by: Dr.

PIYUSH CHAUBEY

PSIR
CLASS NOTES

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Historical Context and

Evolution of the UN

Establishment of the UN in 1945: Historical Context

 Background:
 The United Nations (UN) was established on October 24, 1945, in the aftermath of
World War II to promote international peace and security, replacing the failed League
of Nations.
 The devastation caused by two world wars, the Holocaust, and the use of atomic weapons
catalyzed the urgency for a global body capable of preventing future conflicts.
 Key Events Leading to Formation:
 Atlantic Charter (1941): Signed by Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill,
affirming the right of nations to self-determination and disarmament.
 Dumbarton Oaks Conference (1944): Detailed the UN’s proposed structure, including
the General Assembly and Security Council.
 San Francisco Conference (1945): Finalized the UN Charter with 50 founding member
states.
 Scholarly Views:
 E.H. Carr emphasized the necessity of institutions to manage power in an anarchic
international system.
 Hans Morgenthau, in a realist critique, suggested the UN’s reliance on state cooperation
would limit its ability to enforce peace effectively.
Foundational Principles and Objectives in the UN Charter

 Foundational Principles:
 Sovereign equality of all member states (Article 2.1).
 Prohibition of force except in self-defense or with UNSC authorization (Article 2.4).
 Promotion of human rights and social progress (Preamble and Articles 55-56).
 Core Objectives:
 Maintain international peace and security.
 Develop friendly relations among nations based on equal rights and self-
determination.
 Promote international cooperation on economic, social, and humanitarian issues.
 Act as a center for harmonizing the actions of nations.
 Criticism:
 Realist scholars argue that the principles of equality and non-interference are frequently
overridden by power politics and the interests of powerful states.

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Evolution of Global Power Dynamics Since 1945

 Bipolarity (1945–1991):
 The Cold War dominated international relations, with the UN becoming a battleground
for ideological conflicts between the US-led capitalist bloc and the USSR-led socialist
bloc.
 Limited effectiveness due to frequent vetoes by the US and USSR in the UNSC.
 Unipolarity (1991–2000s):
 The post-Cold War period saw the US emerge as the sole superpower, influencing UN
agendas on issues like Gulf War (1991) and interventions in Kosovo (1999).
 Multipolarity (2000s–Present):
 The rise of emerging powers like China, India, and regional blocs has challenged the
dominance of traditional powers in global governance.
 The UN faces difficulties in adapting to shifting power dynamics, particularly in reforming
the Security Council.
Comparison of League of Nations vs. United Nations

 Failures of the League of Nations:

 Structural Weaknesses:
 Absence of major powers (e.g., the US never joined).
 Unanimity requirement paralyzed decision-making.
 Inability to Prevent Aggression:
 Failure in cases like Japan’s invasion of Manchuria (1931) and Italy’s invasion of
Ethiopia (1935).
 Learnings Incorporated into the UN:
 Inclusion of Major Powers: The UNSC includes permanent members with veto power
to ensure buy-in from global powers.
 Enforcement Mechanisms: Provision for collective security and peacekeeping
operations.
 Critical View:
 While the UN avoided the complete collapse experienced by the League, critics like
Noam Chomsky argue it still struggles with power imbalances and state sovereignty.

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Structure and Role of the UNSC

Composition of the UNSC: Permanent and Non-Permanent Members

 Permanent Members (P5):

 United States, Russia, China, United Kingdom, France.
 Exclusive veto power ensures their primacy in global decision-making.
 Non-Permanent Members:
 10 members elected for two-year terms based on regional representation.
 Provide a semblance of inclusivity but lack real influence compared to the P5.

Veto Power: Mechanism and Its Implications

 Mechanism:
 Any P5 member can block substantive resolutions, even if supported by all other
members.
 Example: Russia’s veto on Ukraine-related resolutions; US vetoes on resolutions
criticizing Israel.
 Implications:
 Ensures P5 cooperation but leads to deadlock in critical situations.
 Criticized as undemocratic and a barrier to addressing global crises effectively.

Role of UNSC in Maintaining International Peace and Security

 Primary Functions:
 Approves peacekeeping missions and sanctions.
 Authorizes use of force (e.g., Gulf War 1991).
 Addresses threats to international peace (e.g., sanctions on North Korea).
 Notable Successes:
 Resolution 1441 (2002): Inspections in Iraq.
 Peacekeeping operations in Sierra Leone and Liberia.
 Failures:
 Inaction in Rwanda (1994) and Syria (2011 onwards).

Criticism of UNSC’s Effectiveness in Conflict Resolution

 Structural Issues:
 Overrepresentation of WWII victors.
 Veto power perpetuates P5 dominance.

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 Operational Challenges:
 Limited success in conflicts involving P5 interests, e.g., Syria and Ukraine.
 Lack of robust enforcement mechanisms for its resolutions.
 Scholarly Perspective:
 Edward Luck: UNSC’s legitimacy crisis arises from its inability to reflect 21st-century
realities.
UNSC Resolution 1325: Women, Peace, and Security

 Adopted: October 31, 2000.

 Key Focus:
 Acknowledges the disproportionate impact of armed conflict on women.
 Calls for increased participation of women in peacebuilding processes.
 Impact:
 Enhanced awareness of gendered dimensions of conflict.
 Criticized for slow implementation and tokenistic inclusion.

