Fabrication and Characterization of 3D Printed Gyroscope

using PLA Pro+ Material

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

Pratham Gupta
Dattatreya Mahapatra
Abhishek Singh
Aman Imtiyaz

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Galgotias College of Engineering & Technology,
Greater Noida

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 Fabrication and Characterization of 3D Printed Gyroscope
using PLA Pro+ Material

Project Report

Submitted to

Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam Technical University, Lucknow

In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the

Degree of Bachelor of Technology in

Mechanical Engineering

by

Pratham Gupta (2100970400021)

Dattatreya Mahapatra (2100970400010)
Abhishek Singh (2100970400002)
Aman Imtiyaz (2100970400006)

Under the supervision of

Dr. Yogesh Shrivastava

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Galgotias College of Engineering & Technology,
Greater Noida

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 DECLARATION

We, Pratham, Abhishek Singh, Dattatreya, Aman students of B. Tech. (ME) hereby declare that the project

titled Fabrication and Characterization of 3D Printed Gyroscope using PLA Pro+ Material which is

submitted by us to the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Galgotias College of Engineering and

Technology, Greater Noida (Affiliated to Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University, Lucknow) in

partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology has not

previously formed the basis for the award of any Degree, Diploma other similar title or recognition

Date: 13st May 2025 PRATHAM GUPTA

ABHISHEK SINGH

AMAN IMTIYAZ

DATTATREYA

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 GALGOTIAS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY, U.P.

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report Fabrication and Characterization of 3D Printed Gyroscope
using PLA Pro+ Material Is the Bonafide work of Pratham Gupta, Abhishek Singh,
Dattatreya Mahapatra, Aman Imtiyaz who carried out the project work under my supervision

Dr. Mohd. Asim Qadri Dr. Yogesh Shrivastava

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR

Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering

Galgotias college of Engineering & Technology, Galgotias college of Engineering & Technology,
Greater Noida Greater Noida

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE NO.

DECLARATION 3
CERTIFICATE 4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 5
ABSTRACT 6

1. INTRODUCTION 7
2. LITERATURE REVIEW 8-27
2.1. General
2.2. Types of Gyroscope
2.3. Designing of Gyroscope
2.4. Additive Manufacturing
3. Fabrication 28-37
3.1. Design
3.2. Material
3.3. Calculation
4. Calibration 38-41
4.1. Stress Test Graph
4.2. Stress Test Reading
4.3. Discussion
5. Result and discussions 42
6. Conclusion 43-44

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 ABSTRACT

This work is an overview of gyroscopes and their roles based on their applications.
The word Gyroscope comes from the Greek word “gyros”, meaning “round” and
“skopeo”, meaning “to look”. Gyroscope is an instrument for determining
orientation and angular velocity. This paper mainly focuses on the spinning mass
mechanical gyroscope used to stabilize the orientation of various objects.
Gyroscope was inspired by the top, known to practically ancient civilisation. This
natural behaviour was used to implement artificial horizon. This paper includes the
various information related to the gyroscope from its designing to calibration but
the main aim is to replicate a gyroscope with the advance technologies like additive
manufacturing and various materials used to identify the basic orientation and
alignment of a gyroscope to preserve its vertical orientation in spinning manner
even when if base is tilted or not aligned with bottom In future various technologies
can be combine together to optimise a 3D printed gyroscope which can be
integrated with the advances sensors and controllers to provide accurate readings
like temperature , angular velocity and maintaining the orientation of a variety of
applications

Keywords – Gyroscope, additive manufacturing, spinning mass, mechanical

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 CHAPTER 1
Introduction

1.1 GENERAL

A spinning mass gyroscope is device used to measure or maintain angular velocity and orientation
of object attached. Basic of the gyroscope is the conservation of angular momentum so gyroscope
can be mounted on the gimbals which enable gyroscope to rotate in many direction Gyroscope
also comprises of the rotor as the major component Spinning rotor helps to produce the angular
momentum which retain the rotor orientation independent of external forces or motion The various
application include navigation systems in ships, aeroplanes, and spacecraft depend on this stability
The gimbal design helps the rotor to move independently from the base which provides the precise
directional information even if the bottom spins or tilts Precession is one of the most important
gyroscopic properties When force is applied to the spinning rotor causes rotor to move at the right
angle against the direction of force applied Various technologies like inertial navigation system
depend on correct reading of change in orientation or angular velocity Therefore precession is the
vital quality of Gyroscope Advances technology depend on the spinning mass gyroscope overall
to allow the functioning of everything from complex aeroplane navigation systems to smartphone

The concept of rotational stability has been fundamental to physics for centuries, but the modern
gyroscope emerged in the early 19th century. In 1817, German physicist Johann Bohnenberger
developed an early form of the gyroscope, originally known as a "machine" for demonstrating the
principles of rotational motion. However, it was French physicist Léon Foucault who, in 1852,
coined the term "gyroscope" and demonstrated its utility in measuring Earth's rotation. His
experiments provided crucial insights into the conservation of angular momentum, a principle that
remains central to gyroscopic functionality.
Throughout the 20th century, gyroscopes evolved into critical components of guidance and control
systems. Mechanical gyroscopes were extensively employed in navigation instruments for ships
and aircraft, leading to advancements in gyroscopic inertial navigation systems. The development
of fiber-optic and ring laser gyroscopes in the late 20th century further improved precision by
eliminating moving mechanical parts, thereby enhancing durability and reducing operational wear.

The incorporation of additive manufacturing in gyroscope fabrication represents a paradigm shift

in engineering and production techniques. Traditional gyroscopes require meticulous machining
and assembly, often involving high-cost materials and labor-intensive processes. In contrast, 3D
printing enables rapid prototyping and customized design, allowing engineers to fabricate complex
gyroscopic structures with optimized geometries and material efficiencies.
Advanced polymers, composite materials, and metal alloys are now used in 3D-printed gyroscopes
to enhance performance characteristics such as structural integrity, thermal stability, and
operational longevity. Furthermore, 3D printing facilitates the integration of lightweight and high-
strength components, making gyroscopes more adaptable for applications in robotics, aerospace,
and autonomous navigation systems.

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 The continued evolution of additive manufacturing techniques suggests that 3D-printed
gyroscopes will play a pivotal role in future engineering advancements. Research into smart
materials and precision microfabrication may further refine gyroscopic designs, increasing their
reliability in extreme environments such as deep space exploration and advanced military defense
systems. Innovations in 3D printing methodologies, including multi-material deposition and
nanostructuring, are anticipated to push the boundaries of gyroscopic technology, enabling more
efficient and adaptable solutions.

1.2 TYPES OF GYROSCOPES

1.2.1 RING LASER GYROSCOPE

Ring Laser Gyros (RLGs) are a sophisticated type of optical rotation sensor that, in their most
basic form, have no moving parts. Inside the sensor, there's a precisely machined quartz block
that emits two laser beams. These beams travel in opposite directions around a polygonal optical
path enclosed by mirrors, creating a standing wave diffraction pattern when they interfere with
each other. This pattern is captured by a photo-detector positioned at one of the mirrors. Imagine
tossing two pebbles into a calm pond; the ripples merge, forming a pattern of higher peaks and
deeper troughs where they intersect.

