor.

Suppose the TCR is to be turned on at α measured from the

negative peak of the capacitor voltage.
At this instant of turn-on, the capacitor voltage is negative, the
line current is positive and thus the charging the capacitor in
the positive direction.
During this first half cycle (and all similar subsequent half cycles)
of TCR operation, the thyristor valve can be viewed as an ideal
switch, closing at α, in series with a diode of appropriate
polarity to stop conduction as the current crosses zero.
 Thyristor Controlled Series
AtCapacitor(TCSC)
the instant of closing the switch sw, two independent events
will take place:
One is that the line current, being a constant current source,
continues to (dis)charge the capacitor.
The other is that the charge of the capacitor will be reversed
during the resonant half cycle of the LC circuit formed by the
switch closing.
The resonant charge reversal produces a dc offset for the
next(positive) half cycle of the capacitor voltage.
 Thyristor Controlled Series
In Capacitor(TCSC)
the subsequent (negative) half-cycle , this dc offset can be
reversed by maintaining the same ‘α’ and thus a voltage
waveform symmetrical to the zero axis can be produced, where
the relevant current and voltage waveforms of the TCSC
operated in the capacitive region are shown.
 Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor(TCSC)
The relevant current and voltage waveforms of the
TCSC operated in the inductive operating range are shown
 Thyristor Controlled Series
The reversal of the capacitor voltage is
Capacitor(TCSC) clearly the key to the
control of the TCSC.
The time duration of the voltage reversal is dependent primarily
on XL/XC ratio, but also on the magnitude of the line current.
If XL<<XC, then the reversal is almost instantaneous, and the
periodic voltage reversal produces a square wave across the
capacitor that is added to the sine wave produced by the line
current.
Thus, the steady state compensating voltage across the capacitor
comprises an uncontrolled and a controlled component: the
uncontrolled component is vCo, a sine wave whose amplitude is
directly proportional to the amplitude of the prevailing line
current and the controlled component is vCTCR, a square wave
whose magnitude is controlled through charge reversal by the
TCR.
Thyristor Controlled Series
Capacitor(TCSC)
 Thyristor Controlled Series
For a finite, but still relatively small XL, the time duration of charge
Capacitor(TCSC)
reversal is not instantaneous but is quite well defined by the
natural resonant frequency, f=1/2 π LC , of the TCSC circuit,
since the TCR conduction time is approximately equal to the
half period of this frequency.
However, as XL is increased relative to XC, the conduction period
of the TCR increases and the zero crossings of the capacitor
voltage become increasingly dependent on the prevailing line
current.
 GTO Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor(GCSC)
An elementary GCSC, proposed in 1992 by Karady with others
is shown:

It consists of a fixed capacitor in parallel with a GTO

Thyristor.

The objective of the GCSC scheme is to control the ac voltage

vc across the capacitor at a given line current i.
When the GTO valve ,sw, is closed, the voltage across the
capacitor is zero, and when the valve is open, it is maximum.
For controlling the capacitor voltage, the closing and opening of
the valve is carried out in each half cycle in synchronism with
the ac system frequency.
 GTO Thyristor Controlled Series
Capacitor(GCSC)
The GTO valve is stipulated to close (through
automatically appropriate control action)
whenever
crosses zero. the capacitor voltage
However, the turn-off instant of the valve in each half cycle is
controlled by a(turn-off) delay angle ɤ(0≤ ɤ≤π/2), with respect
to the peak of the line current.
The line current ‘i‘ and the capacitor voltage vc(ɤ) are shown at
ɤ=0(valve open) and at an arbitrary angle ɤ for a positive and
negative half cycle.
GTO Thyristor Controlled Series
Capacitor(GCSC)

When the valve sw is opened at the crest of the line

current(ɤ=0), the resultant capacitor voltage vc is same as that
obtained in steady state with a permanently open switch .
When the opening of the valve is delayed by the angle ɤ w.r.t the
crest of the line current, the vc(t) can be expressed with a line
current, i(t)=I cosωt as .
I
vc(t) = 1 ωt i(t)dt =
∫ (sin ωt − sin γ )
C γ
ωC
GTO Thyristor Controlled Series
Capacitor(GCSC)

