SPECIAL EDUCATION NOTES

Special education is a form of instruction that is designed to meet the needs of the students with
disabilities so that they can learn the same skills and information as other children in school. It is
the practice of educating students in a way that accommodates their individual difference,
disabilities and special need. Special education is a type of education that is given according to
the individual need of a child.
It is also called special needs education, the education of children who differ socially, mentally
or physically from the average to such an extent that they require modifications of usual school
practices.

TERMS USED IN SPECIAL EDUCATION

Impairment
It is loss or abnormal or malformation of a body part or body organ.
Disability
It is any condition of the body or mind that makes it more difficult for the person with the
condition to do certain activities or limits a person or restricts a person
Disorder
It is a disturbance of normal functioning of the mind or body. Disorder may be caused by genetic
factors, disease or trauma. It could be defined as a set of problems which result in causing
significant difficulty, distress impairment or suffering in a person’s daily life.
Handicap
Handicap is a disadvantage imposed on an individual to perform an activity. It is a condition that
restricts a person’s ability to function physical, mentally, or socially. Someone who is
handicapped has a physical or mental disability that prevent the living a totally normal life.

ORIGIN OF SPECIAL EDUCATION

The origin of special education can be traced back to the 18th and 19th centuries, although its
development has been a gradual process influenced by changing attitudes towards people with
disabilities
Early Efforts (18th century)
Jean-marc Itard (1775-1838): A French physician, Itard is often considered one of the pioneers in
special education for his work with victor. He developed methods to teach this young boy who
had been isolated from human society, focusing on basic skills and social behaviour

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Edouard Seguin (1812-1880): A student of Itard Seguin developed techniques for working with
children with intellectual disabilities, emphasizing, physical exercises and mental stimulation.
His work laid the ground work for many special education practices

THE HISTOICAL DEVELPOMENT OF SPEACIAL EDUCATION IN ZAMBIA

Special education has been in Zambia for over 100 years. It was brought in by the missionaries
who volunteered to teach children who were deaf or blind. The first attempt to teach was in the
Eastern Province in 1905. A school for hearing impairment in Magwero was opened in 1929.
Having a brief understanding, the global perspectives helps us to appreciate the
contributions other people have made to the field of special education in order to
prepare where we are going as a Nation. History always provides a basis and a
foundation for the future. Below is the brief history of special education development in
Zambia.

You may be interested to note that long before independence, education for both
children with and without special educational needs was the responsibility of
missionaries. Colonial rule saw the introduction of more formal and professional control
over education. In relation to special education needs, it was a situation of doing
without, except for the little that was provided for by exclusively voluntary missionary
agencies which mainly focused on the visually and hearing impaired.

The history of special education in Zambia can be traced from 1905 when a wife to a
Missionary (African Reformed Church formerly Dutch Reformed Church) by the name of
Mrs Issie Hofmeyer, opened a class for the blind at Magwero in chipata Eastern
Province of Zambia. The sole purpose of establishing the school was to spread the
gospel of Christ to the blind. Because the main aim of the missionaries was to
evangelize, hence Hofmeryer transcribed Braille into Nyanja so that the blend student
could interpret the bible and evangelise.

There were five blind students that opened the class and Lazarus Banda was among
the first students who even took over the class after the death of Mrs Issie Hofmeyer in
1910. Another Missionary by the name of Miss Ella Bote learnt from that idea and
opened a class of 12 students for the blind at Madzimoyo. When demand was high,

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another class was opened at Nyanje in 1923 and another at Magwero in 1930.

Blind students who passed standard four were trained as teachers of gospel. By 1963,
boys who passed standard six were trained as teachers, telephone operators or as
evangelists. The syllabus mainly focused on life skills, training to make baskets,
brooms, mats etc. Another school for the blind was established at Mambilima (Johnson
Falls) by CMML (Christian Missionaries in Many Lands), where currently there is a
special school for children with physical disabilities. In the mid-1950s, other schools for
children with disabilities were established through churches such as Reformed Church
of Zambia.
The Catholic Church also opened Bwana Mkumbwa special school near Ndola as well
as Mporokoso School for the Blind in Northern Province. Other missionaries such as the
Paris Evangelical Missionaries Societies (PEMS) opened a school for the Blind at
Sefula near Mongu in Western Province. The increase in the number of special
education school compelled the ministry of education to establish the institute were
teachers could be trained as special education teachers. Hence, Zambia Institute of
Special Education (ZAMISE) started its operation in 1971, as Lusaka College for
Teachers of the Handicapped. The College offered courses in Visual Impairment,
Hearing and Physical of teachers of the intellectual disabled learners. Currently all
teacher training colleges and universities -school of education- have special education
as must take course. In this regard, we can therefore state that Magwero inspired the
opening of several schools in the country.

