CHAPTER 10.

FOOD PRESERVATION
Man's eating habits have changed and these changes markedly led to an increased
demand for preserved food products. Food preservation is based on: (1) prevention or
removal of contamination, (2) inhibition of microbial growth, and (3) destruction of
microorganism.

Methods of Food Preservation

1. a sepsis or keeping out microorganisms

2. removal of microorganisms
3. maintenance of anaerobic conditions
4. drying
5. use of chemical preservatives
6. irradiation
7. mechanical destruction of microorganisms
8. use of low temperatures
9. use of high temperatures
10. combinations of 2 or more methods

Regardless of the method of preservation, spoilage will occur eventually due to chemical
or microbial action on the food. Storage life can be increased to the desired period using
appropriate techniques.

2 Major Types of Spoilage

1. chemical spoilage – accounts for 10% of spoilage problems
a. undesirable colors
b. rancidity of fats
c. loss of vitamins
d. disappearance of nitrite in meat products
2. microbial spoilage – accounts for 90% of spoilage problems
a. spoilage due to presence of pathogenic microorganism, making the food a
public health risk
b. spoilage due to organoleptically detectable amounts of undesirable end
products produced either by harmless microorganism or by spoilage organism.

I. ASEPTIC HANDLING

 Inner tissues of plants and animals are usually free from microorganisms. If there
is protective covering about the food, microbial decomposition is delayed or
prevented. If this protective covering is damaged or removed, the inner tissues
are subject to decomposition.

 In the food industry, focus is given to the prevention of contamination from the
raw material to the finished product.

 The processing of food requires careful handling of the raw product and the food
should be processed in a microbiologically clean environment. In addition,
personnel should maintain a high degree of personal cleanliness, and conform to
hygienic practices while on duty. Whenever water is used in food processing, it
must be potable and safe.
  Especially important in food preservation is the lengthening, as much as possible
of the lag phase. This can be accomplished by:
1. The introduction of as few spoilage organisms as possible.
2. Reducing the degree of contamination using methods such as pasteurization.
3. By avoiding the addition of actively growing organisms that may come from
unclean containers, equipment or utensils that may come in contact with food.
4. By changing the environmental conditions.
5. By actual damage by processing methods such as heating.

 Bioburden of microorganism in food takes into account the number and kinds of
microorganisms. It may be the result of contamination, growth of organism, or
both. In the canning industry, it determines the heat treatment necessary for the
preservation of the food.

 Aseptic handling is a prerequisite for any successful method of food preservation.

II. REMOVAL OF MICROORGANISMS

 At most, the removal of microorganisms is not very effective in food preservation

but under special conditions, it may be helpful.

 Filtration is the only successful method foe the complete removal of organism.
Liquid is filtered through a previously sterilized "bacteria-proof" filter made of
sintered glass, diatomaceous earth, unglazed porcelain, membrane pads, etc. and
the liquid is forced by positive or negative pressure. Used successfully with clear
liquids (fruit juices, beer, soft drinks, wine and water).

 Centrifugation or Sedimentation is generally not very effective, but not all

microorganisms are removed. Sedimentation is used in the treatment of drinking
water, but is insufficient by itself. Centrifugation (aka clarification) is applied to
milk to take out other suspended materials although centrifugation at high speeds
removes most of the spores.

 Washing of raw food before fermentation or canning removes most of the soil
microorganisms on the surface and, in this way, increases the proportion of
desirable lactic acid bacteria in the total flora. Washing of equipment followed by
disinfection is essential during food handling. Washing may be dangerous if the
water used adds spoilage organisms or increases the moisture encouraging growth
of microorganisms.

III. MAINTENANCE OF ANAEROBIC CONDITIONS

 Used for sealed or packaged foods.

 It may be brought about by (1) complete fill, (2) evacuation of the unfilled
space/head space in a can, (3) replacement of the air by CO2 or N2 (as in vacuum
packing).

 Inhibits the growth of spores of aerobic spore-formers.

