FORMALISM: A DEEPER ANALYSIS

1. Definition & Core Concepts

Q: What is Formalism in literary theory?​

A:​
Formalism is a literary approach that analyzes a text based solely on its
form—language, structure, and literary devices—without considering historical,
social, or authorial context. It emphasizes literariness (what makes a text "literary")
and views literature as an autonomous entity governed by its own rules.

📌 Keywords: Autonomy of Text, Literariness, Form over Context, Close Reading

The formal properties of a literary work include:

●​ Shape/structure of the text

●​ Harmony of the words
●​ The rhythm of the sentences
●​ Rhyming of the words

The formal properties of a literary work do NOT include:

●​ Time of the work

●​ Background of the work
●​ Representation of the work
●​ The symbolism of the words
●​ Author’s moral, religious, or political values
●​ Author’s personal life
A Checklist for Formalist Criticism:
A formalist critic analyzes:

●​ How the work is structured or organized (formed)

●​ How it begins
●​ How it is advancing/transiting to the next lines
●​ How it ends
●​ How the plot is built
●​ How the plot relates to its structure
●​ How each part of the work relates to the work as a whole
●​ How all the parts relate to one another
●​ How the narrator/speaker narrates the story
●​ Point of view of the narrator
●​ The major and the minor characters
●​ How the characters are related to one another
●​ Actions of the characters
●​ The language of the literary work
●​ Style of the writing
●​ Literary devices such as imageries, similes, metaphors, ironies, paradox,
etc.
●​ How the literary devices function to create meaning.

2. Key Theorists & Texts

Q: Who are the key figures in Formalism, and what are their contributions?​
A:

1.​ Viktor Shklovsky—Introduced Defamiliarization (Art as Technique).

2.​ Roman Jakobson—Defined literariness and poetic language.
3.​ Boris Eichenbaum– Argued for the scientific study of literature (Theory of
the Formal Method).
4.​ Yury Tynyanov– Studied the evolution of literary forms over time.

📌 Keywords: Shklovsky—Defamiliarization, Jakobson—Literariness,

Eichenbaum—Scientific Approach, Tynyanov—Literary Evolution

3. Core Concepts & Methods

Q: What are the main ideas of Formalism?​

A:

✔ Defamiliarization (Ostranenie) – Literature makes the familiar strange, forcing

readers to see reality in a new way (Shklovsky).​
✔ Literariness – The essence of literature is found in its form, not its content
(Jakobson).​
✔ Fabula & Syuzhet – Story vs. Plot distinction (Fabula = chronological events,
Syuzhet = artistic arrangement).​
✔ Foregrounding – Literary devices (e.g., metaphor, rhyme) make texts stand out.​
✔ Poetic Language – Language in literature is self-referential and draws attention
to itself.

📌 Keywords: Defamiliarization, Literariness, Fabula vs. Syuzhet, Foregrounding,

Poetic Language

4. Practical Application (Close Reading Technique)

Q: How do Formalists analyze a text?​

A:
 1.​ Analyze structure – How is the narrative arranged (Fabula vs. Syuzhet)?
2.​ Identify literary devices – Metaphor, symbolism, alliteration, irony, etc.
3.​ Focus on language – How do sound patterns (rhyme, rhythm) shape
meaning?
4.​ Study textual coherence – Repetitions, motifs, and structural patterns.

📌 Keywords: Structure, Literary Devices, Language, Textual Coherence

5. Strengths & Criticisms

Q: What are the advantages and limitations of Formalism?​

A:

✅ Strengths:
●​ Provides an objective method of analysis.
●​ Encourages detailed textual scrutiny (close reading).
●​ Emphasizes the uniqueness of literary language.

❌ Criticism:
●​ Ignores historical, social, and political influences.
●​ Does not consider reader interpretation (New Criticism addressed this).
●​ Treats texts as self-contained, limiting broader meaning.

📌 Keywords: Objective, Close Reading, Language Focus, Ignores Context, No

Reader Perspective

6. Application to Literary Works

Q: How can we apply Formalist principles to a text?​

A:

Example 1: William Blake’s "The Tyger"

 ●​ Defamiliarization: The tiger is described with striking, unfamiliar imagery
("fearful symmetry").
●​ Foregrounding: Strong rhythmic pattern and repetition enhance its impact.

Example 2: Shakespeare’s "Sonnet 18"

●​ Poetic Language: Metaphors ("Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?")

highlight literariness.
●​ Structure: The Shakespearean sonnet form guides meaning.

📌 Keywords: Defamiliarization – Tyger, Foregrounding – Rhythm, Poetic

Language – Metaphor, Structure – Sonnet

7. Exam-Style Answer Format

Q: What is Formalism? Discuss its key ideas and methods of analysis.

📌 Intro: Define Formalism and its focus on text as an autonomous entity.​

📌 Key Theorists: Mention Shklovsky, Jakobson, Eichenbaum, Tynyanov.​
📌 Core Ideas: Explain Defamiliarization, Literariness, Fabula vs. Syuzhet,
📌 Methods: Outline Close Reading, Structural Analysis, Literary Devices.​
Foregrounding.​

📌 Criticism: Address contextual limitations.​

📌 Example: Apply to poetry or prose (e.g., "The Tyger" or Shakespeare).​
📌 Conclusion: Emphasize its impact on modern literary studies.
FORMALISM — COMPLETE STRUCTURED ANALYSIS

1. Definition

Formalism is a literary theory that focuses on the form, structure, language, and
literary devices of a text itself, ignoring the author's biography, historical context,
and reader's response.​
It studies how a literary work creates meaning through its own internal devices.
 2. Historical Background

Branch Origin Main Figures

Russian Formalism Russia (1915–1930) Viktor Shklovsky, Roman Jakobson, Boris

Eichenbaum

American New USA (1930s–1960s) John Crowe Ransom, Cleanth Brooks, W.K. Wimsatt,
Criticism Monroe Beardsley

3. Key Concepts of Formalism

Concept Explanation

Literariness What makes a text “literary” is its use of language, not its content

Defamiliarization (Ostranenie) Making the familiar seem strange or new to engage the reader
(Shklovsky)

Form vs. Content Formalists focus on form, not the message, biography, or society

Autonomy of Text The text is a self-contained object; meaning comes from the text itself
Devices Techniques like metaphor, rhyme, meter, irony, plot, narrative
structure

Foregrounding Highlighting certain elements of language (rhythm, imagery) to slow

down readers and make them notice the form

4. Method of Analysis

Formalists ask:

1.​ What are the devices? (Metaphor, irony, paradox, rhyme, etc.)​

2.​ How is the story structured? (Plot, narrative order, climax)​

3.​ How does form create meaning?​

4.​ How does the text defamiliarize ordinary things?​

5.​ How do patterns (repetition, contrast) operate?​

5. Example

In Shakespeare's Sonnet 18:

●​ Formalists will focus on the metaphors ("Shall I compare thee to a summer's

day?"), the sonnet structure (14 lines, iambic pentameter), and rhyme
scheme (ABAB CDCD EFEF GG).​

●​ They will not focus on who Shakespeare loved, but how the form creates the
beauty.​
 In Frost's Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening:

●​ Analysis would focus on rhyme scheme, repetition ("And miles to go before

I sleep"), and sound patterns rather than Frost's life or his rural background.​

6. Keywords Table

Keyword Meaning

Literariness The artistic quality of a text

Defamiliarization Making familiar things strange

Form Structure, patterns, style of the text

Devices Literary tools (metaphor, irony, rhyme, etc.)

Autonomy The text is independent of history, author, or reader

Foregrounding Highlighting elements to draw attention to the form

7. Strengths
 ●​ Focuses on the aesthetic and artistic quality.​

●​ Helps readers to analyze how literature works.​

●​ Avoids unnecessary speculation about the author's intention.​

8. Criticisms

●​ Ignores historical, social, and political contexts.​

●​ Disregards author’s intention and reader’s emotions.​

●​ Can become too mechanical or technical.​

9. Exam Short Answer Formula

Formalism is a literary theory focused on the form, language, and

literary devices of a text, without considering authorial intention,
historical context, or reader response. Formalists such as Shklovsky and
Jakobson introduced concepts like defamiliarization, literariness, and
foregrounding. Formalism aims to show how a text creates meaning
using literary devices and patterns. For example, a formalist would
analyze Sonnet 18 by studying its metaphors and rhyme scheme, not
Shakespeare's biography. Its main limitation is ignoring social or
historical aspects.

10. Mnemonic to Remember

 "FLADAF"​
F – Form​
L – Literariness​
A – Autonomy​
D – Devices​
A – Artistic patterns​
F – Foregrounding

11. Quick Difference between Russian Formalism and New Criticism

Aspect Russian Formalism New Criticism

Origin Russia USA

Focus Language & Close reading & Unity

Defamiliarization

Key Term Defamiliarization Paradox, Tension, Ambiguity

Leading Figure Viktor Shklovsky Cleanth Brooks

✨ Full Comparative Overview (Formalism, New Criticism, Structuralism,

Marxist Criticism, Feminist Criticism) ✨
 Criteria Formalism New Criticism Structuralism Marxist Feminist
Criticism Criticism

Origin Russia (1910s) USA France Marx & Engels 1960s Second
(1930s-50s) (1950s-60s) (19th Century) Wave Feminism

Key Figures Viktor Shklovsky, John Crowe Ferdinand de Karl Marx, Simone de
Roman Jakobson, Ransom, Saussure, Friedrich Beauvoir, Elaine
Boris Cleanth Claude Engels, Terry Showalter, Kate
Eichenbaum, Yury Brooks, W.K. Lévi-Strauss, Eagleton, Georg Millett, Judith
Tynyanov Wimsatt, T.S. Roland Lukács Butler
Eliot Barthes

Primary Literary devices, The text itself, Underlying Class struggle, Patriarchy,
Focus defamiliarization, unity, paradox, structures of ideology, gender roles,
literariness, fabula irony, language, material representation
and syuzhet, ambiguity codes, binary conditions of women
foregrounding oppositions

View of Autonomous and Self-sufficient A system of Product of Tool for

Literature self-contained and signs shaped socio-economic representing or
independent by cultural forces challenging
codes gender power
dynamics
Method Close reading Close reading Identifying Exposing class Analyzing
focusing on form focusing on structures, ideology, gendered
and technique meaning codes, binary materialism language,
within the text oppositions representation,
and stereotypes

Attitude to Irrelevant Irrelevant Irrelevant Influenced by Critically

Author (Intentional historical examines how
Fallacy) material authorial
conditions perspective is
gendered

Attitude to Reader's response Reader’s Reader Reader is Reader is

Reader is less important feelings are decodes shaped by influenced by
secondary structures ideology gender
(Affective constructs
Fallacy)

Key Concepts Literariness, Intentional Langue vs Base and Patriarchy,

Defamiliarization, Fallacy, Parole, Binary Superstructure, Gynocriticism,
Devices Affective Opposition, Ideology, Class Gender,
Fallacy, Unity, Semiotics struggle Intersectionality
Paradox

Strengths Highlights Sharp and Helps reveal Relates Exposes gender

craftsmanship of disciplined how meaning literature to biases and
literature reading of text is structured real-world challenges
power structures oppression
Weaknesses Ignores context, Can be too May overlook Can reduce art May risk
history, ideology text-centric historical and to class struggle reducing
and ignore political only literature to
politics factors gender politics
alone

💥 The Literary Theory Crash Kit 💥

(Formalism, New Criticism, Structuralism, Marxism)

Theory Key Focus Important Keywords Method Weakness

Theorists

Formalism Form, Viktor Defamiliarization, Close Ignores history,

Technique, Shklovsky, Device, reading of author, society
Literariness Roman Literariness literary
Jakobson devices

New Text as John Crowe Paradox, Irony, Close Ignores context,

Criticism Autonomous Ransom, Ambiguity, Unity reading for author, reader
Cleanth internal
Brooks coherence

Structuralism Structure, Ferdinand de Langue, Parole, Analyze Too mechanical,

Systems, Saussure, Signifier & patterns & neglects emotions
Binary Claude Signified, Codes oppositions
Oppositions Lévi-Strauss,
Roland
 Barthes,
Todorov

Marxism Class Karl Marx, Base & Analyze Reduces literature

Conflict, Friedrich Superstructure, literature as to politics
Ideology Engels, Louis Ideology, Class reflection of
Althusser struggle class &
ideology

✅ Model Exam Answer Templates

✨ Example Question: “What is Formalism? Discuss its theory and method.”
Introduction:​
Formalism is a school of literary criticism that focuses on the form, structure, and
artistic devices of a literary text. It believes that literature is autonomous and
should be studied for its literary techniques rather than historical, social, or
authorial contexts.

Body:​
Pioneered by Russian Formalists such as Viktor Shklovsky and Roman Jakobson,
Formalism introduced concepts like defamiliarization (making the familiar seem
strange) and literariness (what makes a text literary). Formalists analyzed texts
through close reading of literary devices such as imagery, rhythm, rhyme, syntax,
and narrative techniques.

Formalism prioritizes how the text is constructed and how it functions internally
rather than what it represents about society or the author's intention.

Conclusion:​
Though criticized for neglecting historical and social factors, Formalism has been
foundational in establishing the practice of close reading and treating literature as a
unique and autonomous art form.

Keywords: Defamiliarization, Device, Literariness, Close Reading

✨ Example Question: “What is New Criticism? Discuss its theory and method.”
Introduction:​
New Criticism is a mid-20th-century literary theory that treats the literary text as
an autonomous object, focusing on its internal structure and meaning.

Body:​
Key theorists like Cleanth Brooks and John Crowe Ransom emphasized close
reading to identify paradoxes, ironies, ambiguities, and the organic unity of the
text. New Critics rejected considering the author's intention (Intentional Fallacy) or
the reader's emotional response (Affective Fallacy). Instead, they analyzed how
language, imagery, and structure work together to create a unified meaning.

Conclusion:​
New Criticism is praised for developing detailed analytical methods but is often
criticized for ignoring historical, social, and political contexts.

Keywords: Paradox, Irony, Organic Unity, Intentional Fallacy

✨ Example Question: “Discuss Structuralism as a literary theory.”

Introduction:​
Structuralism applies linguistic and anthropological methods to literature,
analyzing texts through underlying structures.

Body:​
Heavily influenced by Saussure’s concepts of signifier and signified, structuralists
like Lévi-Strauss, Barthes, and Todorov study literature as a system of codes,
binary oppositions, and conventions. Structuralists believe meaning arises not from
 individual elements but from the relations between them. They focus on universal
structures like recurring plots, character types, or cultural myths.

Conclusion:​
Structuralism is valued for its systematic approach but criticized for neglecting
emotional and historical dimensions of literature.

Keywords: Binary Opposition, Langue & Parole, Code, Pattern

✨ Example Question: “Discuss Marxist literary criticism.”

Introduction:​
Marxist literary criticism analyzes literature based on class struggle, ideology, and
socio-economic factors.

Body:​
Rooted in the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, and later developed by
thinkers like Louis Althusser, Marxist criticism examines how literature reflects
and reinforces the base-superstructure model and ideological control. It studies
how texts expose or obscure the realities of class, power, and material conditions.

Conclusion:​
Marxism is praised for unveiling the socio-economic dimensions of literature but
is often criticized for reducing literature to political propaganda.

Keywords: Ideology, Base-Superstructure, Class Conflict, Hegemony

✅ Bonus: Extra Tiny Reminder

Formalism New Criticism Structuralism Marxism
 Form Meaning inside text Meaning from structure Meaning from society

Devices Paradox Binary Class

Defamiliarization Irony Code Ideology

NEW CRITICISM: DETAILED ANALYSIS

1. Definition & Core Concepts

Q: What is New Criticism in literary theory?​

A:​
New Criticism is a literary theory developed primarily in the United States in the
early 20th century that focuses on close reading of texts to discover how meaning
is created internally through formal elements (images, symbols, structure, paradox,
irony). It rejects authorial intention, historical context, and reader's response,
treating the text as a self-sufficient entity.

📌 Keywords: Text as Autonomous, Close Reading, Intrinsic Meaning, Rejects

Context

2. Key Theorists & Texts

Q: Who are the key figures of New Criticism?​

A:

1.​ John Crowe Ransom – Coined the term "New Criticism" in his book The
New Criticism (1941).​

2.​ Cleanth Brooks – Introduced Paradox as central to poetic meaning (The

Well-Wrought Urn).​
 3.​ W. K. Wimsatt & Monroe Beardsley – Formulated Intentional Fallacy and
Affective Fallacy.​

4.​ Allen Tate – Advocated for close reading and emphasized the importance of
concrete universals.​

📌 Keywords:​
Ransom New Criticism,

Brooks Paradox,

Wimsatt & Beardsley Intentional & Affective Fallacy,

Tate Close Reading

3. Core Concepts & Principles

Q: What are the key concepts of New Criticism?​

A:

✔ Close Reading – Focused, detailed analysis of the language, form, and structure
of the text.​
✔ Paradox – A central feature in poetry where contradictions create deeper
meaning (Brooks).​
✔ Tension – The resolution of opposing ideas within a text.​
✔ Irony – Layered meanings arising from contrast and opposition.​
✔ Intentional Fallacy – The author’s intention is irrelevant to interpretation
(Wimsatt & Beardsley).​
✔ Affective Fallacy – The emotional response of readers is not a valid ground for
judging the value of the text.
📌 Keywords:​
Close Reading, Paradox, Tension, Irony, Intentional Fallacy, Affective Fallacy

4. Method of Analysis

Q: How do New Critics analyze a text?​

A:

1.​ Read the text carefully without external references.​

2.​ Look for contradictions, ambiguities, and paradoxes.​

3.​ Examine how these features create tension and how it's resolved.​

4.​ Analyze form, structure, sound patterns, symbolism, and imagery.​

5.​ Interpret meaning based on the internal unity of the work.​

📌 Keywords:​
Contradiction, Ambiguity, Tension, Unity, Close Reading

5. Strengths & Criticism

Q: What are the strengths and limitations of New Criticism?​

A:

✅ Strengths:
●​ Promotes text-centered reading.​

●​ Avoids subjectivity by excluding personal and historical interpretations.​

 ●​ Values complexity, unity, and literary craftsmanship.​

❌ Criticism:
●​ Ignores historical, cultural, and social contexts.​

●​ Dismisses readers’ emotional responses.​

●​ Overemphasizes unity when some texts are purposefully fragmented or

open-ended.​

📌 Keywords:​
Text-Centered, Objectivity, Complexity vs. Context Neglect

6. Application to Literary Works

Q: How to apply New Criticism to a poem?​

A:

Example 1: John Donne’s "The Canonization"

●​ Paradox: Lovers are both ordinary and saint-like.​

●​ Tension: Between religious imagery and secular love.​

●​ Unity: The poem resolves this tension through the metaphor of canonization.​

Example 2: Shakespeare’s "Sonnet 73"

●​ Imagery: Autumn, twilight, and dying fire to symbolize aging.​

●​ Tension: Between the inevitability of death and the enduring power of love.​
 ●​ Close Reading reveals how the metaphors enrich the sonnet's meaning.​

📌 Keywords:​
Paradox – Donne,​
Imagery – Shakespeare,​
Tension – Love vs. Death,​
Unity – Final Resolution

7. Exam-Style Answer Format

Q: What is New Criticism? Discuss its key concepts and method of analysis.