Historical and current attitudes towards disability

The treatment of people with disabilities over the past 1oo years was often cruel and
shocking prior to the 1930s disabled people were viewed as unhealthy and defective
and thus were often abandoned by their own families due to a lack of understanding
about their condition
In the medieval era, disability was considered as a punishment from God for one’s sin
or misbehaviour or that of one’s ancestors. Others over the centuries have viewed
disability as the work of the devil. Disability was seen as a failure, deformity or defect of
the

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Both the Greek and Romans infants with disabilities were routinely killed or abandoned.
Greeks who became disabled later in life, however, were permitted to live and often
became beggars, whereas some people with mental retardation were owned by wealthy
Romans for amusement.

Attitudes towards persons with disabilities

The resultant attitudes include pity, fear, uneasiness, guilt, sympathy and respect. This
negative perception of disability relegates persons with disability to the background,
thereby making them the largest oppressed minority in society.
Research indicates that societal attitudes towards persons with disabilities are largely
negative. One approach to negative perception, the socio-cognitive model of
stigmatization, states that when compared to emotional or social disabilities, attitudes
towards individuals with physical disabilities are more favourable.
The factors that affect the attitude of people towards disability is that people’s
knowledge of the disability are the main factor that influence is public attitude towards
persons with disability.

Special education services for children in Zambia

In Zambia, special education has developed over time driven by the country’s
commitment to inclusive education, the rights of children with disabilities and
international framework such as the united Nations convention on the rights of persons
with disabilities (CRPD) the Zambian government has made strides to create systems
for educating children with disabilities.
Zambia is striving to improve special education services and have more recently
embraced special education initiatives. A child who is found eligible for special
education may receive a variety of services including speech and language therapy
psychological service, physical and occupational therapy and counselling services.
Many schools also have specialist resources and equipment that are rarely available in
mainstream schools. Such as therapy pool sensory rooms and adapted outdoor play
equipment. Classes in and abilities.

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MODELS OF SPECIAL EDUCATION PROVISION IN ZAMBIA
Special education models refer to various approaches or strategies used to support
students with disabilities in their educational journey. These models are designed to
ensure that students with diverse needs receive a quality education tailored to their
individual strength and challenges

INCLUSIVE EDUCATION MODEL

Policy and frameworks: Zambia officially adopted inclusive education as a policy to
provide all children, including those with disabilities, access to education in regular
schools. This model is guided by the Zambia Education Sector Policy and National
policy on education, which emphasize that no child should be left behind in the
education system and children with disabilities should be educated in the mainstream
schools, with appropriate

 Inclusive is simply something that doesn’t leave any person, part or group out.
Something is inclusive if it doesn’t exclude a person a part or a group of people.
 Inclusive education means all children in the same classroom, in the same
school. It means real learning opportunities for groups who traditionally been
excluded, not only children with disabilities, but speakers of minority languages
too.
 Inclusive education value diversity and the unique contributions each student
brings to the classroom.
 In a truly inclusive setting, every child feels safe and has a sense of belonging.
Students and their parents participate in setting learning goals and take part in
decisions that affect them.
 All learners include those currently in specialised centres of learning such as
schools for the blind, or other care facilities, are educated together. Educators
plan different outcomes for each learner.