IV. DRYING

 Achieved through (1) removal of moisture (sun drying, mechanical drying, freeze
drying, smoking, etc.) or (2) through the reduction of water activity (addition of
solutes, use of hydrophilic colloids or gels, crystallization of water).
 Removal of Moisture

1. Sun-drying – used to certain fruits (prunes, raisins, figs, apricots, etc.).

2. Drying by mechanical dryers – passage of heated air with controlled relative

humidity over food or passage of food through such air.
a. Evaporator or kiln – simplest dryer
b. Vacuum with low temperature – for milk, juice, soups
c. Drum-dried – passage over heated drum, for liquids
d. Spray-dried – liquid sprayed into a current or dry, heated air

3. Freeze drying – sublimation of water from a frozen food by a vacuum plus

heat at the drying shelf. Used to meat, poultry, seafoods, fruits, vegetables.

4. Drying during smoking – the smoking aids in the preservation by

impregnation of the food near the surface with chemical preservatives during
smoking, by combined action of the heat and these preservatives during
smoking, and by the drying effect, especially at the surface.

5. Other Forms of Moisture Removal:

a. Electronic heating – removal of still more moisture from fairly well-dried
food
b. Foam-mat drying – liquid food is whipped to a foam, dried with warm air,
and crushed to a powder
c. Pressure gun puffing – partially dried foods are given a porous structure to
facilitate further drying
d. Tower drying – use dehumidified air at 30°C or lower; for tomato
concentrate, milk, potato.

*Factors in the Control of drying: (1) temperature, (2) relative humidity,

(3) velocity of air, (4) time

*Case hardening – due to improper control of the above factors. More rapid
evaporation from the surface results to a hard, impenetrable surface film
that hinders further drying.\

 Reduction of Water Activity

1. Addition of solutes and ions – water is tied up and also tends to leave the
microbial cells by osmosis

2. Use of hydrophilic colloids or gels – make water unavailable, e.g. as little as

3-4% agar in a medium prevent bacterial growth by leaving too little available
moisture.

3. Crystallization of water – water of crystallization or hydration is unavailable

to microorganisms. As more ice is formed in a food, the concentration of
solutes in the unfrozen water is increased, lowering the water activity (aw).

 Intermediate-moisture products – aka "reduced water activity products", these

are commercially prepared foods with 20-40% moisture and have non-refrigerated
shelf stability. Their aw ranges from 0.75-0.85, and their aw are adjusted by
adding solutes, or by drying, or both. These include soft candies, jams, jellies,
honey, dried fruits, pepperoni, country ham, jerky, dried fish and moist pet food in
flexible pouch.
  Effects of reduced aw: (1) inhibition of common food pathogens, (2) inhibition of
bacterial spore germination, (3) increases susceptibility of non-sporeformers to
pasteurizing temperatures, (4) slowing down of microbial multiplication.

V. USE OF FOOD ADDITIVES

 Food additive is a substance or mixture of substance other than the basic food
stuff, which is present in food as a result of any aspect of production, processing,
storage or packaging. It is intentionally added to food.

 Chemical preservatives are chemical agents which serve to retard, hinder or

mask undesirable changes in foods by microorganisms, food enzymes or chemical
reactions.

 Use of preservatives:
1. As inhibitors of microorganisms
2. As antioxidants to hinder the oxidation of unsaturated fats
3. As neutralizers of acidity
4. As stabilizers to prevent physical changes
5. As firming agents
6. As coatings or wrappers to keep out microorganisms
 Factors that influence the effectiveness of chemical preservatives:
1. Concentration of the chemical
2. Kind, number, age and previous history of the organism
3. Temperature
4. Time
5. Chemical and physical characteristics of the substrate (moisture content, pH,
kinds and amounts of solutes, surface tension, and colloids and other
preservative substances).

 Characteristics of an ideal antimicrobial preservative:

1. With wide range of antimicrobial activity
2. Nontoxic to humans and animals
3. Economical
4. Has no effect on the flavor, taste, or aroma of the original food
5. Not inactivated by the food or any substance in the food
6. Does not encourage the development of resistant strains
7. Kills rather than inhibits microorganisms

 Common antimicrobial preservatives:

1. Organic acids and their salts

- Include lactic, benzoic, sorbic, acetic, citric, phosphoric and propionic acids
- They prevent bacteria and mold growth by decreasing the pH of food.