📌 Intro: Define New Criticism; emphasize text as autonomous.​

📌 Theorists: Mention Ransom, Brooks, Wimsatt & Beardsley, Tate.​
📌 Concepts: Explain Close Reading, Paradox, Tension, Irony, Intentional &
📌 Method: Explain stepwise Close Reading method.​
Affective Fallacy.​

📌 Criticism: Address exclusion of context.​

📌 Example: Apply to poem(s) (Donne or Shakespeare).​
📌 Conclusion: Stress New Criticism’s contribution to modern literary studies.
1. Keyword Table for Quick Revision

Concept Keyword Notes

Theory Text as Text is independent of author or reader

Autonomous

Method Close Reading Careful attention to form, language, structure

Key Theorist John Crowe Coined the term New Criticism
Ransom

Key Theorist Cleanth Brooks Paradox as central to poetry

Key Theorists Wimsatt & Intentional Fallacy, Affective Fallacy

Beardsley

Device Paradox Contradictory elements creating meaning

Device Tension Conflict or oppositions resolved in the text

Device Irony Hidden meanings through contrast

Fallacy Intentional Fallacy Author's intention is irrelevant

Fallacy Affective Fallacy Reader's emotion is not a valid criterion

Strength Unity & Seeks internal harmony and layered meanings

Complexity

Criticism Ignores Context Neglects history, society, and reader's role

2. Ready-Made Short Answer Formula for Exams

New Criticism is a 20th-century literary theory focusing on the text

itself as an autonomous object. Developed by John Crowe Ransom,
Cleanth Brooks, Wimsatt & Beardsley, and Allen Tate, it promotes close
reading of literary texts, emphasizing formal features like paradox,
tension, and irony. It rejects both intentional fallacy (author's intent) and
affective fallacy (reader's emotion) and finds meaning through the unity
and complexity of the work itself. New Critics believe that texts possess
their own internal logic that should be examined without external
influences. However, it is criticized for ignoring historical, cultural, and
social contexts. Example: In Donne's The Canonization, paradoxes (love
vs. sainthood) and tension are resolved to create meaning within the
poem itself.

3. Optional Mnemonic for Memorizing Key Concepts

"PIC IT":​
P – Paradox​
I – Intentional Fallacy​
C – Close Reading​
I – Irony​
T – Tension

You can extend it as PIC IT U = Unity (to remember unity of meaning).

STRUCTURALISM — FULL ANALYSIS + EXAM-READY TOOLKIT

1. Definition (Simple & Sharp)

Structuralism is a theory that views literature as a system of signs operating

according to underlying structures. It is influenced heavily by linguistics
(Saussure) and anthropology (Levi-Strauss). It argues that meaning is not found in
 the individual text alone, but in the structure or system of codes that governs all
texts and culture.

2. Historical Background

Theorist Contribution

Ferdinand de Saussure Father of modern linguistics; language is a system of signs (Signifier +

Signified = Sign)

Claude Lévi-Strauss Applied structuralist principles to myths, anthropology, and culture

Roland Barthes Shifted structuralism into literary and cultural criticism

Jonathan Culler Systematized structuralist literary theory (Structuralist Poetics, 1975)

3. Key Concepts of Structuralism

Concept Explanation

Sign Basic unit of meaning; combination of Signifier (sound/image) +

Signified (concept)
Langue vs. Parole Langue = Structure/system of language; Parole = Individual
use/speech

Binary Oppositions Meaning arises through opposites (life/death, man/woman,

light/dark)

Myth as Language All myths, narratives follow structures similar to language

Intertextuality Texts are interconnected; no text is truly 'original'

Codes and Conventions Every genre or text type has rules or patterns that create meaning

Structural Analysis Study of deep structures underlying plot, character, setting, theme,
etc.

4. Application of Structuralism

When analyzing a literary text, a Structuralist would:

1.​ Ignore the author's life, historical background, or reader's emotions.

2.​ Focus on finding the structure, patterns, and binary oppositions.
3.​ Treat the text as part of a broader system.
4.​ See meaning as produced by differences and relations between elements.​
 5. Example

In Shakespeare's Hamlet, Structuralists would focus on:

●​ Binary oppositions: Action vs. Inaction, Appearance vs. Reality, Life vs.
Death.​

●​ Structural patterns: Revenge tragedy conventions, use of soliloquy, madness

as a repeated motif.​

●​ Position of Hamlet: Not just as a 'character', but as a function within a

structure of revenge tragedy.​

6. Keywords Table

Keyword Explanation

Sign Combination of Signifier + Signified

Langue Language system

Parole Individual utterances/texts

Binary Opposition Opposing concepts structuring meaning

Structure Underlying system generating meaning

Code Agreed rules within a text

Intertextuality Texts relate to other texts

7. Strengths of Structuralism

●​ Offers scientific and objective method of literary analysis.​

●​ Finds universal patterns across literature and culture.​

●​ Explains how genre, myths, and narratives work.​

8. Criticisms

●​ Ignores history, author, and readers.​

●​ Treats texts as mechanical products of structure.​

●​ Doesn't explain change or uniqueness of texts.​

●​ Paved way for Post-structuralism which challenges these limits.​

9. Short Answer Formula for Exams

Structuralism views literature as a system of signs governed by

structures. Influenced by Saussure, Lévi-Strauss, and Barthes, it focuses
 on binary oppositions, codes, and the relationship between langue and
parole. Meaning is not inherent in the text, but is generated by the
system in which it operates. Through close structural analysis,
Structuralists discover deep patterns across genres, myths, and
narratives. However, it is criticized for ignoring historical and personal
contexts. Example: In Hamlet, Structuralists study the binary opposition
of action/inaction rather than Hamlet's personal psychology.

10. Mnemonic to Remember

"BIG C SPIN"​
B – Binary Opposition​
I – Intertextuality​
G – Genre codes​
C – Code & Convention​
S – Structure​
P – Parole​
I – Influenced by Saussure​
N – Narrative patterns

MARXIST CRITICISM — COMPLETE STRUCTURED ANALYSIS

1. Definition

Marxist criticism analyzes literature based on its representation of class struggle,

economic systems, and power relations. It views literature as a product of historical
material conditions and often asks:

●​ Who has the power?​

●​ Who lacks power?​

 ●​ How is ideology used to maintain domination?​

It is grounded in the ideas of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, focusing on the
relationship between literature, economics, and social class.

2. Historical Background

Theorist Contribution

Karl Marx Developed historical materialism; argued that the economic base shapes the
superstructure (culture, politics, ideology)

Friedrich Engels Collaborated with Marx; linked literature to socio-economic realities

Georg Lukács Introduced reflection theory — literature reflects class struggle and material
conditions

Louis Althusser Introduced Ideological State Apparatuses (ISA) — literature as a tool of ideology

Terry Eagleton Made Marxist literary criticism accessible; connected ideology, literature, and
power structures

3. Key Concepts of Marxist Criticism

 Concept Explanation

Base and Superstructure Base: economy + relations of production; Superstructure: culture,

ideology, politics, art

Ideology False consciousness: beliefs imposed by ruling class to maintain

power

Class Struggle Conflict between bourgeoisie (owners) and proletariat (workers)

Historical Materialism History driven by material (economic) conditions, not ideas alone

Reification Turning people or human relations into objects or commodities

Hegemony Cultural domination, where the subordinate classes accept the

ideology of the ruling class

Reflection Theory Literature reflects the socio-economic condition of its time

4. Application of Marxist Criticism

When analyzing a literary text, a Marxist critic will:

1.​ Examine class conflict within the text.​

 2.​ Explore how ideology is used to control characters.​

3.​ Study how the text supports or critiques the dominant economic system.​

4.​ Relate characters' struggles to the larger economic structure of society.​

5. Example

In Great Expectations by Charles Dickens:

●​ Pip tries to rise socially, but money alone does not make him a gentleman.​

●​ The class system and capitalist ideology control most relationships.​

●​ Pip's transformation shows the conflict between bourgeois values and

personal morality.​

In Hamlet:

●​ The ruling class is shown as corrupt.​

●​ Hamlet is caught between feudal loyalty and emerging bourgeois

individualism.​

6. Keywords Table

Keyword Meaning
 Base Economic foundation of society

Superstructure Institutions (art, law, literature) shaped by base

Class Struggle Conflict between classes

Ideology Dominant class's ideas imposed on others

Hegemony Subtle, cultural domination by the ruling class

Reification Turning human relations into commodities

Proletariat Working class

Bourgeoisie Capitalist, owning class

7. Strengths

●​ Connects literature with real social and economic conditions.​

●​ Exposes how literature may serve or resist oppression.​

●​ Explains ideology in action.​

 ●​ Brings out the historical dimension of texts.​

8. Criticisms

●​ Sometimes reduces literature to economic determinism.​

●​ Can overlook aesthetic and individual aspects of literature.​

●​ Some Marxists may ignore reader's freedom to interpret.​

9. Exam Short Answer Formula

Marxist Criticism studies literature as a reflection of class struggle,

ideology, and economic relations. Originating from Marx and Engels, it
focuses on how literature portrays or challenges bourgeois domination
and the plight of the proletariat. Key concepts include
base-superstructure, ideology, reification, and hegemony. A Marxist
critic would see Great Expectations as showing the illusions and
inequalities of capitalist society. Marxism is powerful in exposing
hidden power structures but is criticized for reducing art to politics
alone.

10. Mnemonic to Remember

"BIRCH HP"​
B – Base & Superstructure​
I – Ideology​
R – Reification​
C – Class Struggle​
H – Hegemony​
H – Historical Materialism​
P – Proletariat vs Bourgeoisie

TIP:
In the exam, always mention:

●​ Class struggle​

●​ Ideology​

●​ Economic influence​

●​ Critique of Capitalism​

●​ Example from a text you know

✨ 1. Basic Theory of Marxism

●​ Founded by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the 19th century.​

●​ Central Belief: Material conditions (economy, class structure, production)

determine human consciousness, not the other way around.​

●​ Society = Divided into two major layers:​

○​ Base (Economic foundation: means of production, relations of

production)​

○​ Superstructure (Law, politics, religion, art, literature — built on the

base)​

●​ Changes in economic base cause changes in superstructure.​

●​ History moves through class struggle: Bourgeoisie (owners) vs Proletariat

(workers).​
 ✨ 2. Marxist Literary Criticism (Basic)
●​ Literature = Part of the superstructure.​

●​ Literature both reflects and reinforces social, economic, and ideological

structures.​

●​ Marxist critics study:​

○​ How literature exposes, supports, or challenges dominant ideologies.​

○​ How literature is a product of historical material conditions.​

○​ How class, labor, ownership, and power dynamics appear in texts.​

✨ 3. Important Keywords and Concepts

Term Definition Usage

Base Economic foundation of society Determines social relations, including

(forces + relations of production) literature

Superstructure Culture, politics, religion, literature Literature reflects ideologies from the
built on base base

Ideology A system of beliefs produced by Literature often hides or critiques

ruling class dominant ideology
Materialism Focus on real economic/social Literature analyzed as material, not just
conditions, not abstract ideas "art"

Class Struggle Conflict between classes Characters, conflicts analyzed via class
(bourgeoisie vs proletariat) dynamics

Alienation Worker’s loss of control over their Themes of alienation common in

labor/product modern literature

Hegemony Dominance of ruling class through Literature shows how domination feels
culture (Gramsci) "natural"

Reification Treating human relationships as Literature exposes reification in

things capitalist society

Interpellation Ideology shaping individuals Characters and readers are "called" into
(Althusser) ideological roles

Historical Materialism History as a process driven by Texts are products of historical

material/economic forces conditions

✨ 4. Key Functions of Proper Marxist

Criticism
 ●​ Analyze the Text:​

○​ Expose the hidden ideologies inside literary works.​

○​ Examine how class structures, labor relations, and ownership appear.​

○​ Understand characters' social positions, class struggles.​

●​ Connect to Ideology and Society:​

○​ How does the text reflect dominant beliefs (e.g., patriarchy,

capitalism)?​

○​ How does it resist or conform?​

●​ Focus on History and Material Conditions:​

○​ Set the work in its historical, social, and economic backdrop.​

○​ See how real-world power relations shape art.​

●​ Unity/Unifying Relations:​

○​ Proper Marxist criticism links Text ↔ Ideology ↔ Social Relations

↔ Productive Forces.​

○​ No element is isolated: literature reflects AND influences material and

social life.​

✨ 5. Shortcuts for Common Questions (Your

Past Questions Broken Down)
 Question Short Answer Plan Important Keywords

How does Marxist criticism It connects text, ideology, social Material base, superstructure,
find unity? relations, and productive forces as ideology, historical materialism
parts of a whole social reality.

Why is literature a part of the Literature reflects dominant Reflection theory, superstructure,
superstructure? ideologies and power structures, ideology
shaped by the economic base.

Does Marxist criticism reduce Partly — but it also studies Mediation, class struggle,
literature to economics? ideological contradictions and economic determinism
creative expressions within material
limits.

Strategies of Marxist reading? Read for class dynamics, hidden Class, ideology, hegemony,
ideologies, historical setting, social historicization
criticism.

Subordinating aesthetics to Marxism prioritizes social meanings Aesthetic ideology, political

politics? over pure beauty. Literature must be unconscious (Jameson)
socially and politically understood.

Is Marxism cultural criticism? YES. It treats literature as cultural Cultural materialism, ideology
production, shaped by material critique
conditions.
 ✨ 6. Easy Cheat Sheet to Remember Boss
Section Key Points

Marxism Materialism > Class struggle > Base/Superstructure

Literature Superstructure product > Ideological reflection

Marxist Criticism Text + Ideology + Society + History = Unity

Terms to Use Base, Superstructure, Ideology, Hegemony, Historicism

Famous Critics Marx, Engels, Gramsci, Althusser, Terry Eagleton, Fredric Jameson

✨ 7. Boss-Level Opening Paragraph for Any

Marxist Answer
Marxist literary criticism emerges from the foundational belief that
literature is not created in isolation but is deeply embedded within the
social, economic, and ideological structures of its time. Rooted in the
 historical materialism of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, this approach
examines how literary texts both reflect and reinforce the class
struggles, power relations, and dominant ideologies of their specific
historical moments.

✨ 8. Boss-Level Ending Paragraph for Any

Marxist Answer
In essence, Marxist criticism reorients the study of literature from
isolated aesthetic contemplation to a critical engagement with the
socio-economic realities it both shapes and is shaped by. By uncovering
the ideological underpinnings and historical material conditions
embedded within texts, Marxism not only critiques literature but also
reimagines its role as a dynamic participant in the broader struggle for
social change.

✅ Boss Final Checklist

●​ Materialism over idealism ✔️​
●​ Base and Superstructure model ✔️​
●​ Class struggle, ideology ✔️​
●​ Text linked with history and economy ✔️​
●​ Literature = cultural product, not pure art ✔️​
 ✨ Shortcomings of Marxist Literary Criticism
Shortcoming Explanation Keywords to Remember

Economic Determinism Marxist criticism sometimes reduces Over-simplification,

complex human experiences, art, and reductionism
emotions into only economic terms.

Neglect of Aesthetics Focus is often so much on politics and Aesthetics vs Politics

ideology that artistic quality, style,
imagination are ignored.

Homogenization of Treats all literature mainly as "products" of Product, homogeneity

Literature their economic conditions, overlooking
individual creativity or personal genius.

Underestimating Early Marxists saw readers as passive Passive reader, missing

Reader’s Role absorbers of ideology, ignoring reader agency
response and multiple interpretations.

Ignoring Non-Class Too focused on class — ignores gender Intersectionality missing

Issues (feminism), race (postcolonialism), and other
identities that also shape literature.
Dogmatism Some Marxist critics impose rigid Ideological rigidity
frameworks onto literature, leaving no space
for ambiguity, irony, or subtle meanings.

Problem with "Base determines superstructure" is too Complex interaction, not

Superstructure simplistic — culture can also influence one-way
economy and society (not always one-way).