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 Inclusive education implies a specific attitude towards the norms and criteria
used by society to determine whether a person is a worthy (useful) human being.
Inclusion is therefore characterised by a warm and welcoming attitude. Society is
expected to accept everybody just as he/she is. In other words, everyone is
accepted unconditionally
 Inclusive education is a value and belief system, not an action or a set of action.
Inclusion is a basic value that extends to all learners. It provides a variety of
opportunities for every individual to learn and develop. All staff members of an
inclusive centre of learning believe that each learner is able to learn. Therefore
these educators take full responsibility for the learning of all their learners.
 The well-being of all learners, especially disabled and disadvantaged people, is
strongly emphasised. The aim of inclusive education is to accommodate all
learners in a regular centre of learning.
 In the inclusive classroom, programmes are specifically designed to fit each
learner rather than having the learner fit the programme. The individual needs of
learners are thus addressed differently. How is this done? A bottom-up approach
is followed where society responds to the difference with an attitude of learning,
understanding, widening perspective etc.
 Learner are not left without the necessary support. The focus is, however, not on
the barrier and intervention. The focus is on helping all learners to develop their
abilities or competencies.
 An inclusive learning environment promotes the full personal, academic and
professional development of all learner irrespective of race, class, gender,
religion, culture, language, disability, learning style or sexual preference. It is an
environment that is free from discrimination and segregation, because everybody
is accepted. In other words, inclusive education accommodates diversity.
 Within an inclusive environment, each learner is valued and recognises his/her
role in teaching and learning. Learner recognise that people have talents and
limitation, but each one can contribute towards each other’s learning and growth.
The rights of each learner is respected, allowing him/her to participate fully in a
democratic society.

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  Inclusion is based on the belief that all learners have a right and dignity to
achieve their full potential within an integrated society. It means open door,
access to quality education, friends, support and the right of association. It also
means that diversity and the right of each learner are recognised and respected.
An inclusive centre of learning includes all members of the learning community
and promotes interdependence as a value. Such a centre of learning teaches the
skills needed to bring out the best in everyone.

SPECIAL SCHOOLS MODELS

Specialized institutions: In Zambia there are a number of special schools that provide
education for children with specific disabilities. These schools cater for children with
physical disabilities, visual and hearing impairment etc.
Many of these special schools not only provide basic education but also vocational
training, equipping students with practical skills, they can use in adult life.
RESOURCE CENTRES
Resource centres are typically attached to regular schools and provide additional
support to students with disabilities these centres may often specialized teaching
materials, assistive devices and individualized instruction. They aim to bridge the gap
between special needs education and mainstream education
COMMUNITY-BASED REHABILITATION (CBR)
CBR is an approach that involves the active participation of the local community in
supporting children with disabilities. It encourages families’ communities and local
organization to collaborate in providing education and rehabilitation services. This
model aims to enhances accessibility and inclusion for children with disabilities
particularly in rural areas
VOCATIONAL AND LIFE SKILLS EDUCATION
For older students with disabilities vocational and life skills training programmes are
available to help them gain practical skills and prepare for employment. These
programmes are designed to equip students with the skills needed to lead independent
and productive lives
MOBILE EDUCATION UNITS

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In some remote areas, Zambia has implemented mobile education units to reach
children with disabilities who may not have access to traditioned schools. These units
move between villages, providing special education service to children in rural and
underserved areas.
COLLABORATION WITH NGOs AND INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
Many non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and international bodies are involved in
supporting special education in Zambia. These organizations often partner with the
government to provide training for teachers, develop resources and enhance
accessibility for children with disabilities

The placement models of special education provision in Zambia

Placement refers to the amount of time in each school day that a student spends in the
resource or in a general education classroom. The school district is required to have a
range of placement where children can be taught, including in the general education
classroom.
An educational model encompasses all the different educational theories that are
accepted as meaningful and the approved teaching methods being used within the
classroom. Educational models are designed as a guide to determine how schools
operate, the curriculum they focus on and pedagogy in general.
A residential school setting provides children with special need with peer group
interaction opportunities both during and after school. Every child sent to a residential
school is there because the community is unable to meet his educational needs or has
failed to make adequate adjustment for him. It is the aim of the residential school to
send the child back to the community when he has concluded his term of study there
equipped to maintain his self-respect and the respect of other through an achievement
commensurate with his ability. Two primary objectives of the residential school’s system
were to remove and isolate children from the influence of their home, families, tradition
and cultures, and to assimilate into the dominant culture.

Placement models of special education

There are a number of models of disability which have been defined.

