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CALCULUS

Gilbert Strang & Edwin Herman

MIT & University of Wisconsin-Stevens
Point
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MIT & University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point
Calculus

Gilbert Strang & Edwin Herman

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents
Licensing
TitlePage
InfoPage
Table of Contents
Licensing

5: Integration
5.0: Prelude to Integration
5.1: Approximating Areas
5.1E: Exercises for Section 5.1
5.2: The Definite Integral
5.2E: Exercises for Section 5.2
5.3: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
5.3E: Exercises for Section 5.3
5.4: Integration Formulas and the Net Change Theorem
5.4E: Exercises for Section 5.4
5.5: Substitution
5.5E: Exercises for Section 5.5
5.6: Integrals Involving Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
5.6E: Exercises for Section 5.6
5.7: Integrals Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric Functions
5.7E: Exercises for Section 5.7
5.8: Calculus of the Hyperbolic Functions
5.8E: Exercises for Section 5.8
5.9: Chapter 5 Review Exercises

6: Introduction to Differential Equations

6.0: Prelude to Differential Equations
6.1: Basics of Differential Equations
6.1E: Exercises
6.2: Direction Fields and Numerical Methods
6.2E: Exercises
6.3: Separable Equations
6.3E: Exercises
6.4: The Logistic Equation
6.4E: Exercises
6.5: First-order Linear Equations
6.5E: Exercises
6.6: Chapter 6 Review Exercises

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7: Applications of Integration
7.0: Prelude to Applications of Integration
7.1: Areas between Curves
7.1E: Exercises
7.2: Determining Volumes by Slicing
7.2E: Exercises
7.3: Volumes of Revolution - Cylindrical Shells
7.3E: Exercises
7.4: Arc Length of a Curve and Surface Area
7.4E: Exercises
7.5: Physical Applications of Integration
7.5E: Exercises
7.6: Moments and Centers of Mass
7.6E: Exercises
7.7: Chapter 7 Review Exercises

8: Techniques of Integration
8.0: Prelude to Techniques of Integration
8.1: Integration by Parts
8.1E: Exercises
8.2: Trigonometric Integrals
8.2E: Exercises
8.3: Trigonometric Substitution
8.3E: Exercises
8.4: Partial Fractions
8.4E: Exercises
8.5: Other Strategies for Integration
8.5E: Exercises
8.6: Numerical Integration
8.6E: Exercises
8.7: Improper Integrals
8.7E: Exercises
8.8: Chapter 8 Review Exercises

9: Sequences and Series

9.0: Prelude to Sequence and Series
9.1: Sequences
9.1E: Exercises
9.2: Infinite Series
9.2E: Exercises
9.3: The Divergence and Integral Tests
9.3E: Exercises
9.4: Comparison Tests
9.4E: Exercises

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9.5: Alternating Series
9.5E: Exercises
9.6: Ratio and Root Tests
9.6E: Exercises
9.7: Chapter 9 Review Exercises

10: Power Series

10.0: Prelude to Power Series
10.1: Power Series and Functions
10.1E: Exercises
10.2: Properties of Power Series
10.2E: Exercises
10.3: Taylor and Maclaurin Series
10.3E: Exercises
10.4: Working with Taylor Series
10.4E: Exercises
10.5: Chapter 10 Review Exercises

11: Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates

11.0: Prelude to Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates
11.1: Conic Sections
11.1E: Exercises
11.2: Parametric Equations
11.2E: Exercises
11.3: Calculus of Parametric Curves
11.3E: Exercises
11.4: Polar Coordinates
11.4E: Exercises
11.5: Area and Arc Length in Polar Coordinates
11.5E: Exercises
11.6: Chapter 11 Review Exercises

12: Appendices
12.A: Table of Derivatives
12.B: Table of Integrals

Detailed Licensing
Index
Glossary
Detailed Licensing

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Licensing
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
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TitlePage
InfoPage
Table of Contents
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1
Licensing
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MIT & University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point
Calculus

Gilbert Strang & Edwin Herman

Table of Contents
Licensing
TitlePage
InfoPage
Table of Contents
Licensing

6: Introduction to Differential Equations

9: Sequences and Series

9.0: Prelude to Sequence and Series
9.1: Sequences
9.1E: Exercises
9.2: Infinite Series
9.2E: Exercises
9.3: The Divergence and Integral Tests
9.3E: Exercises
9.4: Comparison Tests
9.4E: Exercises

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9.5: Alternating Series
9.5E: Exercises
9.6: Ratio and Root Tests
9.6E: Exercises
9.7: Chapter 9 Review Exercises

10: Power Series

11: Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates

12: Appendices
12.A: Table of Derivatives
12.B: Table of Integrals

Detailed Licensing
Index
Glossary
Detailed Licensing

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW

This page titled 5: Integration is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert Strang & Edwin
“Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is
available upon request.

1
5.0: Prelude to Integration
Iceboats are a common sight on the lakes of Wisconsin and Minnesota on winter weekends. Iceboats are similar to sailboats, but
they are fitted with runners, or “skates,” and are designed to run over the ice, rather than on water. Iceboats can move very quickly,
and many ice boating enthusiasts are drawn to the sport because of the speed. Top iceboat racers can attain speeds up to five times
the wind speed. If we know how fast an iceboat is moving, we can use integration to determine how far it travels. We revisit this
question later in the chapter.

Iceboating is a popular winter sport in parts of the northern United States and Europe. (credit: modification of work by Carter
Brown, Flickr)
Determining distance from velocity is just one of many applications of integration. In fact, integrals are used in a wide variety of
mechanical and physical applications. In this chapter, we first introduce the theory behind integration and use integrals to calculate
areas. From there, we develop the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, which relates differentiation and integration. We then study
some basic integration techniques and briefly examine some applications.

This page titled 5.0: Prelude to Integration is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert
Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) .

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5.1: Approximating Areas
 Learning Objectives
Use sigma (summation) notation to calculate sums and powers of integers.
Use the sum of rectangular areas to approximate the area under a curve.
Use Riemann sums to approximate area.

Archimedes was fascinated with calculating the areas of various shapes—in other words, the amount of space enclosed by the
shape. He used a process that has come to be known as the method of exhaustion, which used smaller and smaller shapes, the
areas of which could be calculated exactly, to fill an irregular region and thereby obtain closer and closer approximations to the
total area. In this process, an area bounded by curves is filled with rectangles, triangles, and shapes with exact area formulas. These
areas are then summed to approximate the area of the curved region.
In this section, we develop techniques to approximate the area between a curve, defined by a function f (x), and the x-axis on a
closed interval [a, b]. Like Archimedes, we first approximate the area under the curve using shapes of known area (namely,
rectangles). By using smaller and smaller rectangles, we get closer and closer approximations to the area. Taking a limit allows us
to calculate the exact area under the curve.
Let’s start by introducing some notation to make the calculations easier. We then consider the case when f (x) is continuous and
nonnegative. Later in the chapter, we relax some of these restrictions and develop techniques that apply in more general cases.

Sigma (Summation) Notation

As mentioned, we will use shapes of known area to approximate the area of an irregular region bounded by curves. This process
often requires adding up long strings of numbers. To make it easier to write down these lengthy sums, we look at some new
notation here, called sigma notation (also known as summation notation). The Greek capital letter Σ, sigma, is used to express
long sums of values in a compact form. For example, if we want to add all the integers from 1 to 20 without sigma notation, we
have to write

1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 + 11 + 12 + 13 + 14 + 15 + 16 + 17 + 18 + 19 + 20.

We could probably skip writing a couple of terms and write

1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ + 19 + 20,

which is better, but still cumbersome. With sigma notation, we write this sum as
20

∑i

i=1

which is much more compact. Typically, sigma notation is presented in the form
n

∑ ai

i=1

where ai describes the terms to be added, and the i is called the . Each term is evaluated, then we sum all the values,
index

beginning with the value when i = 1 and ending with the value when i = n. For example, an expression like ∑ si is interpreted
i=2

as s + s + s + s + s + s . Note that the index is used only to keep track of the terms to be added; it does not factor into the
2 3 4 5 6 7

calculation of the sum itself. The index is therefore called a dummy variable. We can use any letter we like for the index.
Typically, mathematicians use i, j, k, m, and n for indices.
Let’s try a couple of examples of using sigma notation.

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 Example 5.1.1: Using Sigma Notation
a. Write in sigma notation and evaluate the sum of terms 3 for i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. i

b. Write the sum in sigma notation:

1 1 1 1
1+ + + + .
4 9 16 25

Solution
a. Write
5

i 2 3 4 5
∑3 = 3 +3 +3 +3 +3 = 363.

i=1

5
1
b. The denominator of each term is a perfect square. Using sigma notation, this sum can be written as ∑ 2
.
i
i=1

 Exercise 5.1.1

Write in sigma notation and evaluate the sum of terms 2 for i = 3, 4, 5, 6. i

Hint
Use the solving steps in Example 5.1.1as a guide.

Answer
6
i 3 4 5 6
∑2 =2 +2 +2 +2 = 120

i=3

The properties associated with the summation process are given in the following rule.

 Rule: Properties of Sigma Notation

Let a , a , … , a and b , b , … , b represent two sequences of terms and let

1 2 n 1 2 n c be a constant. The following properties hold
for all positive integers n and for integers m, with 1 ≤ m ≤ n.
n

i. ∑ c = nc

i=1
n n

ii. ∑ ca i = c ∑ ai

i=1 i=1
n n n

iii. ∑(ai + bi ) = ∑ ai + ∑ bi

i=1 i=1 i=1

n n n

iv. ∑(ai − bi ) = ∑ ai − ∑ bi

i=1 i=1 i=1

n m n

v. ∑ a i = ∑ ai + ∑ ai

i=1 i=1 i=m+1

 Proof
We prove properties (ii.) and (iii.) here, and leave proof of the other properties to the Exercises.
(ii.) We have
n n

∑ c ai = c a1 + c a2 + c a3 + ⋯ + c an = c(a1 + a2 + a3 + ⋯ + an ) = c ∑ ai .

i=1 i=1

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(iii.) We have
n

∑(ai + bi ) = (a1 + b1 ) + (a2 + b2 ) + (a3 + b3 ) + ⋯ + (an + bn ) (5.1.1)

i=1

= (a1 + a2 + a3 + ⋯ + an ) + (b1 + b2 + b3 + ⋯ + bn ) (5.1.2)

n n

= ∑ ai + ∑ bi . (5.1.3)

i=1 i=1

A few more formulas for frequently found functions simplify the summation process further. These are shown in the next rule, for
sums and powers of integers, and we use them in the next set of examples.

 Rule: Sums and Powers of Integers

1. The sum of n integers is given by

n
n(n + 1)
∑i = 1 +2 +⋯ +n = . (5.1.4)
2
i=1

2. The sum of consecutive integers squared is given by

n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
2 2 2 2
∑i =1 +2 +⋯ +n = . (5.1.5)
6
i=1

3. The sum of consecutive integers cubed is given by

n 2 2
n (n + 1 )
3 3 3 3
∑i =1 +2 +⋯ +n = . (5.1.6)
4
i=1

 Example 5.1.2: Evaluation Using Sigma Notation

Write using sigma notation and evaluate:

a. The sum of the terms (i − 3) for i = 1, 2, … , 200.
2

b. The sum of the terms (i − i ) for i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

3 2

Solution
a. Multiplying out (i − 3) , we can break the expression into three terms.
2

200 200

2 2
∑(i − 3 ) = ∑(i − 6i + 9)

i=1 i=1

200 200 200

2
= ∑i − ∑ 6i + ∑ 9

i=1 i=1 i=1

200 200 200

2
= ∑i −6 ∑i +∑9

i=1 i=1 i=1

200(200 + 1)(400 + 1) 200(200 + 1)

= −6 [ ] + 9(200)
6 2

= 2, 686, 700 − 120, 600 + 1800

= 2, 567, 900

b. Use sigma notation property iv. and the rules for the sum of squared terms and the sum of cubed terms.