I
vc(t) = 1
∫ i(t)dt = (sin ωt − sin γ )
ωt

C γ
ωC

Since the valve opens at ɤ and stipulated to close at the first

voltage zero the above equation valid for the interval ɤ≤ωt≤π-
ɤ. For subsequent positive half cycle intervals the same
expression remains valid. For subsequent negative half cycles
intervals, the sign of the terms in the above equation becomes
opposite.
 GTO Thyristor Controlled Series
Capacitor(GCSC) I
vc(t) = 1
∫ i(t)dt = (sin ωt − sin γ )
ωt

C γ ωC
The term (I/ωC) sin ɤ is simply a ɤ dependent constant by which
the sinusoidal voltage obtained at ɤ=0 is offset, shifted down
for positive and up for negative voltage half cycles.
Since the GTO valve automatically turns on at the instant of
voltage zero crossing(which is symmetrical on the time axis to
the instant of turn off w.r.t the peak of the capacitor voltage),
this process actually controls the nonconducting(blocking)
interval of the GTO valve.
 GTO Thyristor Controlled Series
Capacitor(GCSC)
The magnitude of the capacitor voltage can be varied
continuously by this method of turn-off delay angle control
from maximum (ɤ=0) to zero (ɤ=π/2) as shown below where
the capacitor voltage vc(ɤ) together with its fundamental
component vCF(ɤ) are shown at various turn off delay angles
ɤ.
The adjustment of the capacitor voltage ,similar to the
adjustment of the TCR current, is discrete and can take place
only once in each half cycle.
 GTO Thyristor Controlled Series
Capacitor(GCSC)
The wave shape obtained for the current of the TCR is identical to that for
voltage of GTO thyristor-controlled series capacitor and confirms the
duality between the GCSC and TCR.
The TCR is a switch in series with a reactor, the GCSC is switch in shunt
with a capacitor.
The TCR is supplied from a voltage source(transmission bus voltage),
the GCSC is supplied from a current source(transmission line current).
The TCR valve is stipulated to close at current zero, the GCSC at voltage
zero.
The TCR is controlled by a turn on delay w.r.t the crest of the applied
voltage, which defines the conduction interval of the valve. The GCSC
is controlled by a turn off delay w.r.t the peak of the line current, which
defines the blocking interval of the valve.
The TCR controls the current in a fixed inductor from a constant voltage
source, thereby presenting a variable reactive admittance as the load
to this source. The GCSC controls a voltage developed by a constant
current source across a fixed capacitor, thereby presenting a variable
reactive impedance to this source.
 GTO Thyristor Controlled Series
Capacitor(GCSC)
The duality established between TCR and GCSC enables us to
write the equation for GCSC, the amplitude VCF(ɤ) of the
fundamental capacitor voltage vCF(ɤ) can be expressed as :

I
VCF (γ ) = (1 − 2 γ − 1 sin 2γ )
ωC π π
Where I is the amplitude of the line current, C is the capacitance
of the GTO thyristor controlled capacitor, and ω is the angular
frequency of the ac system.