2. Nitrites and nitrates

- Used in the curing of meats, can prevent growth of Clostridium botulinum.
- Nitrates act as a reservoir for nitrite, which decompose into nitric acid,
which forms nitrosomyoglobin when it reacts with the heme pigments in
meats forming a stable red color.
- Nitrites are bacteriostatic in acid solutions, recommended for fish
preservation.
- Nitrites can react with secondary and tertiary amines to form nitrosamines
which are carcinogenic.
3. Sulfur dioxide and sulfites
- In aqueous solutions, they form sulfurous acid which is an active
antimicrobial compound, with enhanced activity at low pH.
- Used in wine industry to sanitize equipment and to reduce microbial flora of
the grape must.
- Used to prevent enzymatic and non-enzymatic changes or discoloration.
- High concentrations in meat may cause the loss of naturally occurring
thiamine in meats.
- Sulfur dioxide is used chiefly to dried fruits and vegetables, to preserve
color.

4. Ethylene and propylene oxide

- These are sterilants. Ethylene oxide kills all microorganisms.
- They are primarily used in packaging materials, fumigation of warehouses
and "cold sterilization" of plastics, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, syringes and
hospital supplies.
- They have also been used in dried fruits, gelatin, cereals, dried yeast and
spices.

5. Sugar and salt

- Salt is used in brines and curing solutions or is applied directly to the food.
It increases osmotic pressure and causes plasmolysis of microorganisms. It
ionizes to yield chloride ions which are germicidal, and also sensitizes CO2
and interferes with proteolytic enzymes.
- Sugar also increases osmotic pressure and thus inhibits microbial growth. It
can't kill microorganisms and is not effective against yeasts and molds.

6. Alcohol
- Ethanol, a coagulant and denaturizer of cell proteins, is most germicidal in
concentrations between 70-95%. Flavoring extracts, e.g. lemon and vanilla
extracts are preserved by their alcohol content.
- Methanol is poisonous and should not be added to foods.
- Liquors and distilled liquors usually contain enough alcohol to ensure
freedom from microbial attack.

7. Formaldehyde
- Only permitted as a minor constituent of woodsmoke.
- Used in the treatment of walls, shelves, floors to eliminate molds and their
spores; probably combines with free amino acids of cell protoplasm,
injuring the nuclei and coagulating proteins in the cell.

8. Woodsmoke
- Has the following desirable effects:
a. Adds desirable flavors to food
b. Preserves food by impregnating food with chemical preservatives
(e.g.formaldehyde, phenols, cresols, and pyroligneous acid)
c. Improves color of meat and gives glossy appearance to smoked fish
d. Tenderizes meat
e. Has germicidal action, being more effective against vegetative cells
than bacterial spores
- Rate of germicidal action of smoke increases with its concentration and the
temperature and varies with the kind of wood used.
- Smoking temperatures for meat vary from 43 to 71°C and the smoking
period lasts for a few hours to several days.
- The application of liquid smoke, a solution of chemicals similar to
woodsmoke, has little or no preservative effect, although it contributes to
flavor.
 9. Spices and other condiments
- Do not have any marked bacteriostatic effect but may help other
preservatives.
- The essential oil of spices (cinnamon, cloves) are more inhibitory than
ground spices.
- Volatile oil of mustard is most effective against yeasts.
- Horseradish, garlic and onion may also be bacteriostatic or germicidal.

10. Others
a. Halogens – kill organisms by oxidation, injury to cell membranes or direct
combination with cell proteins. Hypochlorides are used in the treatment of
water used in food plants and can be incorporated in ice for icing fish.
Iodine-impregnated wrappers have been used to lengthen the keeping
quality of fruits.
b. Hydrogen peroxide – used in conjunction with heat.
c. Gas storage of foods – combined with chilling storage, with optimal
concentration of CO2 or ozone. Ozone can't be used with foods harmed
by oxidation (butter, meat, etc.).

11. Antibiotics
a. Nisin – used to suppress anaerobes in cheese and cheese products.
b. Natamycin – effective against yeasts and molds, and has been tested in
orange juice, fresh fruits, sausage and cheese.
The use of antibiotics in food preservation is being discouraged, and only
those antibiotics not used for treatment of human disease may be used.