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6 6 6

3 2 3 2
∑(i −i ) = ∑i −∑i

i=1 i=1 i=1

2 2
6 (6 + 1 ) 6(6 + 1)(2(6) + 1)
= −
4 6

1764 546
= −
4 6

= 350

 Exercise 5.1.2

Find the sum of the values of 4 + 3i for i = 1, 2, … , 100.

Hint
Use the properties of sigma notation to solve the problem.

Answer
15, 550

 Example 5.1.3: Finding the Sum of the Function Values

Find the sum of the values of f (x) = x over the integers 1, 2, 3, … , 10.
3

Solution
Using Equation 5.1.6, we have
10 2 2
(10 ) (10 + 1 ) 100(121)
3
∑i = = = 3025
4 4
i=0

 Exercise 5.1.3
20

Evaluate the sum indicated by the notation ∑(2k + 1) .

k=1

Hint
Use the rule on sum and powers of integers (Equations 5.1.4-5.1.6).

Answer
440

Approximating Area
Now that we have the necessary notation, we return to the problem at hand: approximating the area under a curve. Let f (x) be a
continuous, nonnegative function defined on the closed interval [a, b]. We want to approximate the area A bounded by f (x) above,
the x-axis below, the line x = a on the left, and the line x = b on the right (Figure 5.1.1).

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Figure 5.1.1 : An area (shaded region) bounded by the curve f (x) at top, the x -axis at bottom, the line x = a to the left, and the
line x = b at right.
How do we approximate the area under this curve? The approach is a geometric one. By dividing a region into many small shapes
that have known area formulas, we can sum these areas and obtain a reasonable estimate of the true area. We begin by dividing the
b −a
interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal width, . We do this by selecting equally spaced points x0 , x1 , x2 , … , xn with
n
x0 = a, xn = b, and
b −a
xi − xi−1 =
n

for i = 1, 2, 3, … , n.
We denote the width of each subinterval with the notation Δx, so Δx = b−a

n
and

xi = x0 + iΔx

for i = 1, 2, 3, … , n. This notion of dividing an interval [a, b] into subintervals by selecting points from within the interval is used
quite often in approximating the area under a curve, so let’s define some relevant terminology.

 Definition: Partitions
A set of points P = x for i = 0, 1, 2, … , n with a = x < x < x <. . . < x = b , which divides the interval [a, b] into
i 0 1 2 n

subintervals of the form [x , x ], [x , x ], . . . , [x , x ] is called a partition of [a, b]. If the subintervals all have the same
0 1 1 2 n−1 n

width, the set of points forms a regular partition (or uniform partition) of the interval [a, b].

We can use this regular partition as the basis of a method for estimating the area under the curve. We next examine two methods:
the left-endpoint approximation and the right-endpoint approximation.

 Rule: Left-Endpoint Approximation

On each subinterval [x , x ] (for i = 1, 2, 3, … , n), construct a rectangle with width Δx and height equal to f (x ), which
i−1 i i−1

is the function value at the left endpoint of the subinterval. Then the area of this rectangle is f (x )Δx. Adding the areas of i−1

all these rectangles, we get an approximate value for A (Figure 5.1.2). We use the notation L to denote that this is a left- n

endpoint approximation of A using n subintervals.

A ≈ Ln = f (x0 )Δx + f (x1 )Δx + ⋯ + f (xn−1 )Δx = ∑ f (xi−1 )Δx

i=1

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Figure 5.1.2 : In the left-endpoint approximation of area under a curve, the height of each rectangle is determined by the
function value at the left of each subinterval.

The second method for approximating area under a curve is the right-endpoint approximation. It is almost the same as the left-
endpoint approximation, but now the heights of the rectangles are determined by the function values at the right of each
subinterval.

 Rule: Right-Endpoint Approximation

Construct a rectangle on each subinterval [x , x ], only this time the height of the rectangle is determined by the function
i−1 i

value f (x ) at the right endpoint of the subinterval. Then, the area of each rectangle is f (x ) Δx and the approximation for A
i i

is given by
n

A ≈ Rn = f (x1 )Δx + f (x2 )Δx + ⋯ + f (xn )Δx = ∑ f (xi )Δx.

i=1

The notation R indicates this is a right-endpoint approximation for A (Figure 5.1.3).

Figure 5.1.3 : In the right-endpoint approximation of area under a curve, the height of each rectangle is determined by the
function value at the right of each subinterval. Note that the right-endpoint approximation differs from the left-endpoint
approximation in Figure 5.1.2 .

2
x
The graphs in Figure 5.1.4 represent the curve f (x) = . In Figure 5.1.4b we divide the region represented by the interval [0, 3]
2
into six subintervals, each of width 0.5. Thus, Δx = 0.5. We then form six rectangles by drawing vertical lines perpendicular to
xi−1 , the left endpoint of each subinterval. We determine the height of each rectangle by calculating f (x ) for i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
i−1

The intervals are [0, 0.5], [0.5, 1], [1, 1.5], [1.5, 2], [2, 2.5], [2.5,. 3]
We find the area of each rectangle by multiplying the height by
the width. Then, the sum of the rectangular areas approximates the area between f (x) and the x-axis. When the left endpoints are
used to calculate height, we have a left-endpoint approximation. Thus,
6

A ≈ L6 = ∑ f (xi−1 )Δx = f (x0 )Δx + f (x1 )Δx + f (x2 )Δx + f (x3 )Δx + f (x4 )Δx + f (x5 )Δx

i=1

= f (0)0.5 + f (0.5)0.5 + f (1)0.5 + f (1.5)0.5 + f (2)0.5 + f (2.5)0.5

= (0)0.5 + (0.125)0.5 + (0.5)0.5 + (1.125)0.5 + (2)0.5 + (3.125)0.5

= 0 + 0.0625 + 0.25 + 0.5625 + 1 + 1.5625

2
= 3.4375 units

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Figure 5.1.4 : Methods of approximating the area under a curve by using (a) the left endpoints and (b) the right endpoints.
In Figure 5.1.4b, we draw vertical lines perpendicular to xisuch that x is the right endpoint of each subinterval, and calculate
i

f (x ) for i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. We multiply each f (x ) by

i i Δx to find the rectangular areas, and then add them. This is a right-

endpoint approximation of the area under f (x). Thus,

A ≈ R6 = ∑ f (xi )Δx = f (x1 )Δx + f (x2 )Δx + f (x3 )Δx + f (x4 )Δx + f (x5 )Δx + f (x6 )Δx

i=1

= f (0.5)0.5 + f (1)0.5 + f (1.5)0.5 + f (2)0.5 + f (2.5)0.5 + f (3)0.5

= (0.125)0.5 + (0.5)0.5 + (1.125)0.5 + (2)0.5 + (3.125)0.5 + (4.5)0.5

= 0.0625 + 0.25 + 0.5625 + 1 + 1.5625 + 2.25

2
= 5.6875 units .

 Example 5.1.4: Approximating the Area Under a Curve

Use both left-endpoint and right-endpoint approximations to approximate the area under the curve of f (x) = x on the interval2

[0, 2]; use n = 4 .

Solution
(2 − 0)
First, divide the interval [0, 2] into n equal subintervals. Using n = 4, Δx = = 0.5 . This is the width of each
4
rectangle. The intervals [0, 0.5], [0.5, 1], [1, 1.5], [1.5, 2]are shown in Figure 5.1.5 . Using a left-endpoint approximation, the
heights are f (0) = 0, f (0.5) = 0.25, f (1) = 1, and f (1.5) = 2.25. Then,

L4 = f (x0 )Δx + f (x1 )Δx + f (x2 )Δx + f (x3 )Δx

= 0(0.5) + 0.25(0.5) + 1(0.5) + 2.25(0.5)

2
= 1.75 units

Figure 5.1.5 : The graph shows the left-endpoint approximation of the area under f (x) = x from 0 to 2.
2

The right-endpoint approximation is shown in Figure 5.1.6. The intervals are the same, Δx = 0.5, but now use the right
endpoint to calculate the height of the rectangles. We have

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R4 = f (x1 )Δx + f (x2 )Δx + f (x3 )Δx + f (x4 )Δx

= 0.25(0.5) + 1(0.5) + 2.25(0.5) + 4(0.5)

2
= 3.75 units

Figure 5.1.6 : The graph shows the right-endpoint approximation of the area under f (x) = x from 0 to 2.
2

The left-endpoint approximation is 1.75 units ; the right-endpoint approximation is 3.75 units .
2 2

 Exercise 5.1.4
1
Sketch left-endpoint and right-endpoint approximations for f (x) = on [1, 2]; use n =4 . Approximate the area using both
x
methods.

Hint
Follow the solving strategy in Example 5.1.4step-by-step.

Answer
The left-endpoint approximation is 0.7595 units . The right-endpoint approximation is
2
0.6345 units . See the below
2

Media.

Looking at Figure 5.1.4 and the graphs in Example 5.1.4, we can see that when we use a small number of intervals, neither the left-
endpoint approximation nor the right-endpoint approximation is a particularly accurate estimate of the area under the curve.
However, it seems logical that if we increase the number of points in our partition, our estimate of A will improve. We will have
more rectangles, but each rectangle will be thinner, so we will be able to fit the rectangles to the curve more precisely.
We can demonstrate the improved approximation obtained through smaller intervals with an example. Let’s explore the idea of
increasing n , first in a left-endpoint approximation with four rectangles, then eight rectangles, and finally 32 rectangles. Then, let’s
do the same thing in a right-endpoint approximation, using the same sets of intervals, of the same curved region. Figure 5.1.7
shows the area of the region under the curve f (x) = (x − 1) + 4 on the interval [0, 2] using a left-endpoint approximation where
3

n = 4. The width of each rectangle is

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2 −0 1
Δx = = .
4 2

The area is approximated by the summed areas of the rectangles, or

2
L4 = f (0)(0.5) + f (0.5)(0.5) + f (1)(0.5) + f (1.5)0.5 = 7.5 units

Figure 5.1.7 : With a left-endpoint approximation and dividing the region from a to b into four equal intervals, the area under the
curve is approximately equal to the sum of the areas of the rectangles.
Figure 5.1.8 shows the same curve divided into eight subintervals. Comparing the graph with four rectangles in Figure 5.1.7 with
this graph with eight rectangles, we can see there appears to be less white space under the curve when n = 8. This white space is
area under the curve we are unable to include using our approximation. The area of the rectangles is
L8 = f (0)(0.25) + f (0.25)(0.25) + f (0.5)(0.25) + f (0.75)(0.25) + f (1)(0.25) + f (1.25)(0.25) + f (1.5)(0.25)

2
+ f (1.75)(0.25) = 7.75 units

Figure 5.1.8 : The region under the curve is divided into n = 8 rectangular areas of equal width for a left-endpoint approximation.
The graph in Figure 5.1.9 shows the same function with 32 rectangles inscribed under the curve. There appears to be little white
space left. The area occupied by the rectangles is
2
L32 = f (0)(0.0625) + f (0.0625)(0.0625) + f (0.125)(0.0625) + ⋯ + f (1.9375)(0.0625) = 7.9375 units .