When the gyro rotates, one laser beam's frequency increases while the other decreases, causing
the interference pattern to shift. The photo-detector at the vertex monitors these changes, counting
the fringes to measure the sensor's rotation. This effect, known as the Sagnac effect, was first
observed by French physicist Georges Sagnac in 1913 during his experiments to detect the
relative motion of the ether. Earlier, in 1911, F. Harress also conducted similar experiments, but
his findings were incorrectly interpreted at the time and considered an unexpected bias.

A Ring Laser Gyroscope (RLG) is commonly a triangular block made of low-expansion quartz.
The laser cavity within the block is carved out and filled with helium and neon to create a HeNe
laser. High voltage is applied across certain areas of this cavity to initiate lasing action. At two
corners of the triangle, highly precise mirrors are placed, and at the third corner, the laser beams
merge through a prism, creating an interference pattern detected by a photodiode array. The
typical size of an RLG is about 8 cm per side.

The instrument's scale factor is determined by the ratio of the enclosed area to the path length,
and the sensitivity of a Ring Laser Gyro is directly proportional to the area enclosed by the laser
beams. RLGs are incredibly accurate, capable of measuring rotation rates ranging from as low as
0.01 degrees per hour to over 360 degrees per second, giving them a vast dynamic range up to
10^9. They are known for their exceptional scale-factor stability and linearity across this range.

The performance of gyros is often measured in terms of bias stability and random walk. An RLG
can exhibit bias levels as low as 0.01 degrees per hour and random walks of 0.005 degrees per
square root hour. Assembly of RLGs requires a highly clean environment to maintain sensor
performance and bias stability since any contamination within the laser cavity can significantly
degrade its function. The laser cavity is precision-machined from glass blocks with a very low

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 thermal expansion coefficient to ensure consistent performance across various temperatures.
Thermal shielding is also crucial for applications in deeper oilfields. RLGs are affected by a
phenomenon known as 'lock-in', where backscatter from the laser beams at a mirror causes the
interference fringes to 'lock' together, resulting in a dead band with no output at very low rotation
rates. To counteract lock-in, the mirrors are made of extremely high quality, and typically, the
sensors are mechanically 'dithered', meaning they are vibrated rapidly and precisely to move
through the dead band. This short rem

The main drawback of existing Ring Laser Gyroscopes (RLGs) is their size; they are generally
too large for use in tools with a diameter less than 5 inches, and are only suitable for casings over
7 inches. Additionally, commercially available sensors have a temperature limit of around 90
degrees Celsius. Furthermore, RLG technology is subject to international arms trafficking
regulations, which impose stringent import and export controls, significantly limiting their
deployment, maintenance, and use in global operations by service companies.

1.2.2 FIBRE OPTIC GYROSCOPE

Fibber Optic Gyros (FOGs) consist of a fibre optic cable wound into a coil, through which two
beams of light travel the entire length in opposite directions before combining. The advent of
low-loss, single-mode optical fibre in the early 1970s paved the way for the development of FOGs
based on the Sagnac effect. Similar to Ring Laser Gyros (RLGs), FOGs operate on the principle
that the interference pattern created by the counter-propagating light waves, after traversing the
fibre, indicates the device's angular rotation. However, FOGs utilize an incoherent broadband
light source, unlike RLGs.

Typically housed in cylindrical cases, such as one measuring 10cm in diameter and 2.0cm in
depth, a FOG sensor can contain up to 5 kilometres of fibre. The sensitivity of a FOG is linked to
the coil's radius and the optical path length, meaning larger sensors generally yield higher
accuracy. While FOGs offer performance comparable to RLGs, they don't quite match up. A
FOG's typical bias stability is around 0.1 deg/hr or better, with random walks of 0.005 deg/√hr.
RLGs, on the other hand, are known for their superior scale factor stability Outside the oilfield,
FOG sensors serve similar purposes as RLGs, except in scenarios where environmental
conditions and precision are less critical, and cost is a decisive factor. While experimental devices
exist, no FOG system has yet reached commercial status within the oilfield sector. Sensor size
and temperature constraints continue to be significant hurdles. Generally, FOGs are more
susceptible than RLGs to environmental factors like shock, vibration, and temperature variations.
High-accuracy, large-diameter systems have been created for use in space and submarine
applications, where the constraints on size are less stringent. .

1.2.3 CORIOLIS VIBRATORY GYROS (CVG)

The Coriolis Effect refers to the inertial force that was first identified by Gustave-Gaspard
Coriolis, a French engineer and mathematician, in 1835. Coriolis discovered that for the
Newtonian laws of motion to apply in a rotating reference frame, one must account for an inertial
force. This force acts to the right of the motion's direction in a counter-clockwise rotation, or to
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 the left in a clockwise rotation. The Coriolis force causes what appears to be a deflection in the
trajectory of an object moving within a rotating system. This deflection, however, is not a true
deviation but rather a perceived one due to the rotation of the system itself. A classic illustration
of this phenomenon is observed when a ball rolls across a spinning merry-go-round, appearing to
curve away from its initial path.

A Coriolis Vibratory Gyro (CVG) works on the principle that a vibrating mass tends to continue
vibrating in the same plane even as its support rotates. This device, known as a CVG, detects the
orthogonal response caused by the Coriolis force in the motion equations, using a pickoff
transducer when the oscillation plane of a proof mass is rotated. CVGs come in various forms,
such as the original Foucault pendulum, vibrating beams, tuning forks, plates, and shells. The
Foucault pendulum, for instance, demonstrates how the swing path rotates with the Earth's
rotation, varying by latitude. However, friction in the mount can cause energy to shift into
quadrature effects, making the path elliptical and eventually circular, which undermines the
system's ability to measure angles. This quadrature issue, common in CVG designs, requires
complex electronics and signal processing for suppression and compensation Among CVG
systems, the Tuning Fork Gyro (TFG) and the Hemispherical Resonator Gyro (HRG) show
promise, and the industry keeps a close watch on these sensor developments.

1.2.4 MECHANICAL GYROSCOPE

At its core, a mechanical gyroscope is made up of a spinning mass rotating around its axis. This
mass, when in motion, strives to maintain its orientation and resists any force that tries to alter it.
This concept was first introduced by physicist Léon Foucault in 1852 as he explored the rotation
of the Earth. When mounted on gimbals, which permit free movement in all three spatial
directions, the axis of the spinning mass in a gyroscope will keep its orientation constant,
regardless of any directional change. Mechanical gyroscopes exhibit several physical behaviors,
such as precession and nutation. The subsequent sections will delve into the fundamental
principles behind the operation of mechanical gyroscopes, particularly in relation to Inertial
Navigation Systems. The measurement of a vehicle's angular position is a primary use of
gyroscopic effects. Here, the spinning mass is set on a gimbaled frame that allows for rotation
along two axes at right angles to each other.

This gimbaled frame is fixed to the vehicle, able to rotate freely, while the spinning mass's rotation
axis maintains its angular position throughout the vehicle's movement. The change in the vehicle's
absolute angle is directly linked to the relative change in the angle between the mass's rotation
axis and a set direction on the gyroscope's frame. Gyrocompasses also benefit from this physical
principle. In the absence of external torques, a gyrocompass maintains the angular position of a
pointer directed towards the North, regardless of the vehicle's trajectory. The merit of this
mechanical device lies in its immunity to magnetic fields, which could otherwise lead to
inaccuracies in the pointer's angle.