12. Developed preservatives

- Food fermentation produces new and desired flavors and also help preserve
the food. Preservatives produced in foods by microbial action are acids
(chiefly lactic) and alcohol.
- Developed acidity plays a part in preservation of sauerkraut, pickles, green
olives, fermented milk, cheese and sausages.
- The alcohol content of liquors has a preservative effect.

VI. IRRADIATION

 Low-frequency, long-wavelength, low quantum energy radiation affects

organisms through thermal agitation of the food.

 High-frequency, short-wavelength, high quantum energy radiation excite or

destroy organic compounds and microorganisms without heating the product.

 Ultraviolet Irradiation is used to reduce surface contamination of some foods

and to sterilize water. It utilizes germicidal lamps (quartz-mercury vapor lamps,
or low-pressure mercury lamps) emitting 254 nm. Effectiveness of UV rays is
affected by intensity, time, and penetration.

 Ionizing irradiation including X rays, gamma rays, beta rays, cathode rays are
not currently in use. Low level irradiation (1 kiloGray) has been approved for use
on fresh fruits and vegetables (to kill insects and inhibit spoilage, delay ripening),
dehydrated vegetables (to kill insects and bacteria), pork (to delay spoilage,
inactivate trichinae), and grains (to kill insects).

 Microwave heating is becoming popular at consumer level. Microwaves are

electromagnetic waves with frequencies of 915 or 2,450 megacycles. The energy
or heat produced by microwaves as they pass through a food is a result of the
 extremely rapid oscillation of the food molecules. Germicidal effect is due to
generation of heat produced by excitation of food molecules.

VII. USE OF LOW TEMPERATURE PRESERVATION

 The temperature span within which microorganisms can grow is -5 to 80°C. The
thermolability of the cellular proteins determine the upper temperature limit for
biological growth. The freezing point of water sets the lower temperature limit.

 Spoilage of flesh-type foods held under refrigeration is due to the growth of

psychrotrophic organisms, e.g. Pseudomonas, Moraxella, Acinetobacter,
Lactobacillus, Microbacterium thermosphactrum, Eubacteriaceae.

 Common or cellar storage is used for rootcrops, potatoes, vegetables and fruits
for a limited period. Deterioration of food is delayed but not prevented.
Temperature is not much below that of outside air, seldom less than 15°C. Too
low humidity in the cellar results in moisture loss while too high humidity also
favors microorganisms.

 Chilling or cold storage is used for most perishable foods in a limited time.
Temperature is not far above freezing (0-10°C). It usually involves the use of
mechanical refrigeration (refrigerators or chillers) or cooling by ice.

 Freezing or frozen storage uses mechanical freezers or quick freezing

procedures with temperatures at or lower than -15°C. Microbial enzymes are
prevented entirely and the action of food enzymes retarded greatly. Vegetables
are usually scalded or blanched before freezing to inactivate enzymes.

Freezing of Foods:
1. Slow or sharp freezing – freezing in air at -15 to -29°C for 3-72 hrs.
2. Quick freezing – freezing in a relatively short time, in 30 minutes or less.
a. Direct immersion of food in refrigerant – e.g. freezing of fish in brine
b. Indirect contact with refrigerant – food or package is in contact with the
passage through which the refrigerant at -17.8 to -45.6°C flows.
c. Air-blast freezing – frigid air at -17.8 to -34.4°C is blown across the
materials being frozen.
Advantages of Quick Freezing over slow freezing:
a) Smaller ice crystals are formed hence less mechanical destruction of food
cells
b) Shorter period of solidification, hence less time for diffusion of soluble
materials and separation of ice
c) More prompt prevention of microbial growth, and
d) More rapid slowing of enzyme action
3. Nitrogen freezing – this is used for overseas shipment of frozen, packaged
foods. Cartoned foods are stored in a special insulated aluminum case with
N2 during storage o the ship. Certain fruits and vegetables, fish, shrimp and
mushrooms are now being frozen by means of liquid N2.
4. Dehydrofreezing – fruits and vegetables have about half of their moisture
removed before freezing.
VIII. USE OF HIGH TEMPERATURE OR HEAT

 One of the safest and most reliable methods of food preservation and heat is
widely used to destroy organisms in canned and other specially-packed products.

