LECTURE 7: PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN PLANTS

Expeted learning Outcome”

By the end of this lecture, the learners should be able to:
i. Describe the structure of chloroplast
ii. Describe the light dependent stage of photosynthesis
iii. Discuss the calvin cycle/dark/light independent stages of photosynthesis

INTRODUCTION

 Photosynthesis is a process by which phototrophs convert light energy into

chemical energy, which is later used to fuel cellular activities.
 The chemical energy is stored in the form of sugars, which are created from
water and carbon dioxide.

 Photosynthesis definition states that the process exclusively takes place in

the chloroplasts through photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll a,
chlorophyll b, carotene and xanthophyll.

 All green plants and a few other autotrophic organisms

utilize photosynthesis to synthesize nutrients by using carbon dioxide,
water and sunlight. The by-product of the photosynthesis process is
oxygen.

 Photosynthesis also applies to other organisms besides green plants. These

include several prokaryotes such as cyanobacteria, purple bacteria and
green sulfur bacteria.
 These organisms exhibit photosynthesis just like green plants.
 Glucose produced during photosynthesis is then used to fuel various cellular
activities. The by-product of this physio-chemical process is oxygen.

Gluose is sent to the roots, stems, leaves, fruits, flowers and seeds-which helps
them to grow.

These sugar molecules then combine with each other to form more complex
carbohydrates like cellulose and starch.
The cellulose is considered as the structural material that is used in plant cell
walls.
Where Does this Process Occur?
 Chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis in plants and blue-green algae.

 All green parts of a plant, including the green stems, green leaves, and
sepals – floral parts comprise of chloroplasts – green colour plastids.

 These cell organelles are present only in plant cells and are located within
the mesophyll cells of leaves.

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis process requires several factors such as:

Light Intensity: Increased light intensity results in a higher rate of

photosynthesis. On the other hand, low light intensity results in a lower rate of
photosynthesis.

The concentration of CO2: Higher concentration of carbon dioxide helps in

increasing the rate of photosynthesis. Usually, carbon dioxide in the range of
300 – 400 PPM is adequate for photosynthesis.

Temperature: For efficient execution of photosynthesis, it is important to have

a temperature range between 25° to 35° C.

Water: As water is an important factor in photosynthesis, its deficiency can lead

to problems in the intake of carbon dioxide. The scarcity of water leads to the
refusal of stomatal opening to retain the amount of water they have stored
inside.

Pollution: Industrial pollutants and other particulates may settle on the leaf
surface. This can block the pores of stomata which makes it difficult to take in
carbon dioxide.

Photosynthesis Equation
Photosynthesis reaction involves two reactants, carbon dioxide and water.
These two reactants yield two products, namely, oxygen and glucose.
Hence, the photosynthesis reaction is considered to be an endothermic
reaction. Following is the photosynthesis formula:

6CO2 + 6H2O —> C6H12O6 + 6O2

Unlike plants, certain bacteria that perform photosynthesis do not produce
oxygen as the by-product of photosynthesis. Such bacteria are called anoxygenic
photosynthetic bacteria.

The bacteria that do produce oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis are

called oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria.

Photosynthetic Pigments
There are four different types of pigments present in leaves:
Chlorophyll a
Chlorophyll b
Xanthophylls
Carotenoids
Structure Of Chlorophyll

The structure of Chlorophyll consists of 4 nitrogen atoms that surround a

magnesium atom.

A hydrocarbon tail is also present. Pictured above is chlorophyll-f, which is more

effective in near-infrared light than chlorophyll-a

Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in the chloroplasts of the plant

cell and in the mesosomes of cyanobacteria.

This green colour pigment plays a vital role in the process of photosynthesis
by permitting plants to absorb energy from sunlight. C

Chlorophyll is a mixture of chlorophyll-a and chlorophyll-b.

Besides green plants, other organisms that perform photosynthesis contain

various other forms of chlorophyll such as chlorophyll-c1, chlorophyll-
c2, chlorophyll-d and chlorophyll-f.
Process Of Photosynthesis
 At the cellular level, the photosynthesis process takes place in cell
organelles called chloroplasts.
 These organelles contain a green-coloured pigment called chlorophyll,
which is responsible for the characteristic green colouration of the leaves.

 As already stated, photosynthesis occurs in the leaves and the specialized

cell organelles responsible for this process is called the chloroplast.

 Structurally, a leaf comprises a petiole, epidermis and a lamina.

 The lamina is used for absorption of sunlight and carbon dioxide
during photosynthesis.

Structure of Chloroplast. Note the presence of the thylakoid

“Photosynthesis Steps:”
During the process of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide enters through the
stomata, water is absorbed by the root hairs from the soil and is carried to
the leaves through the xylem vessels.