Figure 5.1.9 : Here, 32 rectangles are inscribed under the curve for a left-endpoint approximation.
We can carry out a similar process for the right-endpoint approximation method. A right-endpoint approximation of the same
curve, using four rectangles (Figure 5.1.10), yields an area
2
R4 = f (0.5)(0.5) + f (1)(0.5) + f (1.5)(0.5) + f (2)(0.5) = 8.5 units .

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Figure 5.1.10 : Now we divide the area under the curve into four equal subintervals for a right-endpoint approximation.

2 −0
Dividing the region over the interval [0, 2] into eight rectangles results in Δx = = 0.25. The graph is shown in Figure
8
5.1.11. The area is
R8 = f (0.25)(0.25) + f (0.5)(0.25) + f (0.75)(0.25) + f (1)(0.25) + f (1.25)(0.25) + f (1.5)(0.25) + f (1.75)(0.25)

2
+ f (2)(0.25) = 8.25 units

Figure 5.1.11 : Here we use right-endpoint approximation for a region divided into eight equal subintervals.
Last, the right-endpoint approximation with n = 32 is close to the actual area (Figure 5.1.12). The area is approximately
2
R32 = f (0.0625)(0.0625) + f (0.125)(0.0625) + f (0.1875)(0.0625) + ⋯ + f (2)(0.0625) = 8.0625 units

Figure 5.1.12 : The region is divided into 32 equal subintervals for a right-endpoint approximation.
Based on these figures and calculations, it appears we are on the right track; the rectangles appear to approximate the area under the
curve better as n gets larger. Furthermore, as n increases, both the left-endpoint and right-endpoint approximations appear to
approach an area of 8 square units. Table 5.1.15 shows a numerical comparison of the left- and right-endpoint methods. The idea
that the approximations of the area under the curve get better and better as n gets larger and larger is very important, and we now
explore this idea in more detail.
Table 5.1.15 : Converging Values of Left- and Right-Endpoint Approximations as n Increases
Value of n Approximate Area L n Approximate Area R n

n = 4 7.5 8.5

n = 8 7.75 8.25

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Value of n Approximate Area L n Approximate Area R n

n = 32 7.94 8.06

Forming Riemann Sums

So far we have been using rectangles to approximate the area under a curve. The heights of these rectangles have been determined
by evaluating the function at either the right or left endpoints of the subinterval [x , x ]. In reality, there is no reason to restrict
i−1 i

evaluation of the function to one of these two points only. We could evaluate the function at any point x in the subinterval ∗
i

, x ], and use f (x ) as the height of our rectangle. This gives us an estimate for the area of the form
∗
[xi−1 i i

∗
A ≈ ∑ f (x ) Δx.
i

i=1

A sum of this form is called a Riemann sum, named for the 19th-century mathematician Bernhard Riemann, who developed the
idea.

 Definition: Riemann sum

Let f (x) be defined on a closed interval [a, b] and let P be any partition of [a, b]. Let Δx be the width of each subinterval
i

, x ] and for each i , let x be any point in [ x , x ]. A Riemann sum is defined for f (x) as
∗
[x i−1 i i−1 i
i

∗
∑ f (x ) Δxi .
i

i=1

b −a
At this point, we'll choose a regular partition P , as we have in our examples above. This forces all Δx to be equal to Δx = i
n
for any natural number of intervals n .
Recall that with the left- and right-endpoint approximations, the estimates seem to get better and better as n get larger and larger.
The same thing happens with Riemann sums. Riemann sums give better approximations for larger values of n . We are now ready
to define the area under a curve in terms of Riemann sums.

 Definition: Area Under the Curve

Let f (x) be a continuous, nonnegative function on an interval [a, b], and let ∑ f (x ∗
i
) Δx be a Riemann sum for f (x) with a
i=1

regular partition P . Then, the area under the curve y = f (x) on [a, b] is given by
n

∗
A = lim ∑ f (x ) Δx.
i
n→∞
i=1

See a graphical demonstration of the construction of a Riemann sum.

Some subtleties here are worth discussing. First, note that taking the limit of a sum is a little different from taking the limit of a
function f (x) as x goes to infinity. Limits of sums are discussed in detail in the chapter on Sequences and Series; however, for now
we can assume that the computational techniques we used to compute limits of functions can also be used to calculate limits of
sums.
Second, we must consider what to do if the expression converges to different limits for different choices of x . Fortunately, this ∗
i

does not happen. Although the proof is beyond the scope of this text, it can be shown that if f (x) is continuous on the closed
n

interval [a, b], then ∗

lim ∑ f (x )Δx
i
exists and is unique (in other words, it does not depend on the choice of x ). ∗
i
n→∞
i=1

We look at some examples shortly. But, before we do, let’s take a moment and talk about some specific choices for x . Although ∗
i

any choice for x gives us an estimate of the area under the curve, we don’t necessarily know whether that estimate is too high
∗
i

(overestimate) or too low (underestimate). If it is important to know whether our estimate is high or low, we can select our value
for x to guarantee one result or the other.
∗
i

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If we want an overestimate, for example, we can choose x such that for i = 1, 2, 3, … , n, f (x ) ≥ f (x) for all x ∈ [x − 1, x ] .
∗
i
∗
i i i

In other words, we choose x so that for i = 1, 2, 3, … , n, f (x ) is the maximum function value on the interval [x , x ]. If we
∗
i
∗
i i−1 i
n

select x in this way, then the Riemann sum ∑ f (x

∗
i
∗
i
)Δx is called an upper sum. Similarly, if we want an underestimate, we can
i=1

choose x ∗ i so that for i = 1, 2, 3, … , n, f (x ) is the minimum function value on the interval [x , x ]. In this case, the
∗
i i−1 i

associated Riemann sum is called a lower sum. Note that if f (x) is either increasing or decreasing throughout the interval [a, b],
then the maximum and minimum values of the function occur at the endpoints of the subintervals, so the upper and lower sums are
just the same as the left- and right-endpoint approximations.

 Example 5.1.5: Finding Lower and Upper Sums

Find a lower sum for f (x) = 10 − x on [1, 2]; let n = 4 subintervals.

Solution
1
With n =4 over the interval [1, 2], Δx = . We can list the intervals as [1, 1.25], [1.25, 1.5], [1.5, 1.75], and .
[1.75, 2]
4
Because the function is decreasing over the interval [1, 2], Figure shows that a lower sum is obtained by using the right
endpoints.

Figure 5.1.13 : The graph of f (x) = 10 − x is set up for a right-endpoint approximation of the area bounded by the curve and
2

the x -axis on [1, 2] , and it shows a lower sum.

The Riemann sum is
4

2 2 2 2 2
∑(10 − x )(0.25) = 0.25[10 − (1.25 ) + 10 − (1.5 ) + 10 − (1.75 ) + 10 − (2 ) ]

k=1

= 0.25[8.4375 + 7.75 + 6.9375 + 6]

2
= 7.28 units .

The area of 7.28 units is a lower sum and an underestimate.

 Exercise 5.1.5
a. Find an upper sum for f (x) = 10 − x on [1, 2]; let n = 4.
2

b. Sketch the approximation.

Hint
f (x) is decreasing on [1, 2], so the maximum function values occur at the left endpoints of the subintervals.

Answer
a. Upper sum=8.0313 units 2
.

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 Example 5.1.6: Finding Lower and Upper Sums for f (x) = sin x

Find a lower sum for f (x) = sin x over the interval [a, b] = [0, π

2
]; let n = 6.
Solution
Let’s first look at the graph in Figure 5.1.14 to get a better idea of the area of interest.

π/2 π
Figure 5.1.14 : The graph of y = sin x is divided into six regions: Δx = = .
6 12

The intervals are [0, ] , [ , ] , [ , ] , [ , ] , [ , ], and [ , ]. Note that f (x) = sin x is increasing on the
π

12
π

6
π

4
π

3
π

3
5π

12
5π

12
π

interval [0, ], so a left-endpoint approximation gives us the lower sum. A left-endpoint approximation is the Riemann sum
π

2
5
) .We have
π
∑ sin x (
i
i=0 12

π π π π π π π π π 5π π 2
A ≈ sin(0) ( ) + sin( )( ) + sin( )( ) + sin( )( ) + sin( )( ) + sin( )( ) ≈ 0.863 units .
12 12 12 6 12 4 12 3 12 12 12

 Exercise 5.1.6

Using the function f (x) = sin x over the interval [0, π

2
], find an upper sum; let n = 6.

Hint
Follow the steps from Example 5.1.6.

Answer
2
A ≈ 1.125 units

Key Concepts
n

The use of sigma (summation) notation of the form ∑ a is useful for expressing long sums of values in compact form.
i

i=1

For a continuous function defined over an interval [a, b], the process of dividing the interval into n equal parts, extending a
rectangle to the graph of the function, calculating the areas of the series of rectangles, and then summing the areas yields an
approximation of the area of that region.

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b −a
When using a regular partition, the width of each rectangle is Δx = .
n
n

Riemann sums are expressions of the form ∑ f (x ∗

i
)Δx, and can be used to estimate the area under the curve y = f (x). Left-
i=1

and right-endpoint approximations are special kinds of Riemann sums where the values of x are chosen to be the left or right ∗
i

endpoints of the subintervals, respectively.

Riemann sums allow for much flexibility in choosing the set of points x at which the function is evaluated, often with an eye
∗
i

to obtaining a lower sum or an upper sum.

Key Equations
Properties of Sigma Notation
n

∑ c = nc

i=1

n n

∑ c ai = c ∑ ai

i=1 i=1

n n n

∑(ai + bi ) = ∑ ai + ∑ bi

i=1 i=1 i=1

n n n

∑(ai − bi ) = ∑ ai − ∑ bi

i=1 i=1 i=1

n m n

∑ ai = ∑ ai + ∑ ai

i=1 i=1 i=m+1

Sums and Powers of Integers

n
n(n + 1)
∑i = 1 +2 +⋯ +n =
2
i=1

n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
2 2 2 2
∑i =1 +2 +⋯ +n =
6
i=1

n 2 2
n (n + 1 )
3 3 3 3
∑i =1 +2 +⋯ +n =
4
i=0

Left-Endpoint Approximation
n

A ≈ Ln = f (x0 )Δx + f (x1 )Δx + ⋯ + f (xn−1 )Δx = ∑ f (xi−1 )Δx

i=1

Right-Endpoint Approximation
n

A ≈ Rn = f (x1 )Δx + f (x2 )Δx + ⋯ + f (xn )Δx = ∑ f (xi )Δx

i=1

Glossary
left-endpoint approximation
an approximation of the area under a curve computed by using the left endpoint of each subinterval to calculate the height of the
vertical sides of each rectangle

lower sum
a sum obtained by using the minimum value of f (x) on each subinterval

partition

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a set of points that divides an interval into subintervals

regular partition
a partition in which the subintervals all have the same width

riemann sum
n

an estimate of the area under the curve of the form A ≈ ∑ f (x ∗

i
)Δx

i=1

right-endpoint approximation
the right-endpoint approximation is an approximation of the area of the rectangles under a curve using the right endpoint of
each subinterval to construct the vertical sides of each rectangle

sigma notation
(also, summation notation) the Greek letter sigma (Σ ) indicates addition of the values; the values of the index above and
below the sigma indicate where to begin the summation and where to end it

upper sum
a sum obtained by using the maximum value of f (x) on each subinterval

This page titled 5.1: Approximating Areas is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert
Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit
history is available upon request.
5.1: Approximating Areas by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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5.1E: EXERCISES FOR SECTION 5.1
1.) State whether the given sums are equal or unequal.
10 10

a. ∑ i and ∑ k
i=1 k=1

10 15

b. ∑ i and ∑(i − 5)
i=1 i=6

10 9

c. ∑ i(i − 1) and ∑(j + 1)j

i=1 j=0

10 10

d. ∑ i(i − 1) and ∑(k 2

− k)

i=1 k=1

Answer
a. They are equal; both represent the sum of the first 10 whole numbers.
b. They are equal; both represent the sum of the first 10 whole numbers.
c. They are equal by substituting j = i − 1.
d. They are equal; the first sum factors the terms of the second.