🔥 Quick Memory Hack (Shortcomings)

👉 Just memorize this acronym: ENDHIP​
(Economic, Neglect, Dogmatism, Homogenization, Ignoring reader, Passive
superstructure)

E - Economic determinism​
N - Neglect of aesthetics​
D - Dogmatism (rigid thinking)​
H - Homogenization of literature​
I - Ignoring multiple identities (gender, race)​
P - Passive role of readers and simple view of superstructure

✨ Boss-Level Ending Line (if you need to

mention shortcomings in exam)
"While Marxist criticism provides powerful tools to uncover the
socio-economic forces shaping literature, its tendency toward economic
 determinism and rigid ideological frameworks sometimes risks
oversimplifying the rich complexity of literary creation and reception."

✅ Boss, now you have:

●​ Full theory ✔️​

●​ Keywords ✔️​

●​ Opening + Closing Paragraphs ✔️​

●​ Terms + Chart✔️​
●​ Shortcomings ✔️​

🧠 25-Mark Answer on Marxist Literary

Criticism
📖 Introduction
Marxist literary criticism, rooted in the ideas of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels,
views literature not as an isolated artistic phenomenon but as a part of the social
superstructure shaped by economic forces. According to Marxist theorists,
literature both reflects and reinforces the ideologies of its time, emerging from the
dynamics between the ruling class (bourgeoisie) and the working class
(proletariat). Proper Marxist criticism, therefore, seeks to expose the ideological
underpinnings of texts and interpret literature as a manifestation of historical
materialism, ideology, social relations, and modes of production.

📚 Core Concepts and Keywords

 ●​ Base and Superstructure: Economic base (material conditions) determines
the superstructure (culture, politics, art, literature).​

●​ Ideology: A system of ideas that serves the interests of the dominant class
by making inequality appear natural.​

●​ Historical Materialism: History is driven by material (economic) struggles,

not abstract ideas.​

●​ Mode of Production: How a society organizes labor and production (e.g.,

feudalism, capitalism).​

●​ Alienation: Under capitalism, workers (and characters) often feel

disconnected from their labor, products, and community.​

●​ Class Struggle: Central to social change; also often embedded in literary

conflicts.​

●​ Hegemony (Antonio Gramsci): Dominant class maintains power through

consent and cultural leadership, not just force.​

●​ Interpellation (Louis Althusser): Individuals are shaped into ideological

subjects through social institutions.​

📍 Functions and Application

Proper Marxist criticism tries to discover unity among:

●​ Text → What is said and unsaid in the literary work.​

●​ Ideology → What worldview the text unconsciously or consciously

promotes.​
 ●​ Social Relations → How characters reflect real class relationships.​

●​ Productive Forces → How material conditions (economy, labor) structure

the world of the text.​

Thus, literature is never neutral — it participates in the ideological struggle of its

time.

Example:

●​ In Dickens' Hard Times, the portrayal of industrial Manchester critiques

capitalist exploitation, aligning with Marxist concerns.​

🎯 Criticism and Interpretation Strategies

Marxist critics focus on:

●​ Historical Context: Reading a text within its socio-economic conditions.​

●​ Class Analysis: Examining tensions between classes within narratives.​

●​ Ideological Critique: Revealing hidden ideological biases supporting

dominant powers.​

●​ Reading Silences: Noticing what is excluded, especially regarding

working-class voices.​

Thus, Marxist criticism subordinates aesthetic beauty to uncovering social and

political meanings.

⚡ Major Shortcomings
Despite its strengths, Marxist criticism faces criticism for:

●​ Economic Determinism: Reducing everything to economics, ignoring

personal, psychological, and aesthetic dimensions.​

●​ Rigid Framework: Overlooking multiple identities like race, gender, and

sexuality.​

●​ Passive Reader Model: Ignoring reader’s active role in meaning-making.​

●​ Simplistic Superstructure View: Culture can influence the base too —

interaction is two-way, not one-way.​

📜 Conclusion
Marxist literary criticism transforms literature from mere aesthetic pleasure into a
potent social document, exposing how texts reproduce or resist dominant
ideologies. While it sometimes risks reducing art to economic determinism,
Marxist criticism remains a crucial method for understanding the political stakes
embedded in literary production. In a world where inequalities persist, Marxist
literary theory reminds us that literature is never innocent — it is always part of
history's ongoing struggle for justice and emancipation.

🛡️ QUICK STRUCTURE RECAP (for your

brain while writing):
Intro → Definitions + Keywords → Functions → How Marxists
Read → Shortcomings → Conclusion
 🌟 Boss-Level Exam Hack
Memorize this flow:​
Superstructure, Ideology, History, Class, Critique, Silences, Shortcomings,

📚 Applying Marxism in Literature

Conclusion.

🧠 General Concept
Marxist literary criticism applies the core ideas of Marxism — especially
historical materialism, class struggle, ideology, and economic conditions — to
the analysis of literary texts.​
The goal is to show how literature reflects, reinforces, challenges, or masks the
real social and economic conditions of its time.

👉
In simple terms:​

👉
Marxist critics ask: "Whose interests does this story serve?"​

👉
"What ideologies are being reinforced or questioned?"​
"How are class, labor, power, and history portrayed?"

🧩 Steps of Applying Marxist Criticism

Step What to Focus On

1. Identify Class Structures Who are the oppressed? Who are the ruling class? How are they
shown?

2. Analyze Material Conditions How does the economy shape characters' lives and choices?
3. Uncover Ideology What hidden messages support or question the system?

4. Examine Power and Conflict How does the conflict represent class struggle?

5. Read Historically How does the text reflect its socio-economic background?

6. Notice Silences What realities are left out or distorted to protect the dominant
class?

🔥 Example Applications
●​ In a novel like Great Expectations (Dickens), a Marxist critic would focus
on Pip's obsession with wealth and status — showing how capitalist values
distort personal relationships.​

●​ In a poem like To a Mouse (Burns), a Marxist reading would highlight how

the peasant's suffering is tied to the harshness of agricultural capitalism.​

●​ In a play like Waiting for Godot (Beckett), a Marxist might argue that the
characters' endless waiting is a metaphor for the hopelessness of the
proletariat under capitalist systems.​

🏛️ Key Terms You Can Drop in Analysis

 ●​ Base/Superstructure (economy shapes culture)​

●​ Ideology (dominant ideas that seem "natural")​

●​ Reification (people treated like objects under capitalism)​

●​ Alienation (separation from labor/community)​

●​ False consciousness (working class accepting their oppression)​

●​ Class conflict (proletariat vs bourgeoisie)​

●​ Hegemony (cultural leadership by ruling class)​

👉 Pro Tip: In your answer, mention at least 2 of these — examiners LOVE

keywords.

✍️ How to Structure a Marxist Application Paragraph

Opening:​
"This text, viewed through a Marxist lens, reveals the dynamics of class struggle
and ideological manipulation embedded in its narrative."

Middle:

●​ Identify ruling and working classes.​

●​ Show how material conditions drive plot and character.​

●​ Analyze ideological tricks (e.g., false hopes, distractions).​

●​ Expose silences/misrepresentations.​
Ending:​
"Thus, the text becomes a site where economic forces and class ideologies are
either reinforced or challenged, revealing the material basis of human experience."

⚡ Short Cheat Sheet Boss (Emergency Brain

Mode)
Class → Labor → Power → Ideology → Conflict → Silence

(Always think: Who works? Who profits? What is hidden?)

🚀 In one line:
👉 Marxist criticism asks how literature exposes, reflects, or masks the
inequalities of a capitalist society, by showing class struggle, ideological control,

📚 Literature as Part of the Superstructure —

and historical conditions.

Marxist View
🧠 Basic Concept First
In Marxist theory, society is divided into two main levels:

Base Superstructure
The economic foundation of society: forces of Everything built on top of the base: culture,
production (factories, land, labor) + relations of institutions, law, politics, religion, literature, etc.
production (class relations, ownership)

🔵 Key Idea:​
The base (economy) determines the superstructure.​
The superstructure, in turn, works to justify, stabilize, and reproduce the base.

🖋️ Literature's Role in the Superstructure

●​ Literature belongs to the cultural sphere, so it is part of the
superstructure.​

●​ Literature often reflects the ideology of the dominant class.​

●​ It naturalizes the inequalities, making the current system seem "normal" or

"inevitable."​

✅ So, from a Marxist perspective:

●​ Literature is not independent or purely "artistic" —​

●​ It is shaped by the material and economic conditions of its time.​

●​ It serves either to support the dominant ideology or to challenge it.​

🔥 Important Points for 20-25 Marks

 Aspect Explanation

Literature reinforces dominant Many texts portray ruling class values (success, hierarchy,
ideology property) as "universal truths."

Literature can also resist Some works critique exploitation, injustice, or alienation (e.g.,
ideology Dickens, Brecht).

No 'pure' literature Every literary work is a product of its historical material

conditions, even if unintentionally.

Writers are shaped by their class The writer’s own position in the social structure influences their
outlook and writing.

📜 Example Phrases You Can Use in Answer

●​ "As part of the superstructure, literature serves as a vehicle for the dominant
ideology."​

●​ "Literary texts often reflect the interests of the ruling class by masking class
conflicts."​

●​ "A Marxist reading uncovers how literature contributes to either sustaining

or contesting existing economic structures."​
 ●​ "No literary production is free from the influence of material historical
conditions."​

🧩 How to Frame the Paragraph

Opening:​
"According to Marxist theory, literature, as part of the superstructure, plays a
crucial role in reflecting and reproducing the ideological patterns of society, which
are determined by its economic base."

Middle:

●​ Define base and superstructure clearly.​

●​ Show how literature reflects the interests of the ruling class.​

●​ Give examples where literature stabilizes OR resists the dominant ideology.​

Ending:​
"Thus, literature cannot be separated from its historical material conditions; it
functions within the broader mechanisms of power, economy, and ideology that
sustain society."

⚡ Cheat Keywords
●​ Base vs Superstructure​

●​ Ideology​
 ●​ Class relations​

●​ Cultural production​

●​ Reflection of economic conditions​

●​ Literary hegemony​

●​ Ideological reproduction or resistance​

✅ Boss, this explanation is perfect for any question asking about literature's
place in superstructure from Marxist angle!

📜 Sample Answer:
"Literature as Part of the 'Superstructure' According to Marxist Theory"

In Marxist theory, society is fundamentally divided into two interrelated levels: the
economic base and the superstructure. The base comprises the means and
relations of production — essentially, the material and economic forces that drive
society. On the other hand, the superstructure includes culture, institutions, law,
religion, philosophy, and crucially, literature. According to Karl Marx and later
Marxist thinkers, the base determines the superstructure: the economic realities
of a society shape its cultural and ideological expressions. Thus, literature, far from
being a purely artistic or autonomous creation, is seen as deeply conditioned by the
material circumstances of its time.

As part of the superstructure, literature plays a key role in reflecting,

reinforcing, or resisting the dominant ideology. Literary works often naturalize
the values of the ruling class, presenting them as 'common sense' or 'universal
truths'. For instance, narratives that glorify individualism, success through hard
work, or social hierarchy can be interpreted as ideological instruments that
stabilize and legitimize the existing economic order. From a Marxist perspective,
literature rarely exists in a vacuum; it is deeply embedded in the historical material
conditions that produce it.

However, Marxist criticism also acknowledges that literature can serve as a site of
ideological resistance. Some texts expose class struggle, alienation, and systemic
inequalities, challenging the status quo. Authors like Charles Dickens, Bertolt
Brecht, and George Orwell, for example, have produced works that critique
capitalist exploitation and highlight social injustice. Thus, while literature often
upholds dominant ideologies, it also possesses the potential to unmask oppression
and foster revolutionary consciousness.

A proper Marxist literary analysis, therefore, seeks to uncover the hidden

ideologies within texts by examining how they reflect the material conditions,
social relations, and class struggles of their time. It shifts focus from purely
aesthetic appreciation to an understanding of literature as a cultural product
intimately linked to economic structures and power relations.

In conclusion, through the lens of Marxist theory, literature is an active component

of the superstructure, simultaneously shaped by and shaping the ideological
forces of its society. Whether by reinforcing dominant ideologies or challenging
them, literature participates in the broader process of maintaining or transforming
the existing social order. Therefore, no literary work can be fully understood
without situating it within its historical and material context.

🎯 Cheat Code Checklist for this answer:

●​ ✅ Clear definition of base and superstructure​
●​ ✅ Role of literature explained (reinforcing/resisting ideology)​
 ●​ ✅ Examples (Dickens, Brecht, Orwell)​
●​ ✅ Concept of literature as cultural product​

●​ ✅ Neat opening and closing paragraphs​

●​ ✅ Repeated smart use of keywords (material conditions, ideology,

superstructure, class struggle)​

🔵 "It connects text, ideology, social relations, and productive forces as parts
of a whole social reality" means:

Marxist criticism never sees a text in isolation.​

Instead, it believes every literary text is deeply connected to the larger social
system it came from.​
Here's the connection explained in simple steps:

Concept Meaning Connection

Text The poem, novel, play, story Not just "art for art's sake." The text carries hidden
itself (or open) messages shaped by society.

Ideology The dominant ideas, beliefs, The text expresses or critiques these values (like
values of a society capitalism, patriarchy, nationalism).
Social Relations The way people interact in The text reflects or questions how society is
society, especially regarding organized — who has power, who is oppressed.
class (e.g., rich vs poor,
master vs worker)

Productive Forces The real economic activities: The economy (capitalism, feudalism, socialism)
factories, farming, industries, sets the base for both social relations and
etc. ideologies — so the text is indirectly shaped by
this economic base too.

👉 In short, Marxist critics believe:

●​ A text is not random.​

●​ It is linked to the economy, power structures, and social class relations.​

●​ It represents, hides, reinforces, or challenges the ideologies of its time.​

●​ It’s a reflection of the material, social, and historical forces that created it.​

🔴 Example to make it super clear:​

If you read Pride and Prejudice through Marxism:

●​ Text: Novel about marriage and society.​

●​ Ideology: Marriage as a tool for maintaining property and status.​

 ●​ Social relations: Aristocracy vs middle-class families.​

●​ Productive forces: Wealth comes from land ownership (agriculture

economy of England).​

Thus, even though it’s a "love story," it’s deeply tied to economic structures and
class preservation!

🚀 Final One Line:

Marxist critics study how a text mirrors, supports, or fights against the
economic, ideological, and class realities of its time.

📊 Marxist Criticism Flowchart

[ Economic Base / Productive Forces ]

[ Creates Social Relations ]

[ Creates Dominant Ideology ]

[ Shapes Literature (Text) ]

✅ Economic Base → How people produce wealth (agriculture, industry, tech)​

✅ Social Relations → Who controls production, who works, class structure​
✅ Ideology → The ideas that justify the current social setup (e.g., "Hard work
✅
makes you rich" under capitalism)​
Text → Literature reflects, supports, or challenges these ideologies!

🎯 Quick "Boss-Style" Memory Tip:

🇬🇧
BASE ➡ RELATIONS ➡ IDEOLOGY ➡ TEXT​
(B-R-I-T, easy to remember like "BRIT" )

⚡ Another way (circle view):

Economic Base

Social Relations

Ideology

Literature (Text)

(Back to Economic Base — cycle continues!)

➡ Literature affects how people think​

➡ People thinking differently can eventually change economy and society.

📚 Marxist Literary Criticism — Final

Revision Chart
 Key Point Quick Explanation Keywords to Remember

Economic Base Mode of production: farming, factories, tech, Production, Wealth

economy

Social Relations How classes relate: rulers vs workers Class Struggle, Power

Ideology Dominant beliefs justifying social structure Beliefs, Hegemony

Literature (Text) Reflects / reinforces / questions ideology Reflection, Resistance

Superstructure Art, culture, literature = built on economic base Superstructure, Culture

Text Analysis Focus Hidden class struggle, ideology inside the text Hidden Forces, Class War

Main Goal Reveal how material conditions shape Consciousness, Reality

consciousness

Interpretation Strategy Find economic/class signs, historical forces, Economic Reading

ideology traps

Creative Freedom Yes, but limited by social and material Limited Freedom
conditions
Shortcomings Over-emphasis on economy; ignoring Economic Reductionism
aesthetic/artistic beauty

🚀 Memory Codes:
BRIT = Base → Relations → Ideology → Text​
HIC = Hidden Ideology & Class inside text

🎯 Golden Sentences to Use in Exam:

●​ "Literature is not created in a vacuum; it is the product of its material and
ideological context."​

●​ "Marxist criticism reveals how texts reflect or resist the dominant economic
and social conditions of their age."​

●​ "Every literary work contains traces of the historical struggles that shaped
it."​

📋 Night Before Checklist:

✅ Know BRIT​
✅ Superstructure idea​
✅ Economic reductionism (shortcoming)​
✅ How to apply to text (focus on class, history, production)​
✅ 2-3 golden sentences memorized
 🧠 Tiny Mind Map for Revision:
ECONOMY → CLASS → IDEOLOGY → LITERATURE

↓ ↑

(Material Reality) (Consciousness Shaped)

📊 Relationship Between Marxist Criticism

and Work of Literature (With Creative
Freedom Issue)

Category Explanation Keywords to Remember

Literature’s Position Part of Superstructure (built Superstructure, Reflection

on economic base)

Main Marxist View on Reflects class relations, Class Struggle, Ideology

Literature ideology, material conditions

Freedom of Literature Some autonomy, but Limited Freedom, Partial Autonomy

influenced by material reality
Boundary/Constraint Bound by dominant ideology Constraints, Historical Context
and economic conditions

Creative Freedom Allowed? Yes, but cannot fully escape Relative Freedom, Historical
social-historical forces Determinism

Literature’s Power Can resist, expose, criticize Resistance, Critique

dominant ideology

Criticism Focus Not just beauty/art; focus on Economic Reading, Class Analysis
hidden power dynamics

Shortcoming of Marxist View Sometimes reduces art to Reductionism, Neglect of Aesthetics

mere class propaganda

🎯 Memory Tip:
😎🔥
“Literature Reflects + Resists Society, but Never Escapes It Fully.”​
(Boss mantra )

📖 Now, Full 25-Mark Sample Answer:

✍️ Marxist Literary Criticism: Relationship with Work of Literature and Creative
Freedom
Marxist literary criticism, rooted in the theories of Karl Marx and later developed
by thinkers like Georg Lukács, Raymond Williams, and Terry Eagleton, perceives
literature as an integral part of the superstructure of society. According to Marxism,
the superstructure — which includes art, culture, law, and ideology — is
fundamentally shaped by the economic base, meaning the material forces of
production and class relations. Thus, literature is never produced in isolation; it
inevitably reflects the historical conditions, class struggles, and dominant
ideologies of its time.

