Operational Amplifier-
Introduction
TARGET AUDIENCE: 1 ST YEAR BACHELOR’S IN MEDICAL
LAB. TECHNOLOGY
Introduction
Operational amplifiers are linear devices
that have all the properties required for
nearly ideal DC amplification and
are therefore used extensively in
signal conditioning,
filtering or
to perform mathematical operations such as add,
subtract, integration and differentiation.
An Operational Amplifier is basically a three-
terminal device which consists of two high
impedance inputs.
One of the inputs is called the Inverting Input,
marked with a negative or “minus” sign, ( – ).
The other input is called the Non-inverting Input,
marked with a positive or “plus” sign ( + ).
A third terminal represents the operational
amplifiers output port which can both sink and
source either a voltage or a current.
In a linear operational amplifier,
theoutput signal is the amplification factor,
known as the amplifiers gain ( A )
multiplied by the value of the input signal
and depending on the nature of these input and
output signals,
there can be four different classifications of
operational amplifier gain.
Voltage – Voltage “in” and Voltage “out”
Current – Current “in” and Current “out”
Transconductance – Voltage “in” and Current “out”
Transresistance – Current “in” and Voltage “out”
Differential Amplifier
The output voltage signal from an Operational
Amplifier is
the difference between the signals being applied to
its two individual inputs.
In other words, an op-amps output signal is
the difference between the two input signals
as the input stage of an Operational Amplifier is in
fact a differential amplifier as shown below.
The circuit above shows a generalized form of a
differential amplifier
with two inputs marked V1 and V2.
The two identical transistors TR1 and TR2
areboth biased at the same operating point
with their emitters connected together
and returned to the common rail,
-Vee by way of resistor Re.
The circuit operates from a dual supply +Vcc and -
Vee which ensures a constant supply.
The voltage that appears at the output, Vout of the
amplifier is the difference between the two input
signals as the two base inputs are in anti-phase with
each other.
So as the forward bias of transistor, TR1 is increased,
the forward bias of transistor TR2 is reduced and
vice versa.
Then if the two transistors are perfectly matched, the
current flowing through the common emitter
resistor, Re will remain constant.
Like the input signal, the output signal is also balanced
and since the collector voltages either swing in
opposite directions (anti-phase)
or in the same direction (in-phase)
the output voltage signal, taken from between the
two collectors is,
assuming a perfectly balanced circuit
the zero difference between the two collector
voltages.
This is known as the Common Mode of Operation with
the common mode gain of the amplifier being the
output gain when the input is zero.
Operational Amplifiers also have one output
(although there are ones with an additional differential
output) of low impedance
that is referenced to a common ground terminal and it
should ignore any common mode signals
that is, if an identical signal is applied to both the
inverting and non-inverting inputs
there should no change to the output.
However, in real amplifiers there is always some variation
and
the ratio of the change to the output voltage
with regards to the change in the common mode input
voltage
is called the Common Mode Rejection
Ratio or CMRR for short.
Operational Amplifiers on their own have a very high
open loop DC gain and
by applying some form of Negative Feedback
we can produce an operational amplifier circuit
that has a very precise gain characteristic
that is dependant only on the feedback used.
Note that the term “open loop” means that there are
no feedback components used around the amplifier
so the feedback path or loop is open.
An operational amplifier only responds to
the difference between the voltages on its two input
terminals, known commonly as the “Differential
Input Voltage”
and not to their common potential.
Then if the same voltage potential is applied to both
terminals
the resultant output will be zero.
An Operational Amplifiers gain is commonly known as
the Open Loop Differential Gain,
and is given the symbol (Ao).
Equivalent Circuit of an Ideal Operational
Amplifier
Op-amp Parameter and Idealised
Characteristic
Open Loop Gain, (Avo)
Infinite – The main function of an operational
amplifier is to amplify the input signal and the more
open loop gain it has the better. Open-loop gain is
the gain of the op-amp without positive or negative
feedback and for such an amplifier the gain will be
infinite but typical real values range from about
20,000 to 200,000.
Input impedance, (ZIN)
Infinite – Input impedance is the ratio of input
voltage to input current and is assumed to be infinite
to prevent any current flowing from the source
supply into the amplifiers input circuitry ( IIN = 0 ).
Real op-amps have input leakage currents from a few
pico-amps to a few milli-amps.
Output impedance, (ZOUT)
Zero – The output impedance of the ideal
operational amplifier is assumed to be zero acting as
a perfect internal voltage source with no internal
resistance so that it can supply as much current as
necessary to the load. This internal resistance is
effectively in series with the load thereby reducing
the output voltage available to the load. Real op-
amps have output impedances in the 100-20kΩ
range.
Bandwidth, (BW)
Infinite – An ideal operational amplifier has an
infinite frequency response and can amplify any
frequency signal from DC to the highest AC
frequencies so it is therefore assumed to have an
infinite bandwidth. With real op-amps, the
bandwidth is limited by the Gain-Bandwidth product
(GB), which is equal to the frequency where the
amplifiers gain becomes unity.
Offset Voltage, (VIO)
Zero – The amplifiers output will be zero when the
voltage difference between the inverting and the
non-inverting inputs is zero, the same or when both
inputs are grounded. Real op-amps have some
amount of output offset voltage.
From these “idealized” characteristics above, we can
see that
the input resistance is infinite, so no current flows
into either input terminal (the “current rule”)
and that the differential input offset voltage is
zero (the “voltage rule”).
It is important to remember these two properties as
they will help us understand the workings of
the Operational Amplifier with regards to the
analysis and design of op-amp circuits.
IC µ741
Operational amplifiers are available in IC packages
of either single, dual or quad op-amps within one
single device. The most commonly available and
used of all operational amplifiers in basic electronic
kits and projects is the industry standard μA-741.
References
Basic Electrical Science and Technology
by K. Murugesh Kumar
Electronics Fundamentals & Applications
by D. Chattopadhyay and P.C. Rakshit