An effective capacitive impedance XC for a given value of angle ɤ

for the GCSC,

1 2 1
XC ( γ ) = (1 − γ − sin 2γ )
ωC ππ
 GTO Thyristor Controlled Series
InCapacitor(GCSC)
a practical application the GCSC can be operated either to
control the compensating voltage VCF(ɤ) or the compensating
reactance XC(ɤ) .
 GTO Thyristor Controlled Series
Capacitor(GCSC) In a practical application the GCSC
can be operated either to control the compensating voltage
reactance XC(ɤ) . VCF(ɤ) or the compensating
In the voltage compensating mode, the GCSC is to maintain the
rated compensating voltage in face of decreasing line current
over a demand interval Imin≤I≤Imax.
In this compensation mode the capacitive reactance XC is
selected so as to produce the rated compensating voltage with
I=Imin i.e VCmax=X CImin .As the current Imin is increased toward Imax,
the turn off delay angle ɤ is increased to reduce the duration
of capacitor injection and thereby maintain the compensating
voltage with increasing line current
Switching Converter type Series
A voltage sourced converter with its internal
Compensators control can be
considered a synchronous voltage source(SVS) analogous to
an ideal electromagnetic generator: it can produce a set of 3
alternating substantially sinusoidal voltages at the desired
fundamental frequency with controllable amplitude and phase
angle, generate or absorb, reactive power; and exchange real
power with the ac system when its dc terminals are connected
to a suitable electric dc energy source or storage.
References QRef and PRef define the amplitude V and phase
angle Ψ of the generated output voltage necessary to
exchange the desired reactive and active power at the ac
output.
Static Synchronous Series
Voltage sourced converter based series
Compensator(SSSC) compensator, called
SSSC, was proposed by Gyugi in 1989.
The phasor diagram clearly shows that at a given line current the
voltage across the series capacitor forces the opposite
polarity voltage across the series line reactance to increase
by the magnitude of the capacitor voltage.
Thus , the series capacitive compensation works by increasing
the voltage across the impedance of the given physical line,
which in turn increases the corresponding line current and
transmitted power.
Static Synchronous Series
In SSSC the series compensation is
Compensator(SSSC) provided by a synchronous
ac voltage source, as shown, whose output precisely matches
the voltage of the series capacitor i.e Vq=V C=-jXCI=-jkXI,
where Vq is the injected compensating voltage,I is the line
current, XC is the reactance of the series capacitor, X is the
line reactance, k=XC/X is the degree of series compensation.
Thus by making the output voltage of the synchronous voltage
source a function of the line current, the same compensation
as provided by the series capacitor is accomplished.
The SVS is able to maintain a constant compensating voltage in
the presence of variable line current.
Static Synchronous Series
The SSSC injects the compensating
Compensator(SSSC) voltage in series with the
line irrespective of the line current. The transmitted power Pq
versus the transmission angle δ relationship therefore
becomes a parametric function of the injected voltage.
V δ
P = sin δ +
V 2
Vq
X X cos 2
The normalized power P versusangle δ plots as a
parametric function of Vq are shown for Vq=0,±0.353 and ±
0.707.
Static Synchronous Series
Compensator(SSSC)
Comparison of the corresponding plots clearly shows that the
series capacitor increases the transmitted power by a fixed %
of that transmitted by the uncompensated line at at a given δ,
SSSC can increase it by a fixed fraction of the maximum
power transmittable by the uncompensated line , independent
of δ, in the important operating range of 0≤δ≤π/2
Static Synchronous Series
SSSC inherently has twice as wide
Compensator(SSSC) controlled compensation
range as the VA rating of the converter. This means that the
SSSC can decrease, as well increase the power flow to the
same degree ,simply by reversing the polarity of the injected
ac voltage. The reversed (1800 phase shifted)voltage adds
directly to the reactive voltage drop of the line as if the
reactive line impedance was increased. Furthermore, if this
(reverse polarity) injected voltage is made larger than the
voltage impressed across the uncompensated line , then the
power flow will reverse.
Static Synchronous Series
Compensator(SSSC)
Apart from the bi-directional compensation capability, the basic
operating characteristic of the SSSC suggests a significant
difference between the SSSC and the series capacitor.
The SSSC can not be tuned with any finite line inductance to
have a classical series resonance at the fundamental
frequency because the voltage across the line reactance
would in all practical cases be greater than and inherently
limited by the compensating voltage of SSSC.
STATIC VOLTAGE
AND PHASE
ANGLE
REGULATORS
 Objectives of Voltage and Phase
Angle Regulation
• Controlled reactive shunt compensation is highly effective in
maintaining the desired voltage profile along the transmission
line in spite of changing real power demand. However,
controlled reactive shunt compensation of bulk transmission
systems to maintain specified voltage levels for loads,
sometimes at the end of a sub transmission or distribution
system, is often not an issue. The interconnection of a high
voltage line with a lower voltage line for increased power
transmission is usually accomplished with a mechanical on
load tap changer to isolate the lower voltage system from the
large voltage variation of the high voltage line caused by
seasonal or daily load changes.

• Voltage regulators employing OLTC have been used since the

early days of ac transmission to maintain the desired user
voltage in the face of changing transmission voltage and loads.
 Objectives of Voltage and Phase
Angle Regulation
• In addition to voltage regulation, tap changers can, in general,
be used to control reactive power flow in the line. Since
transmission line impedances are predominantly reactive, an in
phase voltage component introduced into the transmission
circuit causes a substantially quadrature (reactive) current flow
that, with appropriate polarity and magnitude control, can be
used to improve prevailing reactive power flows.