 Killing of organisms by heat is caused by denaturation of proteins (e.g. enzymes)

in the bacterial cell.

 The heat treatment needed depends on the kind of organisms to be killed, other
methods to be employed, nature of the product and the effect of heat on food.

 Factors Affecting Heat Resistance of Microorganisms

1. Time-Temperature Relationship
- The time for killing cells or spores under a given set of conditions
decrease as the temperature is increased.

2. Initial Concentration of Cells or Spores

- The more the cells or spores present, the greater the heat treatment
necessary to kill them. Thus, more contaminated food requires a higher
heat treatment.

3. Previous History of the Vegetative Cells or Spores

- The conditions under which the cells have been grown and spores have
been produced, and their treatment thereafter will influence their
resistance to heat.

a. Culture medium – The better the medium for growth, the more resistant
the spores. A small amount of glucose in a medium may lead to increased
heat resistance, but more sugar may result in the formation of enough acid
to cause decreased heat resistance. Some salt, e.g. phosphate and
magnesium ions, may decrease the heat resistance of bacterial spores
produced in a medium containing them. Prolonged exposure to metabolic
products reduces heat resistance of cells and spores.

b. Temperature of incubation – there is increased resistance when

temperature is optimum for growth of microorganisms. This increases
further as the temperature approaches the maximum for growth.

c. Phase of growth or age – bacterial cells show their greatest resistance

during their maximum stationary phase, followed by a decline in
resistance. Microbial cells are least resistant during their phase of
logarithmic growth. Very young (immature) sores are less resistant than
mature ones. Some spores increase in resistance during the first weeks of
storage but later begin to decrease in resistance.

d. Desiccation – drier spores of some bacteria are harder to kill by heat than
kept moist.

4. Composition of the Food in which cells or spores are heated

a. Moisture – moist heat is a much more effective killing agent than dry heat.
Dry materials need more heat for sterilization than dry ones.

b. pH – cells or spores are most heat resistant in a substrate with pH at or

near neutrality. An increase in acidity or alkalinity hastens killing by heat,
but a change toward the acid side is more effective than a corresponding
 increase in alkalinity. Heating at high temperatures causes a decrease in
the pH of low or medium-acid foods, and the higher the original pH the
greater the drop in pH caused by heating. Foods with an original pH of
<5.5 to 5.8 change little in acidity as a result of heating.

c. Other constituents of substrate – low concentrations of salt (<3%) is

protective of some spores. Sugar protects some organisms through the
decrease in aw. Glucose protects E.coli and Pseudomonas against heat
better than salt at aw levels near the minimum for growth, but gives no
protection to Staphylococcus aureus, in which salt is very protective.
Colloidal materials (proteins, fats) are also protective against heat.
Germicidal substances (e.g. H202) aid in heat destruction of microorganism.

Classification of Foods
1. Low-acid foods (pH>5.3) – peas, meat, fish, poultry, milk
2. Medium-acid foods (pH 4.5-5.3) – spinach, asparagus, beets, pumpkin
3. Acid foods (pH 3.7-4.5) – tomatoes, ears, pineapples
4. High-acid foods (≤3.7) – berries, sauerkraut

 Some Generalizations on Heat Resistance by Bacteria and Bacterial Spores

1. Vegetative cells and spores vary in heat resistance.
2. Spores are more heat resistant than vegetative cells.
3. Cocci are usually more heat resistant than rods.
4. Bacteria with higher optimal and maximal temperatures for growth (e.g.
thermophiles, thermodurics) are more heat resistant.
5. Bacteria that clump or form capsule are more heat resistant.
6. Cells with high lipid content are more heat resistant.

 Factors that Determine which Heat Process to be Used

1. What organisms will be killed

a. pasteurization (<100°C) – kill part of vegetative cells
b. boiling (~100°C ) – kill vegetative cells and part of bacterial spores
c. sterilization (>100°C ) – all cells and spores may be killed

2. Use of other preservative methods

a. Curing ingredients (nitrite, nitrate) and salt in meat lower severity of
heat process.
b. Alcohol (produced during fermentation of beer and wine) permits a
low heat treatment, since alcohol will destroy or inhibit growth of
surviving organisms.