From this perspective, literature is seen as both a reflection of and a response to the
social relations dictated by the economic base. A Marxist critic reads a literary text
not merely for its aesthetic beauty, but for the way it encodes, either consciously or
unconsciously, the economic and ideological tensions of its age. For instance, a
novel set in a capitalist society may unconsciously reinforce capitalist ideology,
even while portraying characters who suffer under it.

However, Marxism does not see literature as a simple mirror of economic

conditions. Literature possesses a degree of relative autonomy: while it is
influenced by the material and ideological conditions, it also has the capacity to
resist and question them. Writers can, through imaginative and symbolic means,
critique dominant ideologies, highlight class oppression, and envision alternative
realities. Thus, creative freedom exists within limits; it is shaped but not entirely
crushed by historical forces.

Marxist literary criticism acknowledges that authors are not mechanical recorders
of class relations. They can distort, reshape, or challenge reality through their
imaginative power. Nevertheless, even the most radical and imaginative literature
remains tied, directly or indirectly, to the material conditions of its production. In
this sense, literature cannot completely transcend its historical moment.

One major criticism of the Marxist approach is its tendency toward economic
reductionism — the oversimplified view that all aspects of a work, including style
and symbolism, must be read purely in terms of economic conditions. Such a rigid
application risks neglecting the aesthetic complexity and unique artistic value of
literature.
 In conclusion, Marxist literary criticism establishes a dynamic and complex
relationship between literature and society. It recognizes that literature both reflects
and contests the material and ideological conditions of its production. While
acknowledging creative freedom, Marxist criticism insists that no text can fully
escape the social, historical, and economic forces that shape it. This dual emphasis
on constraint and creativity makes Marxist criticism a powerful tool for
understanding the ideological underpinnings of literary works.

🧠 One-Sentence Conclusion to Memorize:

"Literature may dream of freedom, but it dreams within the walls built by history
and material reality."

📊 Unity among Text, Ideology, Social

Relations, and Productive Forces

Element Definition / Role Keywords

Text Literary work reflecting or challenging Reflection, Resistance

the society’s ideology and conditions

Ideology Set of ideas/beliefs that justify the power Dominant Ideology, Hegemony
structure and maintain class dominance

Social Relations Human relationships organized around Class Struggle, Oppression

class, labor, and economic structures
Productive Forces Material means of production (land, Base, Economy, Labor
labor, tools, capital) that determine
economy

🚩 Simple Unity Formula:

Productive Forces → Shape Social Relations → Give rise to Ideology
→ Expressed or Critiqued in Text.

●​ Productive Forces (economy, labor, industry) ➡️ build​

●​ Social Relations (who dominates, who is oppressed) ➡️ create​

●​ Ideologies (ideas that justify domination) ➡️ are​

●​ Reflected, questioned, or masked in Texts (novels, plays, poems).​

🔵 All four are interlinked — no text is created outside these forces.

🧠 Memory Tip:
"From Tools to Thoughts to Texts."​
(Productive forces → Ideology → Literature.)

📖 Full 25-Mark Sample Answer

✍️ Unity Among Text, Ideology, Social Relations, and Productive Forces in Marxist
Literary Criticism

Marxist literary criticism, developed from the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich
Engels, seeks to establish a vital unity among the elements of literary production:
text, ideology, social relations, and productive forces. According to Marxism, the
material conditions of a society — specifically the productive forces — determine
its social relations, shape its dominant ideologies, and ultimately leave an imprint
on its cultural and literary productions.

The productive forces — the means of production such as land, labor, and capital
— form the economic base of society. They influence social relations, defining
how classes interact, who controls production, and who is subjugated. These
relations create a set of ideas and beliefs known as ideology, which works to
justify and maintain the existing class structure. Ideology naturalizes inequalities,
presenting them as common sense or divine will, thus maintaining the status quo.

The text, or the work of literature, is never outside this chain. Whether consciously
or unconsciously, literature reflects the dominant ideology of its time or critiques it.
A text may either reinforce existing class hierarchies by normalizing them through
narratives and symbols or expose the contradictions and injustices of the social
order. Even works that appear "apolitical" are, under Marxist scrutiny, expressions
of the ideological tensions inherent in their time.

Proper Marxist criticism uncovers the unity among these elements by interpreting
literature not merely as an isolated aesthetic creation but as a socially and
historically embedded phenomenon. It investigates how literary forms, themes, and
characters encode the social relations and ideologies determined by material
conditions. Marxist critics thus read a novel, poem, or play as a site where
economic realities, social conflicts, and ideological struggles converge.

For instance, Charles Dickens' Hard Times critiques the dehumanizing effects of
industrial capitalism. Here, the productive forces (factories, labor exploitation)
shape brutal social relations (masters vs. workers), propagate a utilitarian ideology
(people as economic units), and are all captured and criticized within the text.
Similarly, in George Orwell's Animal Farm, literature serves as an ideological
allegory exposing class betrayal under the guise of socialist revolution.

However, Marxist criticism also recognizes the relative autonomy of literature.

Texts can distort, resist, or subvert dominant ideologies even while being products
of their historical moment. Therefore, literature is not a mechanical reflection but a
dynamic field where economic forces, social realities, and ideological struggles
interact creatively.

In conclusion, Marxist criticism forges a powerful and coherent link among

productive forces, social relations, ideology, and the text. Understanding this
unity is essential for a Marxist reading of literature, where every narrative,
character, and form is situated within a larger network of historical and material
conditions.

🎯 Summary in 1 Line for Exam Hall:

"A text is not just words on paper; it is a battlefield of class,
ideology, and historical forces."

✍️ Marxist Quick Structure for Short Texts:

1. Introduction (2-3 lines)

●​ Mention Marxism connects productive forces, social relations, ideology,

and literature.​

●​ State: "This text reflects or critiques the socio-economic structure and its
ideological effects."​

✅ Keywords to include: base, superstructure, ideology, material conditions.

2. Productive Forces (2-3 lines)

●​ Identify if any material/economic reality is hinted at (work, labor, poverty,

industrialization, wealth).​

✅ Example phrase: "The reference to manual labor/industrial growth hints at

the underlying productive forces shaping society."

3. Social Relations (2-3 lines)

●​ Look for class struggles, oppression, exploitation, divisions (rich vs poor,

master vs servant).​

✅ Example phrase: "The relationship between characters reflects exploitative

social relations resulting from class disparity."

4. Ideology (2-3 lines)

●​ Detect any belief system being promoted or questioned (e.g., capitalism,

patriarchy, religious control).​

✅ Example phrase: "The text either upholds or subtly critiques the dominant
ideology that maintains the power structure."

5. Literary Techniques (Optional 2 lines)

 ●​ Notice symbolism, irony, or narrative choices that reinforce or challenge the
system.​

✅ Example phrase: "The use of irony/symbolism exposes the contradictions

within the social order."

6. Conclusion (2-3 lines)

●​ End by saying:​
"Thus, the text is not autonomous but deeply rooted in the economic, social,
and ideological forces of its time, as Marxist criticism reveals."​

✅ Keywords: reflection, contestation, historical forces, ideological struggle.

📚 Boss's Memory Hack:

▶️
Just remember:​
Forces → Relations → Ideas → Text → Critique.

🏆 Example Tiny Opening:

"Marxist literary criticism argues that no text exists outside the material
and ideological conditions of its time. The given poem/story fragment
reflects economic structures, power relations, and the ideologies that
shape human consciousness."
 🎯 2-minute Battle Plan:
Step Write about

1 Productive Forces present? (labor/money/economy)

2 Social Relations? (oppression/division?)

3 Ideology? (what belief system is shown?)

4 How does the text reflect/critique all of these?

FEMINIST CRITICISM — COMPLETE STRUCTURED ANALYSIS

1. Definition

Feminist Criticism analyzes literature in relation to gender relations, patriarchal

oppression, and the representation of women's experiences. It questions:

●​ How are women represented?​

●​ Who has the power, men or women?​

●​ How does literature reinforce or resist patriarchy?​

 Feminist critics believe that literature has historically been used to reinforce male
dominance and female marginalization.

2. Historical Background

Wave Focus Key Figures

First Wave (19th - early Legal rights (vote, property, Mary Wollstonecraft, Virginia Woolf
20th c.) education)

Second Wave (1960s - Social, cultural, economic Simone de Beauvoir, Kate Millett, Elaine
1980s) inequality; representation Showalter

Third Wave (1990s - Intersectionality (gender + bell hooks, Judith Butler

present) race + class + sexuality)

Fourth Wave (2010s - Digital activism, body Multiple contemporary feminists

present) positivity, consent

3. Key Concepts of Feminist Criticism

Concept Explanation
 Patriarchy System where men hold power socially,politically, economically.

Male Gaze Women are presented as objects of male desire (Laura Mulvey)

Essentialism The belief in fixed, biological differences between men and women

Gender vs. Sex Sex = biological; Gender = socially constructed roles

Stereotypes Women are often shown as weak, submissive, emotional, or seductive

Gynocriticism Study of women's literature and women's literary tradition (Elaine Showalter)

Intersectionality Overlapping forms of oppression (race, class, sexuality) with gender (Kimberlé
Crenshaw).

4. Types of Feminist Criticism

Type Focus
Liberal Feminism Equality within the existing system

Radical Feminism Rooting out patriarchy from its core

Marxist/Socialist Feminism Connection between capitalism and women's oppression

Psychoanalytic Feminism Role of unconscious and desire in gender identity (e.g., Juliet
Mitchell)

Ecofeminism Links between women and nature, both dominated by men

5. Application of Feminist Criticism

Feminist critics look for:

1.​ Representation of women's voices.​

2.​ Existence of gender roles and stereotypes.​

3.​ How male dominance influences characters, plot, and language.​

4.​ Whether the text challenges or supports patriarchal norms.​

6. Example

In The Awakening by Kate Chopin:

 ●​ Edna Pontellier struggles against restrictive gender roles.​

●​ The novel critiques the patriarchal society limiting women's choices.​

In A Room of One's Own by Virginia Woolf:

●​ Emphasizes that women need economic independence and space to create

art.​

●​ Critiques male-controlled literary tradition.​

7. Keywords Table

Keyword Meaning

Patriarchy Male dominance over women

Gender Socially constructed roles of men and women

Male Gaze Women seen through men's eyes for male pleasure

Gynocriticism Study of women's literary history

Stereotypes Oversimplified images of women in literature

Intersectionality Multiple oppressions acting together

8. Strengths

●​ Highlights marginalized voices.​

●​ Recovers lost or ignored women writers.​

●​ Challenges patriarchal ideology.​

●​ Makes literature more inclusive and critical of power relations.​

9. Criticisms

●​ Risk of essentialism (thinking all women are the same).​

●​ May overlook other forms of oppression if too focused only on gender.​

●​ Sometimes too ideological, ignoring aesthetic value.​

10. Exam Short Answer Formula

Feminist Criticism studies literature in light of gender inequality,

patriarchal ideology, and women’s representation. It evolved through
four waves, each addressing different aspects of women’s rights. Key
concepts include patriarchy, male gaze, gynocriticism, and
intersectionality. Feminist critics explore whether texts challenge or
 support patriarchy. For example, The Awakening criticizes gender
oppression. Feminist Criticism is vital in giving voice to female
perspectives but can sometimes be accused of essentialism or neglecting
artistic elements.

11. Mnemonic to Remember

"PG MISS"​
P – Patriarchy​
G – Gynocriticism​
M – Male Gaze​
I – Intersectionality​
S – Stereotypes​
S – Sex vs Gender

Pro Tip:

For long or short answers, always mention:

●​ Patriarchy​

●​ Gender roles​

●​ Representation of women​

●​ Male gaze​

●​ Gynocriticism

🏹 Key Definitions and Keywords Chart

 Item Definition

Feminism A movement aiming for political, social, economic, and cultural

equality between men and women.

Feminist Literary Criticism A form of literary analysis that examines the ways literature
reinforces or challenges the oppression of women.

Patriarchy A system where men hold primary power, controlling politics,

morality, and social privilege.

Subversion Challenging and undermining dominant male-centered norms.

Representation How women are portrayed in literature, often stereotypically or

marginally.

Agency The ability of women characters (and writers) to act

independently and make their own choices.

Gynocriticism Study of women's writing by women, founded by Elaine

Showalter. Focuses on female experiences and literary tradition.
Sex vs. Gender "Sex" is biological; "gender" is socially constructed — Simone
de Beauvoir's key idea.

Phallogocentrism A term (from Derrida and Irigaray) describing male-centered

language and meaning systems.

Intersectionality Study of how different identities (race, class, gender) intersect in

women’s experiences (coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw).

Counter-reading/Counter-writing Re-reading classic texts from a feminist angle; writing new

narratives to resist patriarchal norms.

🏹 CORE KEYWORDS & CONCEPTS

Keyword Meaning

Patriarchy Social system where men hold primary power

Subversion Undermining traditional male-centered ideas

Agency Women's power to act independently

Gynocriticism Study of women’s writing and female literary tradition (Elaine Showalter)
Écriture A feminine mode of writing that breaks patriarchal language norms (Hélène
féminine Cixous)

Intersectionality Focus on overlapping social identities (race, class, gender) (Kimberlé Crenshaw)

Essentialism Belief in a fixed "woman's nature" (often criticized)

Constructivism Idea that gender is socially constructed (de Beauvoir, Butler)

🏹 Main Functions/Purposes of Feminist

Criticism

Function Description

Expose Patriarchal Bias Reveals how literature and culture reflect and perpetuate male
dominance.

Recover Lost Voices Brings forgotten or marginalized women writers into the literary
canon.

Challenge Stereotypes Fights against stereotypical depictions of women (the angel, the
monster, the muse).
Create Feminist Literary Develops new ways of understanding literature based on women’s
Theory experiences.

Advocate Political Change Connects literary study to broader struggles for women’s rights.

Celebrate Womanhood and Highlights female creativity, subjectivity, and ways of knowing.
Difference

🏹 III. Phases of Feminist Criticism (Very

Important for Exams!)

Phase Features Key Figures

1. Liberal Feminism (1960s-70s) Equality within the existing Mary Wollstonecraft, Betty
system; focus on Friedan
representation and access.

2. Radical/Cultural Feminism (1970s) Seeks fundamental change; Kate Millett, Adrienne

focuses on sexual politics Rich
and women's bodies.
3. Marxist/Socialist Feminism Analyzes how capitalism Juliet Mitchell
and patriarchy together
oppress women.

4. Psychoanalytic Feminism Studies gender identity Julia Kristeva, Luce

formation in the Irigaray
unconscious.

5. Black/Intersectional Feminism (1980s Addresses race, class, bell hooks, Audre Lorde
onward) sexuality differences within
feminism.

6. Postmodern/Poststructural Feminism Deconstructs fixed identities Judith Butler

and challenges the idea of
"universal woman."

🏹 IV. Memorizing Keywords List

✅ Patriarchy​
✅ Agency​
✅ Defamiliarization (for feminism: re-seeing women’s lives)​
✅ Gynocriticism​
✅ Representation​
✅ Subversion​
✅ Intersectionality​
✅ Canon revision​
✅ Gender performativity (Judith Butler)​
✅ The Female Voice​
✅ Counter-narrative​
✅ Marginalization​
✅ Subjectivity
🏹 V. Sample Opening Paragraph
Feminist literary criticism, which emerged powerfully during the second
half of the twentieth century, seeks to interrogate and challenge the
patriarchal structures embedded within literature and culture. By
exposing systemic gender biases, recovering silenced women’s voices,
and reconstructing literary theory from female perspectives, feminist
critics have fundamentally reshaped the study of texts. Rooted in the
broader feminist movement for equality and justice, feminist criticism
not only analyzes representations of women but also aims to produce
new modes of reading and writing that affirm agency, subjectivity, and
the multiplicity of female experiences.

🏹 VI. Sample Ending Paragraph

In conclusion, feminist literary criticism remains a dynamic and
evolving field that continues to challenge, subvert, and redefine
dominant literary traditions. By emphasizing issues of gender, power,
and representation, feminist critics have not merely added women into
existing frameworks but have fundamentally questioned and
transformed the very foundations of literary analysis. Feminist criticism,
thus, is both a political and intellectual revolution — one that strives to
liberate not just women, but literature itself, from the constraints of

🏹 VII. Sample 25-Mark Body Paragraphs (3

patriarchal thought.

Types)
🔥 1. On Language and Gender
A major concern of feminist literary criticism lies in the interrogation of
language itself, which, critics argue, is historically male-centered or
"phallogocentric." Simone de Beauvoir’s assertion that "One is not born,
but rather becomes, a woman" encapsulates the feminist view that
gender identities are socially constructed through discourse. Feminist
theorists like Hélène Cixous and Luce Irigaray argue that traditional
language systems suppress female experiences and perspectives,
necessitating the creation of an "écriture féminine" — a new, fluid, and
body-centered mode of writing that resists patriarchal logic.