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 CHAPTER 2
Literature Review

2.1 General

Gyroscopes are devices mounted within a frame that can detect angular velocity when the frame
rotates. Essentially, they consist of a rapidly spinning wheel within a frame that remains stable
even when the frame's orientation changes The operation of a gyroscope is grounded in the
principles of angular momentum, which is a core concept in physics stating that an object in
motion will continue to move or maintain its orientation unless acted upon by an external force.
The functioning of a gyroscope is attributed to gravity and can be described as
Manifestation of angular momentum

Angular momentum, being a vector quantity, possesses both magnitude and direction. Similarly,
torque influences the magnitude and direction of angular momentum. The right-hand thumb rule,
depicted in the figure, is utilized to determine the direction of both angular velocity and angular
momentum. Both L (angular momentum) and ω (angular velocity) are vector quantities,
characterized by their magnitude and direction, and are typically represented by arrows. According
to the right-hand rule, they are perpendicular to the plane of rotation, pointing in the indicated
direction. Since angular momentum is connected to angular velocity through the relationship L =
Iω, where I is the moment of inertia, the direction of L coincides with that of ω.
As illustrated, both vectors align with the axis of rotation [2].

The right-hand rule, where the direction of angular velocity (ω) and angular momentum (L)
correspond to where your right thumb points as you curl your fingers in the direction of the disk's
rotation. Remember, torque is related to the change in angular momentum, as shown by the
equation net τ = ΔL/Δt, indicating that the direction of ΔL is identical to the torque τ's direction.
Consider a bicycle wheel with handles, as depicted in Figure 3. If the wheel is spinning, its angular
momentum points to the woman's left. If she attempts to rotate the wheel as shown, contrary to her
expectations, the wheel reacts differently. The applied forces generate a horizontal torque towards
her. This torque changes the angular momentum L in the same direction, perpendicular to the
original L, altering L's direction but not its magnitude. Demonstrates how ΔL and L combine,
resulting in a new angular momentum inclined more towards her. Consequently, the wheel's axis
moves perpendicular to the applied forces, not in the anticipated direction [1].

An individual is depicted holding a spinning bicycle wheel. They lift with their right hand and push
down with their left, attempting to rotate the wheel. This action generates a torque that is directed
towards the individual. Consequently, there is a change in angular momentum, ΔL, in the same
direction This illustrates a vector diagram where ΔL and the initial angular momentum, L, combine
to create new angular momentum vector pointing more towards the person. As a result, the wheel
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 moves in the person's direction, perpendicular to the applied forces [4]. The principles governing
gyroscopes are illustrated here

A spinning gyroscope is subject to two forces.The resulting torque is perpendicular to the angular
momentum, altering its direction but not its strength. Consequently, the gyroscope precesses
around a vertical axis, with the torque remaining horizontal and perpendicular to L. Without spin,
the gyroscope gains angular momentum in the torque's direction (L = ΔL), causing it to rotate
about a horizontal axis and topple, as expected. Similarly, Earth behaves like an immense
gyroscope, with its angular momentum directed along its axis towards Polaris, the North Star.
However, due to the gravitational pull from the Sun and Moon on its oblate shape, Earth
undergoes a slow precession, completing a cycle approximately every 26,000 years. The forces
acting on a spinning gyroscope: its weight and the support from the stand. These forces generate
a horizontal torque, leading to a horizontal change in angular momentum, ΔL the combination of
ΔL with the original angular momentum, L, results in a new angular momentum of identical
magnitude but altered direction. Consequently, the gyroscope precesses as depicted, rather than
toppling over.

A gyroscope's main role is to deliver precise orientation and angular velocity data. This function
is vital across numerous fields, such as aerospace navigation, maritime stabilization, and
consumer electronics motion sensing. Gyroscopes track a device's rotation and tilt, ensuring
stability and accurate direction data, which are critical for technology and navigational systems.
There are various kinds of gyroscopes, each employing distinct methods to fulfill this core
purpose.

2.2 DESIGNING OF GYROSCOPE

2.2.1 CORIOLIS VIBRATORY GYROSCOPE

The drive to shrink gyroscopes has expanded their application range, leading to the use of various
micromachining and micro-electronics techniques to create CVG sensitive elements. These
elements, known as micromechanical or MEMS gyroscopes, are typically produced with this
technology. The common design features a flat structure with one or more proof masses connected
to springs, allowing control over their vertical and horizontal movements. The elastic suspension's
main role is to enable movement in multiple directions, facilitating oscillating and quadrature
modes. A key task in designing fluid elastic suspension is to ensure mechanical decoupling, which
helps minimize what are known as quadrature errors. Let's start with a straightforward and
practical explanation of the most basic concept
[2].

2.2.1.1 SINGLE MASS & VIBRATING BEAM

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 As shown in figure 1.1 the design of standard single-mass Coriolis Vibratory Gyroscopes (CVGs)
reflects the principles of the original vibratory gyroscope, which is based on Foucault's pendulum.
Fascinatingly, most flying insects use a flight control mechanism involving halteres—magnetic
beams that act as simple vibrating beam gyroscopes. Single-mass gyroscope designs that stand
out are uncommon. An exemplary design involves a test mass connected to a structure through
spring-like elements that allow movement along the x and y axes. This design serves to
demonstrate the thesis topic, which concentrates on the system's natural frequencies and their
correlation with the system's mass and stiffness As oscillations occur due to the pendulum's
inversion along the truss, the proof mass starts to move in a secondary direction perpendicular to
the initial movement, while the base rotates around the vertical axis. Therefore, a single-mass
CVG sensitive element is characterized by having only one elastically suspended proof mass,
without any additional critical masses within its structure [6].

There are many different ways to drive and to detect motion of the beam-sensitive element.
However, if the beam is made out of quartz, piezoelectric and piezo resistive phenomena are
usually used to build driving and detecting systems.

Fig1.1 Single mass (primary motion, Secondary motion)

In micromachining, while it's easier to create a vibrating beam than an inverted pendulum, the
planar design is often the go-to for the sensitive element. This design allows all structural
components to be on the same plane shown in figure 1.2, simplifying fabrication from a single
silicon wafer. Take the planar single-mass design, for instance, where the central proof mass is
set into primary oscillations by an in-plane moving electrostatic comb drive. When the base starts
rotating, it's the secondary oscillations, happening out-of-plane, that are picked up and used to
calculate the angular rate. This design is referred to as "LL," indicating both the primary and
secondary motions are linear [2].

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 Fig.1.2 vibrating beam CVG (1 primary motion, 2 secondary motion)

Elastic suspension for the proof mass can be also designed allowing both primary and secondary
motions to occur in a single plane. In this case, out-of-plane angular rate will be detected.
Complete three orthogonal axis sensors set can be fabricated in a single planar silicon wafer.