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The medical model of disability rehabilitation sees disability as a problem and not a
situation. Therefore, using the medical model as a standard in rehabilitation of persons
with disabilities is in itself discriminatory. This model by which illness or disability is as a
result of a physical condition intrinsic to the individual (part of that individual’s own body)
may reduce the individual’s quality of life and cause clear disadvantages to the
individual.
The medical model tends to believe that curing or at least managing illness or disability
mostly or completely revolves around identifying the illness or disability from an in-depth
clinical perspective (in the sense of the scientific understanding undertaken by trained
health care providers) understanding it and learning to control or alter its course. By
extension, the medical model also believes that a compassionate or just society invests
resources in health care and related services in an attempt to cure disabilities medically,
to expand functionality and or improve functioning and to allow disabled person a more
normal life. The medical profession’s responsibility and potential in this area should be
to see ability and not disability. Therefore, the medical model of disability focuses on the
individual’s limitation and ways to reduce those impairments or using adaptive
technology to adapt them to society.

The social model of disability, in contrast would see the steps as the disabling barrier.
This model draws on the idea that it is society that disables people, through designing
everything to meet the needs of the majority of people who are not disabled. There is a
recognition within the society model that there is a great deal that society can do to
reduce and ultimately remove, some of these disabling barriers and that this task is the
responsibility of society, rather than the disabled person. The social model is more
inclusive in approach. Pro-active thought is given to how disabled people can participate
in activities on an equal footing with non-disabled. Certain adjustments are made even
where this involves time or money, to ensure disabled people are not excluded.
Merits of Medical models
 Approach to patient care include effective identification of symptoms and analysis
to determine a root cause
 A treatment – first approach to address concern for both safety and comfort

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  An objective approach to narrowing potential condition to improve diagnostic
accuracy
 The focus is on the impairment and how this excludes them from the mainstream
society
 This approach can lead policy makers and service managers focussing their
work on compensating people with impairment for what is wrong with their bodies
 The disease condition of the patient is of major importance

Demerits of Medical models

 This model looks at what is wrong with the person and not what the person
needs
 It creates low expectations and leads to people losing independence, choice and
control in their own lives
 It is criticised for seeing the impairment as the most important part of the person
and suggesting the person is helpless to do anything about this
 This model is said to be deterministic as it suggests a particular problem will
always mean a person cannot be equal
 The model is therefore focused on physical causes and largely ignores
environmental or psychological causes
 There are also ethical issues in labelling someone mentally ill.

Merits of Social models

 The social models helps to recognise barriers that make life harder for disabled
people
 Removing these barriers creates equality and offers disabled people more
independence
 It has demonstrated success for disabled people in society, challenging
discrimination and marginalisation linking civil rights and political activism
 Enabling disabled people to claim their rightful in society
 Social model allows for mental as well as physical health and wider sphere of
taking part in active life

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  It allows for more subtle discrimination of individuals who succeed in leading
productive lives in spite of a physical impairment.

Demerits of social models

 One of the great criticisms of the social model is that it doesn’t match up to the
experiences of people with chronic fatigue chronic pain, anxiety or depression. It
may not be a solution to every situation all of the time
 Impairment may also become disability through the experience of structural
oppression, cultural stereotypes, attitudes, bureaucratic hierarchies, market
mechanisms and all that is pertaining to how society is structured and organized

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THE CHALLENGES THAT THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION IN
ZAMBIA FACED

The major education polices on special education

The individuals with disability education Act (IDEA), which is a law written in 1990 states
that all children with qualified disabilities must receive a free and appropriate education.
The spectrum of service that fall under the arc of special education and which are
specified through IDEA include:
 Specific learning disability
 Speech and language impairment
 Health impaired
 Autism spectrum disorder
 Visual impairment
 Deafness
 Deaf and blindness
 Multiple disability
 Intellectual disability
 Traumatic brain injury
 Emotional disturbance
 Orthopaedic impairment
The Ministry of education upholds the principle that every individual has an equal right
to educational opportunity