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Rationale for UNSC and UN Reforms

Need for Democratization and Inclusivity in the UNSC

 Present Composition:
 Permanent membership reflects the power structure of 1945.
 Excludes major emerging powers like India, Brazil, South Africa, and others.
 Arguments for Reform:
 The UNSC lacks legitimacy and accountability in representing the broader UN
membership.
 Former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan emphasized, “No reform of the UN would be
complete without the reform of the Security Council.”
 Global Power Shifts:
 Rise of multipolarity with regional powers like India, China, and Brazil demanding a
voice.
Underrepresentation of Developing Countries and the Global South

 Imbalance in Representation:
 Africa, Latin America, and Small Island Developing States (SIDS) lack permanent
representation.
 G77 and Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) often critique the UNSC for sidelining
developmental concerns.
 Ezulwini Consensus (2005):
 Advocates for at least two permanent seats for Africa, highlighting historical
injustices.
 Case Example:
 African Union (AU) seeks recognition of Africa’s 54 nations, contrasting with Europe’s
overrepresentation via France and the UK.
Regional Imbalances: Africa, Latin America, and SIDS

 Africa:
 Contributes the most troops to peacekeeping but has no permanent seat.
 Persistent conflicts like the Sahel crisis underscore the need for African representation.
 Latin America:
 Brazil leads efforts under the G4, reflecting its regional influence.
 SIDS:
 Most vulnerable to climate change and sea-level rise yet excluded from decision-
making on global climate action.

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Challenges Posed by the Veto System

 Mechanism:
 Allows any of the P5 to block UNSC resolutions, regardless of majority support.
 Consequences:
 Stalemates on critical issues (e.g., Syrian Civil War due to Russia’s veto).
 Undermines collective global action, leading to calls for its abolition or modification.
 Scholarly Perspective:
 Thomas G. Weiss describes the veto as “the Achilles’ heel of the UN” due to its paralyzing
effect.
Inefficiencies in Addressing Terrorism, Pandemics, and Climate Change

 Terrorism:
 UNSC resolutions like 1373 (2001) lacked uniform implementation due to political
divergences.
 Fails to address state-sponsored terrorism effectively.
 Pandemics:
 COVID-19 exposed weaknesses in coordinating global health responses.
 WHO’s dependency on voluntary funding hampered rapid mobilization.
 Climate Change:
 UNSC has been criticized for prioritizing geopolitical issues over existential threats like
climate change.
Predominance of USA in UN Funding and Its Impact on Decision-Making

 Financial Dominance:
 The US is the largest contributor to the UN budget (~22% of the regular budget and
~25% of peacekeeping funding).
 Withholding funds has been used as leverage (e.g., during the Trump administration
over UNRWA).
 Impact on Decision-Making:
 Scholars like Richard Falk argue that financial dependency undermines the UN’s
impartiality, particularly on issues like Israel-Palestine.
UN’s Failures in Transnational Terrorism and Humanitarian Crises

 Failures in Counterterrorism:
 Fragmented implementation of counterterrorism strategies.
 Lack of consensus on defining terrorism (e.g., state vs. non-state actors).
 Humanitarian Crises:
 Inaction in Rwanda (1994), Sudan (Darfur, 2003), and Myanmar (Rohingya crisis,
2017).
 Structural limitations hinder timely intervention in complex emergencies.

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Reform Proposals and Models

G4 Proposal: Objectives and Criticisms

 Members: India, Germany, Japan, and Brazil.

 Key Demands:
 Permanent membership for all four, with or without veto power.
 Criticisms:
 Opposition from regional rivals: Pakistan (India), Italy (Germany), and Argentina
(Brazil).
 Lack of consensus among P5 members.
Uniting for Consensus (UFC/Coffee Club)

 Members: Includes Pakistan, Italy, South Korea, Mexico, and others.

 Objective:
 Opposes G4 expansion; advocates increasing non-permanent seats instead.
 Major Objections:
 Regional powers accuse G4 of seeking status quo benefits without addressing systemic
inequities.
Kofi Annan’s Two Models (2005)

 Model A:
 6 new permanent seats without veto power.
 3 additional non-permanent seats.
 Model B:
 No new permanent members.
 8 new semi-permanent members elected for renewable terms.
 Limitations:
 Both models failed to gain broad support due to disagreements over veto rights.
Razali Plan (1997)

 Features:
 Proposed 5 new permanent seats (2 for developing nations) and 4 non-permanent
seats.
 Limitations:
 Veto powers for new members were excluded, leading to opposition from potential
entrants.
Ezulwini Consensus (2005)

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 Demands:
 At least 2 permanent and 5 non-permanent seats for Africa.
 Veto power for new permanent members or its abolition for all.
 Challenges:
 Lack of unity among African nations weakens its negotiating strength.
High-Level Panel Report (2004)

 Recommendations:
 Increase UNSC membership to 24 with two models similar to Annan’s.
 Greater focus on non-traditional security threats like pandemics and climate change.
 Reception:
 Widely regarded as a comprehensive blueprint but failed to break political deadlocks.
Antonio Guterres’ Reform Proposals

 Focus Areas:
 Revitalizing multilateralism and empowering the Global South.
 Strengthening early warning systems and response mechanisms.
 Implications:
 Greater representation for developing nations could enhance inclusivity, though
reforms remain contentious.