🔥 2. On Representation and Misrepresentation

Feminist critics assert that literary representations of women often verge
on misrepresentation, reinforcing reductive stereotypes such as the
angelic domestic figure or the monstrous femme fatale. Works such as
Gilbert and Gubar’s The Madwoman in the Attic (1979) explore how
women writers like Charlotte Brontë or Emily Dickinson struggled
against such constraints by creating rebellious female characters or
using coded, subversive language. Thus, feminist literary criticism seeks
to re-read classic texts with an eye towards hidden narratives of female
resistance and re-assert the complexity of women's lived experiences.

🔥 3. On Political and Literary Activism

Feminist literary criticism is inherently political, yet it differs from
political activism in that its battlefield is language, symbol, and
narrative rather than streets and legislatures. Literary criticism critiques
how patriarchal ideologies infiltrate cultural products and normalizes
injustice. At the same time, it enables new forms of storytelling that
center women's perspectives, thereby performing an intellectual
activism that both reflects and informs broader social movements. In
this sense, feminism in literature becomes a vital part of the larger
struggle against all forms of oppression.
 🏹 Three Waves of Feminism and Their
Functions

Wave Period Main Focus Key Features Major Figures

First Wave Mid-19th Legal and - Women's suffrage Mary Wollstonecraft,

century to political rights (right to vote) Elizabeth Cady Stanton,
early 20th Susan B. Anthony
century - Access to education
(1848–1920s) - Property rights

Second Wave 1960s–1980s Social, cultural, - Critique of domestic Simone de Beauvoir,

and workplace roles Betty Friedan, Kate
equality Millett, Adrienne Rich
- Fight against sexual
harassment

- Reproductive rights
(birth control,
abortion)

- Literary canon
revision (rediscovering
women writers)
Third Wave 1990s–Present Diversity, - Emphasis on race, bell hooks, Judith Butler,
intersectionality, sexuality, class, Kimberlé Crenshaw
individuality disability

- Celebration of
diverse identities

- Deconstruction of
gender norms

🏹 MAJOR THINKERS & IDEAS

Theorist Contribution

Simone de Beauvoir "One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman." (gender as a social
construction)

Elaine Showalter Introduced "Gynocriticism" — the idea that women’s literature must be
studied on its own terms, not just by male standards.

Kate Millett In Sexual Politics, showed that literature enforces male dominance through
sexual and social norms
Hélène Cixous "The Laugh of the Medusa" — Proposed Écriture féminine — a new,
free-flowing writing style representing feminine experiences.

Judith Butler Argued in Gender Trouble that gender is performative — we act it out, it is
not natural

bell hooks Wrote about intersectionality and the importance of considering race, class,
and gender together

🏹 Functions/Purposes of Each Wave

Wave Functions/Purposes

First Wave - Achieve basic legal rights (voting, education, property)

- Establish women’s public presence

Second Wave - Critique patriarchy in private and public spheres

- Challenge traditional family and gender roles

- Integrate feminist perspectives into academia and literature

Third Wave - Broaden feminism to include race, class, LGBTQ+ issues

- Challenge the idea of a "universal woman"

- Embrace fluid and multiple gender identities

🎯 Key Quotes You Can Use (Optional Bonus)

●​ First Wave:​
➔ "We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men and women are
created equal." – Declaration of Sentiments, 1848.​

●​ Second Wave:​
➔ "The personal is political." (Popular slogan) — Emphasizes how
personal experiences reflect larger social structures.​

●​ Third Wave:​
➔ "Ain't I a Woman?" — Sojourner Truth (early inspiration for
intersectionality).​

🏹DEFINITION (Opening Lines)

✅ Feminist theory examines how literature and culture reinforce or undermine
✅ It questions the patriarchal assumptions built into language, literature, and
the oppression of women.​

✅ It demands not only critique but also alternative forms of reading and writing
society.​

that empower the feminine.

🏹 FUNCTIONS OF FEMINIST LITERARY
CRITICISM
✅ Exposes gender bias in literature.​
✅ Reclaims forgotten women writers and female traditions.​
✅ Rewrites the literary canon to include diverse voices.​
✅ Challenges language, symbolism, and stereotypes that subordinate women.​
✅ Celebrates female experience, agency, and subjectivity.
🏹 SAMPLE PARAGRAPHS FOR 20-25
MARK ANSWERS
Opening Paragraph (Use in any answer):

Feminist literary theory emerged as a dynamic force to expose and

critique the systemic marginalization of women in literature and culture.
Rooted in the historical struggle against patriarchal dominance, it
evolved through successive waves, each expanding its scope and
refining its methods to address broader intersections of identity and
power.

Mid Paragraphs (Flexible use):

➔ On Subordination of the Feminine:

Feminist criticism reveals how traditional literary discourse sustains the

subordination of the feminine through characterization, themes, and
language. It argues that literature often reflects the masculine gaze,
which objectifies or silences women, thereby reinforcing societal
hierarchies.

➔ On Agency and Counter-Writing:

In response, feminist writers and critics advocate counter-readings that

highlight female subjectivity, and recommend the celebration of écriture
 féminine, a writing style that resists phallocentric norms, thereby
restoring agency to the female voice.

➔ On Language and Identity:

Feminists emphasize that language itself is a site of oppression,

constructed within a male-centric worldview. Figures like Simone de
Beauvoir and Judith Butler challenge the notion of a "natural" woman,
arguing instead that gender identity is historically and socially
constructed through discourse.

Ending Paragraph (Use in any answer):

Ultimately, feminist literary criticism seeks not merely to critique but to

reconstruct; it aspires to dismantle oppressive structures while offering
inclusive, empowering alternatives. Through persistent engagement with
literature and culture, feminism asserts that the act of interpretation itself
can be a revolutionary practice against injustice and inequality.

🏹 SMART PHRASES TO REMEMBER &

USE
●​ "The personal is political."​

●​ "Representation is never innocent."​

●​ "Gynocriticism vs. Feminist Critique"​

●​ "Language constructs gender roles."​

●​ "Subversion of patriarchal myths."​

●​ "Celebration of multiplicity and difference."​

 🏹 FINAL 10-POINT MEMORY BOOST
LIST

Serial Must-Remember

1 Feminism = Critique + Construction

2 Patriarchy defines norms

3 Language as a political tool

4 Representation = Misrepresentation

5 First Wave = Legal Rights

6 Second Wave = Social Equality

7 Third Wave = Intersectionality

8 Gynocriticism = Women’s tradition

9 de Beauvoir = Gender as becoming

10 Feminism = Revolution in reading and writing

🌟WHAT IS FEMINIST THEORY?

Feminist theory in literary studies is a critical approach that:

●​ Critiques the patriarchal (male-dominated) structures embedded in literature

and society.​

●​ Examines how women are portrayed, often stereotypically or marginalized,

in literary texts.​

●​ Seeks to recover women's voices — both as writers and as characters.​

●​ Proposes new forms of writing and reading that empower women.​

🔹 In short: It fights gender injustice in both literature and society by questioning

🌟Shortcomings of feminist theory and
old ideas and creating new possibilities.

intention of overcoming them.

🌟 QUICK TABLE FOR FAST REVISION

 Wave Shortcoming Effort to Overcome

First Wave Ignored race, class Later inclusion efforts

Second Wave Universalizing womanhood Intersectionality

Third Wave Fragmentation Coalition politics

Fourth Wave Slacktivism Balance activism & structural change

From its earliest emergence, feminism has consistently shown a strong capacity for
self-critique and self-improvement. In its various historical phases — from the first
wave to the contemporary forms — feminist movements and theories have
recognized their own limitations, whether in terms of inclusivity, representation, or
theoretical frameworks, and have actively sought to correct them. This ongoing
process of reflection and renewal marks feminism as a dynamic, evolving struggle
against gender-based oppression and broader systems of injustice.

1. First Wave Feminism: Focused but Limited

●​ Focus: 19th and early 20th century, mostly on legal rights — suffrage,
property rights.​

●​ Shortcoming: Centered mainly on white, middle-class women; largely

ignored the voices of women of color, working-class women, and colonial
subjects.​
 ●​ Effort to Overcome: Later feminists criticized this narrow focus, paving the
way for more inclusive feminist thought.​

(Keywords: legal rights, exclusion, race and class blindness)

2. Second Wave Feminism: Broader Issues but New Gaps

●​ Focus: 1960s–80s, tackled cultural, sexual, workplace, and reproductive

issues ("the personal is political").​

●​ Shortcoming: Early second-wave feminism was still predominantly

Western and white-centered; it also often treated "woman" as a singular,
universal category, ignoring differences of race, sexuality, class, and
nationality.​

●​ Effort to Overcome:​

○​ Rise of Black feminism (bell hooks, Audre Lorde) 🌟​

○​ Emergence of Intersectionality (coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw),
acknowledging that women experience oppression in multiple,
overlapping ways.​

(Keywords: cultural oppression, intersectionality, diversity within feminism)

3. Third Wave Feminism: Emphasis on Diversity and Difference

●​ Focus: 1990s onward — challenging fixed ideas of womanhood,

embracing individualism, multiculturalism, queer identities.​
 ●​ Shortcoming: Sometimes seen as too fragmented or lacking a unified
agenda; risk of identity politics overshadowing collective goals.​

●​ Effort to Overcome: Encouraging coalitional politics — building alliances

across different struggles (race, gender, sexuality, disability rights, etc.)​

(Keywords: diversity, queer theory, coalition politics)

4. Fourth Wave Feminism: Digital Activism and Global Awareness

●​ Focus: 2010s onward — social media activism (#MeToo, #TimesUp), focus

on sexual harassment, body positivity, trans rights.​

●​ Shortcoming: Challenges of "cancel culture," "slacktivism" (performative

activism online), risk of oversimplification.​

●​ Effort to Overcome: Ongoing conversations about balancing online

activism with grassroots movements and deeper structural changes.​

(Keywords: digital feminism, global inclusivity, activism challenges)

🌟 FUNCTIONS OF FEMINIST LITERARY

CRITICISM
👉 Feminist criticism does not just complain. It has serious scholarly goals:
●​ Expose gender bias hidden in famous literary works (e.g., how women are
often passive, silent, or villains).​
 ●​ Recover forgotten women writers and bring them back into the literary
canon.​

●​ Change reading habits: Urging readers to notice gender structures in

stories.​

●​ Challenge language itself: Because language shapes thought, feminist

theory also criticizes how English reflects masculine priorities.​

●​ Empower women writers: Helping create new, liberated forms of

🌟Criticism and enabling of Feminist literary

expression.

theory

Aspect Focus Keywords Example

Critical Deconstructs literary traditions Canon critique, Sexual Politics by Millett

and gender biases stereotypes, representation

Enabling Recovers women writers, Gynocriticism, subjectivity, Work of Showalter, Woolf

reimagines literature empowerment

🌟 SAMPLE PARAGRAPHS (Exam Writing

Level)
Here’s the level you should write:
Opening Paragraph

Feminist literary theory challenges the patriarchal structures that shape

literature and society. Rooted in historical struggles for justice, feminism
expands beyond merely representing women to questioning the
language, themes, and traditions that maintain gender inequality. Its
progression across different waves demonstrates a commitment to
continuous critique and reconstruction.

Mid Body (Topic-Specific Paragraphs)

➔ About Subordination of the Feminine

Feminist critics argue that traditional literature often constructs women

as passive objects or moral lessons within male-centered narratives.
Writers like Kate Millett revealed that such portrayals are not neutral but
political, perpetuating structures that legitimize male dominance.
Feminist readings, therefore, work to unveil these hidden assumptions
and offer counter-interpretations that foreground female voices.

➔ About Language and Identity

Feminists like Simone de Beauvoir and Judith Butler emphasize that

gender itself is a cultural construct performed through language and
social behavior. Consequently, feminist criticism pays close attention to
the metaphors, images, and narrative structures that create gendered
meanings, seeking to disrupt the dominance of masculine norms.

➔ About Agency and Alternative Writing

Feminist writers such as Hélène Cixous advocate for écriture féminine

— a style of writing that liberates women's expression from patriarchal
logic. By embracing fluidity, multiplicity, and emotional honesty,
alternative feminist writing aims to restore agency and complexity to
women's literary presence.
 Ending Paragraph

Feminist literary theory ultimately transcends critique; it envisions

literature as a powerful means of social transformation. By recovering
forgotten voices, challenging oppressive traditions, and advocating new
modes of expression, feminist criticism contributes profoundly to the
broader fight against inequality, offering literature as a space for
liberation and redefinition.

🌟 SMART EXAM PHRASES (Short and

Killer)
●​ "The personal is political."​

●​ "Gender is a cultural performance, not a biological destiny."​

●​ "Language is never neutral — it reflects systems of power."​

●​ "Patriarchy scripts the roles; feminism rewrites them."​

●​ "Feminist criticism reads between the lines of male-authored texts."​

🌟 8. FINAL QUICK MEMORY BOOST

10 things you must NOT forget:

Serial Must-Remember
1 Feminism critiques AND reconstructs literature

2 Patriarchy controls power and language

3 Literature mirrors male domination

4 Gynocriticism = Study of women writers

5 First Wave = Legal rights

6 Second Wave = Workplace & sexual liberation

7 Third Wave = Intersectionality, identity politics

8 Language shapes gender perceptions

9 Feminism = Political + Cultural movement

10 Feminism fights ALL forms of inequality

🌟 New Forms of Reading

Feminist critics changed how we read traditional texts. They proposed:
 Method Explanation

Resistant Reading Don't accept the text at face value. Read against the male-centered ideas hidden
inside it. Expose sexism and gender biases!

Reading Silences Pay attention to what is not said — the missing female perspectives, the
characters who have no voice, etc.

Counter-Reading Reinterpret classic stories from a woman's point of view. For example, rethink
Medea, Antigone, or Desdemona as strong, complex characters — not just
victims or villains.

Interrogating the Question why certain (mostly male) writers are considered "great," and argue
Canon for the inclusion of women writers.

Intersectional Reading Analyze how gender and race/class/sexuality intersect inside a text — not just
focus on gender alone (Third Wave idea).

🌟 New Forms of Writing

Women writers (especially in Second and Third Wave feminism) created new ways
of writing to break the masculine rules of "serious" literature.
 Style Explanation

Écriture Féminine Hélène Cixous called for a wild, free-flowing, emotional,

body-centered form of writing that rejected linear, logical, male-style
narratives.

Autobiographical Writing Many feminist writers turned to personal stories — writing about their
own experiences (political, bodily, sexual). "The personal is political."

Experimental Forms Fragmented narratives, mixed genres (diary + essay + poetry), fluid
structures — anything that refused rigid, male-dominated "rules" of
literature.

Collective Voices Feminists sometimes wrote in groups, sharing and weaving multiple
voices together — showing the value of community over solitary
genius.

Reclaiming Myths and Retelling old myths and histories from women's perspectives.
Histories (Example: Margaret Atwood rewriting The Odyssey from Penelope’s
view in The Penelopiad.)

🌟 3. In Short (Smart Boss Line)

New Reading = Read critically against patriarchy.​
New Writing = Write freely beyond masculine norms.
 🧠 Super Easy Memory Tip
Form New Reading New Writing

Style Question male traditions Break male traditions

Goal Empower women readers Empower women writers

Male Gaze
​ Objectification:​
The male gaze often portrays women as objects of male desire,
stripping them of their agency and reducing them to their physical
appearance.
​ Heterosexual Perspective:​
The theory argues that visual narratives are often framed from a
heterosexual male perspective, which can exclude or marginalize other
gender identities and sexual orientations.
​ Threefold Gaze:​
Mulvey identifies three aspects of the male gaze: the perspective of the
creator (director, cinematographer), the gaze of characters within the
film, and the gaze of the spectator (the audience).
​ Power Dynamics:​
The male gaze highlights the power imbalance in visual media, where
men often control the narrative and women are positioned to be looked
at, rather than looking back.
​
​ Impact :
​
​ Reinforcement of Gender Inequality:​
The male gaze contributes to the normalization of objectification and
reinforces patriarchal ideologies about women's roles and appearances.
​ Internalized Objectification:​
The theory suggests that women can internalize the male gaze, leading
to feelings of body shame, self-objectification, and low self-esteem.
​
​ Limited Representation:​
The male gaze can limit the range of female characters and narratives,
hindering the creation of diverse and complex female representations.
​
​ Camera Angles:​
Close-ups that focus on a woman's body or sexual features, or shots
that make her seem vulnerable, can be seen as examples of the male
gaze.
​ Character Portrayals:​
Female characters who are primarily defined by their relationships with
men or who are sexually objectified can be seen as products of the
male gaze.
​ Narrative Structures:​
Films that prioritize male characters' actions and perspectives while
relegating female characters to supporting roles can also reflect the
male gaze.

🌟 Boss-Level Final Example:

Suppose you’re reading Jane Eyre.
 ●​ Old (patriarchal) reading: Jane is a moral, obedient heroine.​

●​ Feminist new reading: Jane struggles for her own agency and
independence, constantly battling male control (Mr. Rochester, St. John
Rivers, etc.)​

Or you are writing a story:

●​ Old way: Logical plot, male hero saves the day.​

●​ New feminist way: A woman writes freely about her body, emotions, anger,
dreams — no need for a "proper" plot!​

✏️ Feminist Theory Short Text Analysis

Formula
1. Quick Introduction (2-3 lines)
●​ State that you're using a feminist lens.​

●​ Mention what you will mainly focus on (gender roles, silencing,

objectification, agency, etc.).​

✅ Example:
Through the feminist lens, this text can be read as an exploration of
gendered power dynamics and the silencing of female agency.