In exercises 2 - 3, use the rules for sums of powers of integers to compute the sums.
10

2) ∑ i
i=5

3) ∑ i 2

i=5

Answer
10

2
∑i = 385 − 30 = 355

i=5

100 100

Suppose that ∑ a i = 15 and ∑ b i = −12.

i=1 i=1

In exercises 4 - 7, compute the sums.

100

4) ∑(a i + bi )

i=1

100

5) ∑(a i − bi )

i=1

Answer
100

∑(ai − bi ) = 15 − (−12) = 27

i=1

100

6) ∑(3a i − 4bi )

i=1

100

7) ∑(5a i + 4bi )

i=1

Answer
100

∑(5ai + 4bi ) = 5(15) + 4(−12) = 27

i=1

In exercises 8 - 11, use summation properties and formulas to rewrite and evaluate the sums.

5.1E.1 https://math.libretexts.org/@go/page/137725
20

8) ∑ 100(k 2
− 5k + 1)

k=1

9) ∑(j 2
− 2j)

j=1

Answer
50 50
(50)(51)(101) 2(50)(51)
2
∑j − 2∑j = − = 40, 375
6 2
j=1 j=1

10) ∑ (j
2
− 10j)

j=11

11) ∑[(2k ) 2
− 100k]

k=1

Answer
25 25
4(25)(26)(51)
2
4∑k − 100 ∑ k = − 50(25)(26) = −10, 400
9
k=1 k=1

Let L denote the left-endpoint sum using n subintervals and let R denote the corresponding right-endpoint sum.
n n

In exercises 12 - 19, compute the indicated left and right sums for the given functions on the indicated interval.
1
12) L for f(x) =
4 on [2, 3]
x−1

13) R for g(x) = cos(πx) on [0, 1]

Answer
R4 = 0.25

1
14) L for f(x) =
6 on [2, 5]
x(x − 1)

1
15) R for f(x) =
6 on [2, 5]
x(x − 1)

Answer
R6 = 0.372

1
16) R for 4 on [−2, 2]
x2 + 1

1
17) L for 4 on [−2, 2]
x2 + 1

Answer
L4 = 2.20

18) R for x4
2
− 2x + 1 on [0, 2]
19) L for x8
2
− 2x + 1 on [0, 2]

Answer
L8 = 0.6875

20) Compute the left and right Riemann sums— L and R , respectively—for f(x) = (2 − |x|) on
4 4 [−2, 2]. Compute their average value
and compare it with the area under the graph of f .
21) Compute the left and right Riemann sums— L and R , respectively—for f(x) = (3 − |3 − x|) on [0, 6]. Compute their average value
6 6

and compare it with the area under the graph of f .

Answer

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L6 = 9.000 = R6 . The graph of f is a triangle with area 9 units . 2

−−−−−
22) Compute the left and right Riemann sums— L and R , respectively—for f(x) = √4 − x on [−2, 2] and compare their values.
4 4
2

−−−− −−−− −−
23) Compute the left and right Riemann sums— L and R , respectively—for 6 6 f(x) = √9 − (x − 3)
2
on [0, 6] and compare their values.

Answer
L6 = 13.12899 = R6 . They are equal.

For exercises 24 - 27, express the following endpoint sums in sigma notation but do not evaluate them.
24) L30 for f(x) = x on [1, 2]
2

−−−−−
25) L10 for f(x) = √4 − x on [−2, 2]
2

Answer
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
10
4 (i − 1)
L10 = ∑ √4 − (−2 + 4 )
10 10
i=1

26) R 20 for f(x) = sin x on [0, π]

27) R 100 for ln x on [1, e]

Answer
100
e−1 i
R100 = ∑ ln(1 + (e − 1) )
100 100
i=1

In exercises 28 - 33, graph the function then use a calculator or a computer program to evaluate the following left and right
endpoint sums. Is the area under the curve between the left and right endpoint sums?
28) [T] L 100 and R 100 for y = x 2
− 3x + 1 on the interval [−1, 1]
29) [T] L 100 and R 100 for y = x on the interval [0, 1]
2

Answer

R100 = 0.33835, L100 = 0.32835.

The plot shows that the left Riemann sum is an underestimate because the function is increasing. Similarly, the right Riemann sum
is an overestimate. The area lies between the left and right Riemann sums. Ten rectangles are shown for visual clarity. This
behavior persists for more rectangles.

x+1
30) [T] L 50 and R
50 for y = 2
on the interval [2, 4]
x −1

31) [T] L 100 and R 100 for y = x on the interval [−1, 1]

Answer

5.1E.3 https://math.libretexts.org/@go/page/137725
L100 = −0.02, R = 0.02 .
100

The left endpoint sum is an underestimate because the function is increasing. Similarly, a right endpoint approximation is an
overestimate. The area lies between the left and right endpoint estimates.

32) [T] L 50 and R50 for y = tan(x) on the interval [0, π

4
]

33) [T] L 100 and R 100 for y = e 2x

on the interval [−1, 1]

Answer

L100 = 3.555, R = 3.670 .

100

The plot shows that the left Riemann sum is an underestimate because the function is increasing. Ten rectangles are shown for
visual clarity. This behavior persists for more rectangles.

34) Let tj denote the time that it took Tejay van Garteren to ride the j
th
stage of the Tour de France in 2014. If there were a total of 21
21

stages, interpret ∑ t . j

j=1

35) Let r denote the total rainfall in Portland on the j

j
th
day of the year in 2009. Interpret ∑ r .j

j=1

Answer
The sum represents the cumulative rainfall in January 2009.

36) Let d denote the hours of daylight and δ denote the increase in the hours of daylight from day j − 1 to day j in Fargo, North Dakota,
j j

365

on the j th
day of the year. Interpret d1 + ∑ δ j.

j=2

1
37) To help get in shape, Joe gets a new pair of running shoes. If Joe runs 1 mi each day in week 1 and adds mi to his daily routine each
10

week, what is the total mileage on Joe’s shoes after 25 weeks?

Answer

5.1E.4 https://math.libretexts.org/@go/page/137725
25
(i − 1) 7
The total mileage is 7 × ∑(1 + ) = 7 × 25 + × 12 × 25 = 385 mi.
10 10
i=1

38) The following table gives approximate values of the average annual atmospheric rate of increase in carbon dioxide (CO2) each decade
since 1960, in parts per million (ppm). Estimate the total increase in atmospheric CO2 between 1964 and 2013.
Decade Ppm/y
1964-1973 1.07
1976-1983 1.34
1984-1993 1.40
1994-2003 1.87
2004-2013 2.07

Average Annual Atmospheric CO2 Increase, 1964–2013 Source: http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/.

39) The following table gives the approximate increase in sea level in inches over 20 years starting in the given year. Estimate the net
change in mean sea level from 1870 to 2010.
Starting Year 20- Year Change
1870 0.3
1890 1.5
1910 0.2
1930 2.8
1950 0.7
1970 1.1
1990 1.5

Approximate 20-Year Sea Level Increases, 1870–1990

Source: http://link.springer.com/article/10....712-011-9119-1

Answer
Add the numbers to get 8.1-in. net increase.

40) The following table gives the approximate increase in dollars in the average price of a gallon of gas per decade since 1950. If the
average price of a gallon of gas in 2010 was $2.60, what was the average price of a gallon of gas in 1950?
Starting Year 10- Year Change
1950 0.03
1960 0.05
1970 0.86
1980 −0.03
1990 0.29
2000 1.12

Approximate 10-Year Gas Price Increases, 1950–2000

Source: epb.lbl.gov/homepages/Rick_Di...011-trends.pdf.
41) The following table gives the percent growth of the U.S. population beginning in July of the year indicated. If the U.S. population was
281,421,906 in July 2000, estimate the U.S. population in July 2010.
Year % Change/Year
2000 1.12
2001 0.99
2002 0.93
2003 0.86
2004 0.93
2005 0.93
2006 0.97
2007 0.96
2008 0.95
2009 0.88

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Annual Percentage Growth of U.S. Population, 2000–2009
Source: www.census.gov/popest/data.
(Hint: To obtain the population in July 2001, multiply the population in July 2000 by 1.0112 to get 284,573,831.)

Answer
309,389,957

In exercises 42 - 45, estimate the areas under the curves by computing the left Riemann sums, L 8.

42)

43)

Answer
L8 = 3 + 2 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 4 = 24

44)

45)

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Answer
L8 = 3 + 5 + 7 + 6 + 8 + 6 + 5 + 4 = 44

−−−−−
46) [T] Use a computer algebra system to compute the Riemann sum, L , for N N = 10, 30, 50 for f(x) = √1 − x on [−1, 1].
2

1
47) [T] Use a computer algebra system to compute the Riemann sum, L , for N N = 10, 30, 50 for f(x) = −−−− − on [−1, 1].
√1 + x2

Answer
L10 ≈ 1.7604, L30 ≈ 1.7625, L50 ≈ 1.76265

48) [T] Use a computer algebra system to compute the Riemann sum, L , for N N = 10, 30, 50 for f(x) = sin 2
x on [0, 2π] . Compare these
estimates with π.
In exercises 49-50, use a calculator or a computer program to evaluate the endpoint sums R N and L N for N = 1, 10, 100 . How
do these estimates compare with the exact answers, which you can find via geometry?
49) [T] y = cos(πx) on the interval [0, 1]

Answer
R1 = −1, L1 = 1,

R10 = −0.1, L10 = 0.1,

L100 = 0.01, R100 = −0.01.

By symmetry of the graph, the exact area is zero.

50) [T] y = 3x + 2 on the interval [3, 5]

In exercises 51 - 52, use a calculator or a computer program to evaluate the endpoint sums R N and L N for N = 1, 10, 100.

51) [T] y = x 4 2
− 5x +4 on the interval [−2, 2] , which has an exact area of 32

Answer
R1 = 0, L1 = 0,

R10 = 2.4499, L10 = 2.4499,

R100 = 2.1365, L100 = 2.1365

52) [T] y = ln x on the interval [1, 2] , which has an exact area of 2 ln(2) − 1
53) Explain why, if f(a) ≥ 0 and f is increasing on [a, b] , that the left endpoint estimate is a lower bound for the area below the graph of f
on [a, b].

Answer
If [c, d] is a subinterval of [a, b] under one of the left-endpoint sum rectangles, then the area of the rectangle contributing to the left-
endpoint estimate is f(c)(d − c) . But, f(c) ≤ f(x) for c ≤ x ≤ d , so the area under the graph of f between c and d is
f(c)(d − c) plus the area below the graph of f but above the horizontal line segment at height f(c), which is positive. As this is

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true for each left-endpoint sum interval, it follows that the left Riemann sum is less than or equal to the area below the graph of f
on [a, b].