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India’s Case for Permanent

Membership in the UNSC

Economic, Demographic, and Strategic Justifications

 Economic Powerhouse:
 India is the fifth-largest global economy (IMF, 2023) and projected to be a $10 trillion
economy by 2030.
 A major contributor to global economic stability and development initiatives.
 Demographic Strength:
 India has the world’s largest population (~1.4 billion) and is a vibrant democracy.
 Represents nearly one-sixth of humanity, yet lacks a permanent voice in global decision-
making.
 Strategic Role:
 Key geopolitical location in the Indian Ocean, crucial for maritime security.
 Significant influence in South Asia and the Indo-Pacific region.
India’s Role in Peacekeeping and Advocacy for the Global South

 Peacekeeping Contributions:
 India is among the largest contributors of troops to UN peacekeeping operations.
 Played a significant role in missions like Congo (ONUC), South Sudan (UNMISS), and
Lebanon (UNIFIL).
 Advocacy for the Global South:
 Leadership in NAM and G77, championing equitable global governance.
 Spearheads climate action and sustainable development initiatives, such as the
International Solar Alliance.
Diplomatic Efforts: G4, IBSA, and BRICS

 G4 Advocacy:
 Collaborates with Germany, Brazil, and Japan for a permanent UNSC seat.
 Regular high-level meetings to push for reforms.
 IBSA:
 Partnership with Brazil and South Africa to promote South-South cooperation and
multilateralism.
 BRICS:
 Actively engages with emerging powers to counterbalance Western dominance in
global governance.

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Regional and International Opposition

 Coffee Club Opposition:

 Pakistan, Italy, Mexico, and others oppose India’s candidacy, favoring increased non-
permanent seats.
 China’s Stance:
 China has not publicly supported India’s permanent membership.
 Border disputes and rivalry in Asia complicate its position.
 Regional Complexities:
 Pakistan’s opposition is rooted in bilateral conflicts and a preference for preventing
India’s elevation.
Analysis: Is India’s Quest Realistic or a “Pipe Dream”?

 Arguments in Favor:
 India’s global stature, economic heft, and democratic credentials strengthen its case.
 Increasing recognition of India’s indispensability in global decision-making (e.g., G20
presidency success in 2023).
 Challenges:
 Lack of consensus among P5 nations and regional rivals.
 Reform fatigue within the UN; major changes require amendment of the UN Charter,
demanding approval from two-thirds of the General Assembly and ratification by all
P5 members.
 Scholarly Perspective:
 Ian Hurd argues that “India’s claim to a permanent seat is as strong as any, but global
politics are driven by interests, not merit.”
 Shashi Tharoor critiques the veto system as “anachronistic” and suggests India should
push for broader UNSC reforms beyond mere membership.

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Broader UN Reforms Beyond UNSC

General Assembly Reforms for Greater Effectiveness

 Current Role of the General Assembly (GA):

 Represents all 193 UN member states, providing a platform for global dialogue.
 Adopts non-binding resolutions and oversees the UN’s budget.
 Criticism:
 Lacks enforcement powers, reducing its influence on critical global issues.
 Inefficiency due to overlapping agendas and lack of prioritization.
 Proposed Reforms:
 Streamlining decision-making processes to address global crises more effectively.
 Establishing binding mechanisms for key resolutions on issues like climate change.
 Enhancing the role of GA in monitoring UNSC actions to ensure accountability.
 Example of Reform Efforts:
 “Uniting for Peace” resolution (1950) allows the GA to act when the UNSC fails, but its
use has been sporadic.
ECOSOC Reforms: Addressing Development and Economic Challenges

 Present Role of ECOSOC:

 Coordinates UN’s economic, social, and development activities.
 Supervises specialized agencies like WHO, FAO, and UNESCO.
 Challenges:
 Fragmentation of roles between ECOSOC and other bodies like the UNDP and UNEP.
 Limited authority in addressing global financial crises and developmental disparities.
 Proposed Reforms:
 Empower ECOSOC to act as a central hub for coordinating Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs).
 Establish partnerships with global financial institutions (IMF, World Bank) to ensure
policy coherence.
 Incorporate regional voices to better represent Global South concerns.
 Scholarly Perspective:
 Amartya Sen emphasizes the need for ECOSOC to prioritize human development and
equity in policy-making.
Financial Reforms: Budgetary Constraints and Equitable Contributions

 Budgetary Issues:
 The UN budget (~$3 billion annually for regular expenses) is constrained relative to its
global responsibilities.