3. Effect of heat on product

- Some foods, such as peas and milk, can be heated to only a limited extent
without undesirable changes in appearance or loss in palatability, whereas
others, like corn can undergo a more rigorous heat treatment without
marked change.

 Pasteurization
- Used when: a) more rigorous heat treatment will harm the product, b)
main spoilage organisms present are not very heat resistant (e.g. yeasts in
fruit juices), c) surviving spoilage organisms will be taken cared of by
additional methods of preservation, d) competing organisms are to be
killed, allowing a desired fermentation by starter organisms.
- Examples:
1) LTLT (low temp., long time) - 63°C, 30 mins.
 1) HTST (high temp., short time) - 72°C, 15 sec.
2) UHT (ultra high temp.) - 135°C, 2 sec.
 Boiling
- Used in home canning for acid foods
1) Containers immersed in bath of boiling water
2) Steamer – containers exposed to flowing steam
3) Oven heat – baking may cause explosion of jars
4) Simmering – gentle boiling
5) Roasting – internal temperature at 60-85°C
6) Frying – internal temperature at <100°C
7) Warming up of food
 Heating above 100°C
- Temperature about 100°C is obtained for meats by steam under pressure in
steam-pressure sterilizers or retorts. Commercial sterility of low-acid
foods is obtained by processing the food in pressure cookers or steam
under pressure at 116 or 121°C at 10-15 lbs pressure for various lengths of
time.
- UHT for milk at 150°C for 1 sec by use of steam injection or steam
infusion followed by flash evaporation of the condensed steam and rapid
cooling.

IX. CANNING (HEAT PROCESSING)

Canning – a process of preserving food which involves two essential technical

operations: a) the foods must be hermetically sealed (without air) in a container which
has suitable protective properties, e.g. tin cans, jars, flexible pouches; b) the system must
be given a heat treatment to inactivate potential spoilage organisms or to produce a state
of “commercial sterility” in the product.

Commercial sterility – some organisms may survive the heat treatment (there is no total
sterility) but because of the conditions prevailing in the container during storage the
surviving organisms do not grow, produce toxins or spoil the product.

Factors Influencing Heat Processing Requirements

1.) Chemical Nature of the product

a. pH – most important factor in determining the minimum heat treatment of a
product. Few, if any canned products have a pH greater than 7.5. Acid foods
are usually heated to 95°C and then cooled (“pasteurized”). Low-acid foods
are usually processed in steam under pressure at 116°C or 121°C and
sometimes in steam up to 140°C.
b. other compositional factors – presence of alcohol, curing ingredients, etc.

2.) Types and numbers of potential spoilage organisms – spore-forming bacteria can
spoil low-acid foods, so high temperature processes are needed to give
commercial sterility in these foods. Minimum safe processes need to be
determined to avoid overcooking.

3.) Temperature history of the product – the length of time needed to heat the slowest
heating point of a product (to standard temperature of 121°C) is influenced by:
a. Size of the can – bigger cans need higher heat treatment
b. Initial temperature – if the initial temperature of the product at its slowest
heating is low, more heat treatment is needed to heat up this point to the
desired temperature.
c. How the heating process occurs – e.g. either by convection or conduction
1. Conduction – e.g. baked beans, meat loaf; the direction of heat is from
outward to inward of the can. A higher heat treatment is required as it
 takes longer time before the slowest point of heating (central area)
becomes heated.
2. Convection – e.g. peas in brine; heat distribution is more or less uniform
as heat coming from the top, bottom and around the can are directed
inwards. Heating is faster and less time is required to heat the slowest
point of heating (3.5-1.5 inch from the center) to the required temperature.
d. Time the cans need to be treated – process calculations for low-acid foods are
usually based on the heat resistance of Clostridium botulinum. The heat
resistance of a microorganism is expressed in terms of “thermal death time.”