54) Explain why, if f(b) ≥ 0 and f is decreasing on [a, b], that the left endpoint estimate is an upper bound for the area below the graph of f
on [a, b].
f(b) − f(a)
55) Show that, in general, R N − LN = (b − a) × .
N

Answer
N N−1 N
b− a i− 1 b− a i b− a i
LN = ∑ f(a + (b − a) ) = ∑ f(a + (b − a) ) and R N = ∑ f(a + (b − a) ) . The left
N N N N N N
i=1 i=0 i=1

sum has a term corresponding to i = 0 and the right sum has a term corresponding to i = N . In R − L , any term N N

corresponding to i = 1, 2, … , N − 1 occurs once with a plus sign and once with a minus sign, so each such term cancels and one
b− a N 0 b− a
is left with R N − LN = (f(a + (b − a)) ) − (f(a) + (b − a) ) = (f(b) − f(a)).
N N N N

56) Explain why, if f is increasing on [a, b] , the error between either LN or RN and the area A below the graph of f is at most
f(b) − f(a)
(b − a) .
N

57) For each of the three graphs:

a. Obtain a lower bound L(A) for the area enclosed by the curve by adding the areas of the squares enclosed completely by the curve.
b. Obtain an upper bound U (A) for the area by adding to L(A) the areas B(A) of the squares enclosed partially by the curve.

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Answer
Graph 1: a. L(A) = 0, B(A) = 20; b. U (A) = 20.
Graph 2: a. L(A) = 9; b. B(A) = 11, U (A) = 20.
Graph 3: a. L(A) = 11.0; b. B(A) = 4.5, U (A) = 15.5.

58) In the previous exercise, explain why L(A) gets no smaller while U (A) gets no larger as the squares are subdivided into four boxes of
equal area.
59) A unit circle is made up of n wedges equivalent to the inner wedge in the figure. The base of the inner triangle is 1 unit and its height is
). The base of the outer triangle is B = cos( ) and the height is H = B sin( ) . Use this information to argue
π π π π 2π
sin( ) + sin( ) tan(
n n n n n

that the area of a unit circle is equal to π.

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Answer
2π
sin( )
n
Let A be the area of the unit circle. The circle encloses n congruent triangles each of area , so n

2
sin(
2π

n
) ≤ A.
2
BH
Similarly, the circle is contained inside n congruent triangles each of area =
1

2
(cos(
π

n
) + sin(
π

n
) tan(
π

n
)) sin(
2π

n
) , so
2
2π
π sin( )
A ≤
n

2
sin(
2π

n
)(cos(
π

n
)) + sin(
π

n
) tan(
π

n
) . As n → ∞, n

2
sin(
2π

n
) =
2π
n
→ π , so we conclude π ≤ A . Also, as
( )
n

n → ∞, cos(
π

n
) + sin(
π

n
) tan(
π

n
) → 1 , so we also have A ≤ π . By the squeeze theorem for limits, we conclude that A = π.

5.1E: Exercises for Section 5.1 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
5.1E: Exercises for Section 5.1 has no license indicated.

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5.2: The Definite Integral
 Learning Objectives
State the definition of the definite integral.
Explain the terms integrand, limits of integration, and variable of integration.
Explain when a function is integrable.
Describe the relationship between the definite integral and net area.
Use geometry and the properties of definite integrals to evaluate them.
Calculate the average value of a function.

In the preceding section we defined the area under a curve in terms of Riemann sums:
n

∗
A = lim ∑ f (x )Δx.
i
n→∞
i=1

However, this definition came with restrictions. We required f (x) to be continuous and nonnegative. Unfortunately, real-world
problems don’t always meet these restrictions. In this section, we look at how to apply the concept of the area under the curve to a
broader set of functions through the use of the definite integral.

Definition and Notation

The definite integral generalizes the concept of the area under a curve. We lift the requirements that f (x) be continuous and
nonnegative, and define the definite integral as follows.

 Definition: Definite Integral

If f (x) is a function defined on an interval [a, b], the definite integral of f from a to b is given by
b n

∗
∫ f (x) dx = lim ∑ f (x )Δx,
i
n→∞
a i=1

provided the limit exists. If this limit exists, the function f (x) is said to be integrable on [a, b], or is an integrable function.

The integral symbol in the previous definition should look familiar. We have seen similar notation in the chapter on Applications of
Derivatives, where we used the indefinite integral symbol (without the a and b above and below) to represent an antiderivative.
Although the notation for indefinite integrals may look similar to the notation for a definite integral, they are not the same. A
definite integral is a number. An indefinite integral is a family of functions. Later in this chapter we examine how these concepts
are related. However, close attention should always be paid to notation so we know whether we’re working with a definite integral
or an indefinite integral.
Integral notation goes back to the late seventeenth century and is one of the contributions of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who is
often considered to be the codiscoverer of calculus, along with Isaac Newton. The integration symbol ∫ is an elongated S ,
suggesting sigma or summation. On a definite integral, above and below the summation symbol are the boundaries of the interval,
[a, b]. The numbers a and b are x-values and are called the limits of integration; specifically, a is the lower limit and b is the

upper limit. To clarify, we are using the word limit in two different ways in the context of the definite integral. First, we talk about
the limit of a sum as n → ∞. Second, the boundaries of the region are called the limits of integration.
We call the function f (x) the integrand, and the dx indicates that f (x) is a function with respect to x, called the variable of
integration. Note that, like the index in a sum, the variable of integration is a dummy variable, and has no impact on the
computation of the integral. We could use any variable we like as the variable of integration:
b b b

∫ f (x) dx = ∫ f (t) dt = ∫ f (u) du

a a a

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Previously, we discussed the fact that if f (x) is continuous on [a, b], then the limit lim ∑ f (x )Δx
∗
i
exists and is unique. This
n→∞
i=1

leads to the following theorem, which we state without proof.

 Continuous Functions Are Integrable

If f (x) is continuous on [a, b], then f is integrable on [a, b].

Functions that are not continuous on [a, b] may still be integrable, depending on the nature of the discontinuities. For example,
functions with a finite number of jump discontinuities or removable discontinuities on a closed interval are integrable.
It is also worth noting here that we have retained the use of a regular partition in the Riemann sums. This restriction is not strictly
necessary. Any partition can be used to form a Riemann sum. However, if a nonregular partition is used to define the definite
integral, it is not sufficient to take the limit as the number of subintervals goes to infinity. Instead, we must take the limit as the
width of the largest subinterval goes to zero. This introduces a little more complex notation in our limits and makes the calculations
more difficult without really gaining much additional insight, so we stick with regular partitions for the Riemann sums.

 Example 5.2.1: Evaluating an Integral Using the Definition

Use the definition of the definite integral to evaluate ∫ x

2
dx. Use a right-endpoint approximation to generate the Riemann
0

sum.
Solution
We first want to set up a Riemann sum. Based on the limits of integration, we have a = 0 and b = 2 . For i = 0, 1, 2, … , n, let
P = x be a regular partition of [0, 2]. Then
i

b −a 2
Δx = = .
n n

Since we are using a right-endpoint approximation to generate Riemann sums, for each i, we need to calculate the function
value at the right endpoint of the interval [x , x ]. The right endpoint of the interval is x , and since P is a regular partition,
i−1 i i

2 2i
xi = x0 + iΔx = 0 + i [ ] = .
n n

Thus, the function value at the right endpoint of the interval is

2 2
2i 4i
2
f (xi ) = x =( ) = .
i 2
n n

Then the Riemann sum takes the form

n n 2 n 2 n
4i 2 8i 8
2
∑ f (xi )Δx = ∑ ( ) =∑ = ∑i .
2 3 3
n n n n
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1

Using the summation formula for ∑ i , we have 2

i=1

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n n
8 2
∑ f (xi )Δx = ∑i
3
n
i=1 i=1

8 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
= [ ]
3
n 6

3 2
8 2n + 3n +n
= [ ]
3
n 6

3 2
16 n + 24 n +n
=
3
6n

8 4 1
= + + .
2
3 n 6n

Now, to calculate the definite integral, we need to take the limit as n → ∞ . We get
2 n

2
∫ x dx = lim ∑ f (xi )Δx
n→∞
0
i=1

8 4 1
= lim ( + + )
2
n→∞ 3 n 6n

8 4 1
= lim ( ) + lim ( ) + lim ( )
2
n→∞ 3 n→∞ n n→∞ 6n

8 8
= +0 +0 = .
3 3

 Exercise 5.2.1
3

Use the definition of the definite integral to evaluate ∫ (2x − 1) dx .

Use a right-endpoint approximation to generate the Riemann sum.

Hint
Use the solving strategy from Example 5.2.1.

Answer
6

Evaluating Definite Integrals

Evaluating definite integrals this way can be quite tedious because of the complexity of the calculations. Later in this chapter we
develop techniques for evaluating definite integrals without taking limits of Riemann sums. However, for now, we can rely on the
fact that definite integrals represent the area under the curve, and we can evaluate definite integrals by using geometric formulas to
calculate that area. We do this to confirm that definite integrals do, indeed, represent areas, so we can then discuss what to do in the
case of a curve of a function dropping below the x-axis.

 Example 5.2.2: Using Geometric Formulas to Calculate Definite Integrals

6
−−−−−−−−−−
Use the formula for the area of a circle to evaluate ∫ √9 − (x − 3)
2
dx .
3

Solution
The function describes a semicircle with radius 3. To find

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6 −−−−−−−−−−
2
∫ √ 9 − (x − 3) dx
3

we want to find the area under the curve over the interval [3, 6]. The formula for the area of a circle is A = πr . The area of a 2

1
semicircle is just one-half the area of a circle, or A = πr
2
. The shaded area in Figure 5.2.1 covers one-half of the semicircle,
2
1
or A = 2
πr . Thus,
4

6 −−−−−−−−−−
2
1 2
9
∫ √ 9 − (x − 3) dx = π(3 ) = π ≈ 7.069.
3
4 4

Figure 5.2.1 : The value of the integral of the function f (x) over the interval [3, 6] is the area of the shaded region.

 Exercise 5.2.2
4

Use the formula for the area of a trapezoid to evaluate ∫ (2x + 3) dx .

Hint
Graph the function f (x) and calculate the area under the function on the interval [2, 4].

Answer
18 square units

Area and the Definite Integral

When we defined the definite integral, we lifted the requirement that f (x) be nonnegative. But how do we interpret “the area under
the curve” when f (x) is negative?

Net Signed Area

Let us return to the Riemann sum. Consider, for example, the function f (x) = 2 − 2x (shown in Figure 5.2.2) on the interval
2

[0, 2]. Use n = 8 and choose {x } as the left endpoint of each interval. Construct a rectangle on each subinterval of height f (x )
∗ ∗
i i

and width Δx. When f (x ) is positive, the product f (x )Δx represents the area of the rectangle, as before. When f (x ) is
∗
i
∗
i
∗
i

negative, however, the product f (x )Δx represents the negative of the area of the rectangle. The Riemann sum then becomes
∗
i

∗
∑ f (x )Δx = (Area of rectangles above the x-axis) − (Area of rectangles below the x-axis)
i

i=1

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Figure 5.2.2 : For a function that is partly negative, the Riemann sum is the area of the rectangles above the x -axis less the area of
the rectangles below the x -axis.
Taking the limit as n → ∞, the Riemann sum approaches the area between the curve above the x-axis and the x-axis, less the area
between the curve below the x-axis and the x-axis, as shown in Figure 5.2.3. Then,
2 n

∫ f (x) dx = lim ∑ f (ci )Δx = A1 − A2 .

n→∞
0
i=1

The quantity A 1 − A2 is called the net signed area.

Figure 5.2.3 : In the limit, the definite integral equals area A less area A , or the net signed area.
1 2

Notice that net signed area can be positive, negative, or zero. If the area above the x-axis is larger, the net signed area is positive. If
the area below the x-axis is larger, the net signed area is negative. If the areas above and below the x-axis are equal, the net signed
area is zero.