Fig.1.3 Planar single-mass CVG

(1 primary motion, 2 secondary motion)

2.2.1.2 SINGLE MASS WITH DECOUPLING FRAME

Like its predecessor, this device also functions as an LL gyroscope. However, the transition from
bending flexible beams to torsional elements allows for rotational movement in both primary and
secondary oscillations. This change converts the design into an RR gyroscope, commonly known
as a gimballed CVG, due to the decoupling frame's similarity to conventional gyroscope gimbals.
In figure 1.4, both primary and secondary movements are rotational oscillations around the axes
of their respective torsional beams. The measurement of out-of-plane angular rates occurs through
the detection of secondary rotational oscillations. Typically, large inertia elements are added to
the central proof mass m1 to enhance its angular inertia characteristics [4].
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 Fig.1.4 Single-mass LL CVG with decoupling frame (1 primary motion, 2 secondary motion)

Fig.1.5 Gimballed CVG (RR sensitive element)

(1 primary motion, 2 secondary motion)

Inertia elements can take on various forms such as spheres, cylinders, among others. The choice
of shape is determined by the requirement to optimize the moments of inertia for the sensitive
element and is also dependent on the available manufacturing technology [2].

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 2.2.1.3 GYROSCOPES WHEEL

The wheel gyroscope is a type of CVG sensitive element that employs both primary and
secondary rotational movements (see Fig. 1.6). It involves a heavy disc undergoing primary
rotational oscillations around a vertical axis that is out of the plane. The external angular rate's
two orthogonal in-plane components, Xx and Xu, can be gauged by observing the disc's
secondary angular oscillations around these axes. Fabricating the wheel CVG's sensitive element
is more complex than making single mass or gimbaled gyroscopes. Designers are tasked with
allowing the disc to oscillate around three orthogonal axes, a challenge mitigated by the wheel
CVG's resemblance to dynamically tuned gyroscopes, which have a rotor suspension structure
designed to solve a similar problem [7].

Fig.1.6 Gimballed CVG

(RR sensitive element)
(1 primary motion, 2 secondary motion)

2.2.1.4 TURNING FORK GYROSCOPE

After exploring single-mass gyroscopes, we shift focus to those with multiple proof masses. The
traditional tuning fork model is a prime example, where the prongs oscillate in opposite directions
along one axis. Introducing an external rotation around the vertical axis causes the prongs to move
in opposite directions. This movement, coupled with the Coriolis forces, generates a harmonic
torque around the same axis. If the base allows for rotation, the whole tuning fork may start to
oscillate vertically. Detecting this secondary motion involves observing either the prongs'
deflection or the entire tuning fork's rotation, which helps measure the rate of external rotation.
Using multiple proof masses enables a differential measurement approach, enhancing accuracy
by comparing the secondary motion signals [2].

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 Fig.1.7 Conventional tuning fork
(Dashed arrows primary motion, Dotted secondary motion)

2.2.1.5 HEMISPHERICAL RESONATING GYROSCOPE

Fig.1.8 Hemispherical resonating gyroscope

(Dashed primary motion, Dotted secondary motion)

The hemispherical resonating gyroscope (HRG) is a notable oscillatory gyroscope that uses a
continuous vibrating medium. Its core component is a resonating shell, typically shaped like a
hemisphere or a wine glass. In figure 1.8 the HRG's primary oscillations are generated by a
standing wave excited around the shell's edge. When there's no external rotation, the wave's
nodes, angled at 45 degrees from the main axis, remain fixed. However, when the element rotates
around its sensitive axis, the Coriolis Effect shifts the wave around the rim, making oscillations
at the nodes detectable and correlating them with the external rotation rate. While traditional
HRGs are effective, their complexity and the expense of crafting a perfect vibrating hemisphere
restrict their broader application. To cut costs, albeit with some loss in performance, simpler
designs have been proposed. One significant change is replacing the hemispherical shape with a
thin cylinder or ring, which still allows for vibration and the detection of oscillations but is also

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 suitable for micromachining and thus miniaturization. The trade-off is that these simplified
resonators have higher damping and extraneous oscillations that degrade performance. Yet, they
are still quite useful for less critical applications [2].

Fig.1.9 Cylindrical CVG

(Dashed primary motion, Dotted secondary motion)

Fig.1.10 Ring-shaped CVG (dashed primary motion, dotted secondary motion)

2.2.2 FIBRE-OPTICS GYROSCOPE

FOG optics include a range of components such as a sensor coil, directional coupler, optical
source, depolarizer, MIOC, and photodetector. Each is selected based on criteria like insertion
loss, polarization selectivity, and coupling ratio for modeling and simulation purposes.

2.2.2.1 OPTICAL SOURCE

Choosing an optical source involves balancing optical power against source linewidth. In figure
2.1 the Fibre Optic Gyroscope's (FOG) scale factor and bias stability restrict the source linewidth
and its long-term stability. Broadband sources like Edge Light Emitting Diodes (ELEDs), Super
Luminescent Diodes (SLDs), and Super Fluorescent Sources (SFSs) are typically used in
gyroscope applications. ELEDs are low-power, providing 50–100μW, whereas SLDs provide 1–

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 5mW. SFSs, an alternative to SLDs, show better spectrum stability against temperature changes
but are harder to integrate into compact FOGs. Custom-made fibre lasers with 10mW power and
a 30nm linewidth are used for the three-axis FOG [8].

Fig.2.1 Block diagram of closed-loop FOG signal processing.

2.2.2.2 FIBER-OPTIC DIRECTIONAL COUPLER

An optical fiber coupler is engineered to split light from a primary fiber into multiple branch
fibers. The three prevalent types are etched, fused, and polished fiber couplers. Notably, the fused
directional coupler is recognized for its superior stability in certain environmental conditions. [5].
The fabrication of a fused PM directional coupler involves several process parameters: gas flow
rate, torch height, fusion temperature, pulling speed, and the alignment of the birefringent axis.
Once created, this coupler is employed in high-grade Fiber Optic Gyroscopes (FOGs) for control
and navigation purposes [8].

2.2.2.3 MULTIFUNCTION INTEGRATED-OPTICS CHIP

The Monolithic Integrated Optic Chip (MIOC) is a solid-state waveguide device located on an
Xcut lithium niobate (LiNbO3) substrate. This device includes a polarizer, a Y-branch, and an
optical phase modulator. The Y-branch is designed to split the optical power when moving
forward and to combine it when reversing. Additionally, the integrated optics chip (IOC) has a
phase modulator on each arm of the Y-junction. For Fiber Optic Gyroscopes (FOG), the IOC
design incorporates the channel waveguide, directional coupler, and Y-branch, utilizing both the
effective index method and the beam propagation method for the coupler and branch. The
manufacturing process uses the annealed proton exchange method. These in-house developed
MIOCs are employed in FOGs for their closed-loop operations [9].

2.2.2.4 POLARIZATION MAINTAINING FIBER

Fiber Optic Gyroscopes (FOGs) utilize two types of optical fibers in their sensors: Single-Mode
(SM) and Polarization-Maintaining (PM). SM fibers are susceptible to disturbances such as
birefringence, which occurs when the fibers are bent or twisted, leading to polarization issues that
can cause signal loss, bias drift, and unstable scale factors. Conversely, PM fibers are specifically

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 designed to better manage these problems. FOGs incorporate configurations like PANDA and
bowtie fibers, with ongoing advancements in the PANDA design [10].