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 Dependence on voluntary contributions undermines predictability in funding, especially

for peacekeeping and humanitarian efforts.
 Dominance of Major Contributors:
 The US contributes ~22% of the regular budget, giving it disproportionate influence.
 Other major contributors like China and Japan have pushed for reforms linking
contributions to decision-making powers.
 Proposed Reforms:
 Diversifying funding sources, including innovative mechanisms like global levies on
carbon emissions or financial transactions.
 Establishing mandatory contribution tiers based on GDP to reduce dependency on a
few nations.
 Enhancing transparency in budget allocation and usage.
Strengthening Operational Transparency and Accountability Across UN Bodies

 Issues in Transparency:
 Allegations of corruption and inefficiency in certain UN bodies, such as misuse of funds
in humanitarian missions.
 Limited oversight mechanisms for high-level appointments and operational
processes.
 Proposed Solutions:
 Strengthening internal audit mechanisms and external oversight.
 Introducing performance metrics to evaluate the effectiveness of agencies and
missions.
 Ensuring merit-based appointments for leadership positions to reduce political
patronage.
Enhancing the Role of the International Court of Justice (ICJ)

 Present Limitations:
 ICJ jurisdiction is voluntary; states often refuse to accept rulings if contrary to their
interests.
 Limited scope in addressing non-state actors and internal conflicts.
 Proposed Reforms:
 Expanding compulsory jurisdiction for certain categories of disputes, such as
environmental and maritime issues.
 Encouraging states to include ICJ clauses in bilateral and multilateral agreements.
 Creating mechanisms for better enforcement of ICJ decisions.
 Case Examples:
 Kulbhushan Jadhav Case (India vs. Pakistan): Highlighted ICJ’s role in securing
consular access but lacked enforcement powers for the ruling.
 Somalia-Kenya Maritime Dispute: Demonstrated ICJ’s ability to mediate complex
territorial issues.

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Reforming the Secretariat and UN Leadership

 Current Issues:
 Allegations of bureaucracy and inefficiency in the Secretariat.
 Perception of bias in the appointment of the Secretary-General (largely influenced by
P5).
 Proposed Changes:
 Merit-based selection for senior UN officials, with greater representation from
developing nations.
 Enhancing the Secretary-General’s autonomy to act as a neutral mediator.
 Establishing fixed terms for leadership positions to ensure accountability.
Role of Technology in UN Reforms

 Potential of Technology:
 Digital tools for real-time monitoring of crises and peacekeeping missions.
 AI-based systems to predict conflicts and improve humanitarian response.
 Proposals for Adoption:
 Building a global database for sharing intelligence on terrorism and organized crime.
 Leveraging blockchain for transparent aid distribution and financial accountability.
 Incorporating digital platforms for greater inclusivity in decision-making processes
(e.g., virtual assemblies for remote participation).
Critical Analysis of Broader UN Reforms

 Strengths of Proposed Reforms:

 Address structural inequalities and enhance inclusivity.
 Strengthen the UN’s role in tackling emerging challenges like climate change, pandemics,
and digital governance.
 Challenges:
 Resistance from powerful states reluctant to dilute their influence.
 Implementation delays due to the complexity of global consensus-building.
 Scholarly Critique:
 David Malone argues that without addressing the political will of member states,
reforms will remain symbolic rather than substantive.
 Ban Ki-moon has highlighted the paradox of global governance: “The UN needs reform
to be relevant, yet resistance to reform undermines its relevance.”

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UN Peacekeeping Operations

India as the Largest Troop Contributor: Historical and Recent Trends

 India’s Contributions:
 Since the first UN peacekeeping mission in 1948 (UNTSO in Palestine), India has been
a leading contributor.
 Over 2,00,000 Indian troops have participated in 49 of 71 UN peacekeeping missions
globally.
 Major deployments include:
 Congo (ONUC, MONUC, MONUSCO): India’s robust role in stabilizing one of the
most conflict-ridden regions.
 South Sudan (UNMISS): India provides medical and logistical support alongside
security roles.
 Recent Contributions:
 UNIFIL (Lebanon): Indian naval contingents have been involved in maritime
operations.
 UNMISS (South Sudan): Indian peacekeepers have built critical infrastructure, including
bridges and hospitals.
 Recognition:
 Indian peacekeepers have received Dag Hammarskjöld Medals for their bravery and
sacrifice.

Challenges Faced by Indian Peacekeepers

 Risks in High-Conflict Zones:

 Indian troops operate in volatile regions like South Sudan and Mali, often facing threats
from insurgents and militias.
 Example: In 2013, five Indian peacekeepers were killed in South Sudan in an ambush
by armed rebels.
 Funding Issues:
 Delayed reimbursements from the UN for troop contributions.
 Resource constraints hinder operational efficiency and morale.
 Geopolitical Complications:
 Indian peacekeepers are often deployed in politically sensitive regions, raising concerns
about neutrality.
 Example: The Somalia mission (1990s) faced criticism for lack of coordination among
contributing nations.

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Effectiveness and Limitations of UN Peacekeeping Missions

 Achievements:
 Conflict Stabilization: Successful missions in Namibia (UNTAG, 1989) and Mozambique
(ONUMOZ, 1992) led to peaceful transitions to democratic governance.
 Humanitarian Assistance: Peacekeepers have provided aid during famines and natural
disasters, e.g., in Haiti (MINUSTAH).
 Limitations:
 Lack of Mandate Clarity:
 Missions often have ambiguous objectives, leading to inefficiency.
 Example: The Rwanda genocide (1994) exposed the inability to act decisively due
to restrictive mandates.
 Inadequate Resources:
 Insufficient funding and equipment hinder operational effectiveness.
 Political Paralysis:
 UNSC disagreements impact mission effectiveness.
 Example: Syria’s Civil War: No peacekeeping mission was deployed due to vetoes
by P5 nations.