• Thus, although reactive compensation and voltage regulation

by on-load tap changers appear to provide the same
transmission control function, there is an important operating
difference between them.
 Objectives of Voltage and Phase
Angle Regulation
• Whereas a reactive compensator supplies reactive power to, or
absorbs that from the ac system to change the prevailing
reactive power flow and thereby indirectly control the
transmission line voltage, the tap changer based voltage
regulator cannot supply or absorb reactive power. It directly
manages the transmission voltage on one side and leaves it to
the power system to provide the necessary reactive power to
maintain that voltage.
• Mechanical phase angle regulators(PARs) or phase shifting
transformers(PSTs), using on load tap changers with
quadrature voltage injection were introduced in the 1930s to
solve power flow problems and increase the utilization of
transmission lines.
 Objectives of Voltage and Phase
Angle Regulation
• Whereas OLTC with in phase voltage injection control reactive
power via voltage magnitude adjustment, those with
quadrature voltage injection control real power via phase
adjustment.

• Their combined use makes both the reactive and real power
flow control possible. Thus, PARs have been used to redirect
current flows and alleviate inherent loop flows in
interconnected systems and thereby improve and balance the
loading of interconnected transmission links.

• Modern voltage phase angle regulators with fast electronic

control can be used to improve transient stability, damp power
oscillations and to minimize the post disturbance overloads and
corresponding voltage dips.
 Voltage and Phase Angle Regulation
The basic concept of voltage and phase angle regulation is the
addition of an appropriate in-phase or a quadrature component
to the prevailing terminal(bus) voltage in order to change
(increase or decrease) its magnitude or angle to the value
specified(or desired).
 Voltage
A commonly usedRegulation
implementation of this concept is shown
schematically below, where an adustable voltage is provided
by means of a tap changer from a three-phase(auto)
transformer (usually referred to as regulating or excitation
transformer) for the primary of series insertion transformer.
 Phase Angle Regulation
Phase angle control can be achieved by stipulating the injected
voltage, Δv to have a phase shift of ±900 relative to the system
voltage,v. For relatively small angular adjustments, the
resultant angular change is approximately proportional to the
injected voltage, while the voltage magnitude remains almost
constant. However, for large angular adjustments, the
magnitude of the system voltage will appreciably increase and
for this reason, is referred to as a qudrature booster
transformer(QBT).
Power Flow Control by Phase Angle Regulators
A PAR is inserted between the sending end generator and the
transmission line. Theoretically, the PAR can be considered a
sinusoidal ac voltage source with controllable amplitude and
phase angle.
The effective sending end voltage Vseff becomes the sum of the
prevailing sending end voltage Vs and the voltage Vσ provided
by the PAR. For an ideal PAR , the angle of phasor Vσ relative
to phasor Vs is stipulated to vary with σ so that the angular
change does not result in a magnitude change.

Vseff = Vs +Vσ and |Vseff|=|Vs|=V

Power Flow Control by Phase Angle Regulators
The basic idea behind the independent angle regulation is to
keep the transmitted power at the desired level, independent
of the prevailing transmision angle δ, in a predetermined
operating range.
The power can be kept at its peak value after angle δ exceeds
π/2, by controlling the amplitude of the quadrature voltage Vσ
so that the effective phase angle (δ-σ) between the sending
end and receiving end voltages stays at π/2. In this way, the
actual transmitted power may be increased significantly, even
though the phase angle regulator does not increase the steady
state power transmission limit.
Power Flow Control by Phase Angle Regulators
With the phase angle control arrangement, the effective phase
angle between the sending and receiving end voltages
becomes (δ-σ) and the Transmitted power P and the reactive
power demands at the end of the line can be represented as:.