Chlorophyll absorbs the light energy from the sun to split water molecules
into hydrogen and oxygen.

The hydrogen from water molecules and carbon dioxide absorbed from the
air are used in the production of glucose. Furthermore, oxygen is liberated
out into the atmosphere through the leaves as a waste product.

Glucose is a source of food for plants that provide energy for growth and
development, while the rest is stored in the roots, leaves and fruits, for
their later use.

The process of photosynthesis occurs in two stages:

I. Light-dependent reaction or light reaction

II. Light independent reaction or dark reaction

Stages of Photosynthesis in Plants depicting the two phases – Light reaction

and Dark reaction
Light Reaction of Photosynthesis (or) Light-dependent Reaction
The goal of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis is to collect energy from the
sun and break down water molecules to produce ATP and NADPH.

These two energy-storing molecules are then used in the light-independent reactions.

Within chloroplasts, chlorophyll is the pigment that absorbs sunlight. It is stored in the
thylakoid membranes in protein complexes called photosystem I and photosystem II.

The series of light-dependent reactions begins when sunlight hits a molecule of

chlorophyll, located in photosystem II.

This excites an electron, which leaves the chlorophyll molecule and travels along the
thylakoid membrane via a series of carrier proteins (known as the electron transport
chain).

Then, something amazing happens—photosystem II splits a water molecule to restore

this lost electron and fill the “energy vacuum” that has been created. This is a process
humans haven’t been able to replicate exactly in a lab!

Each water molecule breaks down into two hydrogen (H) atoms and one oxygen (O)
atom. The oxygen is released as a waste product—oxygen atoms from disassembled
water molecules join up in pairs to form oxygen gas (O2).

The hydrogen ions build up in high concentration in the lumen of the thylakoid.

They pass through an enzyme called ATP synthase, and their movement provides the
energy needed to add a third phosphate to ADP (adenosine diphosphate) to form ATP
(adenosine triphosphate).

This energy-storing molecule powers many cellular processes. In fact, the glucose made
during photosynthesis is broken down to produce more ATP later, during cellular
respiration.

Meanwhile, the electron released from photosystem II arrives at photosystem I, which

also contains chlorophyll.

Energy from the sun excites the electron again, giving it enough energy to pass across
the membrane and into the stroma, where it joins with a hydrogen ion and an NADP+ to
create the energy-carrying molecule NADPH.

ATP and NADPH move from the thylakoid into the stroma, where the energy they store is
used to power the light-independent reactions.

2H2O + 2NADP+ + 3ADP + 3Pi → O2 + 2NADPH + 3ATP

Dark Reaction of Photosynthesis (or) Light-independent Reaction

3. The light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle) use stored chemical

energy from the light-dependent reactions to “fix” CO2 and create a
product that can be converted into glucose.

The ultimate goal of the light-independent reactions (or Calvin cycle) is to

assemble a molecule of glucose.
Essentially, the plant needs the carbon from the CO2 to create the building
blocks for glucose.

Carbon fixation
An enzyme in the stroma called ruBisCo combines a five-carbon molecule of
RubP (ribulose biphosphate) with a molecule of carbon dioxide. This creates
a six-carbon molecule that is broken down into two three-carbon molecules
(3-phosphoglycerate). This part of the light-independent reactions is
referred to as carbon fixation.
Reduction
 Then, the energy carriers from the light-dependent reactions make their
contribution.
 ATP and NADPH give each 3-phosphoglycerate a hydrogen atom,
creating two molecules of the simple sugar G3P (glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate).

 Ultimately, these two molecules of G3P are used to build one molecule
of glucose. This part of the light-independent reactions is typically
referred to as reduction (or reducing the sugar) because electrons are
added.

Regeneration
 Calvin cycle typically uses six molecules of carbon dioxide at a time. This
means that twelve molecules of G3P are generated.
 However, only two of them are used to produce a molecule of glucose—the
rest are recycled back into RubP so that the cycle can keep running.

Summary

 Carbon fixation: The enzyme RuBisCO combines carbon dioxide with a

five-carbon sugar called ribulose biphosphate (RuBP) to produce two
three-carbon molecules called 3-PGA.
 Reduction: The 3-PGA molecules are converted into a three-carbon sugar
called G3P using ATP and NADPH.
 Regeneration: Some of the G3P molecules are used to make organic
molecules, while others are used to regenerate RuBP, the molecule that
starts the cycle.
Calvin photosynthesis Cycle (Dark Reaction)

Importance of Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is essential for the existence of all life on earth. It serves a
crucial role in the food chain – the plants create their food using this
process, thereby, forming the primary producers.
Photosynthesis is also responsible for the production of oxygen – which is
needed by most organisms for their survival.