Major education polices on special education

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A SEN policy is one of the policies a school have. SEN policies contain technical
information and detail. It should explain the schools mission, values, vision and aims for
pupils with extra support needs. It should include information about laws and rules that
affect the day to day processes of the school.
Right to education (RTE). As of this year primary and secondary education is free in
Zambia.
 Educational reforms of 1977, which aimed at providing nine years of compulsory
basic education
 National development plan to address other education needs of the newly
independent countries
 First National development plan (1966-1970) the UNIP government abolished
school fees in secondary school also increased secondary enrolment
 The second National development plan (1972-1976) had estimated that the
country would still not have the necessary education system that provided the
learner with necessary skills for the country’s development to its full potential.
SNDP, There sought to address the challenge of large numbers of school-
leavers at the different levels of the education system without the adequate skills
expected from them in the labour market
 The third National development plan (1974-1983) had aimed at increasing
educational facilities in the country
 Fourth National development plan (1989-1993) aimed at improving the technical
and agricultural aspects of education as well as the standards of maths and
science
 Educating our future: stipulates equal opportunities, non-discrimination, social
justice, protection of basic human rights and participation of students with
disabilities in the mainstream activities of school and society

IMPAIRMENTS AND DISORDERS

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Exceptional children
The term exceptional child is generally accepted to mean either the handicapped or the
gifted child. It is that child who deviates from the average or normal in mental, physical
or social characteristics to such an extent that it requires modification of the normal
school practice or special education services in order to develop his/her full potential.

Exceptional children are those who show a significant deviation from what is supposed
to be normal or average to their group. These children are exceptionally inferior or
superior to the normal children in terms of physical development, mental ability, social
behaviour and emotional behaviour. Their special needs and education have to be met
for their proper adjustment and maximum utilization of their abilities. If not they will
experience maladjustments in their life.
An exceptional child may fall in one or several of the following categories
 The mentally gifted and talented
 Visually impaired
 Hearing impaired
 Physical impaired
 Health impaired
 Multiple handicap
 Children with communication disorder
 Children with learning disabilities
 The behaviourally disorder

Causes of disabilities
 Infectious diseases such as polio, German measles etc
 Poor or inadequate nutrition for expectant mothers and growing children
 Accidents and wars
 Various environmental factors
 Heredity
 General factors

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 THE VISUALLY IMPAIRED
A visual impairment refers to when you lose part or all of your ability to see (vision).
How can a class teacher identify a pupil with visual problems?
A teacher can easily tell a pupil with visual problems by looking for certain behaviours
from pupils. The blind ones are easy to identify while the partially sighted will show the
following:
 Blinking excessively or makes quick eye movement from side to side.
Appearing bothered by bright light.
 Holding books close to the face
 Squinting or making a face while looking at what is written on the chalkboard or
trying to see a distant object.
 Shutting or covering one eye while reading.
 Not noticing things placed to his/her side
 Having general reading problems
 Complaining of headaches, dizziness, eye itching etc.
 Eyelids may appear red rimmed, swollen or crusty.
 The eyes are often crossed
 May complain of not seeing at all
 Has problems reading and copying from the chalkboard
 May complain of double vision
 Reads and writes with head tilted on one side
 Has problems in grasping objects thrown to them e.g. a ball.
What causes loss of sight?
 Heredity factors such as albinism and colour-blindness
 Infectious diseases such as trachoma, measles, venereal disease, etc. abnormal;
pre-natal condition such as blood poisoning in expectant mother as a result of
drugs, blood transfusion, etc.
 Congenital abnormalities, cataracts
 Inadequate nutrition to mother and children, e.g. lack of adequate vitamin A.
 Accidents causing sharp objects to pierce the eye

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  Environmental factors such as pollution
 Refractive error, e.g. short and long-sightedness
 Reading in dim light or excessive light
 Contact with poison, e.g. plant latex, poisonous pollen grains etc.