2.2.2.5 PIN DETECTOR

In the commercial sector, photoconductors, PIN detectors, and avalanche photodiodes (APDs)
are the three main types of photodetectors. PIN photodiodes are the preferred choice for Fiber
Optic Gyroscopes (FOG) due to their higher quantum efficiency. The PIN-FET hybrid receiver,
which pairs a high-efficiency PIN photodiode with a low-noise preamplifier, delivers improved
performance. When compared to APD receivers, the PIN-FET hybrid is more cost-effective and
performs better, especially at longer wavelengths. It works by detecting the intensity-modulated
light beam and converting it into an electrical current. These PIN diodes are produced in-house
and incorporated into the high-quality FOG systems [8].

2.2.2.6 COIL SENSOR OF GYRO

Designing a sensor coil begins by setting the spool dimensions and fibre length, with the sensor's
sensitivity and dynamic range as guiding parameters. Next, the winding method and fibre type
are selected. By altering the coil's area, various gyroscope models can be created while
maintaining uniform components and assembly processes. The rate of rotation causes a phase
shift of π radians. The range and sensitivity of Fiber Optic Gyroscopes are calculated using two
equations, as shown in the Table 2. To enhance the scale factor, the optical fiber's length and the
spool's diameter should be increased, while the fiber's diameter should be reduced to keep the
gyroscope compact. Therefore, choosing the right dimensions for the fiber and spool is a crucial
step for the designer and depends on the intended gyroscope grade [11].

2.2.3 SPINNING MASS GYROSCOPES

When an external torque is applied to a gyroscope, it produces two resistance torques and two
precession torques. These forces work together, dependent on each other, and rotate around two
perpendicular axes. The strength of these torques depends on the rotor's rotational speed and reflects
the rotor's internal kinetic energy, which spins on two axes. Understanding this is key to analyzing
gyroscopic motion. The internal torques created by the rotor's mass elements come from these axes,
with the kinetic energy being equal on both. This concept of kinetic energy distribution is fundamental
to the mechanics of gyroscopes [1].

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 Fig.3.1. External and internal torques acting on a gyroscope.

In figure 3.1 the torque generated by the rotor's mass elements due to centrifugal forces around
axis ox is equivalent to the torque generated by inertial forces around axis oy, and this relationship
is reciprocal. Similarly, the torque from the change in angular momentum is the same around both
axes. The Coriolis forces also produce equal torques around each axis. However, resistance and
precession torques, while originating from their respective axes, act on both axes and are
inseparable. The resistance torques from one axis merge with the precession torques from the
other, leading to potential contradictions based on the gyroscope's orientation relative to its
support. Internal torque combinations can change the angular velocity magnitudes around the
axes, yet the kinetic energy absolute values for each axis stay constant. This gyroscope property
imposes a constraint: the sum of the absolute torque values from axis ox must match the sum
from axis oy. When the gyroscope is horizontal, equating the torques by substituting the
respective axis torque equations leads to a derived equation 1 [12].

(1)

The simplification that expresses the result \(y = x \) indicates that the angular velocities around
the axes are equal, thus equating the kinetic energy of the internal torques of the two axes.
However, the torques originating from one axis act around different axes. Therefore, the equation
representing the equality of the internal kinetic energies of the two axes is expressed by the
equation 2 of the acting torques.

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 (2)

In this context, the signs (-) and (+) represent the action of the torques in the clockwise and counter
clockwise directions, respectively. The other parameters are as previously specified. Simplifying
and transforming Equation yields the following result: The analysis indicates that a slight rotation
of the gyroscope around the ox axis leads to a significant rotation around the oy axis. This
theoretical finding is supported by practical experiments, which clarify the previously
inexplicable dual-axis rotation of the gyroscope's gimbals. The experiments demonstrate that a
minor rotation of the spin axis around the ox axis, limited to an angle γlim, results in the gimbal
rotating by φ = 90° around the oy axis. Further rotations of the spin axis have no effect on the
gimbal's position, keeping the gimbal's angular velocity ωy at zero. The critical angle γlim can
be calculated by applying transformations to the angular motions. By inserting the angle φ = 90°,
which represents the gyroscope's rotation around the oy axis, into the equations and transforming
them, we obtain the value of γlim for the spin axis's rotation around the ox axis [13].

In practical applications, the angle is verified through tests using the Super Precision Gyroscope
"Bright Fusion LTD," which functions at an angular velocity of 10,000 rpm. These tests monitor
the orientation of the spin axis and the gimbal during different phases. Initially, the spin axis starts
horizontally while the gimbal, along with the rotor's disc, is positioned vertically. A minor
adjustment of the spin axis around the platform's vertical axis triggers a significant rotation of the
gimbal by a specific angle. Following this, rotating the spin axis to the 'slim' angle induces a slow
rotation of the gimbal until it reaches a horizontal orientation. Beyond this point, any additional
rotation of the spin axis past the 'slim' angle does not affect the gimbal's horizontal stance [1].

The gimbal's rotational angle measurement under load torque was performed using the Minutolo
Universal Bevel Protractor. The results showed a deviation of 1.68° with an accuracy of ±5
minutes. Observed variations in angular size measurements were attributed to the gyroscope's
high sensitivity to gimbal rotation, a reduction in the spinning rotor's angular velocity, and
frictional forces at the gimbal's supports. The test outcomes confirmed the small angle's
magnitude, aligning with theoretical forecasts. Despite some variances, the empirical
measurement of the deviation closely matched the theoretical projections. The data illustrates
how the gimbal's angular position varies in response to changes in the spinning rotor axis's
angular position [14].

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 Fig.3.3 The angular turn of the gimbal versus the angular turn of the spinning rotor axis
.
Experiments on the gyroscope in the lab, focusing on the angles of its outer and inner gimbal
rotations, have confirmed their precision. The derived equations describe how the gyroscope is
influenced by one external torque and several internal ones. What used to be mysterious
movements of the gyroscope's gimbals are now explained by these equations, shedding light on
the physics involved. Essentially, a straightforward lab test has proven the theoretical models for
the internal torques, which result from an external torque being applied [12].

These internal torques arise from changes in the angular momentum at the gyroscope's center of
mass, as well as from centrifugal, Coriolis, and other standard inertial forces acting on the
spinning rotor's mass elements. They represent the core concepts of gyroscope theory. Within the
gyroscope, there are no other internal forces or torques at work. The theoretical models for the
internal torques can be used to solve any problems related to gyroscopes. However, the success
of applying these fundamental gyroscope principles depends on how accurately the equations for
the forces and movements of gyroscopic devices are derived [14]. Observations of the internal
torques' actions in gyroscopes of various designs vividly display their interconnectedness and
concurrent operation. The sequential chain of internal torque actions and the proportion of the
gyroscope's angular velocities around two axes reveal several ensuing properties. Resistance and
precession torques occur together around two axes, sharing the same angular velocity of
precession. These torques, arising from an external force, are a unique feature of gyroscopes as
they cannot be separated If you prevent a gyroscope from rotating around any axis, it stops the
angular velocity of precession for both axes, turning off the resistance and precession torques.
Once the resistance and precession torques are off, the gyroscope is free to rotate under gravity's
pull. Disabling the external force also stops all resistance and precession torques across both axes,
despite their different directions of action The gyroscope's internal torques have specific values,
determined by the angular velocities of the rotor's spin and its precession. An increase in the
rotor's spinning angular velocity leads to a decrease in the precession angular velocity, and vice
versa. Changing the precession's angular velocity doesn't impact the rotor's spin speed, but it does
change the rotor's internal kinetic energy.