Reforms Needed in UN Peacekeeping

 Operational Reforms:
 Strengthening Mandates:
 Clear and enforceable mandates with a focus on protecting civilians.
 Rapid Deployment Mechanisms:
 Creating a standby force for immediate response to emerging crises.
 Improved Training and Technology:
 Enhancing peacekeeper preparedness through simulation training and adopting
modern surveillance tools like drones.
 Financial Reforms:
 Ensure timely reimbursements to contributing nations, particularly developing
countries.
 Diversify funding sources to reduce dependency on major donors like the US.
 Structural Reforms:
 Accountability Mechanisms:
 Address allegations of misconduct, including sexual exploitation by peacekeepers.
 Enhanced Cooperation with Regional Organizations:
 Strengthen partnerships with AU, ASEAN, and others for localized peacekeeping
efforts.
 Example: Joint AU-UN missions in Darfur (UNAMID).

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 Scholarly Views:
 Brahimi Report (2000): Emphasized robust mandates and adequate resources for
mission success.
 Cedric de Coning highlights the importance of “adaptive peacekeeping” to address the
dynamic nature of conflicts.
Critical Analysis of UN Peacekeeping

 Strengths:
 Acts as a neutral third party in conflict zones.
 Facilitates post-conflict reconstruction and reconciliation.
 Adaptability in addressing non-traditional threats like child soldiers and gender-based
violence.
 Criticism:
 Impartiality Challenges:
 Allegations of bias or collusion with local regimes undermine legitimacy.
 Inadequate Representation:
 Developing countries disproportionately bear the burden of troop contributions,
while developed countries influence policy decisions.
 Failure in Complex Conflicts:
 Limited success in resolving deep-rooted ethnic and sectarian conflicts (e.g., Bosnia
and Rwanda).
 Future Prospects:
 Greater regional collaboration and technological innovation could enhance the
effectiveness of peacekeeping missions.
 Calls for systemic reform reflect the need to align peacekeeping with contemporary
challenges.

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Sustainable Development and

Related Goals

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): Objectives and Achievements

 Adopted: In 2000 by the United Nations.

 Key Objectives (8 Goals):
 Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.
 Achieve universal primary education.
 Promote gender equality and empower women.
 Reduce child mortality.
 Improve maternal health.
 Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases.
 Ensure environmental sustainability.
 Develop a global partnership for development.
 Achievements:
 Global poverty was halved between 1990 and 2015.
 Significant reductions in maternal and child mortality.
 Increased access to primary education, particularly for girls.
 Shortcomings:
 Uneven progress across regions; Sub-Saharan Africa lagged behind.
 Focused heavily on quantitative outcomes, often sidelining structural issues like inequality.
 Scholarly Perspective:
 Amartya Sen argued that while the MDGs addressed basic needs, they lacked
mechanisms to address deeper systemic inequities.
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Relevance and Feasibility

 Adopted: In 2015 as part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

 Key Features:
 Expanded from 8 MDGs to 17 SDGs with 169 targets, addressing social, economic,
and environmental dimensions.
 Goals include ending poverty (Goal 1), achieving gender equality (Goal 5), and combating
climate change (Goal 13).
 Progress So Far:
 Significant improvements in renewable energy adoption and global access to education.
 Enhanced focus on climate action through initiatives like the Paris Agreement (2015).

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 Challenges:
 COVID-19 and conflicts (e.g., Ukraine war) have disrupted progress, particularly in
health and poverty reduction.
 Financing gap: Estimated $2.5 trillion annually required to achieve the SDGs, exacerbated
by global economic slowdowns.
 Feasibility by 2030:
 Likely to miss several targets due to delayed action on climate change and inequality.
 Experts like Jeffrey Sachs advocate for innovative financing mechanisms, such as green
bonds and international solidarity levies.
UN’s Role in Promoting Sustainable Development and Poverty Alleviation

 Institutional Framework:
 ECOSOC oversees SDG implementation, supported by bodies like the UNDP, UNEP,
and specialized agencies (e.g., FAO, WHO).
 Key Initiatives:
 Decade of Action (2020–2030): Calls for accelerated efforts to meet SDGs.
 Paris Agreement (2015): Aligns climate action with sustainable development,
emphasizing the global temperature limit of 1.5°C.
 UNDP’s Human Development Index (HDI): Highlights progress in health, education,
and living standards.
 Success Stories:
 India’s Renewable Energy Push: Through initiatives like the International Solar Alliance,
India has promoted SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy).
 China’s Poverty Reduction: Lifted over 800 million people out of extreme poverty,
contributing to SDG 1.
 Criticism:
 Lack of binding commitments for member states undermines progress.
 Over-reliance on voluntary national reviews (VNRs) leads to inconsistent monitoring.

CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF UN’S ROLE IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Strengths:

 Global Consensus-Building:
 The SDGs have created a universal framework, uniting developed and developing
nations under common goals.
 Focus on Interconnectedness:
 Acknowledges linkages between poverty, climate change, gender equality, and global
partnerships.
 Catalyst for Local Action:
 Encourages nations to align domestic policies with global development goals.