2. Identify the Patriarchal Structures / Issues

 ●​ Look for places where:​

○​ Women are marginalized, silenced, objectified.​

○​ Men hold social, economic, linguistic power.​

○​ Gender stereotypes are reinforced.​

✅ Example:
The male characters dominate conversations, while female characters
are either absent or speak minimally, reflecting systemic gender-based
silencing.

3. Show How the Text Challenges (or Reinforces) Gender Roles

●​ Does the text question or support traditional gender expectations?​

●​ Is the woman resisting, suffering, complying, fighting back?​

●​ Is there a new voice, a critique of inequality?​

✅ Example:
The protagonist’s subtle defiance against imposed roles represents an
undercurrent of resistance typical of feminist re-readings.

4. Conclude with the Importance of Feminist Reading (2 lines)

●​ Quickly explain why a feminist reading is essential to unlock hidden
meanings.​

✅ Example:
 Thus, a feminist reading reveals the latent gender politics embedded
within the text, challenging surface-level interpretations.

📜 Full Boss Sample (Short)

Suppose you get a short text where a woman speaks once and is ignored.

👉 Here’s a ready short feminist analysis:

Using a feminist lens, this text highlights the marginalization of female
voices within a patriarchal framework. The male characters dominate
dialogue and decision-making, reducing the woman’s presence to mere
background noise. Her limited speech and lack of agency reflect societal
norms that suppress women's autonomy. A feminist reading, therefore,
uncovers the underlying gender imbalance that traditional interpretations
might overlook.

🔥 Cheat Sheet for Exam Quick Scan

What to Spot What to Say

Female Silence/Absence “Reflects marginalization of women’s voices.”

Male Power “Reinforces patriarchal dominance.”

Woman’s Struggle “Shows resistance against gendered oppression.”

Language Difference “Highlights gendered use of discourse.”

Breaking Gender Norms “Subverts traditional gender expectations.”

✅ Boss Confirmation:
●​ Everything is double-checked and framed according to academic feminist
criticism models (Showalter, Moi, Butler).​

●​ Structure is flexible: fits 7-10 line short analysis OR 2-paragraph answer.​

●​ Wording is exam-level, simple but rich.​

🌟 First, Understand the Goal

The examiner is not looking for you to just summarize the text.​
They want you to:

●​ Interpret the text through a feminist theory lens.​

●​ Theorize (mention key feminist ideas, concepts).​

●​ Apply (show how the theory fits that short text).​

🌟 Second, Build the Full 20-Mark Answer

Structure
Your answer must have 5 strong paragraphs, very clean.
 Paragraph No. Purpose Tips

1. Introduction (3-4 lines) Introduce feminist theory briefly Name-drop "gender roles", "patriarchal
+ your approach to the text. discourse", "female agency", etc.

2. Quick Context of the Text Summarize what the text seems Be very brief — 1-2 sentences only.
(3-4 lines) to show (a woman suffering?
silence? fight?)

3. Feminist Analysis 1 (6-7 Identify main feminist issues: Use words like "marginalization",
lines) male dominance, objectification, "resistance", "power structures".
silencing, etc.

4. Feminist Analysis 2 (6-7 Explore deeper: language, Mention "language of subjugation" or

lines) imagery, tone that supports your "reclaiming voice", etc.
feminist reading.

5. Conclusion (4-5 lines) Summarize how feminist theory End with a punchline: "A feminist
reveals hidden gender meanings reading enriches the understanding by
in the text. unveiling gendered power relations
embedded in the text."

🌟 Third, Important Keywords to Use in Your

Answer
 (You don't need to use ALL of them, but sprinkle them.)

✅ Patriarchal discourse​
✅ Gendered power relations​
✅ Marginalization of women​
✅ Objectification​
✅ Resistance​
✅ Subversion of traditional gender roles​
✅ Female agency​
✅ Reclaiming voice​
✅ Silencing of the feminine​
✅ Gendered language
🌟 Fourth, What to Look for in Short
Texts/Poems?
Immediately scan for:

If you see... Then say...

A woman is silent or passive "Reflects patriarchal silencing and marginalization."

A woman speaks out or resists "Challenges traditional gender roles and asserts agency."

Man controls the situation "Demonstrates male dominance typical of patriarchal societies."

Emotional suffering of woman "Exposes the psychological cost of gender oppression."

Nature, body, domestic imagery "Ties women to traditional 'natural' or 'domestic' spheres, limiting
agency."

🌟 Fifth, Sample Opening Paragraph

(Boss-Style)
✅ Ready to Use Example:
Feminist literary theory challenges traditional representations of women
and interrogates gendered power structures embedded within texts.
Reading this poem/text through a feminist lens allows a deeper
understanding of how the feminine is either silenced, objectified, or
resists the dominant patriarchal discourse. This analysis seeks to
uncover the subtle dynamics of gender politics within the text.

🌟 Sixth, Sample Conclusion (Boss-Style)

✅ Ready to Use Example:
Thus, a feminist reading of the text reveals the intricate ways in which
gendered experiences are woven into literary discourse. By focusing on
the representation, marginalization, and resistance of the feminine,
feminist criticism not only enriches our understanding of the text but
also challenges traditional literary hierarchies that have historically
favored masculine narratives.

🌟 Last but GOLDEN TIP: Theory

Name-Drop
In the body paragraphs, you can lightly name-drop:

✅ Simone de Beauvoir ("One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman.")​

✅ Elaine Showalter (Feminist phases: feminine, feminist, female)​
✅ Hélène Cixous (Écriture Féminine: feminine writing)​
✅ Judith Butler (Gender as performance)
➡️ Just a line like:
"In line with Simone de Beauvoir’s notion that 'one becomes a woman,'
the text portrays gender as a constructed, not natural, identity."

🌟 BOSS FINAL CHECKLIST

✅ 5 paragraph structure​
✅ Feminist theory keywords​
✅ Smart observation of gender roles​
✅ Name-drop big feminist theorists if possible​
✅ Strong intro and conclusion​
✅ Tie everything to feminist theory, NOT just story summary
🌟 Practice Feminist Analysis (Short Text
Simulation)
📜 Practice Short Text:
"She sewed her dreams into quilts,​
Patterns the town never noticed.​
Her silence, a library of storms,​
Her smile, stitched with fading hope."

(Small but rich — like a real exam text!)

🌟 Now Step-by-Step Boss Formula
1. Introduction (3–4 lines)

Through a feminist lens, this text explores the silencing and

marginalization of female creativity within a patriarchal society. The

✅
speaker presents a woman whose aspirations are confined to unnoticed
domestic labor, reflecting broader gendered power dynamics.

●​ You mentioned feminist lens ✅​

●​ You hinted at silencing, marginalization, domestic space ✅​
2. Quick Context (3–4 lines)

The woman in the text engages in quilt-making, a traditional domestic

✅
craft, as a means to express her dreams and emotions. However, her
creations and internal struggles remain invisible to the larger society.

●​ You summarized the scene (sewing quilts, emotions invisible) ✅​

●​ Only in 2 lines ✅​
3. Feminist Analysis 1 (6–7 lines)

The woman's artistic expression, confined to quilting, represents how

women's creativity has historically been relegated to the private,
domestic sphere. The town’s disregard for her work reflects patriarchal
norms that devalue female labor and silence women's experiences. Her

✅
"library of storms" signifies a vast inner life suppressed by societal
expectations.

●​ Keywords: private/domestic sphere, patriarchal norms, silencing ✅​

 ●​ Analysis of symbols (quilting, library of storms) ✅​
4. Feminist Analysis 2 (6–7 lines)

Additionally, the use of metaphors like "library of storms" and "stitched

hope" evokes the emotional intensity hidden beneath a facade of
compliance. In line with Simone de Beauvoir’s notion that 'one is not

✅
born but becomes a woman,' the text illustrates how the woman’s
identity is shaped by silent endurance rather than personal freedom.

●​ Name-dropped Simone de Beauvoir smartly ✅​

●​ Deepened the reading to emotional repression ✅​

5. Conclusion (4–5 lines)

Thus, a feminist reading of the text uncovers the mechanisms of

emotional suppression and invisibility imposed on women within
patriarchal systems. By interpreting the text through feminist theory, the

✅
silent resistance and rich interiority of the feminine experience are
brought to light.

●​ Mentioned patriarchal systems, resistance, feminine experience ✅​

●​ Powerful, final sentence ✅​
🛡 Boss Final Checklist for Exam
Before submitting your feminist short text analysis, check:
 ✅ Checklist Item Status

Mention feminist lens in intro ✅

Summarize text super briefly ✅
Analyze female silencing/marginalization ✅
Explore language/symbolism ✅
Name-drop at least ONE feminist theorist if possible ✅
Strong ending linking back to feminist reading ✅

🌟 BONUS BOSS TIP:

If the short text looks very happy/fun, still find the feminist angle:

●​ Hidden gender expectations​

●​ Domestic confinement​

●​ Undervalued emotional labor​

 ●​ Lack of public voice​

👑
Feminism is powerful because it can uncover even the 'smallest' invisible
oppressions.

✨ Answer:
“One is not born a woman; one becomes one” — Simone de Beauvoir and the
Core of Feminist Thought

Opening Paragraph (Intro)​

Simone de Beauvoir’s famous statement — "One is not born a woman; one
becomes one" — from her groundbreaking work The Second Sex (1949), captures a
central idea of feminist theory: that womanhood is a socially constructed
identity, not a biological destiny. Feminism, especially in its second wave, has
heavily drawn from this assertion to challenge essentialist views of gender and to
highlight how social, cultural, and political forces shape the lives and experiences
of women.

Main Body

1. Gender as Social Construction​

Beauvoir argues that biological sex (female/male) is different from gender
(woman/man). A person is born with a certain anatomy, but society imposes
expectations, roles, and behaviors associated with "being a woman." Feminism
uses this to dismantle the myth that women are naturally inferior or destined for
passive domestic roles.

(Keywords: sex vs gender, social construction, imposed roles)

2. Patriarchal Indoctrination​
From early childhood, girls are taught — through family, education, religion, and
media — how to behave "like a woman." They are encouraged to be passive,
emotional, nurturing, and submissive. Feminist theory shows that this "training" is
a way to maintain patriarchal power structures by keeping women subordinate.

(Keywords: indoctrination, passive roles, patriarchy)

3. Basis for Feminist Political Action​

De Beauvoir’s idea opened the door for feminists to argue that if womanhood is
learned, it can be unlearned, challenged, and changed. Feminism thus seeks not just
equality within the current system but a radical transformation of how society
constructs gender roles altogether.

(Keywords: political action, gender transformation, dismantling norms)

4. Later Feminist Developments​

Later feminists like Judith Butler expanded this idea, proposing that gender is
performed rather than possessed. Butler's theory of gender performativity roots
itself deeply in Beauvoir’s initial statement, showing how feminism continues to
grow from her insights.

(Keywords: Judith Butler, gender performativity, continuity of ideas)

Conclusion (Ending Paragraph)​

Simone de Beauvoir’s statement remains a cornerstone of feminist thought,
emphasizing that womanhood is not a natural fate but a social product. It
empowers feminism to challenge oppressive systems, question fixed gender roles,
and advocate for a freer, more just society where identity is not dictated by biology
or tradition.

🌟 KEY POINTS FOR QUICK

MEMORIZATION
 Concept Quick Note

Social construction Gender is made by society, not nature

Indoctrination Women are taught how to "be" women

Political Action Change the structures, not just fit in

Later Feminists Judith Butler expanded it further. Gayle Rubin (1975)—Sex/gender

system. Sex—what Beauvoir says one is born with. Gender—what
Beauvoir says one becomes within the society’s shaping.

✨ SAMPLE EXAM POWER QUOTE

You can sprinkle this line if needed:

“The body is not a thing; it is a situation.” — Simone de Beauvoir (The

Second Sex)​
(Meaning: Womanhood is a lived experience shaped by society.)

✅ Boss Final Reminder:

●​ Mention The Second Sex 📖​
●​ Show difference between sex and gender 💬​
 ●​ Talk about social forces shaping women 💬​
●​ Link to later feminism (Butler if needed) 💬​

●​ Strong opening + strong closing ✍️💬

Cheat sheet.

1. Formalism

Core Idea:​
Focuses on the form and structure of the text itself, disregarding external factors
(author's intent, historical context, etc.).

Key Features:

●​ Close Reading: Detailed analysis of language, style, structure, and literary

devices.​

●​ Text-Centered: The text is seen as an autonomous entity.​

●​ Unity & Coherence: The work’s elements (theme, symbols, motifs) should
work together harmoniously.​

Key Terms:

●​ Autonomy of the text​

●​ Objective analysis​

●​ Literary devices: imagery, metaphor, rhyme, structure, etc.​

●​ Deeper meanings within structure​

Key Figures:

●​ Viktor Shklovsky​

●​ Roman Jakobson​

2. New Criticism

Core Idea:​
Like Formalism, it stresses close reading of the text, but focuses on the idea that
all information needed to understand a text is contained within the text itself,
emphasizing its organic unity.

Key Features:

●​ Intentional Fallacy: Avoid interpreting a work based on the author’s intent.​

●​ Affective Fallacy: Avoid reading the text based on emotional reactions or

responses.​

●​ Unity of the text: The work must be viewed as an interconnected whole.​

Key Terms:

●​ Paradox​

●​ Ambiguity​

●​ Tension​

●​ Complexity of form​

●​ Organic unity​
Key Figures:

●​ John Crowe Ransom​

●​ Cleanth Brooks

3. Structuralism

Core Idea:​
Analyzes texts by understanding the underlying structures of language and
systems of meaning, heavily influenced by linguistics.

Key Features:

●​ Language as a System: Words derive meaning from their relationships to

other words.​

●​ Binary Oppositions: Focuses on opposites in language (e.g., life vs. death,

good vs. evil).​

●​ Deep Structures: All texts share common structures that can be uncovered
through analysis.​

Key Terms:

●​ Signifier and signified​

●​ Binary oppositions​

●​ Language as a system​

●​ Mythic structures​

Key Figures:
 ●​ Ferdinand de Saussure​

●​ Claude Lévi-Strauss

4. Marxism

Core Idea:​
Focuses on the socio-economic context of literature, emphasizing class struggle,
power, and material conditions.

Key Features:

●​ Class Conflict: Literature reflects the social and economic conditions of the
time, often highlighting the struggles between classes.​

●​ Ideology: Texts often reflect the ideology of the ruling class, reinforcing
their power.​

●​ Base and Superstructure: Society’s economic base determines the cultural

and ideological superstructure.​

Key Terms:

●​ Class struggle​

●​ Base and superstructure​

●​ Ideology​

●​ Alienation​

●​ Hegemony​

Key Figures:
 ●​ Karl Marx​

●​ Friedrich Engels​

●​ Louis Althusser​

5. Feminism

Core Idea:​
Analyzes literature through the lens of gender, focusing on the roles of women,
gender inequality, and patriarchal structures.

Key Features:

●​ Gender Roles: Critiques how women are portrayed in literature.​

●​ Patriarchy: Focuses on how texts reinforce or challenge patriarchal norms.​

●​ Intersectionality: Examines how race, class, and gender intersect in

literature.​

Key Terms:

●​ Patriarchy​

●​ Gender roles​

●​ The Male Gaze​

●​ Reproductive roles​

●​ Intersectionality​

Key Figures:
 ●​ Simone de Beauvoir​

●​ Judith Butler​

●​ Elaine Showalter​

Quick Comparison:

Theory Focus Key Terms Notable Figures

Formalism Close reading, form Autonomy of the Viktor Shklovsky,

and structure of the text, literary Roman Jakobson
text devices

New Criticism Unity of the text, focus Paradox, John Crowe Ransom,
on textual elements, ambiguity, tension, Cleanth Brooks
no external context organic unity

Structuralism Language as a system Binary oppositions, Ferdinand de

of signs, uncovering signifier, signified Saussure, Claude
deep structures Lévi-Strauss

Marxism Socio-economic Class struggle, Karl Marx, Friedrich

context, class struggle, base and Engels, Louis
power and material superstructure Althusser
conditions
 Feminism Gender, power Patriarchy, gender Simone de Beauvoir,
relations, critique of roles, Judith Butler, Elaine
patriarchy intersectionality Showalter

Key Takeaways:

●​ Formalism & New Criticism: Both focus on the text itself, with formalism
looking closely at form and structure and New Criticism emphasizing unity
and tension.​

●​ Structuralism: Looks at language and cultural structures, revealing how texts

share underlying patterns.​

●​ Marxism: Analyzes how literature reflects or critiques social power

dynamics and class struggles.​

●​ Feminism: Focuses on gender roles and the impact of patriarchy in literature.​

✨ Full Comparative Overview (Formalism, New Criticism, Structuralism,

Marxist Criticism, Feminist Criticism) ✨

Criteria Formalism New Structuralism Marxist Feminist Criticism

Criticism Criticism

Origin Russia (1910s) USA France Marx & 1960s Second

(1930s-50s) (1950s-60s) Engels (19th Wave Feminism
Century)
Key Figures Viktor Shklovsky, John Crowe Ferdinand de Karl Marx, Simone de
Roman Jakobson, Ransom, Saussure, Friedrich Beauvoir, Elaine
Boris Eichenbaum Cleanth Claude Engels, Showalter, Kate
Brooks, W.K. Lévi-Strauss, Terry Millett, Judith
Wimsatt Roland Eagleton, Butler
Barthes Georg
Lukács

Primary Literary devices, The text Underlying Class Patriarchy, gender

Focus defamiliarization, itself, unity, structures of struggle, roles,
literariness paradox, language, ideology, representation of
irony, codes, binary material women
ambiguity oppositions conditions

View of Autonomous and Self-sufficient A system of Product of Tool for

Literature self-contained and signs shaped socio-econo representing or
independent by cultural mic forces challenging gender
codes power dynamics

Method Close reading Close reading Identifying Exposing Analyzing

focusing on form and focusing on structures, class gendered language,
technique meaning codes, binary ideology, representation, and
within the text oppositions materialism stereotypes

Attitude to Irrelevant Irrelevant Irrelevant Influenced Critically examines

Author (Intentional by historical how authorial
Fallacy) material perspective is
conditions gendered
Attitude to Reader's response is Reader’s Reader Reader is Reader is
Reader less important feelings are decodes shaped by influenced by
secondary structures ideology gender constructs
(Affective
Fallacy)

Key Literariness, Intentional Langue vs Base and Patriarchy,

Concepts Defamiliarization, Fallacy, Parole, Superstructu Gynocriticism,
Devices Affective Binary re, Ideology, Gender,
Fallacy, Opposition, Class Intersectionality
Unity, Semiotics struggle
Paradox

Strengths Highlights Sharp and Helps reveal Relates Exposes gender

craftsmanship of disciplined how meaning literature to biases and
literature reading of is structured real-world challenges
text power oppression
structures

Weaknesses Ignores context, Can be too May Can reduce May risk reducing
history, ideology text-centric overlook art to class literature to gender
and ignore historical and struggle politics alone
politics political only
factors

✊ What is Marxism?
➔ A theory by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels that says:
 "Society is based on conflicts between classes — mainly the rich
(bourgeoisie) and the working class (proletariat)."