A gyroscope supported on one side in a horizontal position, when prevented from rotating around
the vertical axis, can freely spin around the horizontal axis, showing the role of internal torques.
The gyroscope's precession torques start when it spins freely around its axis due to gravity. This
motion generates resistance torques, but they're canceled out because the gyroscope can't rotate
around the vertical axis. This illustrates the intertwined nature of resistance and precession
torques. All torques work together, produced by a unified system of rotating mass elements and
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 the rotor's center of mass, making it impossible to single out any internal torque's impact.
Additionally, precession torques along the horizontal axis and resistance torques around the
vertical axis are interconnected [3].

2.3 ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING

2.3.1 INTRODUCTION TO 3D PRINTING

3D printing is a process that involves linking materials to create parts based on three-dimensional
(3D) model data, typically built layer by layer. Components are designed using Computer-Aided
Design (CAD) software and then sent to a 3D printer for production. This technology allows for
a high degree of customization in component design and can produce parts that are difficult or
impossible to create using traditional manufacturing methods. Complex and intricate components
can be fabricated with significant reductions in production time, costs, and material waste. 3D
printing transforms geometric designs into physical objects by utilizing advanced material
deposition techniques. The process of 3D printing is rapidly evolving [20].

The 3D printing process was first commercialized in 1980 by Charles Hull. In recent years, the
growing demand for complex and multifunctional products has prompted the exploration of
various new materials for 3D printing. These materials include nanomaterials, functional
materials, biomaterials, smart materials, and even fast-drying concrete, all of which can serve as
feed materials to print functional parts [20].

Currently, there are two main techniques for 3D printing objects: Fused Deposition Modeling
(FDM) and Stereolithography (SLA). Both processes create objects layer by layer.
Stereolithography uses a UV light source to selectively cure resin, while Fused Deposition
Modeling extrudes semi-liquid plastic in a predetermined layout to form objects.[21]
The rapid advancement of technology has resulted in significant innovations. A notable example
of this is 3D printing, specifically through the Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) technique. This
method has reduced manufacturing costs, shortened production times, and decreased the weight
of objects, all while generating less waste compared to traditional manufacturing processes [2]
Hopkinson et al. (2006) describe 18 different 3D printing processes, which can be categorized
based on the physical state of the printed material liquid, solid, or powder and the method used
to fuse the material at a molecular level. These methods include thermal, ultraviolet (UV) light,
laser, and electron beam techniques. The most commonly used processes include
stereolithography (SLA), selective laser sintering (SLS), digital light processing (DLP), fused
deposition modeling (FDM), selective laser melting (SLM), and electron beam melting (EBM)
(Petrovic et al., 2011) [21].

Due to limitations in production speeds and technology, three-dimensional printing (3DP) is

mainly suitable for small production volumes, customized products, and high-value items
(Berman, 2012; Hopkinson et al., 2006). Future projections indicate that 3DP will bring
significant changes to product design, allowing for more complex geometries (Berman, 2012;
Hopkinson et al., 2006). This technology is also expected to promote greater customer
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 involvement in the production process through online platforms, a trend often referred to as the
"Maker movement" (Anderson, 2012). Furthermore, it may transform supply chains to become
more digital and localized (Campbell et al., 2011; Reeves, 2008) [22].

2.3.2 TYPES OF PROCESSES IN 3D PRINTING

2.3.2.1 STEREOLITHOGRAPHY (SL)

The era of 3D printing began in the late 20th century, with the introduction of stereolithography
(SL) as the first 3D printing process available on the market. The earliest 3D printers utilized this
method to create 3D models, prototypes, parts, and patterns. While various studies on 3D printing
were conducted in the 1970s, it was Charles Hull who introduced and patented this process in
1984 [20]. To understand "Stereolithography," it's important to know how the process works.
First, a CAD (Computer-Aided Design) file is created and converted into an STL
(Stereolithography) file, which contains the geometric data for 3D printing. The process uses a
UV-curable photopolymer liquid, a perforated build platform, a laser, and a computer for control.
After reading the STL file, the 3D printer immerses the perforated platform in the liquid tank. As
the platform moves down, the liquid seeps through the holes. The UV laser then hardens the liquid
upon contact with the platform.

After the completion of the final layer, the 3D printed part is immersed in a separate resin,
allowing the model to detach from the liquid polymer. This process strengthens the bonding
between all layers in that specific resin. The 3D printed model is then placed in a UV curing oven.
Inside the oven, at a predetermined temperature, all the layers harden, increasing their strength
and achieving the desired surface finish. These steps ultimately lead to the creation of the finished
object [24]. Now, let's define the term "stereolithography" (SL). Stereolithography is a 3D
printing method in which liquid photopolymer is transformed into 3D objects using a
Stereolithographic (SL) machine [23].

2.3.2.2 FUSED DEPOSITION MODELING (FDM)

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) is a technique that utilizes thermoplastic filament. The
filament is heated to its melting point and extruded layer by layer to create a 3D object. FDM
technology was introduced by Scott Crump in the early 1990s and developed by Stratasys Inc. in
the USA. The 3D printers that employ FDM have a support base connected to a system that allows
for some degree of movement, enabling vertical motion during the printing process [25].

The bottom plate of the 3D printer is equipped with an extruder that connects to the filament. This
extruder is responsible for heating the filament to its melting point and then extruding it layer by
layer through a nozzle to create the desired object. The extruder can move in all three directions:
x, y, and z. The term "fused deposition modeling" comes from the way adjacent layers bond
together as the material is deposited by the extruder, enabling the 3D printer to effectively model

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 the object [57]. Counting the required surface area, the final product is dipped in resin similar to
the SL method [26].

2.3.2.3 POWDER BED FUSION (PBF)

A Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) process utilizes a thin layer of powder to construct a component,
using an energy source such as a laser or an electron beam to fuse the powder according to the
desired geometry. This method allows the laser to selectively melt the powders layer by layer,
resulting in three-dimensional sections. In PBF processes, pulverized material is spread over the
previously fused layer, preparing it for the next layer's application. This leads to distinct layers
that are joined to adjacent layers, rather than creating a continuous output [27]. A hopper is used
to deliver the pulverized powder, which is then evenly spread over the powder bed by a roller or
brush. The optimal thickness for each powder layer depends on the specific process conditions
and materials used. The various names for Powder Bed Fusion include Selective Laser Sintering
(SLS), Electron Beam Melting (EBM), Selective Laser Melting (SLM), Direct Metal Laser
Melting (DMLM), and Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) [24] Selective laser sintering (SLS

In the mid-1980s, Dr. Carl Deckard and Dr. Joe Beaman from the University of Texas at Austin
invented Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), a rapid prototyping technique. This method allows for
the creation of intricate geometries by layering and consolidating successive layers of powdered
material [25]. The solidification of layers is achieved using CO2 or nitrogen lasers, depending on
the type of surface finish and fusion required. In this process, powdered materials are used to
create the object. The powder can consist of thermoplastics, ceramics, glass, metals, and more.
When metal powder is employed, the process is referred to as Direct Metal Laser Sintering
(DMLS). SLS printers are designed with two chambers: energy transfer occurs from the first
chamber to the second, where the actual manufacturing takes place [20].