 Example 5.2.3: Finding the Net Signed Area

Find the net signed area between the curve of the function f (x) = 2x and the x-axis over the interval [−3, 3].
Solution
The function produces a straight line that forms two triangles: one from x = −3 to x = 0 and the other from x = 0 to x =3

1
(Figure 5.2.4). Using the geometric formula for the area of a triangle, A = bh , the area of triangle A , above the axis, is
1
2

1
A1 = 3(6) = 9 ,
2

where 3 is the base and 2(3) = 6 is the height. The area of triangle A , below the axis, is
2

1
A2 = (3)(6) = 9,
2

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where 3 is the base and 6 is the height. Thus, the net area is
3

∫ 2x dx = A1 − A2 = 9 − 9 = 0.
−3

Figure 5.2.4 : The area above the curve and below the x -axis equals the area below the curve and above the x -axis.
Analysis
If A is the area above the x-axis and A is the area below the x-axis, then the net area is A
1 2 1 − A2 . Since the areas of the two
triangles are equal, the net area is zero.

 Exercise 5.2.3

Find the net signed area of f (x) = x − 2 over the interval [0, 6], illustrated in the following image.

Hint
Use the solving method described in Example 5.2.3.

Answer
6

Total Area
One application of the definite integral is finding displacement when given a velocity function. If v(t) represents the velocity of an
object as a function of time, then the area under the curve tells us how far the object is from its original position. This is a very
important application of the definite integral, and we examine it in more detail later in the chapter. For now, we’re just going to
look at some basics to get a feel for how this works by studying constant velocities.
When velocity is a constant, the area under the curve is just velocity times time. This idea is already very familiar. If a car travels
away from its starting position in a straight line at a speed of 70 mph for 2 hours, then it is 140 miles away from its original
position (Figure 5.2.5). Using integral notation, we have
2

∫ 70 dt = 140 miles.
0

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Figure 5.2.5 : The area under the curve v(t) = 70 tells us how far the car is from its starting point at a given time.
In the context of displacement, net signed area allows us to take direction into account. If a car travels straight north at a speed of
60 mph for 2 hours, it is 120 miles north of its starting position. If the car then turns around and travels south at a speed of 40 mph
for 3 hours, it will be back at it starting position (Figure 5.2.6). Again, using integral notation, we have
2 5

∫ 60 dt + ∫ −40 dt = 120 − 120 = 0.

0 2

In this case the displacement is zero.

Figure 5.2.6 : The area above the axis and the area below the axis are equal, so the net signed area is zero.
Suppose we want to know how far the car travels overall, regardless of direction. In this case, we want to know the area between
the curve and the t -axis, regardless of whether that area is above or below the axis. This is called the total area.
Graphically, it is easiest to think of calculating total area by adding the areas above the axis and the areas below the axis (rather
than subtracting the areas below the axis, as we did with net signed area). To accomplish this mathematically, we use the absolute
value function. Thus, the total distance traveled by the car is
2 5 2 5

∫ |60| dt + ∫ | − 40| dt = ∫ 60 dt + ∫ 40 dt = 120 + 120 = 240.

0 2 0 2

Bringing these ideas together formally, we state the following definitions.

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 Definition: Net Signed Area
Let f (x) be an integrable function defined on an interval [a, b]. Let A represent the area between f (x) and the x-axis that lies
1

above the axis and let A represent the area between f (x) and the x-axis that lies below the axis. Then, the net signed area
2

between f (x) and the x-axis is given by

∫ f (x) dx = A1 − A2 .
a

The total area between f (x) and the x-axis is given by

∫ |f (x)| dx = A1 + A2 .
a

 Example 5.2.4: Finding the Total Area

Find the total area between f (x) = x − 2 and the x-axis over the interval [0, 6].
Solution
Calculate the x-intercept as (2, 0) (set y = 0, solve for x). To find the total area, take the area below the x -axis over the
subinterval [0, 2] and add it to the area above the x-axis on the subinterval [2, 6] (Figure 5.2.7).

Figure 5.2.7 : The total area between the line and the x -axis over [0, 6] is A plus A .
2 1

We have
6

∫ |(x − 2)| dx = A2 + A1 .
0

Then, using the formula for the area of a triangle, we obtain

1 1
A2 = bh = ⋅2⋅2 =2
2 2

1 1
A1 = bh = ⋅ 4 ⋅ 4 = 8.
2 2

The total area, then, is

2
A1 + A2 = 8 + 2 = 10 units .

 Exercise 5.2.4
Find the total area between the function f (x) = 2x and the x-axis over the interval [−3, 3].

Hint
Review the solving strategy in Example 5.2.4.

Answer
2
18 units

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Properties of the Definite Integral
The properties of indefinite integrals apply to definite integrals as well. Definite integrals also have properties that relate to the
limits of integration. These properties, along with the rules of integration that we examine later in this chapter, help us manipulate
expressions to evaluate definite integrals.

 Rule: Properties of the Definite Integral

1.
a

∫ f (x) dx = 0
a

If the limits of integration are the same, the integral is just a line and contains no area.
2.
a b

∫ f (x) dx = − ∫ f (x) dx
b a

If the limits are reversed, then place a negative sign in front of the integral.
3.
b b b

∫ [f (x) + g(x)] dx = ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ g(x) dx

a a a

The integral of a sum is the sum of the integrals.

4.
b b b

∫ [f (x) − g(x)] dx = ∫ f (x) dx − ∫ g(x) dx

a a a

The integral of a difference is the difference of the integrals.

5.
b b

∫ cf (x) dx = c ∫ f (x) dx
a a

for constant c . The integral of the product of a constant and a function is equal to the constant multiplied by the integral of the
function.
6.
b c b

∫ f (x) dx = ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ f (x) dx

a a c

Although this formula normally applies when c is between a and b , the formula holds for all values of a , b , and c , provided
f (x) is integrable on the largest interval.

 Example 5.2.5: Using the Properties of the Definite Integral

Use the properties of the definite integral to express the definite integral of f (x) = −3x 3
+ 2x + 2 over the interval [−2, 1] as
the sum of three definite integrals.
Solution
1

Using integral notation, we have ∫ (−3 x

3
+ 2x + 2) dx. We apply properties 3. and 5. to get
−2

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1 1 1 1
3 3
∫ (−3 x + 2x + 2) dx = ∫ −3 x dx + ∫ 2x dx + ∫ 2 dx
−2 −2 −2 −2

1 1 1
3
= −3 ∫ x dx + 2 ∫ x dx + ∫ 2 dx.
−2 −2 −2

 Exercise 5.2.5
Use the properties of the definite integral to express the definite integral of f (x) = 6 x
3
− 4x
2
+ 2x − 3 over the interval
[1, 3] as the sum of four definite integrals.

Hint
Use the solving strategy from Example 5.2.5and the properties of definite integrals.

Answer
3 3 3 3
3 2
6∫ x dx − 4 ∫ x dx + 2 ∫ x dx − ∫ 3 dx
1 1 1 1

 Example 5.2.6: Using the Properties of the Definite Integral

8 5 8

If it is known that ∫ f (x) dx = 10 and ∫ f (x) dx = 5 , find the value of ∫ f (x) dx .

0 0 5

Solution
By property 6,
b c b

∫ f (x) dx = ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ f (x) dx.

a a c

Thus,
8 5 8

∫ f (x) dx = ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ f (x) dx

0 0 5

10 = 5 + ∫ f (x) dx
5

5 =∫ f (x) dx.
5

 Exercise 5.2.6
5 5 2

If it is known that ∫ f (x) dx = −3 and ∫ f (x) dx = 4 , find the value of ∫ f (x) dx.
1 2 1

Hint
Use the solving strategy from Example 5.2.6and the rule on properties of definite integrals.

Answer
−7

Comparison Properties of Integrals

A picture can sometimes tell us more about a function than the results of computations. Comparing functions by their graphs as
well as by their algebraic expressions can often give new insight into the process of integration. Intuitively, we might say that if a

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function f (x) is above another function g(x), then the area between f (x) and the x-axis is greater than the area between g(x) and
the x-axis. This is true depending on the interval over which the comparison is made. The properties of definite integrals are valid
whether a < b, a = b , or a > b . The following properties, however, concern only the case a ≤ b , and are used when we want to
compare the sizes of integrals.

 Comparison Theorem

i. If f (x) ≥ 0 for a ≤ x ≤ b , then

∫ f (x) dx ≥ 0.
a

ii. If f (x) ≥ g(x) for a ≤ x ≤ b , then

b b

∫ f (x) dx ≥ ∫ g(x) dx.

a a

iii. If m and M are constants such that m ≤ f (x) ≤ M for a ≤ x ≤ b , then

m(b − a) ≤ ∫ f (x) dx ≤ M (b − a).

 Example 5.2.7: Comparing Two Functions over a Given Interval

−−−−− −−−−−
Compare f (x) = √1 + x and g(x) = √1 + x over the interval [0, 1].
2

Solution
Graphing these functions is necessary to understand how they compare over the interval [0, 1]. Initially, when graphed on a
graphing calculator, f (x) appears to be above g(x) everywhere. However, on the interval [0, 1], the graphs appear to be on top
of each other. We need to zoom in to see that, on the interval [0, 1], g(x) is above f (x). The two functions intersect at x = 0
and x = 1 (Figure 5.2.8).

Figure 5.2.8 : (a) The function f (x) appears above the function g(x) except over the interval [0, 1] (b) Viewing the same graph
with a greater zoom shows this more clearly.
We can see from the graph that over the interval [0, 1], g(x) ≥ f (x) . Comparing the integrals over the specified interval [0, 1],
1 1

we also see that ∫ g(x) dx ≥ ∫ f (x) dx (Figure 5.2.9). The thin, red-shaded area shows just how much difference there is
0 0

between these two integrals over the interval [0, 1].

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Figure 5.2.9 : (a) The graph shows that over the interval [0, 1], g(x) ≥ f (x), where equality holds only at the endpoints of the
interval. (b) Viewing the same graph with a greater zoom shows this more clearly.

Average Value of a Function

We often need to find the average of a set of numbers, such as an average test grade. Suppose you received the following test scores
in your algebra class: 89, 90, 56, 78, 100, and 69. Your semester grade is your average of test scores and you want to know what
grade to expect. We can find the average by adding all the scores and dividing by the number of scores. In this case, there are six
test scores. Thus,
89 + 90 + 56 + 78 + 100 + 69 482
= ≈ 80.33.
6 6

Therefore, your average test grade is approximately 80.33, which translates to a B− at most schools.
Suppose, however, that we have a function v(t) that gives us the speed of an object at any time t , and we want to find the object’s
average speed. The function v(t) takes on an infinite number of values, so we can’t use the process just described. Fortunately, we
can use a definite integral to find the average value of a function such as this.
Let f (x) be continuous over the interval [a, b] and let [a, b] be divided into n subintervals of width Δx = (b − a)/n . Choose a
representative x in each subinterval and calculate f (x ) for i = 1, 2, … , n. In other words, consider each f (x ) as a sampling of
∗
i
∗
i
∗
i

the function over each subinterval. The average value of the function may then be approximated as
∗ ∗ ∗
f (x ) + f (x ) + ⋯ + f (xn )
1 2
fave ≈ ,
n

which is basically the same expression used to calculate the average of discrete values.
b −a b −a
But we know Δx = , so n = , and we get
n Δx

∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
f (x ) + f (x ) + ⋯ + f (xn ) f (x ) + f (x ) + ⋯ + f (xn )
1 2 1 2
fave ≈ = .
n b −a
( )
Δx

Following through with the algebra, the numerator is a sum that is represented as ∑ f (x ∗ i), and we are dividing by a fraction.
n

i=1

To divide by a fraction, invert the denominator and multiply. Thus, an approximate value for the average value of the function is
given by
n ∗ n n
∑i=1 f (x ) Δx 1
i ∗ ∗
=( ) ∑ f (x ) = ( ) ∑ f (x )Δx.
i i
b −a b −a b −a
i=1 i=1
( )
Δx

This is a Riemann sum. Then, to get the exact average value, take the limit as n goes to infinity. Thus, the average value of a
function is given by
n b
1 1
lim ∑ f (xi )Δx = ∫ f (x)dx.
b −a n→∞ b −a a
i=1

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 Definition: Average Value of a Function
Let f (x) be continuous over the interval [a, b]. Then, the average value of the function f (x) (or f ave ) on [a, b] is given by
b
1
fave = ∫ f (x) dx. (5.2.1)
b −a a

 Example 5.2.8: Finding the Average Value of a Linear Function

Find the average value of f (x) = x + 1 over the interval [0, 5].
Solution
First, graph the function on the stated interval, as shown in Figure 5.2.10.