Main ideas:

●​ Economic forces control human life.​

●​ Class struggle is the engine of history.​

●​ Ideology masks real oppression.​

●​ Literature, art, culture = products of economic and political structures

(not ‘neutral’).​

✍️ What is Marxist Literary Criticism?

➔ Marxist literary criticism looks at literature as a social product that reflects,
reinforces, or challenges class divisions, power structures, and economic
conditions.

In simple boss language:

“Who benefits? Who suffers? What ideology is hidden? How does

money, class, or power work here?”

🎯 MAIN PRINCIPLES of Marxist Criticism

Point Explanation
Literature belongs to Superstructure = Culture, Art, Law, Religion. It
Superstructure reflects the Base (economy).

Class Struggle in Every story shows tensions between oppressor and

Literature oppressed classes.

Ideology Texts often hide or normalize oppression under

"universal truths."

Reflection Theory Literature reflects material conditions of its time.

Critique of Capitalism Shows how capitalism corrupts human

relationships, art, and morals.

History is Key A text cannot be fully understood without knowing

its historical material context.

⚡ Key Terms (With Boss Examples)

Term Meaning Example

Base Economy, material forces of Factories, Land, Money.

production.
Superstructure Culture, Art, Law — built on Novels, Films, Religion,
Base. Education.

Ideology False ideas that keep people Belief that "hard work
oppressed. alone" guarantees
success.

Hegemony Dominant class controls others by Media makes people

winning consent, not just force. "love" capitalism.
(Gramsci)

Alienation Workers are disconnected from A factory worker making

their labor and humanity. phones but never
affording one.

Means of Tools, land, resources. Machines, fields.

Production

Relations of Class relationships created by Boss vs Worker.

Production economy.

📚 Key Marxist Critics You Must Know

Critic Work Contribution
Karl Marx Das Kapital, The German Economics and Class
Ideology Conflict

Friedrich The Origin of the Family History shaped by material

Engels conditions

Georg Lukács The Theory of the Novel Literature shows "totality" of

society

Antonio Prison Notebooks Cultural hegemony

Gramsci

Louis Ideology and Ideological State Art works through ideology

Althusser Apparatuses

Raymond Culture and Society Literature part of "cultural

Williams materialism"

Terry Marxism and Literary Criticism Best modern explainer

Eagleton

🎯 Key Marxist Thinkers and Their Works

(with Elaboration)
 Thinker Major Work What the Work Does (Elaboration)

Karl Marx The Communist ➔ Founded historical materialism:

& Friedrich Manifesto (1848) and economic base (production) shapes
Engels German Ideology superstructure (law, politics, culture).
(1845–46)
➔ Said that literature, like other art
forms, is a reflection of material
realities and class struggles.

Georg History and Class ➔ Introduced reflection theory:

Lukács Consciousness (1923) good literature realistically reflects
and The Historical Novel society’s totality and class structures.
(1937)
➔ Praised realism for showing true
social relations and criticized
modernist art as bourgeois escapism.

Antonio Prison Notebooks ➔ Developed the idea of cultural

Gramsci (1929–1935) hegemony: the ruling class maintains
control by making its values seem
'natural' through culture and
education.

➔ Believed literature could

challenge or reinforce hegemony.
Louis Ideology and Ideological ➔ Said ideology is not just "false
Althusser State Apparatuses (1970) consciousness" but how individuals
experience reality.

➔ Literature can reveal how

ideologies work inside people’s
minds.

➔ Distinguished between repressive

state apparatus (force) and
ideological state apparatus
(education, culture).

Terry Marxism and Literary ➔ Made Marxist ideas accessible to

Eagleton Criticism (1976) and literary studies.
Literary Theory: An
Introduction (1983) ➔ Argued that all literature is
politically charged because it is
produced in a material and ideological
context.

➔ Showed how even "neutral" art

reflects ideological struggles.

Raymond Culture and Society ➔ Introduced concepts like

Williams (1958) and Marxism and "structures of feeling" — the
Literature (1977) emotional and social experiences that
hint at emerging historical change.

➔ Literature captures lived

experiences of society, not just direct
reflections of class.
 Fredric The Political ➔ Famous line: "Always
Jameson Unconscious (1981) historicize!"

➔ Claimed that all texts are

political, even if they don’t look
political at first glance.

➔ Literature shows the hidden

contradictions of history and
ideology.

🌟 FAST BOSS TABLE

Critic Main Concern Key Contribution

Marx & Engels Base-Superstructure Art is shaped by material conditions.

model

Lukács Realism and totality Good literature reflects social reality.

Gramsci Cultural hegemony Culture can maintain or resist power.

Althusser Ideology in daily life Art shows how ideology is lived.

Eagleton Literature and ideology Literature is a political product.

Williams Structures of feeling Literature captures social change.

Jameson Historicize literature Literature reveals historical contradictions.

✍️ Example Exam Lines (Boss-Approved)

●​ "Marx and Engels laid the foundation by arguing that literature is both
shaped by and shapes material and ideological conditions."​

●​ "Lukács emphasized the need for realist art to reveal the contradictions
within capitalist society."​

●​ "Gramsci’s concept of cultural hegemony shifted Marxism from pure

economics to understanding how culture maintains power structures."​

●​ "Althusser redefined ideology as a lived reality, thus literature becomes

a space where ideological tensions can be exposed."​

●​ "Eagleton powerfully argued that there is no such thing as apolitical

literature; every text exists within material conditions."​

●​ "Williams introduced the emotional dimension to Marxist criticism

through his concept of 'structures of feeling.'"​

●​ "Jameson’s rallying cry to 'always historicize' reminds readers that texts

must be read within their historical and material contexts."​
 ⚔️ How to APPLY Marxist Criticism
Step-by-step:

Step Action

1. Identify who has power, who doesn’t.

2. See how class conflict is shown.

3. Uncover hidden ideology (what "truth" is being sold?)

4. Analyze historical material context (when/where is this happening?).

5. Check whether the text supports the dominant system or critiques it.

✍️ Formal Example of Marxist Criticism

Text: Charles Dickens’ Oliver Twist

●​ Highlights poverty and child labor during Industrial Revolution.​

●​ Exposes hypocrisy of upper-class charity and justice systems.​

●​ Reflects material conditions of 19th century England (Base).​

 🔥 Full Boss Chart for Quick Revision
Category Content

Definition Literature reflects material and class conditions.

Main Focus Class struggle, power dynamics, ideology.

Key Critics Marx, Engels, Lukács, Gramsci, Althusser, Eagleton.

Important Terms Base, Superstructure, Ideology, Hegemony, Alienation.

Goal Reveal hidden class interests and power in texts.

Type of Reading Political, historical, economic.

🚨 Boss Final Promise: 2-Liner ID Cheat

Codes
 Work 2-Liner Identification

The Communist Manifesto Literature shaped by class conflict and material base.

History and Class Consciousness Literature must reflect societal totality.

Prison Notebooks Culture maintains dominance via hegemony.

Ideology and Ideological State Ideology structures how people live and think.
Apparatuses

Marxism and Literary Criticism Literature mirrors ideological and class structures.

Culture and Society Literature expresses the lived experiences of historical change.

The Political Unconscious Literature is a symbolic act revealing history.

✨ Example Sentences for Your Answers

(Exam Boss Mode)
●​ "Literature, for the Marxist, is never innocent; it participates in the
ideological battles of its age."​
 ●​ "The text’s representation of class relationships reflects its material historical
context."​

●​ "According to Marxist theory, literature belongs to the superstructure and is

shaped by the forces of production."​

✅ Final Checklist for War

●​ Understand the Base and Superstructure.​

●​ Know what is Ideology and Hegemony.​

●​ Apply Class Struggle to any story.​

●​ Know Key Critics + 1 line contribution.​

●​ Always connect text to material conditions.​

🎯 What is Formalism?
➔ Formalism is the approach to literature that says:

"Forget the author. Forget history. Forget your emotions. Study

ONLY the text — its structure, language, form, and style."

It treats literature like a machine:

●​ How the parts fit together?​

●​ How it works internally?​

 ●​ What techniques make it special?​

🧠 MAIN PRINCIPLES of Formalist Criticism

Point Explanation

Literature = Special Use of It’s not about what is said, but how it's said.
Language

Focus on Form Sound, imagery, syntax, rhyme, meter — not content or context.

Literariness What makes something "literature" is its formal properties, not

its message.

Defamiliarization (Ostranenie) Literature makes the familiar strange to refresh perception.

Autonomy of Text Text is independent; it stands alone without historical, political,

or author background.

Close Reading Analyzing language, structure, devices without outside

influence.
 ⚡ Important Terms
Term Meaning Example

Literariness Qualities that make a text Rhyme, metaphor, irony.

literary.

Defamiliarization Making ordinary things strange. Describing walking like a bizarre

ritual.

Devices Techniques used to build the Alliteration, Enjambment, Paradox.

work.

Motif Recurring Darkness in Macbeth.

structure/symbol/theme.

Fabula and Sjuzhet Story vs Plot. Fabula: Event order. Sjuzhet:

Narrative order.
Foregrounding Drawing attention to language Rhyming words unusually to stand
itself. out.

📚 Key Formalist Critics You Must Know

Critic Work Contribution

Viktor Shklovsky Art as Technique Defamiliarization, literariness.

Roman Jakobson Linguistics and Language as the center of poetry.

Poetics

Boris Eichenbaum The Theory of the Literature as "device-organized."

"Formal Method"

Yury Tynyanov On Literary Literature evolves like a living

Evolution organism.
Cleanth Brooks (American bridge to The Well-Wrought Importance of paradox and organic
New Criticism) Urn unity.

(Notice how Cleanth Brooks starts bridging Formalism → New Criticism!)

🎯 MAJOR FORMALIST CRITICS AND

THEIR WORKS (with Deep Elaboration)

Critic Major Work(s) What the Work Does (Elaboration)

Viktor Shklovsky Art as Technique (1917) ➔ Introduced defamiliarization (ostranenie):

making the familiar seem strange to renew
perception.

➔ Literature = Technique, not emotional mimesis.

Roman Jakobson Linguistics and Poetics ➔ Defined literariness: what makes a text literary
(1960), earlier essays is how language is used, not what is said.

➔ Language must focus on its own structure

("poetic function").
Boris Eichenbaum The Theory of the ➔ Explained what "Formal Method" is: study how
'Formal Method' (1926) texts are made, not what they mean.

Yuri Tynianov On Literary Evolution ➔ Literature evolves internally, like a living

(1927) organism.

➔ Rejected history based on external events (wars,

politics), focused on literary history of devices.

Vladimir Propp Morphology of the ➔ Found patterns and structures in folktales:

Folktale (1928) functions and narrative units stay constant.

Osip Brik Various essays ➔ Supported that literature is about its materiality
(words and form), not the outside world.

🌟 QUICK BOSS TABLE

Critic Main Concern Key Contribution
Shklovsky Defamiliarization Art renews perception by making it strange.

Jakobson Literariness Focus on the language and structure of the text.

Eichenbaum Formal Method Study techniques, not author/context.

Tynianov Literary Evolution Texts evolve through changes in form, not history.

Propp Narrative structure Common functions in folktales.

Brik Materiality Words and forms are the real subject.

🧠 KEY IDEAS OF FORMALISM (Ready for

WAR)

Keyword What It Means

Defamiliarization Art makes everyday things strange to renew perception (Shklovsky).

Literariness The quality that makes a work literary; comes from technique, style, and form
(Jakobson).

Form and Device Study how a text is structured through devices like plot, language, meter.

Autonomy of Text Text must be analyzed by itself; ignore the author, context, or political
messages.

Function over Meaning Form, pattern, and structure are more important than content.

Literary Evolution Changes in literature happen by the evolution of artistic devices, not world
events.

✍️ Example Exam Lines (Boss-Approved)

●​ "For Formalists like Shklovsky, the goal of art is to disrupt automatic
perception through defamiliarization, forcing the reader to truly 'see'
again."​

●​ "Roman Jakobson argued that 'literariness' lies in the manipulation of

language, not in the subject matter itself."​

●​ "Formalists believed that to understand a literary text, critics must

focus on the devices and structures that make it distinct."​
 ●​ "Tynianov's idea of literary evolution emphasized the internal
development of forms, dismissing historical and social events as mere
backgrounds."​

●​ "Propp’s study of folktales revealed that narrative structures repeat

regardless of content; it is the form that matters."​

🚨 2-Liner ID Cheat Codes (For War

Memorization)

Work 2-Line Identification

Art as Technique Literature defamiliarizes the ordinary.

Linguistics and Poetics Literary language focuses on structure.

The Theory of the Formal Method Criticism studies how literature is built.

On Literary Evolution Literature changes by changing devices, not politics.

Morphology of the Folktale Stories have fixed narrative functions.

🧠 BOSS MEMORY JOKES!
●​ "Shklovsky Shocks!" ➔ Makes the normal strange.​

●​ "Jakobson Juggles Language!" ➔ Plays with structure, not content.​

●​ "Eichenbaum Engineers Texts!" ➔ How it's made matters.​

●​ "Tynianov Tunes Forms!" ➔ Literature evolves by forms, not events.​

●​ "Propp Pops Out Story Patterns!" ➔ Fixed functions in folktales.​

●​ "Brik Breaks the Mirror!" ➔ No reflection of society — just words!​

⚡ FINAL SUMMARY — FORMALISM IS:

➔ A movement that focuses on how literature works, not what it says.​
➔ Treats the text as an independent object.​
➔ Prioritizes form, language, structure, and devices like meter,
rhythm, and plot shape.​
➔ Rejects biography, historical background, and political influence
during interpretation.​
➔ Key ideas: Defamiliarization, Literariness, Autonomy of Text,
Formal Evolution.

⚔️ How to APPLY Formalist Criticism

 Step-by-step:

Step Action

1. Ignore history, author, reader emotions.

2. Focus on the form: structure, style, language.

3. Identify key devices: irony, paradox, rhyme, symbol.

4. Find defamiliarization moments.

5. Explain how the text is unified internally.

✍️ Example of Formalist Analysis

Text: William Blake’s The Tyger

●​ Strong repetition: "Tyger Tyger, burning bright" — foregrounds rhythm and

sound.​

●​ Defamiliarization: The tiger is shown as something almost supernatural.​

●​ Structure (six quatrains, AABB rhyme) creates a sense of relentless energy.​

 💬 No need to talk about Blake’s life, religion, or politics! Only how the poem
works.

🔥 Full Boss Chart for Quick Revision

Category Content

Definition Study only the text’s structure, style, language.

Main Focus Literariness, Defamiliarization, Close Reading.

Key Critics Shklovsky, Jakobson, Eichenbaum, Tynianov.

Important Terms Defamiliarization, Fabula/Sjuzhet, Foregrounding.

Goal Understand how literature works as a self-contained machine.

Type of Reading Structural, linguistic, artistic.

✨ Example Sentences for Exam (Boss Level)

 ●​ "For the Formalists, the value of a literary text lies in its ability to
defamiliarize perception through unique artistic devices."​

●​ "Literature is not a mirror of society but a system of devices structured to

create aesthetic experience."​

●​ "The formal properties of a text — its rhythm, imagery, syntax — are central
to its meaning and should be analyzed independently of authorial intent."​

🛡️ Final Checklist for WAR

✅ Understand Defamiliarization, Literariness, and Close Reading.​
✅ Know Key Critics + 1 line contribution.​
✅ Apply Device-Analysis and Internal Structure focus.​
✅ NO biography, NO history, NO emotions — only TEXT.
🎯 What is New Criticism?
➔ New Criticism says:

"The text is a self-contained universe. Analyze it internally. Forget

history, forget biography, forget your feelings!"

It treats literature like a living organism:

●​ Every part (image, symbol, paradox) fits together into Organic Unity.​

●​ All tensions, conflicts, contradictions are resolved inside the text itself.​

🧠 MAIN PRINCIPLES of New Criticism

 Point Explanation

Textual Autonomy The text is independent. No author, no history, no reader needed.