P=V V δ −σ ) and Q
2 2
sin(
X { 1− cos(δ − σ
=X
Although the phase angle regulator does not
}
increase the transmittable power of the )
uncompensated line, it makes it
theoretically possible to keep the power at
its maximum value at any angle δ in the
range π/2<δ<π/2+σ by in effect, shifting
the P versus δ curve to the right. In this
way, the power transfer can be increased
and the maximum power reached at a
generator angle less than π/2.(at δ=π/2-σ)
Power Flow Control by Phase Angle Regulators
If the angle of phasor Vσ to phasor Vs is stipulated to be fixed at
±900, the phase angle regulator becomes a Quadrature
Booster(QB), with the following relationships:
Vseff = Vs +Vσ and |Vseff|= Vs2 +Vσ 2
For a QBT type angle regulator the transmitted power P
can be expressed as:

V
P = (sin δ σ cosδ
V 2

+ X V )
Power Flow Control by Phase Angle Regulators

The transmitted power P versus angle δ as a parametric function

of the injected quadrature voltage Vσ is shown:

The maximum transmittable power increases with the injected

voltage Vσ since, in contrast to the proper Phase Angle
Regulator, the Quadrature Booster increases the magnitude of
the effective sending end voltage.
Real and Reactive Loop Power Flow Control
 Real and Reactive Loop Power Flow Control

In practice, power systems are normally connected by two or

more parallel transmission paths, resulting in one or more
circuit loops with the potential for circulating current flow.

Basic circuit considerations indicate that if the X/R ratio for the
two lines are not equal, i.e if X1/R1ǂ X2/R2 , then a circulating
current will flow through the two lines.
 Real and Reactive Loop Power Flow Control

Assuming such an inequality for the two X/R ratios and

decomposing both line currents I1 and I2, into an in phase and a
quadrature voltage component w.r.t the sending end voltage Vs,
then
V 1d = (I1d + Icd )R1 + j(I1q + Icq)X 1 and V 1q = (I1q + Icq)R1 + j(I1d
+ Icd ) X 1
V 2d = (I 2d − Icd )R2 + j(I 2q − Icq)X 2 and V 2q = (I 2q − Icq)R2 +
j(I 2d − Icd )X 2
 Real and Reactive Loop Power Flow Control

When there is a difference in the quadrature voltage components,

V1q-V2q, such that R1<< X1 and R2<<X2, this difference will
primarily maintain the in-phase circulating current component
Icd, thus increasing the real power in line-1 and decreasing it in
the other line-2.
 Real and Reactive Loop Power Flow Control

When there is a difference in the in phase voltage components,

V1d-V2d, this difference will primarily maintain the quadrature
circulating current component Icq, thus reactive power balance
between the lines.
 Real and Reactive Loop Power Flow Control
In a general case , differences may exist between both the in-
phase and quadrature voltage components which will maintain
both the in phase and quadrature components of the
circulating current, changing both the real and reactive power
flow balance between the lines.
Generally, the distribution of real power flow over interconnections
forming loop circuits can be controlled by Phase Angle
Regulators and the flow of reactive power can be controlled by
Voltage Regulators.
Transmission circuit impedances are predominantly reactive, so
the PAR injects a quadrature voltage in series with the circuit
loop resulting in the flow of in phase Icd and VR introduces a
series in phase voltage into the circuit loop resulting in the
quadrature current circulation
 Improvement of Trasient Stability with PAR
with the circuit loop resulting in the
 COMBINED
COMPENSATORS
:UPFC & IPFC
 Unified Power Flow
Controller(UPFC)
The UPFC concept scheme was proposed by Gyugyi in 1991.
Devised for the “real-time control and dynamic compensation
of ac transmission systems and providing multifunctional
flexibility.