2.3.2.4 BINDER JETTING (BJ)

Binder jetting is a 3D printing process that uses a modified form of inkjet technology, which was
developed by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Instead of using lasers for
binding, this technique employs an inkjet mechanism. It operates similarly to a 2D printer,
layering materials to create a 3D object. In this process, a print head moves along two axes to
accurately apply a liquid binder [11]. The 3D printing process starts like any other: by creating a
3D model and importing it into the printer software. To ensure a continuous supply of material
during printing, a dispenser adds the necessary powder. After applying a layer of powder of
varying thickness, the printing head applies a binder according to the specifications. Before
proceeding to the next layer, the solvent containing the binder is dried using fluorescent or electric
lamps. Once this step is complete, the powder bed is lowered, and a new layer of powder is
applied. Finally, after finishing the cycle, the binder is placed in the furnace [26].

The factors of temperature and time vary depending on the type of binder used. Typically, metals
and ceramic parts require processes such as sintering, infiltration, heat treatment, or hot isostatic

26 | P a g e
 pressing before they can be utilized. In contrast, most metals and plastic materials do not require
any post-processing and are ready for use immediately after they exit the printing system [25]

CHAPTER 3
FABRICATION

3.1 DESIGN AND MATERIALS

The main aim is to build a replica of the spinning mass mechanical Gyroscope so there are various
parts that are identified to replace conventional partsusing same parameters the list of 3D
printable parts that can be recreated using additive manufacturing ;

Table1: STL File of the Components

Sr Name of Parts Design

No.

1 Angle Bracket

2 Bracket Joiner

3 Bracket Joiner for Spinner

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 4 Gyroscope Layout

5 Hole Jig

6 Lower Wheel Standoff

7 Motor Mount Bracket

8 PVC Rider Wheel

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 9 Sheath Tab

10 Top Plate

11 Track Spacer

There is also use of some conventional parts in spinning mass mechanical gyroscope that helps
to maintain gyroscope’s orientation and below is the list attach of conventional used parts[10] ;

Table 2: Non Printable Parts

Sr Name of Parts Design

No.

1 Aluminium Bars

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 2 Allen Bolts

3 Bolts and Nuts Of

Multiple size

4 Bearing

5 Battery

6 Multi Rotor

7 Pulley and Belt

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 8 Servo Controller

3.2 MATERIALS

After a complete market survey of various additive manufacturing materials and understanding
the nature of each kind of material this leads to the conclusion that PLA PRO+ is the best suited
material in all due to the following reason [11].

▪ High Impact Resistance

PLA PRO+ has effectively higher impact resistance compared to standard PLA. So that it
can withstand more force without breaking, making it suitable for functional parts and
prototypes.

▪ Improved Tensile Strength

PLA PRO+ filament offers higher tensile strength, meaning it can endure greater pulling
forces without breaking. This makes PLA PRO+ ideal for applications requiring durability
and strength.

▪ Higher Heat Resistance

PLA PRO+ can withstand higher temperatures as compared to standard PLA. This makes
it more suitable for applications where heat resistance is essential [25].

▪ Better Layer Adhesion

PLA PRO+ filament provides excellent layer adhesion, resulting in smoother and more
prints. This reduces the likelihood of delamination and improves the overall quality of the
printed components [26].

▪ Eco-Friendly
PLA PRO+ is biodegradable and made from renewable resources such as corn starch. It is
anenvironmentally friendly option for additive manufacturing of components [25].

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 3.3 CALCULATION
Let’s suppose a disk of mass M and angular velocity w w
(rads/sec)

1 Rotation = 2 pi Radians
I = “moment of Inertia” kg.m2
Linear Momentum (P) = M*V
M = kg
V = m/s

Angular Momentum (L) = w*I

I = M*R2

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 In reality an object consider of infinite number of tiny particles at various distance from center of
rotation

3D printed wheel radius = 0.1 m

Approx. mass of the wheel = .335 Kg
I(wheel) = 1/2MR2
I = 0.001675 Kg*m2

Number of bolts required = 21 (Approx.)

Radius of one bolt = 0.089 m
Mass of each bolt = 0.073Kg (Approx.)
I(Bolts) = MR2
I = 0.012Kg*m2
Total I = I(wheel) + I(Bolts)
I = 0001675 + 0.012
I = 0.0138 Kg*m2 (Approx.)

F = MA
M

A= w2 * R
F= MA = w2 *RM

Servo Motor specification (Approx.)

- 620 RPM / Volt
- 15V Input

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 - 9,000 RPM

In this it is step down to 3:1 resulting in 3000 RPM (Approx.)

F = w^2 * RM w = 3000/60
* 2π w = 314 rads / sec
(Approx.) M = 0.073 Kg
(Approx.)
R = 0.089 m (Approx.)
F = 640 N (Approx.)
E = ½ * I * w2
E = 680 Joules (Approx.)

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 CHAPTER 4
CALIBRATION

Calibration is the process of adjusting and verifying the accuracy of a measuring instrument or
system by comparing its readings to a known standard. This ensures that the instrument
provides correct and reliable measurements within specified tolerance levels2.

• Accuracy: Ensures precise measurements, which is crucial in scientific research, industrial

processes, and medical applications.
• Compliance: Many industries require calibration to meet regulatory standards like ISO and
FDA.
• Safety: In fields like healthcare and engineering, incorrect measurements can lead to serious
consequences.
• Quality Control: Helps maintain product reliability and reduces defects.
• Maintenance: Identifies potential issues early, preventing costly repairs and extending the
lifespan of instruments.

Calibration is a process of adjusting and verifying the accuracy of a device by comparing it

with known standards while calibrating a gyroscope the device must have ability to accurately
measure angular velocity and orientation Initial Setup: Securely mount the gyroscope to
prevent any movement or vibration during calibration. Ensure all connections are tight and
solid. Some of the ways to calibrate gyroscope are listed below

• Zero-Rate Offset Calibration: Measure the gyroscope's output while it is stationary to

calculate the zerorate offset. This reading value is subtracted from subsequent
measurements to correct for any error.
• Scale Factor Calibration: Rotate the gyroscope at a particular speed and record the
reading for degree per second. Compare this readings to the traditional Gyroscope, which
turns the raw reading to compare quantities like degrees per second. This step may need
to be repeated at various temperatures to adjust for temperature sensitivity.
• Temperature Compensation: Since gyroscopes can be sensitive to temperature
fluctuations, it's important to calibrate over the estimated working temperature range. Use
a controlled setting to study the gyroscope's reaction at different temperatures and change
the scale factor accordingly. To the gyroscopic reaction
• Validation: After calibration, verify the gyroscope's performance by comparing its output
• against a known parameter or any other calibrated Gyroscope to make any required
changes to increase accuracy and precession.