Thermal Death Time

 the time in minutes required to inactivate a population of the organism at a given

temperature.
 For a suspension of Cl. Botulinum, complete inactivation occurs after 2.8 minutes at
121°C assuming that a suspension was heated instantly to 121°C, held at that
temperature for 2.8 minutes and then instantly cooled to a sublethal temperature.
However, in a can of food, instantaneously heating and cooling do not take place. It
is thus important to calculate the Fc value and L value.
 Fc value is the time in minutes at 121°C that is equivalent in lethal effect to the
process being evaluated. It measures the sterilizing efficiency of a retort process.
 Fc value is the time at 121°C that is equivalent in sterilizing value to 1 min at some
other temperature.

Thermocouples
 Are usually used for measuring the temperature in cans within the processing
equipment during the heating and cooling phases of a process. Measurement is done
to determine how much heat is needed for the batch so that the minimum heat
treatment can be used and thus avoid excessive cooking of the product.

The order of death by heat of microorganisms is logarithmic. Thus it is important to

know how long we need to heat a product to ensure the destruction of viable spores (or
cells) in the product. This requires calculation of the decimal reduction time.

Decimal reduction time

 Is the time of heating a temperature to cause a 90% reduction in the count of viable
spores or cells. Ex: If there are 1000 spores and the heat resistance D100°C is 2
minutes, it will take 2 minutes to reduce the spores to 100 or 10%.
 The higher the number of contaminants, the longer the time needed. Shortening the
time to 90% to avoid overcooking requires getting the Z value.

Z value
 Is the temperature in Fahrenheit needed to reduce the heating time in minutes by 90%.
Your reference Z value is always 18°C.

Purpose for Knowing the Heat Treatment Required per Batch:

1. To give each can in the batch the same specified process
2. To use a heating medium which is well-defined and controllable
3. Usually to heat and cool the cans as quickly as practicable to minimize
overcooking

Factors that determine the time required to bring the center of the container up to
the sterilizing temperature:
1. Material of which the container is made
2. Size and shape of the container
3. Initial temperature of the food
 4. Retort temperature
5. Consistency of can contents and size and shape of pieces
6. Rotation and agitation

The Tin Container

 The tin plate used in canning must be corrosion resistant and must be strong enough
to support or give rigidity to its contents. The two types of cans commonly used are
(1) ordinary plain tin can and (2) enamel-lined or lacquer lined can.
 The sealing compound should: a) adhere to the tin plate or stick to the enamel, b) be
impermeable to liquids and gases, c) not impart any odor or taste to the product in the
can, d) not affect the contents of the product or no reaction must take place.

Steps in Canning
1. Selection and preparation of material
2. Filling of cans with product
3. Exhaustion of air
4. Sealing of can
5. Placing in retort
6. Removal of cans from retort or can is submerged in running chlorinated water to
cool it

Abnormal Conditions Observed in Canned Products

1. Flipper – can with one end bulging, with or without jarring after being processed
and cooled. Bulging is either due to overfilling or failure to exhaust can.

2. Swell – can with badly bulged ends, resisting pressure with fingers and which
bulges outwards sometimes after being processed. Bulging is caused by bacterial
spoilage.

3. Springer – can with convex or bulging ends, which may be pressed with fingers
but will spring out again after pressure is released.

4. Leakers – cans exuding parts of its contents due to: a) defective sealing due to
faulty machine adjustment, b) overfilling, c) defective soldering, d) careless
handling during transport.

5. Buckles – type of swelled can which may be result of improper cooling; high
internal pressure causes it to bulge.

6. Panneled cans – rupture or distorted through excessive external pressure.

Microbial Spoilage of Canned Foods

Microbial spoilage is indicated by off-odors, macroscopic changes in the product,

large numbers of microorganisms in the smears, and yields of many viable spoilage
organisms on culture from the product. It can occur as a result of 4 circumstances:

1. Underprocessing
- Process was insufficient to kill or inactivate the organisms likely to spoil it.
- It can result from:
a. Incorrect process calculation, retort operation or error in process timing
b. Excess spore load (low-acid foods) or excess contamination with yeasts,
lactobacilli and other bacteria (acid foods)
c. Contamination of the food with an unusually heat resistant spore type
- Spices and ingredient must be checked and the machines monitored regularly.
 2. Post-Process Leakage
- Most common form of spoilage. Cans should be examined for obvious faults
and leaks, and tested for leaks by a recommended method.