Organic Unity All parts (theme, form, imagery) are interconnected and
interdependent.

Close Reading Deep, detailed analysis of language, symbols, patterns inside the
text.

Paradox, Irony, Ambiguity, Tension These are not flaws — they are essential to meaning!

Objective Analysis Criticism must be scientific and unemotional.

Heresy of Paraphrase You CANNOT "summarize" a poem’s meaning in simple words

— it loses its richness.

⚡ Important Terms (Boss Mode)

 Term Meaning Example

Organic Unity All elements work together harmoniously. In The Waste

Land,
fragmentation
itself creates
unity.

Intentional Fallacy Fallacy = Judging a text by the author's intention.

Affective Fallacy Fallacy = Judging a text by emotional effects on the

reader.

Close Reading Careful analysis of structure, symbolism, ambiguity.

Paradox Contradictory yet true ideas that reveal deeper

meaning.

Irony Tension between appearance and reality.

Ambiguity Multiple possible interpretations enrich the text.

 📚 Key New Criticism Thinkers You MUST
Know

Critic Work Contribution

John Crowe Ransom The New Criticism Gave the movement its name:
formal analysis.

Cleanth Brooks The Well-Wrought Urn Paradox and Organic Unity.

W.K. Wimsatt & Monroe The Intentional Fallacy, The Affective Explained how NOT to read a
Beardsley Fallacy text.

Allen Tate Tension in Poetry Poetic structure depends on

tension between ideas.

I.A. Richards Practical Criticism Developed a detailed method of

close reading.

🎯 MAJOR NEW CRITICS AND THEIR

WORKS (with Deep Elaboration)
 Critic Major Work(s) What the Work Does (Elaboration)

John Crowe The New Criticism ➔ Named the movement.

Ransom (1941)
➔ Said criticism must focus on the text itself, not
author, context, or reader response.

➔ Text = self-contained, organic unity.

I. A. Richards Practical Criticism ➔ Introduced close reading.

(1929), Principles of
Literary Criticism (1924) ➔ Readers must engage in detailed analysis of the
text’s language, form, tone, paradox, ambiguity.

➔ Separated emotional vs intellectual responses to

art.

Cleanth Brooks The Well Wrought Urn ➔ Popularized the ideas of paradox, irony, and
(1947) organic unity in poetry.

➔ Said paradox is the essential language of poetry.

Allen Tate Tension in Poetry (1938) ➔ Focused on tension: the balance between
denotation (literal meaning) and connotation
(suggestive meaning).

Robert Penn Understanding Poetry ➔ Designed influential textbooks promoting close

Warren (with Brooks, 1938) reading methods.

➔ Made New Criticism the academic standard in

USA.

W. K. Wimsatt The Verbal Icon (1954, ➔ Introduced Intentional Fallacy and Affective
with Monroe Beardsley) Fallacy.

➔ "Don't guess the author's intention or the

reader's emotion!" Only the text matters.

Monroe Beardsley Aesthetics: Problems in ➔ Supported the idea that a text’s meaning and
the Philosophy of structure must be evaluated independently from
Criticism (1958) historical and emotional contexts.

🌟 QUICK BOSS TABLE

Critic Main Concern Key Contribution
Ransom Autonomy of the text Text is an organic whole; coined "New Criticism."

Richards Practical criticism Method of close reading.

Brooks Paradox and unity Paradox is essential to poetry's meaning.

Tate Tension Poetry balances literal and figurative meanings.

Warren Understanding poetry Promoted New Criticism in education.

Wimsatt & Beardsley Fallacies Warned against emotional/authorial fallacies.

🧠 KEY IDEAS OF NEW CRITICISM (Ready

for War!)

Keyword What It Means

Close Reading Intense, detailed analysis of the text's language, structure, and imagery.

Organic Unity A good literary work is internally harmonious; all parts fit together perfectly.
Paradox Poetry often uses contradictions that actually reveal deeper truths.

Irony Literary irony (opposite meanings) adds richness and complexity.

Intentional Fallacy Error: basing analysis on what the author intended.

Affective Fallacy Error: judging the work by the reader’s emotional response.

Autonomy of Text Text stands alone; outside influences (author, history) are irrelevant.

✍️ Example Exam Lines (Boss-Approved)

●​ "New Criticism demands that a text be seen as an autonomous verbal
object — not a mirror of its author's intentions, nor a stimulus for
reader emotions."​

●​ "John Crowe Ransom's call for 'an objective criticism' helped shift the
literary world’s attention fully to the work itself."​

●​ "For I. A. Richards, the value of a text lies in the strength and

complexity of its language, independent of external meanings."​

●​ "Cleanth Brooks argued that paradox is 'the language appropriate and

inevitable to poetry' — the central vehicle of poetic truth."​
 ●​ "Wimsatt and Beardsley’s doctrines of Intentional and Affective
Fallacies reinforced the autonomy of the literary text from both author
and reader."

🚨 2-Liner ID Cheat Codes (For Your

Warbook)

Work 2-Line Identification

The New Criticism Focus on the text as a self-contained unit.

Practical Criticism Method of analyzing poetry through language and form.

The Well Wrought Urn Poetry's meaning lies in paradox and unity.

Tension in Poetry Balance between literal and figurative levels.

Understanding Poetry How to critically engage with poetic texts.

The Verbal Icon Warns against focusing on author or audience feelings.

 ✨ Little Memory Jokes, Boss, for Easy Recall!
●​ "Ransom Ransoms the Author Away!" ➔ Forget the author, only the text
matters!​

●​ "Richards Richly Reads." ➔ Close reading = riches of the text.​

●​ "Brooks Builds Paradoxes!" ➔ Paradox holds the meaning!​

●​ "Tate Tightens Tension!" ➔ Balance tension in poetry.​

●​ "Wimsatt Wipes out Wishes!" ➔ No author’s wish = Intentional Fallacy!​

●​ "Beardsley Breaks Feelings!" ➔ No audience crying = Affective Fallacy!

⚔️ How to APPLY New Criticism

Step-by-Step:

Step Action

1. Ignore the author’s life, politics, history, and personal emotions.

2. Focus fully on the text’s structure and devices.

3. Identify paradoxes, ironies, tensions, and ambiguities.

4. Find how contradictions resolve into organic unity.

5. Argue how form and meaning are inseparable.

✍️ Example of New Critical Analysis

Text: Robert Frost’s The Road Not Taken

●​ Paradox: Choice seems huge but both roads were "really about the same."​

●​ Irony: The speaker later pretends his choice was dramatic.​

●​ Tension: Between free will and predestined paths.​

●​ Organic Unity: The form (ABAAB rhyme) controls the uncertain theme
perfectly.​

💬 NO need to discuss Frost’s life or historical context. Text alone reveals

meaning.

🔥 Boss Chart for Quick Revision

 Category Content

Definition Close reading of internal unity, paradox, ambiguity.

Focus Organic unity, formal patterns, devices.

Key Critics Ransom, Brooks, Wimsatt, Beardsley, Richards, Tate.

Important Terms Intentional Fallacy, Affective Fallacy, Organic Unity.

Goal Objective, scientific criticism of the literary work.

Type of Reading Close, textual, structural, artistic.

✨ Example Sentences for Exam (Boss Level)

●​ "New Criticism champions the ideal of the poem as a well-wrought urn —
an object of perfect internal unity and harmony."​

●​ "The richness of literary works lies in their complex interplay of paradoxes

and ambiguities rather than in the author’s intentions."​
 ●​ "The text is an organic whole where structure and meaning are inseparably
woven."​

🛡️ Final Checklist for WAR

✅ Understand Organic Unity, Close Reading, Heresy of Paraphrase.​
✅ Know Key Critics + 1 line contribution.​
✅ Apply Tension, Paradox, Irony analysis internally.​
✅ NO biography, NO history, NO politics, NO emotional reactions — ONLY
TEXT.

🌟 Extra Bonus Quick Flashcards (Ultra

Quick Mode)

Flashcard Front Flashcard Back

Textual Autonomy? Text is self-sufficient; ignore author/reader history.

Paradox and Irony? Central to creating depth in literature.

Heresy of Paraphrase? Meaning cannot be reduced to a simple summary.

Organic Unity? All parts fit together to form one meaning.

Close Reading? Detailed analysis of language, imagery, structure.

Major Critics? Ransom, Brooks, Wimsatt, Beardsley, Richards, Tate.

🎯 What is Feminist Literary Criticism?

➔ Feminist criticism says:

"Hey! Literature and criticism have been shaped by a

PATRIARCHAL SYSTEM that silences or distorts women’s voices.
We are here to expose, challenge, and rewrite!"

It looks at how gender, especially the experience of women, shapes literature:

●​ How women are represented.​

●​ How literature reflects male-dominated power structures.​

●​ How women writers find their own voices.​

🧠 MAIN PRINCIPLES of Feminist Criticism

Point Explanation

Challenge Patriarchy Criticize male-centered views and stereotypes in texts.

Recover Women's Voices Study works by women that were ignored or undervalued.

Representation Matters Analyze how women characters are depicted: passive/active,

empowered/victimized.

Gender as a Social Construct Understand how society, not nature, defines "femininity" and
"masculinity."

Language Critique Show how language itself may reflect patriarchal values.

Intersectionality Recognize that gender intersects with race, class, sexuality, etc.

📚 Key Feminist Thinkers You MUST Know

Critic Work Contribution

Mary Wollstonecraft A Vindication of First major feminist demand for education and
the Rights of rights.
Woman

Virginia Woolf A Room of One's "A woman must have money and a room of her
Own own if she is to write fiction."
Simone de Beauvoir The Second Sex "One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman."
(Gender = constructed.)

Kate Millett Sexual Politics Literature supports sexual domination of women.

Elaine Showalter A Literature of Mapped out women's literary tradition.

Their Own

Sandra Gilbert and Susan The Madwoman in Analyzed how women writers express anger and
Gubar the Attic rebellion.

🎯 Key Feminist Thinkers and Their Works

(with Elaboration)

Thinker Major Work What the Work Does (Elaboration)

Mary Wollstonecraft A Vindication of the ➔ Argued that women are not naturally inferior
Rights of Woman to men but appear so because they are denied
(1792) education.

➔ Demanded equal rights, especially in education,

so women could contribute to society
meaningfully.

➔ Seen as the first major feminist manifesto.

Virginia Woolf A Room of One’s ➔ Woolf said women need financial independence
Own (1929) ("money") and personal space ("a room of one's
own") to write and create art.

➔ She criticizes the systemic oppression that

denied women opportunities.

➔ Introduced the idea that patriarchal structures

limit creativity.
Simone de Beauvoir The Second Sex ➔ Famous line: "One is not born, but rather
(1949) becomes, a woman."

➔ Claimed that society imposes female roles

through social conditioning, not biology.

➔ Said women have been treated as the "Other"

in a male-centered world.

Kate Millett Sexual Politics ➔ Exposed how literature, culture, and personal
(1970) relationships reinforce male dominance.

➔ Criticized male authors like D. H. Lawrence,

Norman Mailer for portraying women as sexual
objects.

➔ Defined "politics" as power relationships

between sexes in both public and private life.
Elaine Showalter A Literature of ➔ Mapped out three phases in women's writing:
Their Own (1977)
1. Feminine phase (1840–1880): Women imitate
male writing.

2. Feminist phase (1880–1920): Women protest

against male standards.

3. Female phase (1920 onwards): Women explore

female identity.

➔ Argued for a separate tradition of women's

literature.

Sandra Gilbert and Susan The Madwoman in ➔ Analyzed how women writers often created
Gubar the Attic (1979) "mad" female characters (like Bertha Mason in
Jane Eyre) to express their rage and oppression.

➔ Showed that Victorian literature forced women

into the roles of either "angels" (pure) or
"monsters" (wild).

➔ Claimed women writers had to fight

internalized patriarchal ideals.
 🌟 BOSS FAST SUMMARY TABLE
Critic Main Concern Key Contribution

Wollstonecraft Education and equality Advocated women's right to education.

Woolf Economic independence Women need money and space for creativity.

Beauvoir Social construction of gender Society defines "woman," not biology.

Millett Power in relationships Literature and culture enforce patriarchy.

Showalter Women's literary tradition Charted women’s phases of writing.

Gilbert & Gubar Women’s anger and Analyzed madwoman figures in fiction.
repression

✍️ Example Exam Sentences (Ready to Use!)

●​ "Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman laid the
groundwork for feminist thought by arguing that inequality stems from
lack of education rather than natural inferiority."​
 ●​ "Virginia Woolf’s A Room of One’s Own highlighted how material and
psychological independence were essential for female creativity."​

●​ "Simone de Beauvoir’s concept of the woman as 'Other' reframed

gender oppression as a societal, not natural, phenomenon."​

●​ "Kate Millett’s Sexual Politics broke new ground by analyzing literature

itself as a site where patriarchal values are reproduced."​

●​ "Elaine Showalter provided the first structured map of a distinct female

literary tradition through her three-phase model."​

●​ "Gilbert and Gubar’s idea of the 'madwoman' revealed how women's

suppressed rage surfaces in literary texts."​

🚨 Boss Final Promise: 2-Liner Identification

Cheat Codes

Work 2-Liner Identification

A Vindication of the Rights of Demands education and rational respect for women.
Woman

A Room of One’s Own Argues for financial freedom and private space for women writers.
The Second Sex Gender is socially constructed; women are treated as 'Other'.

Sexual Politics Analyzes how art and relationships support male dominance.

A Literature of Their Own Maps women's literary evolution across three stages.

The Madwoman in the Attic Explores madness and anger as feminist rebellion in literature.

⚔️ How to APPLY Feminist Criticism

Step-by-Step:

Step Action

1. Ask: How are women represented? (Strong, weak, passive, active?)

2. Notice stereotypes: Angel? Monster? Objectified?

3. Check if a woman's voice is silenced, ignored, punished.

4. Analyze how gender norms influence the plot, characters, language.

5. Reclaim or celebrate female creativity if it exists.

✍️ Example of Feminist Analysis

Text: Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë

●​ Jane fights for equality: "I am not talking to you now through the medium of
custom, conventionalities, nor even of mortal flesh."​

●​ Bertha Mason ("the madwoman") symbolizes the rage of imprisoned

women.​

●​ Feminist reading sees Jane’s journey as a rebellion against both class and
gender oppression.​

💬 Feminism uncovers Jane’s struggle against being owned — not just

romantically, but existentially.

⚡ Keywords You MUST Mention

Keyword Quick Definition

Patriarchy System where men dominate.

Gender Construct Gender roles are built by society, not biology.

Male Gaze (Laura Mulvey) Art/literature often assumes a male viewer/reader.

Recovery Project Reviving forgotten women writers.

Stereotypes Angel (pure, submissive) vs Monster (wild, dangerous woman).

Intersectionality Gender + Race + Class + Sexuality — all interconnected.

Madwoman Symbol of female rebellion against repression (Gilbert and Gubar).

🌟 Boss Chart for Feminism Quick Revision

Category Content

Definition Study of gender, power, representation, and recovery of women’s voices.

Focus Patriarchy, stereotypes, empowerment, female creativity.

Key Critics Wollstonecraft, Woolf, de Beauvoir, Millett, Showalter, Gilbert & Gubar.
Important Terms Patriarchy, Gender Construct, Male Gaze, Intersectionality.

Goal Reveal hidden biases, empower female perspectives, revise the canon.

Type of Reading Political, ethical, gender-conscious, justice-seeking.

🛡️ Exam Powerlines (Ready-to-Use Sentences)

●​ "Feminist criticism resists the traditional patriarchal canon and asserts the
need for a women's literary tradition."​

●​ "Representation of women is not neutral; it reflects deeply rooted social

biases."​

●​ "Gender is a socio-cultural performance rather than a biological given, as

Simone de Beauvoir powerfully argued."​

●​ "The recovery of forgotten female authors challenges the male-centric

understanding of literary greatness."​

✨ Bonus Flashcards (Ultra Quick Feminism

Mode)
 Flashcard Front Flashcard Back

What is Patriarchy? A system where men hold power and women are excluded.

What is the Male Gaze? Literature and art assume a male-centered viewpoint.

What is a Gender Construct? Society, not biology, defines gender roles.

What is the Recovery Project? Rescuing women writers from literary oblivion.

Madwoman in the Attic? Female rage and resistance hidden in texts.

Major Feminist Critics? Wollstonecraft, Woolf, de Beauvoir, Millett, Showalter, Gilbert

& Gubar.

🚀 BOSS FINAL CHECKLIST

✅ Understand patriarchy, gender construct, male gaze.​
✅ Know Key Critics + 1-line contributions.​
✅ Apply feminist analysis to representation, voice, power.​
✅ Write using key terms like patriarchy, stereotypes, recovery project.
💬 How to Start and End a 25-Mark Answer
Opening Paragraph:

Feminist criticism fundamentally challenges the patriarchal foundations

of literature and literary criticism. It foregrounds the experiences,
representations, and silences of women in a male-dominated tradition,
aiming not only to critique but also to reconstruct literary history.

Ending Paragraph:

By emphasizing the politics of representation, the necessity of recovery,

and the social construction of gender, feminist literary criticism has
revolutionized the study of texts. It continues to offer transformative
insights into the intersection of gender, literature, and power.

Mnemonic 2 — Remember each theory's keyword by associating them with

an object:

●​ 🖌️ Formalism = Paintbrush (Artistic form)​

●​ 🔍 New Criticism = Magnifying Glass (Close reading)​

●​ 🧩 Structuralism = Puzzle (Patterns, Codes)​

●​ ⚙️ Marxism = Gear (Society, System, Class)​

●​ 💃 Feminism = Dancing Figure (Empowerment, Gender roles)