Figure 5.2.10 :The graph shows the area under the function (x) = x + 1 over [0, 5].
1
The region is a trapezoid lying on its side, so we can use the area formula for a trapezoid A = h(a + b), where h represents
2
height, and a and b represent the two parallel sides. Then,
5
1 1 35
∫ x + 1 dx = h(a + b) = ⋅ 5 ⋅ (1 + 6) = .
0
2 2 2

Thus the average value of the function is

5
1 1 35 7
∫ x + 1 dx = ⋅ = .
5 −0 0 5 2 2

 Exercise 5.2.7
Find the average value of f (x) = 6 − 2x over the interval [0, 3].

Hint
Use the average value formula (Equation 5.2.1), and use geometry to evaluate the integral.

Answer
3

Key Concepts
The definite integral can be used to calculate net signed area, which is the area above the x-axis less the area below the x-axis.
Net signed area can be positive, negative, or zero.
The component parts of the definite integral are the integrand, the variable of integration, and the limits of integration.
Continuous functions on a closed interval are integrable. Functions that are not continuous may still be integrable, depending on
the nature of the discontinuities.
The properties of definite integrals can be used to evaluate integrals.
The area under the curve of many functions can be calculated using geometric formulas.

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The average value of a function can be calculated using definite integrals.

Key Equations
Definite Integral
b n

∗
∫ f (x) dx = lim ∑ f (x )Δx
i
n→∞
a i=1

Properties of the Definite Integral

∫ f (x) dx = 0
a

a b

∫ f (x) dx = − ∫ f (x) dx
b a

b b b

∫ [f (x) + g(x)] dx = ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ g(x) dx

a a a

b b b

∫ [f (x) − g(x)] dx = ∫ f (x) dx − ∫ g(x) dx

a a a

b b

∫ cf (x) dx = c ∫ f (x) dx , for constant c

a a

b c b

∫ f (x) dx = ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ f (x) dx

a a c

Glossary
average value of a function
(or f ) the average value of a function on an interval can be found by calculating the definite integral of the function and
ave

dividing that value by the length of the interval

definite integral
a primary operation of calculus; the area between the curve and the x -axis over a given interval is a definite integral

integrable function
a function is integrable if the limit defining the integral exists; in other words, if the limit of the Riemann sums as n goes to
infinity exists

integrand
the function to the right of the integration symbol; the integrand includes the function being integrated

limits of integration
these values appear near the top and bottom of the integral sign and define the interval over which the function should be
integrated

net signed area

the area between a function and the x -axis such that the area below the x -axis is subtracted from the area above the x -axis; the
result is the same as the definite integral of the function

total area
total area between a function and the x -axis is calculated by adding the area above the x -axis and the area below the x -axis; the
result is the same as the definite integral of the absolute value of the function

variable of integration
indicates which variable you are integrating with respect to; if it is x , then the function in the integrand is followed by dx

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This page titled 5.2: The Definite Integral is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert
Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit
history is available upon request.
5.2: The Definite Integral by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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5.2E: EXERCISES FOR SECTION 5.2
In exercises 1 - 4, express the limits as integrals.
n

1) lim ∑(xi )Δx

∗
over [1, 3]
n→∞
i=1

2) lim ∑(5(x )
∗
i
2
− 3(x ) )Δx
∗
i
3
over [0, 2]
n→∞
i=1

Answer
2

2 3
∫ (5x − 3x ) dx
0

3) lim ∑ sin (2πx )Δx

2 ∗
i
over [0, 1]
n→∞
i=1

4) lim ∑ cos (2πxi )Δx

2 ∗
over [0, 1]
n→∞
i=1

Answer
1
2
∫ cos (2πx) dx
0

In exercises 5 - 10, given L or R as indicated, express their limits as n → ∞ as definite integrals, identifying the correct intervals.
n n

n
1 i− 1
5) L n = ∑
n n
i=1

n
1 i
6) R n = ∑
n n
i=1

Answer
1

∫ x dx
0

n
2 i− 1
7) Ln = ∑(1 + 2 )
n n
i=1

n
3 i
8) R n = ∑(3 + 3 )
n n
i=1

Answer
6

∫ x dx
3

n
2π i− 1 i− 1
9) L n = ∑ 2π cos(2π )
n n n
i=1

n
1 i i
10 R n = ∑(1 + ) log((1 +
2
) )
n n n
i=1

Answer
2

2
∫ x log(x ) dx
1

In exercises 11 - 16, evaluate the integrals of the functions graphed using the formulas for areas of triangles and circles, and
subtracting the areas below the x-axis.
11)

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12)

Answer
1 + 2 ⋅ 2 + 3 ⋅ 3 = 14

13)

14)

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Answer
1− 4+ 9 = 6

15)

16)

Answer
1 − 2π + 9 = 10 − 2π

In exercises 17 - 24, evaluate the integral using area formulas.

17) ∫ (3 − x) dx
0

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3

18) ∫ (3 − x) dx
2

Answer
The integral is the area of the triangle, 1

2
.

19) ∫ (3 − |x|) dx
−3

20) ∫ (3 − |x − 3|) dx
0

Answer
The integral is the area of the triangle, 9.
2
−−−− −
21) ∫ √4 − x2 dx

−2

5 −−−−−−−−−−
22) ∫ √4 − (x − 3)
2
dx
1

Answer
The integral is the area 1

2
2
πr = 2π.

12 −−−−−−−−−−−
23) ∫ √36 − (x − 6)
2
dx
0

24) ∫ (3 − |x|) dx
−2

Answer
The integral is the area of the “big” triangle less the “missing” triangle, 9 − 1

2
.

In exercises 25 - 28, use averages of values at the left (L) and right (R) endpoints to compute the integrals of the piecewise linear
functions with graphs that pass through the given list of points over the indicated intervals.
25) (0, 0), (2, 1), (4, 3), (5, 0), (6, 0), (8, 3) over [0, 8]
26) (0, 2), (1, 0), (3, 5), (5, 5), (6, 2), (8, 0) over [0, 8]

Answer
L+ R
L = 2 + 0 + 10 + 5 + 4 = 21, R = 0 + 10 + 10 + 2 + 0 = 22, = 21.5
2

27) (−4, −4), (−2, 0), (0, −2), (3, 3), (4, 3) over [−4, 4]
28) (−4, 0), (−2, 2), (0, 0), (1, 2), (3, 2), (4, 0) over [−4, 4]

Answer
L+ R
L = 0 + 4 + 0 + 4 + 2 = 10, R = 4 + 0 + 2 + 4 + 0 = 10, = 10
2

4 2 4 2

Suppose that ∫ f(x) dx = 5 and ∫ f(x) dx = −3 , and ∫ g(x) dx = −1 and ∫ g(x) dx = 2 . In exercises 29 - 34, compute the
0 0 0 0

integrals.
4

29) ∫ (f(x) + g(x)) dx

30) ∫ (f(x) + g(x)) dx

Answer
4 4

∫ f(x) dx + ∫ g(x) dx = 8 − 3 = 5
2 2

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2

31) ∫ (f(x) − g(x)) dx

32) ∫ (f(x) − g(x)) dx

Answer
4 4

∫ f(x) dx − ∫ g(x) dx = 8 + 3 = 11
2 2

33) ∫ (3f(x) − 4g(x)) dx

34) ∫ (4f(x) − 3g(x)) dx

Answer
4 4

4∫ f(x) dx − 3 ∫ g(x) dx = 32 + 9 = 41
2 2

A 0 A

In exercises 35 - 38, use the identity ∫ f(x) dx = ∫ f(x) dx + ∫ f(x) dx to compute the integrals.
−A −A 0

π
sin t
35) ∫ 2
dt (Hint: sin(−t) = − sin(t))
−π 1+ t

√π
t
36) ∫ dt
√−π
1 + cos t

Answer
The integrand is odd; the integral is zero.
3

37) ∫ (2 − x) dx (Hint: Look at the graph of f .)

38) ∫ (x − 3)
3
dx (Hint: Look at the graph of f .)
2

Answer
The integrand is antisymmetric with respect to x = 3. The integral is zero.
1 1 1
1 1 1
In exercises 39 - 44, given that ∫ x dx = , ∫
2
x dx = , and ∫ x
3
dx = , compute the integrals.
0 2 0 3 0 4

39) ∫ (1 + x + x
2 3
+ x ) dx
0

40) ∫ (1 − x + x
2 3
− x ) dx
0

Answer
1 1 1 7
1− + − =
2 3 4 12

41) ∫ (1 − x)
2
dx
0

42) ∫ (1 − 2x)
3
dx
0

Answer
1
2 3
1 1 1
∫ (1 − 6x + 12x − 8x ) dx = 1 − 6 ( ) + 12 ( )− 8( ) = 1− 3+ 4− 2 = 0
0 2 3 4

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1

43) ∫ (6x −
4

3
2
x ) dx
0

44) ∫ 3
(7 − 5x ) dx
0

Answer
5 23
7− =
4 4

In exercises 45 - 50, use the comparison theorem.

45) Show that ∫ (x

2
− 6x + 9) dx ≥ 0.
0

46) Show that ∫ (x − 3)(x + 2) dx ≤ 0.

−2

Answer
The integrand is negative over [−2, 3].
1 1
−−−− − −−−− −
47) Show that ∫ 3
√1 + x dx ≤ ∫
2
√1 + x dx .
0 0

2 2
−−−−− −−−− −
48) Show that ∫ √1 + x dx ≤ ∫
2
√1 + x dx.

1 1

Answer
−−−−− −−−− −
x ≤ x
2
over [1, 2] , so √1 + x ≤ √1 + x
2
over [1, 2].
π/2
π
49) Show that ∫ sin tdt ≥ (Hint: sin t ≥ 2t

π
over [0, π

2
])
0
4

π/4
–
50) Show that ∫ cos t dt ≥ π√2/4 .
−π/4

Answer
–
√2
cos(t) ≥ . Multiply by the length of the interval to get the inequality.
2

In exercises 51 - 56, find the average value f ave of f between a and b , and find a point c , where f(c) = f ave

51) f(x) = x 2
, a = −1, b = 1

52) f(x) = x 5
, a = −1, b = 1

Answer
fave = 0; c = 0

−−−−−
53) f(x) = √4 − x 2
, a = 0, b = 2

54) f(x) = 3 − |x|, a = −3, b = 3

Answer
when c = ±
3

2
3

55) f(x) = sin x, a = 0, b = 2π

56) f(x) = cos x, a = 0, b = 2π

Answer
π 3π
fave = 0; c = ,
2 2

In exercises 57 - 60, approximate the average value using Riemann sums L 100 and R100 . How does your answer compare with the
exact given answer?