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Weaknesses:

 Lack of Enforcement Mechanisms:

 Absence of penalties for non-compliance reduces accountability.
 Inadequate Financing:
 Developing nations struggle to mobilize resources, and commitments by developed
nations (e.g., $100 billion annual climate financing) remain unmet.
 Overambition:
 Critics like Bjorn Lomborg argue that the SDGs’ broad scope dilutes focus and reduces
achievable outcomes.
Case Studies: Successes and Failures

 Successes:
 Bangladesh: Achieved significant reductions in maternal and child mortality through
targeted interventions (SDG 3).
 Costa Rica: Demonstrated leadership in sustainable energy and biodiversity
conservation (SDG 13 and SDG 15).
 Failures:
 Sub-Saharan Africa: Persistent poverty and food insecurity undermine progress on
SDG 1 and SDG 2.
 Global Climate Action: Limited commitments under the Paris Agreement have led to
inadequate progress on SDG 13.

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Achievements and Failures of the UN

Key Achievements of the UN in Maintaining Global Peace and Development

 Conflict Prevention and Resolution:

 Successes in Peacekeeping:
 Namibia (UNTAG, 1989–90): Facilitated peaceful independence from South Africa.
 El Salvador (ONUSAL, 1991–95): Helped end a 12-year civil war.
 Mediation Efforts:
 UN brokered peace deals in Cambodia, Lebanon, and Mozambique.
 Human Rights Advocacy:
 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948):
 Codified global human rights standards.
 UN Human Rights Council (UNHRC):
 Addresses violations and promotes accountability (e.g., investigations into
Myanmar’s Rohingya crisis).
 Impact:
 Significant progress in women’s rights, child protection (UNICEF), and refugee
support (UNHCR).
 Health and Humanitarian Relief:
 World Health Organization (WHO):
 Eradicated smallpox (1979) and led global vaccination campaigns.
 UNICEF and WFP:
 Provided emergency food and health aid during crises like the Ethiopian famine
(1980s) and COVID-19 pandemic.
 Global Cooperation:
 Coordinated global health responses through the COVAX initiative for equitable
vaccine distribution.
 Development and Poverty Reduction:
 MDGs Achievements:
 Halved extreme poverty globally by 2015.
 UNDP:
 Works on capacity-building in developing countries.
 Impact:
 Promotes sustainable development, poverty alleviation, and clean energy
initiatives.

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 Environmental Protection:
 Key Frameworks:
 Kyoto Protocol (1997), Paris Agreement (2015), and COP summits.
 UNEP:
 Drives global environmental policies, including ozone layer recovery efforts.
 Promotion of Multilateralism:
 Acts as a central forum for global diplomacy, uniting nations on issues like disarmament,
trade, and development.
Failures in Addressing Transnational Terrorism and Humanitarian Crises

 Counterterrorism Failures:
 Lack of Definition:
 Inability to define terrorism has impeded effective action.
 Ineffectiveness of UNSC Sanctions:
 Sanctions against state-sponsored terrorism (e.g., Pakistan’s involvement in
harboring groups) remain inconsistently enforced.
 Criticism:
 Terrorist organizations like ISIS and Al-Qaeda continue to operate despite UNSC
resolutions.
 Inaction in Genocides and Civil Wars:
 Rwanda (1994):
 UN peacekeepers failed to prevent the massacre of over 800,000 people.
 Bosnia (1995):
 Srebrenica massacre occurred under UN’s watch despite its “safe zone” designation.
 Darfur (2003–Present):
 Limited UNAMID effectiveness in preventing violence.
 Humanitarian Crises:
 Syrian Civil War:
 UNSC deadlock due to vetoes by Russia and China prevented decisive action.
 Rohingya Crisis:
 UN failed to prevent mass displacement and atrocities in Myanmar.
 Yemen Conflict:
 Limited response to the world’s worst humanitarian disaster, with 80% of the
population needing aid.
 Ineffective Climate Action:
 Paris Agreement Commitments:
 Voluntary pledges have fallen short of limiting global warming to 1.5°C.
 Veto Power:
 Political disputes among P5 nations delay collective action on global climate
emergencies.

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STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL LIMITATIONS OF THE UN

 Security Council Paralysis:
 Veto power allows P5 nations to block resolutions, often reflecting national interests
rather than global needs.
 Example: Russia’s vetoes on Ukraine-related resolutions and US vetoes on Palestine-
Israel issues.
 Dependency on Major Powers:
 Financial reliance on the US (~22% of regular budget) and other major donors
undermines neutrality.
 Example: US withdrawal of funding from WHO during the Trump administration.
 Bureaucratic Inefficiency:
 Delayed response to emergencies due to overlapping mandates and cumbersome
decision-making processes.
 Allegations of corruption and lack of transparency in operations.
 Representation Gaps:
 Underrepresentation of Africa, Latin America, and SIDS in decision-making processes,
especially in the UNSC.
Critical Analysis: Why Has the UN Struggled?