UPFC is able to control, simultaneously or selectively all the

parameters affecting power flow in the transmission line i.e
voltage, impedance and phase angle and this unique capability
is signified by the adjective “ unified ” in its name.
 Unified Power Flow
The Controller(UPFC)
UPFC is a generalized synchronous voltage source (SVS) ,
represented at the fundamental(power system) frequency by
voltage phasor Vpq with controllable magnitude | Vpq | (0≤ |Vpq| ≤
Vpqmax) and angle ρ(0≤ρ≤2π), in series with the transmission
line for the usual two machine system.
Thus the SVS exchanges both reactive and real power with the
transmission system. Since an SVS is able to generate only the
reactive power exchanged, the real power must be supplied to
it, or absorbed from it , by a suitable power supply or sink. In
the UPFC arrangement the real power exchanged is provided
by one of the end buses(sending end bus).
 Unified Power Flow
The Controller(UPFC)
UPFC consists of 2 VSCs. These back to back converters,
labeled “Converter-1” and “Converter-2” in the figure are
operated from a common dc link provided by a storage
capacitor.
 Unified Power Flow
Controller(UPFC)
This arrangement functions as an ideal ac-to-ac power converter
in which the real power can freely flow in either direction
between the ac terminals of the two converters, and each
converter can independently generate(or absorb) reactive
power at its own ac output terminals.
 Unified Power Flow
Controller(UPFC)
Converter-2 provides the main function of the UPFC by injecting a
voltage Vpq with controllable magnitude | Vpq | and phase angle
ρ in series with the line via an insertion transformer. This
injected voltage acts essentially as a synchronous ac voltage
source.
 Unified Power Flow
The Controller(UPFC)
transmission line current flows through this VSC resulting in
reactive and real power exchange between it and the ac
system. The reactive power exchanged at the ac terminal (at
the terminal of the series insertion transformer) is generated
internally by the converter. The real power exchanged at the ac
terminal is converted into dc power which appears at the dc
link as a positive or negative real power demand..
 Unified Power Flow
Controller(UPFC)
The basic function of Converter 1 is to supply or absorb the real
power demanded by Converter 2 at the common dc link to
support the real power exchange resulting from the series
voltage injection. This dc link power demand of Converter 2 is
converted back to ac by Converter 1 and coupled to the
transmission line bus via a shunt connected transformer.
 Unified Power Flow
Controller(UPFC)
In addition to the real power need
of the Converter 2 , Converter
1 can also generate or absorb controllable reactive power, if it
is desired and thereby, provide independent shunt reactive
compensation for the line.
 Unified Power Flow
There isController(UPFC)
a closed direct path for the real power negotiated by the
action of series voltage injection through Converters-1 and 2
back to the line and the corresponding reactive power
exchanged is supplied or absorbed locally by Converter 2 and
therefore does not have to be transmitted by the line.
 Unified Power Flow
Thus, Controller(UPFC)
Converter-1 can be operated at a unity power factor or be
controlled to have a reactive power exchange with the line
independent of the reactive power exchanged by Converter 2.

Obviously, there can be no reactive power flow through the UPFC

dc link.
 Unified Power Flow
UPFC Controller(UPFC)
can perform all traditional control such as reactive shunt
compensation, series compensation and phase angle
regulation by injecting voltage Vpq with controllable
magnitude
| Vpq | and phase angle ρ to the sending end terminal voltage
Vs.

variableregulation
Voltage in- with/ phase
continuously phase anti
voltage
incrementsinjection for voltage
Vpq= ±ΔV(σ=0).

This is functionally similar to that

obtainable with a transformer tap
changer having infinitely small
steps.
 Unified Power Flow
Controller(UPFC)
Series reactive compensation is shown in Fig. (b) where Vpq = Vq
is injected in quadrature with the line current I.

Functionally, this is similar to

series capacitive and inductive line
compensation attained the
by
SSSC.
The injected series compensating
voltage can be kept constant , if
desired , independent of line
current variation, or can be varied
in proportion with the line current
to imitate the compensation
obtained with a series capacitor
or reactor.
 Unified Power Flow
Controller(UPFC)
Phase angle regulation (phase shift) is shown in Fig. (c)
where
V = Vσ is injected with an angular relationship w.r.
pq
t Vs the
achieves that
desired σ phase shft (advance or retard)
witout any change in magnitude.