The hearing impaired

How can a teacher identify a child who has a hearing problem in class?
A teacher can identify a child who has a hearing problem by observing certain
behaviours. A child who has a hearing problem will:
 Tend to shout
 Turn his/her head toward the source of sound
 Get confused about directions
 Cup his/her hand over the ears
 Often ask, what? Uh? Or even ask the teacher to repeat what he/she has said.
 Not follow verbal instruction correctly.
 Make frequent mistakes in carrying out verbal requests and even answer a
question wrongly
 Frequently be inattentive and lack and lack interest in conversations
 Complain of earaches and may have discharge from the ears
 Often have puzzled facial expression and stares at the speakers’ face
 Display poor speech, omit words and his/her voice may be harsh and extra loud
 May fail to answer when called by name
How does hearing impairment affect learning
 It hinders development of the language and communication
 Instructions are poorly perceived and those affected act wrongly
 Children make mistakes in carrying out verbal instructions they suffer from
socialisation and acceptance
How a teacher can help a child with hearing problem

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  Trying to keep the general noise in the classroom at low level
 Facing the pupils when talking to them
 Identifying those who need help early and advising appropriately
 Writing key ideas and facts on the chalkboard when talking to the class
 Using pictures and concrete aids as much as possible, point or touch the objects
when talking about them
 Ensuring that he/she talks at normal speed for the pupils to follow and in clear
tone
 Seating those who have hearing problems at the front of the class.
 Provide written notes and assignments.

THE PHYSICALLY IMPAIRED/CHALLENGED

The physically impaired are those children whose physical limitation or health problems
interfere with normal physical functioning to such an extent that training, equipment,
materials special service and other facilities are required. They exclude children with
visual and hearing impaired. The physical impairment is basically of two types, namely
orthopaedic and health.
Orthopaedic impairment include includes condition that children are born with such as
club foot and hunch impairment caused by diseases such as polio, tuberculosis,
cerebral palsy, amputation, fractures, burns and accidents. Health impairment may be
due to chronic heart disease, asthma, diabetes, leukemia, tuberculosis, rhematic, fever,
epilepsy, arthritis, etc.

How can a teacher and the community provide support for such children?
 Spend time to develop positive attitude for such learners in the class and the
school
 Treat such children as worthwhile people
 Provide special equipment such as crutches and wheelchairs to ease their
movements
 Adapt the school and classroom environment to their needs, e.g. pathway for
wheel chair, suitable toilets, etc.

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  Give such pupils more time to perform a given task
 Design and implement initialised activities and programmes
 Provide ample space for such pupil and their equipment.
 Encourage the use of other body organs in place of the ones missing, e.g. use of
one foot or the mouth to write.

THE MENTALLY GIFTED & Talented (GT)

The gifted children are the exceptionally clever children who can be classified as those
possessing IQ 140 and above and referred to as near genius or genius. They possess
unusual abilities which are not accessible to everybody.
The talented or gifted child is one who shows consistently remarkable performance in
any worthwhile line of endeavour

The gifted child is the one who exhibits superiority in general intelligence or the one who
is in possession of special abilities of high order in the fields which are not necessarily
associated with high intelligence quotient.
The Characteristics of Gifted Children
i. The gifted children are the exceptionally clever children.
ii. They possess IQ 140 and above.
iii. They are referred to as near genius or genius
iv. They possess unusual abilities which are not accessible to everybody.
v. In comparison to children of their own age group, they are superior in some
ability or group of abilities.
vi. In most of the cases the gifted children always exhibit superior performance in
the area, or areas of their giftedness only.
vii. The gifted children include not only the academically talented but also those who
show promise in:
a) Music, dance, drama, painting, sculpture, writing and other creative arts.
b) Mechanical work.

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 c) Social leadership and human relationships
d) Creative scientific experimentation and exploration
e) Physical activities like games, spots and gymnastics
viii. On receiving proper attention and opportunity for self-expression development,
they can contribute something remarkable to the welfare of their society, nation
and humanity at large.
How can a teacher identify a mentally-gifted and talented pupil in a class?
A mentally-gifted and talented child shows the following behaviours. It:
 Learns rapidly and easily
 Shows independence of thinking
 Reasons out issues or arguments
 Shows much curiosity and a wide range of interests
 Knows about many things that other pupils are unaware of
 Is capable of handling academic work meant for pupils who are ahead of his/his
class
 Is alert, keen, observant and responds quickly
 May be specifically gifted in certain areas of learning
 Asks very difficult questions
 Recalls events, people and information with ease
 Is good in language and expressions
 Finds class work for senior-class easy to deal with.
What qualities should a teacher of the gifted and talented develop in his/her
personality?
 Should be open-minded, adaptable and resourceful
 Should have thorough command of subject matter and have a desire to increase
knowledge and understanding
 Should have favourable attitude towards the pupils and try to see things from the
pupils’ point of view.
 Should not intimidate such pupils to silence them
 Should have literacy interest and a desire for intellectual growth