3. Failure to Process
- If a retort load misses retorting, then a high proportion of the cans will spoil
but probably no leakage.
4. Pre-Process Spoilage or Incipient Spoilage
- Often caused by holding product at microbe-favorable temperature before
canning and processing

Microscopic Examination of Canned Products

1. Can incubation test – incubation of samples of cans from each batch is an

essential part of manufacturer’s quality control, also done in compliance with
regulations
a. For quality control
o Large enough sample (still retorts – 2 samples per load, one from
center and one from top; agitating retorts – 1 sample from each line
every 15 minutes)
o Incubate half of the cans at 30-37°C for 14 days to detect mesophilic
spoilage and (if not acid food) half at 50-55°C for 10-14 days to test
for thermophilic spoilage.
o Inspect all cans for swells, open at least 10% of the cans to check
contents for pH and signs of spoilage

b. For compliance with regulation

o A distinction should be made between freshly processed cans and
those held at ambient temperatures above 20°C for 4 weeks or longer.
o Cans in the latter category may be considered as incubated and
checked without resort to microbiological culture methods.

2. Sterility tests
a. Cans may be opened under stringent aseptic conditions and a large sample
(10-15 g) of product transferred to a suitable enrichment medium.
b. Can may be pierced aseptically and the product enriched with a suitable
bacteriological medium, the can is then sealed and incubated.
c. Incubate the unopened cans as in can incubation tests

Routine Procedure for the Microbiological Examination of Spoiled Canned Foods

1. Sample - get 6-8 spoiled and 2 or more unspoiled cans

2. History and external examination – record date of processing, batch number of

raw materials, time and temperature of process, coding procedures, level of
spoilage, time to first spoilage, can weight, vacuum, etc.

3. Opening and aseptic sampling

a. Clean the cans, particularly the end to be opened with alcohol swab.
b. Flame the end of the inverted can. NB very swollen cans should be sterilized
with a swab dipped in 0.02% Hg2Cl in a detergent and wiped dry with a
sterile swab. Do not flame.
c. Cover with a sterile Petri dish.
d. Open with a flame-sterilized can opener.
e. Transfer samples to wide-mouth tubes or bottles by means of wide-mouth
pipettes or sterile spatula.
f. Store samples at 0-1°C.
Condition of pH of Process Microscopic Cultural Diagnosis Cause of Spoilage
the product appearance observations
container
Low-acid products
Swollen 1-2 units heavy Mixed: cocci, Mixed colonies of Leaky Faulty closure,
below yeasts, short labile organisms, defective seams,
control rods (non- growth usually rough handling
sporeforming) aerobic & anaerobic after processing,
at 30-37°C with excessive
growth at 50-55°C contamination of
cooling water
Swollen 1-2 units heavy Mixed: cocci, No growth a)Pre- Delays, faulty
below yeasts, short process storage of raw
control rods (non- spoilage, b) mats. & ings.
sporeforming) faulty
media
Swollen 1-2 units heavy Rods Obligate thermophile a)Under- Very heat resistant
below in pure culture in all processing, spores
control cans b)faulty
cooking
Swollen 1-2 units heavy Rods Facultative Marginal Incorrect process
below sporeformers of low process or heavy spore
control heat resistance loads
Swollen 1-2 units heavy Rods Mixed sporing types, Leaks at faulty seals or
below growth at 30-37°C & high temp. sealing cmpd.
control 50-55°C
Swollen 1-2 units heavy Rods, Putrefactive Under- Heat resistant
below sometimes anaerobic spore- processing spores
control sporing formers in pure
culture in all spoiled
cans
Flat 1-2 units heavy Rods Obligate thermophile, Under- Very heat resistant
below facultative anaerobe processing spores (“flat sour”
control pure culture all cans type)
Acid Products
Swollen Little Normal Cocci, yeasts, Impure culture of Leaky Faulty cans or
change rods, singly or rods or cocci, yeast & closing
mixed rods
Swollen Little Normal Cocci, yeasts, Pure culture of rods Under- Heat resistant
change rods in all cans or cocci, same in all processing spores of
cans Cl. botuinum
General Products
Swollen Normal Normal As in unspoiled No growth Non- Gas formation
microbial from chemical
reaction