Thus UPFC can function

as perfect
a Phase Angle
Regulator which can also
supply the reactive power
involved with the
transmission angle
control
by internal var generation.
Unified Power Flow
Controller(UPFC)
Multifunction power flow control,
executed by simultaneous
voltage
terminal regulation ,
capacitive line
series
compensation, and phase
shifting is in Fig. (d)
shown
where V =ΔV+ Vq+V σ is
pq
injected with an angular
relationship w.r.t Vs that
achieves the desired σ phase
shift (advance or retard) without
any change in magnitude.
 Unified Power Flow
Controller(UPFC)
The transmitted power P and reactive power -jQr, supplied by the
receiving end , can be expressed as :
⎛ ⎞*
Vs +Vpq −Vr (1)
P − jQr = Vr ⎜⎝ ⎠ jX ⎟
With Vpq=0, the expression represents an un*compensated
⎛ ⎞
case: P − jQr = Vr Vs −Vr
⎜ ⎟ (2
⎝ ⎠jX )
With Vpqǂ0, the total real and reactive power can be written as:
⎞*
⎛
V s −Vr Vr.Vpq *
P − jQr = Vr ⎜⎝ jX ⎠⎟ +− (3)
jX
 Unified Power Flow Controller(UPFC)
⎛ δ δ ⎞
Substituting : Vs = V .e = V⎜ cos + j
jδ
/2 (4
⎝ 2 sin 2 ⎠⎟ )
⎛ δ δ⎞
Vr = V .e − j δ /2
= Vcos
⎜ − j (5
⎝ 2 sin 2 ⎠⎟ )
Vpq = Vpq.e j (δ / 2+ρ ) = Vpq ⎧ os ⎛δ ⎞ ⎛δ ⎞⎫ (6
c + ρ +
⎩ ⎨ ⎝⎜ 2 ⎠ ⎟⎝ ⎜⎠ 2 j sin + ⎟ρ⎬
⎭ )
The following expressions are obtained for P and Qr:

V.Vpq δ
) = P0(δ ) + Ppq(ρ) = sinδ −
V 2
cos +ρ)
X X 2( (7)
Qr (δ , ρ) = Q0r (δ ) + V 2
V.Vpq
δ)−
δ
X (1-cos
X 2 sin( +ρ)
Qpq(ρ) = (8)
P0(δ ) = sinδ (9 Q0r (δ ) = − (1-cosδ )
V 2
V 2
(10)
X ) X
These are real and reactive power for the uncompensated
 Unified Power Flow
Since Controller(UPFC)
angle ρ is freely variable between 0 and 2π at any given
transmission angle δ(0≤δ≤π), it follows that Ppq(ρ) and Qpq(ρ)
are controllable between –V.Vpq/X and +V.Vpq/X independent of
angle δ. Therefore, the transmittable real power P is
controllable between :

V .Vpq max V .Vpq max

P0 ( δ ) − ≤ P0 ( δ ) ≤ P0 ( δ ) + (11)
X X
And the reactive power Qr is controllable between :

V .Vpq max V.
Q0r (δ ) − ≤ Q0r(δ ) ≤ Q0r(δ ) + (12)
Vpq max
X X
 Unified Power Flow
Controller(UPFC)
The wide range of control of transmitted power is independent of
the transmission angle δ.
This indicates not only superior capability of the UPFC in power
flow applications, but it also suggests powerful capacity for
transient stability improvement and power oscillation damping.
 Interline Power Flow
The Controller(IPFC)
IPFC concept scheme was proposed by Gyugyi with Sen
and Schauder in 1998 addresses the problem of compensating
a number of transmission lines at a given substation.
Conventionally, series capacitive compensation (TCSC or SSSC)
is employed to increase the transmittable real power over a
given line and also to balance the loading of a normally
encountered multiline transmission system.
However, independent of their means of implementation , series
reactive reactors are unable to control the reactive power flow
in, and thus the proper load balancing of, the lines.
This problem becomes particularly evident where the ratio of
reactive to resistive line impedance(X/R) is relatively low.
Series reactive compensation reduces only the effective
reactance and decreases the X/R ratio and increases the
reactive power flow and losses in the line.
 Interline Power Flow
The Controller(IPFC)
IPFC scheme, together with independently controllable
reactive series compensation of each individual line , provides
a capability to directly transfer real power between the
compensated lines.

This capability makes it possible to: equalize both real and

reactive power flow between the lines ,reduce the burden of
overloaded lines by real power transfer; compensate against
resistive line voltage drops and corresponding reactive power
demand and increase the effectiveness of the overall
compensating system for dynamic disturbances.