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In which ways can a teacher provide for intellectual growth of the gifted and
talented pupils?
The teacher should:
 Provide additional reading and extra but challenging assignments
 Mark or correct such work to motivate the pupils
 Offer additional learning course, example study of a new language, computer
lessons, driving, etc.
 Put such pupils in their own group for special instruction
 Use of acceleration method/programmes, eg earlier admission, skipping of
standard/grade etc.

CHILDREN WITH COMMUNICATION PROBLEMS

These are children who have problems in speaking or whose speech or language deviate from
what is expected. Such children are said to have communication disorders or difficulties.
Communication disorder is thus of two types, namely speech and language disorders. i.e.
Abnormalities in sound production and inability to use the speech appropriately.
A child with communication difficulties is one who;
 Stutters or stammers i.e have speech flow disorders, or has excessive speed of speech
 Omits sounds or distort sounds
 Substitutes one sound for another.
 May have addition in articulation of sounds e.g. Ngo for go
 Have problems with pitch loudness and quality of sound they make can be too loud or
too weak or soft.
 May exhibit a mixture of too loud then too soft a voice
 Have listening and reading disorders. May find it difficult to comprehend a story or
enjoy reading on their own
 May prefer to be quiet or avoid activities that involves talking.
How to help children with communication difficulties be assisted
 Encourage the children to speak/talk about the activities they are involved in.

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  Give pupils opportunities to speak without interruptions. Do not finish sentences for
them.
 Listen to what the pupils have to say
 Reinforce and provide appropriate correction and drills.
 Ask open ended questions and not Yes or No type of questions.

THE MENTALLY CHALLENGED

A mentally challenged child is one who has significantly sub-average general intellectual
functioning existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behaviour and which is manifested
during the developmental period. Children with mental handicap have sub-average general
intellectual functioning.
The severely and profoundly mentally challenged have short memory span. A majority of them
fail to develop expressive speech. They may have abnormal growth becoming heavier and larger
than their peers
CAUSES OF MENTAL HANDICAP
Mental handicap may be caused by:
 Hereditary
 Pre-natal infection
 Irradiation
 Drugs taken by the expectant mother
 Prolonged and difficult labour
 Injuries to the skull during birth
 Lack of oxygen etc

A teacher should provide a suitable learning environment:

 Make the learning environment rich with teaching and learning materials
 Let such children learn one step at a time, carefully practising each step
 Use concrete experiences
 Make learning as practical as possible

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  Use drills and repetition
 Stress accuracy rather than speed, to begin with. Allow more time to perform tasks.
 Individualise instructional programmes
 Show patience and understanding to such children
 Make learning interesting even when it is slow.

CHILDREN WITH SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITIES

These are normal children and quite difficult to pick them from amongst other children.
However, their achievement is low compared to their ability. That could be as a result of a
disorder in their basic processes involved in understanding or using language, spoken or written.
They thus show inability to listen, speak, think, read, write, spell or do arithmetic calculations.
CHARACTERISTICS
 Have verbal expression-mispronouncing, mumbling, etc.
 Have problem of attention, they are easily distracted.
 Are hyperactive- i.e. they do not stay still even when asked to have, short attention span
 Lack social skills
 Have letter reversal problems d as b, e as a etc. over a long period of time
 Are unable to write on straight lines or follow columns when writing
 Have spelling problems i.e. incorrect order of letters
 Have difficulties with motor co-ordination activities, e.g. cutting with scissors kicking a
ball, etc.

HOW A TEACHER CAN HELP

A teacher can help a pupil with learning disabilities by:
 Set reasonable goals
 Provide clear instructions
 Set guidelines for appropriate classroom behaviour
 Plan activities to last short periods of time
 Make use of correction at each learning step.
 Make use of drills in verbal and written work
 Design and implement individual instructions in reading and writing

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 Use concrete object to develop perceptual skills
 Design, make and use an individualised education programme (I.E.P).

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