Strengths of the UN:

 Global Legitimacy:
 Serves as the only truly universal organization with 193 member states.
 Comprehensive Agenda:
 Addresses diverse issues ranging from health to disarmament.
 Preventive Diplomacy:
 Successes in defusing conflicts, such as the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962).
Criticism and Scholarly Perspectives:

 Realist Critique:
 John Mearsheimer argues that international institutions like the UN are tools for
powerful states to advance their interests.
 Hans Morgenthau highlights the limits of international law in enforcing state
compliance.
 Liberal View:
 Robert Keohane emphasizes the need for institutional reform to reflect interdependence
in global governance.
 Joseph Nye supports the UN as a platform for soft power and norm-building despite
its flaws.
 Marxist Perspective:
 Immanuel Wallerstein critiques the UN as perpetuating global inequalities under the
guise of multilateralism.

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Future Prospects for the UN

 Reform Agenda:
 UNSC expansion to include emerging powers and ensure greater representation.
 Strengthening mechanisms for addressing non-traditional security threats like climate
change and cyber warfare.
 Global Challenges:
 Reinvigorating multilateralism in the face of rising nationalism and regionalism (e.g.,
Quad, SCO, G20).
 Path Forward:
 Former UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon stated, “The UN must reform or risk irrelevance.
A reformed UN can lead humanity towards peace, justice, and sustainability.”

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Multilateralism and the Future of

Global Governance

The Concept of Multilateralism

 Definition:
 Multilateralism refers to cooperation among multiple countries to address global
challenges through established international organizations or frameworks.
 Importance of Multilateralism:
 Promotes collective decision-making and burden-sharing.
 Essential for tackling transnational issues like climate change, pandemics, and terrorism.
 UN as a Pillar of Multilateralism:
 The United Nations (UN) has been central to global governance, facilitating dialogue
and cooperation among 193 member states.

Challenges to Multilateralism in the 21st Century

 Rise of Regional and Alternative Frameworks:

 Organizations like G20, BRICS, Quad, and SCO highlight regionalism’s increasing
influence in global decision-making.
 Example: G20’s prominence in addressing economic issues during the 2008 financial
crisis.
 Erosion of Consensus:
 Growing rivalry among great powers (e.g., US-China tensions) weakens multilateral
institutions.
 UNSC’s deadlock over conflicts like Syria and Ukraine reflects diminishing
effectiveness.
 Nationalism and Populism:
 Domestic political trends challenge multilateral commitments, such as the US withdrawal
from the Paris Agreement under Trump.
 Inequities in Global Governance:
 Disproportionate influence of the Global North in decision-making marginalizes
developing nations.
 Example: Africa’s absence from the permanent membership of the UNSC.
 Non-Traditional Security Threats:
 Cybersecurity, artificial intelligence, and global pandemics require novel frameworks
that current institutions struggle to address.

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UN Reforms for a Just and Equitable Global Order

 Democratization of the UNSC:

 Expansion to include emerging powers like India, Brazil, and South Africa to reflect
current global realities.
 Reforming the veto system to reduce misuse and ensure collective action.
 Strengthening the General Assembly:
 Enhancing its role in addressing transnational issues, particularly when the UNSC is
paralyzed.
 Example: The Uniting for Peace mechanism was invoked during the Ukraine crisis in
2022.
 Enhanced Role of Regional Organizations:
 Partnering with regional blocs (e.g., AU, ASEAN) to address localized conflicts and
development challenges.
 Example: African Union-UN collaboration in Darfur (UNAMID).
 Financial Reforms:
 Mandatory contributions based on GDP to ensure equitable funding.
 Innovative financing mechanisms like climate funds and global taxation (e.g., carbon
tax).
 Inclusive Leadership:
 Transparent selection processes for top UN positions, ensuring representation from
developing countries.
Implications of UN Reforms on Achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

 Addressing Global Inequalities:

 A reformed UN could amplify the voices of the Global South, ensuring fair resource
allocation for poverty eradication and development.
 Climate Action:
 An empowered UN with binding climate mandates could drive collective progress on
SDG 13 (Climate Action).
 Example: Facilitating a global green energy transition through multilateral financing.
 Pandemic Preparedness:
 Enhanced WHO capacity, with robust UN oversight, could improve early warning
systems and equitable vaccine distribution.
 Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding:
 Reforms could enable the UN to address conflicts more decisively, reducing humanitarian
crises and fostering stability.
Alternatives to Multilateralism: Regionalism and Minilateralism

 Regionalism:
 Organizations like the African Union (AU), ASEAN, and EU often provide faster,
localized responses to crises.
 Example: EU’s leadership in climate policy and green energy initiatives.

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 Minilateralism:
 Smaller, issue-specific groupings like the Quad (India, US, Japan, Australia) focus on
security in the Indo-Pacific.
 Strengths:
 Greater agility and shared interests among fewer members.
 Weaknesses:
 Lacks the universality of the UN, potentially fragmenting global governance.
Scholarly Views on the Future of Multilateralism

 John G. Ikenberry (Liberal View):

 Advocates strengthening multilateral institutions as a counterweight to great power
rivalries, emphasizing rule-based order.
 Ian Bremmer:
 Argues that the “G-Zero World” reflects the decline of global leadership, necessitating
regional and flexible arrangements.
 Amartya Sen:
 Highlights the need for inclusive global governance to address equity and justice,
particularly in sustainable development.
 Noam Chomsky (Critical View):
 Critiques multilateralism as often serving the interests of powerful states under the
guise of global cooperation.
Future Prospects for Global Governance

 Strengthening Multilateral Cooperation:

 Balancing the role of global institutions like the UN with complementary regional
initiatives.
 Leveraging Technology:
 Digital platforms for real-time decision-making and inclusive participation.
 Example: UN’s use of AI in climate modeling and disaster management.
 Emphasis on Sustainable Development:
 Prioritizing climate action and poverty alleviation as core elements of global
governance.
 Greater Role for Civil Society:
 Involving NGOs and grassroots movements in shaping international policies for greater
accountability and inclusivity.