The IPFC can thus potentially provide a highly effective scheme

for power transmission management at a multiline substation.
 Interline Power Flow
Controller(IPFC)
Basic Operating Principles:
In its general form the Interline Power Flow Controller employs a
number of dc to ac converters each providing
compensation for different line. series other words,the
In
comprises a number of SSSCs. IPFC
Within the general concept of IPFC, these converters are
linked together at their dc terminals.
 Interline Power Flow
Controller(IPFC)
Basic Operating Principles:
With this scheme, in addition to providing series reactive
compensation, any converter can be controlled to supply real
power to the common dc link from its own transmission line.
Thus an overall surplus power can be made available from the
under utilized lines which then can be used by other lines for
real power compensation.
.
 Interline Power Flow
Controller(IPFC)
Basic Operating Principles:
In this way ,some of the converters, compensating overloaded
lines or lines with a heavy burden of reactive power flow, can
be equipped with full two dimensional, reactive and real power
control capability, similar to UPFC.
This arrangement requires rigorous maintenance of the overall
power balance at the common dc terminal by appropriate
control action, using the general principle that the unde rloaded
lines are to provide help, in the form of appropriate real power
transfer, for the overloaded lines.
 Interline Power Flow
Controller(IPFC)
Basic Operating Principles:
Consider an elementary IPFC scheme consisting of two back to
back dc-to-dc converters, each compensating a transmission
line by series voltage injection.
The 2 SVSs with V V , in series with
and
1pq 2pq
phasors
transmission lines 1 and 2, represent the two back to back dc
to ac converters. The common dc is represented by a
bidirectional link for real power exchange between the two
voltage sources.
 Interline Power Flow
Controller(IPFC)
Basic Operating Principles:
Transmission line 1 ,represented by reactance X1, has a sending
end bus with voltage phasor V1s and a receiving end bus with
voltage phasor V1r.
Transmission line 2 ,represented by reactance X2, has a sending
end bus with voltage phasor V2s and a receiving end bus with
voltage phasor V2r.
For clarity, all the sending end and receiving end voltages are
assumed to be constant |V1s|= |V2s|= |V1r|= |V2r|= 1.0 pu and
with fixed angles δ1=δ2 =300.
 TSSC, thyristor-switched series capacitor (series-connected controller)

Note:
1. A capacitor is inserted by
turning off, and bypassed by
turning on the corresponding
thyristor switch.
2. The equivalent
capacitance is between 0
and C/m.
TCSC, thyristor-controlled series capacitor (series-connected controller)

Note: The TCSC behaves as a tunable parallel LC-circuit to

the line current. As the impedance of XL is varied from
its maximum (infinity) toward its minimum wL, the TCSC
increases its capacitive impedance.
FCSC, forced-commutation-controlled series capacitor (series-
connected controller)

Note: The operation

of FCSC is
similar to the
TSC, except the
switches is
replaced by
forced
commutated
devices.
SSVC. Series static VAR compensator (series-connected controller)

Note: The control strategy of the SSVC is typically

based on achieving an objective line power flow in
addition to the capability of damping power
oscillations.
 Advanced SSVC, series-connected STATCOM

1. This series-connected STATCOM is the dual circuit of shunt-connected

STATCOM (Fig.13.7).
2. This type of series compensation can provide a continuous degree of series
compensation by varying the magnitude of Vc. Also, it can reverse the phase of
Vc, thereby increasing the overall line reactance; this can be desirable to limit
fault current, or to dampen power oscillations.
PAC, phase-angle compensator (series-connected controller)

1. The transforming arrangement between the excitation and series

transformers ensures that Vq is always at 90 degrees to V (called
quadrature booster)
2. The phase shifter controls the magnitude of Vq and thus the
phase shift alpha to the sending-end voltage.
UPFC, unified power flow controller (combined shunt and
series connected controllers)

1. The UPFC consists of an a series STATCOM and a shunt SATACOM with a common DC
link.
2. Power control is achieved by adding series voltage Vinj to Vs, thus giving the line voltage
VL.
3. With two converters, the UPFC can supply active power in addition to reactive power.
 Reference
1. L. Gyugyi, N.G. Hingorani, “Understanding FACTS,”
IEEE Press, 1st Edition, December 1999.

2. M.H. Rashid, “Power Electronics,” Prentice Hall, 3rd

Edition, 2004.