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 CHAPTER 5
RESULT & DISSCUSSION

4.1 STRESS TEST GRAPH

The pin-on-disc test is a widely utilized experimental technique for evaluating the wear and
friction characteristics of materials. It is an essential method in tribology—the study of friction,
wear, and lubrication—allowing researchers to assess material performance under controlled
sliding conditions. This test is particularly relevant in industries where material durability and
resistance to wear are critical, such as aerospace, automotive manufacturing, biomedical
implants, and mechanical engineering.

The pin-on-disc test involves a stationary pin pressed against a rotating disc under a specified
normal load. The pin is typically composed of the material being tested, while the disc may be
made of a complementary or standardized material. The test is conducted under controlled
conditions, including applied load, rotational speed, ambient temperature, and lubrication
presence (if applicable).

• Coefficient of friction (COF): Determines the ease of sliding between the pin and disc.
• Wear rate: Evaluates material loss over a specified duration.
• Surface morphology: Investigates wear patterns and the formation of wear debris using
microscopy techniques. As shown in Fig 4.1

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 Fig.4.1 – stress graph

This graph represents the results from a pin-on-disc wear and friction test. The wear
(in micrometers) is plotted against time (in seconds), showing how material loss evolves
over time. Initially, the wear increases rapidly before stabilizing, suggesting a shift in the
wear rate.
Key parameters:
• Load: 98.10 N
• Rotational Speed: 3000 RPM
• Wear Track Diameter: 75 mm
The red curve illustrates the experimental data, while the black line represents a linear fit with
the equation Y = 26.200702 X + 735.63. This equation indicates a trend in wear accumulation
over time. Let me know if you need further interpretation!

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 Fig 4.2- stress graph

1. Top Graph(Fig.4.2) (Coefficient of Friction vs. Time):

o The coefficient of friction starts high (~0.250) and decreases gradually to ~0.040 over 80 seconds.

o The mean coefficient of friction is 0.186, with a standard deviation of 0.056 and a variance of
0.003.

o This trend suggests an initial high resistance that reduces with continued sliding.

2. Bottom Graph(Fig.4.2) (Frictional Force vs. Time):

o The frictional force starts at ~25 N and decreases to ~5 N over 80 seconds.

o This indicates a steady decline in force required for movement, likely due to surface wear or lubrication
effects.

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 The pin-on-disc experiment is a widely used method to evaluate the wear and friction properties
of materials, including PLA Pro+. In this test, a stationary pin (often cylindrical or spherical) is
pressed against a rotating disc under a controlled load. The setup allows for the measurement of
frictional forces, wear rates, and surface changes over time. For PLA Pro+, this experiment can
help assess its tribological behavior, such as its resistance to wear and its coefficient of friction,
under various conditions like dry or lubricated environments. The results are valuable for
applications where PLA Pro+ might experience mechanical stress or sliding contact, such as in
gears, bearings, or other moving components

4.2 STRESS TEST READINGS

This chart presents tabular data from a pin-on-disc wear and friction test. The columns represent:
• Time (seconds): Progression of the experiment.
• Wear (micrometers): Material loss increasing over time.
• Friction Force (N): The force fluctuates initially but stabilizes towards the later stages.

Key Observations:
1. Wear Progression: It starts at 5.95 μm and steadily rises to about 2209 μm after 50 seconds, showing
a near-linear increase.
2. Frictional Force Trends: Initially increasing from 4.50 N to around 25 N, before gradually reducing
to ~16 N toward the later stage. This suggests changes in surface interaction, possibly due to material
transfer or lubrication effects.

TABLE 3 - Test Reading

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 Conclusion of Pin-on-Disc Readings
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 The presented data outlines the wear progression and friction factor (FF) measurements over time in a pin-on-
disc experiment. Observations indicate a steady increase in wear depth as the test duration progresses,
demonstrating the material's response to continuous sliding contact. Initially, wear accumulation is relatively
moderate, but as time advances, wear rates escalate, reflecting potential material degradation or surface changes
due to tribological interactions.
The coefficient of friction (FF) remains relatively stable throughout most of the experiment, with values
predominantly around 24-25, indicating consistent sliding conditions. Toward the later stages, slight deviations
in FF values are observed, potentially due to surface modifications, material fatigue, or increased debris
formation. A sudden reduction in wear increments in the final readings suggests potential surface saturation,
material stabilization, or external influences affecting wear behavior.

Overall, the pin-on-disc test results provide critical insights into the tribological characteristics of the tested
material, reinforcing its performance under controlled wear conditions. Further analysis, such as surface
morphology studies or microstructural evaluation, could offer additional explanations for observed trends and
variations in wear and friction behavior.

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 CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION

The integration of 3D printing technology to replicate the design of spinning mass gyroscopes
represents a huge shift in production processes. This study is conducted to explore how to
replicate traditional gyroscope components with 3D-printed parts can improving the functionality,
efficiency, and customization of these Gyroscope With the help of 3D printing creation of
complex geometries and lightweight structures that are easy to achieve. By improving the
precision and flexibility of 3D printing with the selection of right material, we can produce
gyroscope components that meet unique design with high accuracy The successful integration of
3D-printed elements in spinning mass gyroscopes reveals the potential for major advances in
many applications. From aerospace to consumer electronics the combination of 3D printing with
gyroscope technology provides new opportunities for greater stability, accuracy

In future there should be research for 3D printing materials so one can get the maximum
performance of gyroscope. The research should of new materials, which can have high-strength
that may lead to even more robotic and versatile gyroscope designs. In conclusion, the
combination of 3D printed components with spinning mass gyroscopes has huge potential for the
future of precision and engineering. This method not only removes the existing production
limitation but also prepares the way for creative and efficient as 3D printing technology continues
to improve, its use in gyroscope can bring broad changes in variety of industries.

The future of 3D-printed spinning mass gyroscopes is closely tied to innovations in additive
manufacturing and material science. As 3D printing technology continues to evolve,
improvements in precision, resolution, and material selection will enable the fabrication of
gyroscopes with enhanced durability and performance. Emerging materials such as high-strength
polymers, composite alloys, and advanced ceramics will contribute to reducing mass while
maintaining structural integrity. Additionally, multi-material printing techniques could enable
integrated designs with optimized mechanical properties, reducing assembly complexity and
increasing reliability.

The future of 3D-printed spinning mass gyroscopes is promising, with advancements in materials,
miniaturization, AI integration, and sustainability poised to redefine their applications. Whether
in aerospace, autonomous navigation, or emerging robotics, these gyroscopes will continue to be
a cornerstone of precision motion control systems. As technology progresses, further refinements
in design and fabrication methodologies will ensure that 3D-printed gyroscopes remain at the
forefront of engineering innovation.
Would you like me to expand on any specific aspect or explore potential challenges in future
developments? Let me know how I can refine this further!

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 CHAPTER 7
REFERENCE

[1] P. Cordsiro, "The gyroscope," Popular Astronomy, vol. 15, pp. 81-95, 1907.
[2] V. Apostolyuk, Coriolis vibratory gyroscopes: Theory and Design. Springer, 2016.
[3] G. Greenhill, "Report on gyroscopic theory," 2010.
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