CASE STUDIES AND LANDMARK DEVELOPMENTS

UNSC’s Role in Conflicts

 Iraq (2003):
 Context:
 The US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003 was justified on claims of weapons of mass
destruction (WMDs) but lacked explicit UNSC authorization.

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 UNSC Dynamics:
 The US and UK pushed for intervention, but Russia, China, and France opposed it,
citing lack of evidence.
 Outcome:
 The invasion undermined UNSC credibility and highlighted its inability to prevent
unilateral military actions by powerful states.
 Critical Analysis:
 Scholars like Hans Blix (former UN inspector) criticized the UNSC’s marginalization
in the Iraq conflict, describing it as a failure of collective security.
 Syria (2011–Present):
 Context:
 The Syrian Civil War led to mass atrocities, displacement of millions, and significant
regional instability.
 UNSC’s Role:
 UNSC resolutions were repeatedly vetoed by Russia and China, blocking intervention
and sanctions against the Assad regime.
 Outcome:
 UNSC deadlock shifted conflict resolution to regional powers and coalitions,
undermining multilateral peace efforts.
 Critical Analysis:
 Realist scholars argue that the UNSC’s paralysis reflects the prioritization of national
interests over global security.
 Ukraine (2022):
 Context:
 Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 violated the UN Charter (prohibition
of force).
 UNSC Actions:
 Russia’s veto prevented UNSC resolutions condemning the invasion.
 Alternative Approaches:
 The General Assembly invoked the Uniting for Peace mechanism, passing
resolutions condemning Russia’s actions.
 Outcome:
 Exposed limitations of the UNSC in addressing aggression by P5 members.
Veto Power in Action: Use and Misuse by P5 Nations

 Historical Trends:
 Veto power has been used over 300 times since 1945, primarily by the US, USSR/Russia,
and China.
 Key Examples:
 US Veto on Israel-Palestine Resolutions:
 The US has vetoed over 50 resolutions criticizing Israel, citing national security and
alliance interests.

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 Russia’s Veto on Syria:

 Russia vetoed resolutions addressing chemical weapons use and humanitarian aid
in Syria, supporting its ally Assad.
 China’s Veto on Myanmar:
 Blocked resolutions addressing the Rohingya crisis, citing non-interference.
 Critical Perspectives:
 Critics like Richard Falk describe the veto as a “tyranny of the minority,” where national
interests override global consensus.
 Calls for reforms include limiting veto use to situations involving genocide or mass
atrocities.
India’s Leadership in UN Peacekeeping Operations

 Historical Contributions:
 India has deployed peacekeepers since the first mission in 1948 (UNTSO in Palestine).
 Notable Missions:
 Congo (ONUC, 1960): India played a pivotal role in stabilizing the newly
independent nation.
 South Sudan (UNMISS): Indian troops have provided humanitarian aid and built
critical infrastructure.
 Recognition and Sacrifices:
 Over 175 Indian peacekeepers have lost their lives in UN missions, the highest among
all contributing nations.
 India has been lauded for its commitment to neutrality and humanitarianism in conflict
zones.
 Challenges and Criticisms:
 Delayed Reimbursements: UN’s financial delays strain India’s resources.
 Geopolitical Risks: Indian peacekeepers often operate in high-conflict zones without
adequate support.
UN’s Response to Global Health Crises: COVID-19 as a Case Study

 WHO’s Role:
 Coordinated global efforts to contain COVID-19, declared a pandemic in March 2020.
 Launched the COVAX Initiative to ensure equitable vaccine distribution.
 Challenges Faced:
 Accusations of delayed response and dependence on member states for data (e.g.,
China’s initial reporting delays).
 Vaccine nationalism, with wealthier nations stockpiling vaccines, undermined multilateral
distribution goals.
 UN’s Broader Efforts:
 UNDP and WFP: Delivered essential supplies and support to vulnerable regions.
 UNICEF: Facilitated vaccination campaigns in developing countries.

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 Critical Analysis:
 The pandemic exposed the UN’s limited enforcement capabilities and reliance on
member states’ voluntary cooperation.
 Scholars like Lawrence Gostin argue for stronger WHO mandates and independent
verification mechanisms to prevent future crises.
Key Lessons from Case Studies

 UNSC Reform is Essential:

 Failures in Iraq, Syria, and Ukraine underscore the need to address P5 dominance and
veto misuse.
 Strengthening General Assembly’s Role:
 The GA’s invocation of the Uniting for Peace resolution on Ukraine demonstrates its
potential to bypass UNSC gridlocks.
 Revitalizing Multilateral Cooperation:
 Global crises like COVID-19 and climate change demand stronger mechanisms for
collective action and equitable resource distribution.
 Enhancing Accountability:
 Peacekeeping operations and humanitarian responses must prioritize transparency,
efficiency, and equitable representation.

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