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ln(256)
57) [T] y = ln(x) over the interval [1, 4] ; the exact solution is − 1.
3

58) [T] y = e x/2

over the interval [0, 1] ; the exact solution is 2(√e − 1).

Answer
L100 = 1.294, R100 = 1.301; the exact average is between these values.

2 ln(2)
59) [T] y = tan x over the interval [0, π

4
] ; the exact solution is .
π

x+1 π
60) [T] y = −−−− − over the interval [−1, 1] ; the exact solution is .
√4 − x2 6

Answer
1 1
L100 × ( ) = 0.5178, R100 × ( ) = 0.5294
2 2

In exercises 61 - 64, compute the average value using the left Riemann sums L for N N = 1, 10, 100 . How does the accuracy compare
with the given exact value?
61) [T] y = x 2
−4 over the interval [0, 2] ; the exact solution is − . 8

62) [T] y = xe over the interval [0, 2] ; the exact solution is

2
x 1 4
(e − 1).
4

Answer
L1 = 0, L10 × (
1

2
) = 8.743493, L100 × (
1

2
) = 12.861728. The exact answer ≈ 26.799, so L 100 is not accurate.
x
1 15
63) [T] y = ( ) over the interval [0, 4] ; the exact solution is .
2 64 ln(2)

2
cos(π ) − 1
64) [T] y = x sin(x 2
) over the interval [−π, 0]; the exact solution is
2π.

Answer
L1 × (
1

π
) = 1.352, L10 × (
1

π
) = −0.1837, L100 × (1π) = −0.2956. The exact answer ≈ −0.303, so L 100 is not accurate to the
first decimal.
2π 2π

65) Suppose that A = ∫ sin

2
t dt and B = ∫ cos
2
t dt. Show that A + B = 2π and A = B.
0 0

π/4 π/4
π
66) Suppose that A = ∫ sec
2
t dt = π and B = ∫ 4 tan
2
t dt. Show that A − B = .
−π/4 −π/ 2

Answer
π/4
π
Use tan 2
θ + 1 = sec
2
θ. Then, B − A = ∫ 1 dx = .
−π/4 2

67) Show that the average value of sin 2

t over [0, 2π] is equal to 1/2. Without further calculation, determine whether the average value of
sin t over [0, π] is also equal to 1/2.
2

68) Show that the average value of cos 2

t over [0, 2π] is equal to 1/2. Without further calculation, determine whether the average value of
cos (t) over [0, π] is also equal to 1/2.
2

Answer
2π

∫ cos
2
t dt = π, so divide by the length 2π of the interval. cos 2
t has period π , so yes, it is true.
0

69) Explain why the graphs of a quadratic function (parabola) p(x) and a linear function ℓ(x) can intersect in at most two points. Suppose
b b d d

that p(a) = ℓ(a) and p(b) = ℓ(b) , and that ∫ p(t) dt > ∫ ℓ(t)dt . Explain why ∫ p(t) > ∫ ℓ(t) dt whenever a ≤ c < d ≤ b.
a a c c

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−b
70) Suppose that parabola p(x) = a x 2
+ bx + c opens downward (a < 0) and has a vertex of y = > 0 . For which interval [A, B] is
2a
B

∫ (a x
2
+ bx + c) dx as large as possible?
A

Answer
2
−b− √b −4ac

The integral is maximized when one uses the largest interval on which p is nonnegative. Thus, A = 2a
and
2
−b+ √b −4ac

B = .
2a

71) Suppose [a, b] can be subdivided into subintervals a = a 0 < a1 < a2 < ⋯ < aN = b such that either f ≥ 0 over [a i−1 , ai ] or f ≤ 0
ai

over [a i−1 , ai ] . Set A i = ∫ f(t) dt.

ai−1

a. Explain why ∫ f(t) dt = A1 + A2 + ⋯ + AN .

b b

b. Then, explain why ∫ f(t) dt ≤ ∫ |f(t)| dt.

a a

d d

72) Suppose f and g are continuous functions such that ∫ f(t) dt ≤ ∫ g(t) dt for every subinterval [c, d] of [a, b] . Explain why
c c

f(x) ≤ g(x) for all values of x.

Answer
If f(t 0) > g(t0 ) for some t 0 ∈ [a, b] , then since f − g is continuous, there is an interval containing t such that f(t) > g(t) over 0

d d

the interval [c, d] , and then ∫ f(t) dt > ∫ g(t) dt over this interval.
d c

73) Suppose the average value of f over [a, b] is 1 and the average value of f over [b, c] is 1 where a < c < b . Show that the average value
of f over [a, c] is also 1.
74) Suppose that [a, b] can be partitioned. taking a = a < a < ⋯ < a = b such that the average value of f over each subinterval
0 1 N

[a , a ] = 1 is equal to 1 for each i = 1, … , N . Explain why the average value of f over [a, b] is also equal to 1.
i−1 i

Answer
The integral of f over an interval is the same as the integral of the average of f over that interval. Thus,
b a1 a2 aN a1 a2 aN

∫ f(t) dt = ∫ f(t) dt + ∫ 1f (t) dt + ⋯ + ∫ f(t) dt = ∫ 1 dt + ∫ 1 dt + ⋯ + ∫ 1 dt

a a0 a aN+1 a0 a1 aN+1

= (a1 − a0 ) + (a2 − a1 ) + ⋯ + (aN − aN−1 ) = aN − a0 = b − a .

Dividing through by b − a gives the desired identity.
i N
N (N + 1)
75) Suppose that for each i such that 1 ≤ i ≤ N one has ∫ f(t) dt = i . Show that ∫ f(t) dt = .
i−1 0
2

i N
N (N + 1)(2N + 1)
76) Suppose that for each i such that 1 ≤ i ≤ N one has ∫ f(t) dt = i
2
. Show that ∫ f(t) dt = .
i−1 0 6

Answer
N N i N
N (N + 1)(2N + 1)
2
∫ f(t) dt = ∑ ∫ f(t) dt = ∑ i =
0 i−1 6
i=1 i=1

L10 + R10
77) [T] Compute the left and right Riemann sums L10 and R10 and their average for f(t) = t
2
over [0, 1] . Given that
2
1
L10 + R10
∫ t
2
dt = 1/3 , to how many decimal places is accurate?
0
2

L10 + R10
78) [T] Compute the left and right Riemann sums, L 10 and R , and their average
10 for f(t) = (4 − t 2
) over [1, 2] . Given that
2
2
L10 + R10
∫
2
(4 − t ) dt = 1.66 , to how many decimal places is accurate?
1
2

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Answer
L10 + R10
L10 = 1.815, R10 = 1.515,
2
= 1.665, so the estimate is accurate to two decimal places.
5 5
−−−−− −−−− −
79) If ∫ √1 + t4 dt = 41.7133..., what is ∫ √1 + u4 du?

1 1

80) Estimate ∫ t dt using the left and right endpoint sums, each with a single rectangle. How does the average of these left and right
0
1

endpoint sums compare with the actual value ∫ t dt?

Answer
The average is 1/2, which is equal to the integral in this case.
1
1
81) Estimate ∫ t dt by comparison with the area of a single rectangle with height equal to the value of t at the midpoint t = . How does
0
2
1

this midpoint estimate compare with the actual value ∫ t dt?

82) From the graph of sin(2πx) shown:

a. Explain why ∫ sin(2πt) dt = 0.

a+1

b. Explain why, in general, ∫ sin(2πt) dt = 0 for any value of a .

Answer

a. The graph is antisymmetric with respect to t = over [0, 1] , so the average value is zero.
1

b. For any value of a , the graph between [a, a + 1] is a shift of the graph over [0, 1] , so the net areas above and below the axis do
not change and the average remains zero.
1

83) If f is 1-periodic (f(t + 1) = f(t)) , odd, and integrable over [0, 1] , is it always true that ∫ f(t) dt = 0?
0

1+a

84) If f is 1-periodic and ∫ 10f(t) dt = A, is it necessarily true that ∫ f(t) dt = A for all A ?
a

Answer
Yes, the integral over any interval of length 1 is the same.

5.2E: Exercises for Section 5.2 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
5.2E: Exercises for Section 5.2 has no license indicated.

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5.3: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
 Learning Objectives
Describe the meaning of the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals.
State the meaning of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1.
Use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1, to evaluate derivatives of integrals.
State the meaning of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2.
Use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2, to evaluate definite integrals.
Explain the relationship between differentiation and integration.

In the previous two sections, we looked at the definite integral and its relationship to the area under the curve of a function.
Unfortunately, so far, the only tools we have available to calculate the value of a definite integral are geometric area formulas and
limits of Riemann sums, and both approaches are extremely cumbersome. In this section we look at some more powerful and useful
techniques for evaluating definite integrals.
These new techniques rely on the relationship between differentiation and integration. This relationship was discovered and
explored by both Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (among others) during the late 1600s and early 1700s, and it is
codified in what we now call the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, which has two parts that we examine in this section. Its
very name indicates how central this theorem is to the entire development of calculus.
Isaac Newton’s contributions to mathematics and physics changed the way we look at the world. The relationships he discovered,
codified as Newton’s laws and the law of universal gravitation, are still taught as foundational material in physics today, and his
calculus has spawned entire fields of mathematics.
Before we get to this crucial theorem, however, let’s examine another important theorem, the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals,
which is needed to prove the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.

The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals

The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals states that a continuous function on a closed interval takes on its average value at the same
point in that interval. The theorem guarantees that if f (x) is continuous, a point c exists in an interval [a, b] such that the value of
the function at c is equal to the average value of f (x) over [a, b]. We state this theorem mathematically with the help of the formula
for the average value of a function that we presented at the end of the preceding section.

 Theorem 5.3.1: The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals

If f (x) is continuous over an interval [a, b], then there is at least one point c ∈ [a, b] such that
b
1
f (c) = ∫ f (x) dx.
b −a a

This formula can also be stated as

∫ f (x) dx = f (c)(b − a). (5.3.1)

Since f (x) is continuous on [a, b], by the extreme value theorem (see section on Maxima and Minima), it assumes minimum
and maximum values—m and M , respectively—on [a, b]. Then, for all x in [a, b], we have m ≤ f (x) ≤ M . Therefore, by
the comparison theorem (see Section on The Definite Integral), we have
b

m(b − a) ≤ ∫ f (x) dx ≤ M (b − a).

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 Proof

m(b − a) ≤ ∫ f (x) dx ≤ M (b − a).

Dividing by b − a gives us
b
1
m ≤ ∫ f (x) dx ≤ M .
b −a a

b
1
Since ∫ f (x) dx is a number between m and M , and since f (x) is continuous and assumes the values m and M over
b −a a

, by the Intermediate Value Theorem, there is a number c over [a, b] such that
[a, b]

b
1
f (c) = ∫ f (x) dx,
b −a a

and the proof is complete.

□

 Example 5.3.1: Finding the Average Value of a Function

Find the average value of the function f (x) = 8 − 2x over the interval [0, 4] and find c such that f (c) equals the average
value of the function over [0, 4].
Solution
The formula states the mean value of f (x) is given by
4
1
∫ (8 − 2x) dx.
4 −0 0

We can see in Figure 5.3.1 that the function represents a straight line and forms a right triangle bounded by the x- and y -axes.
The area of the triangle is A = (base)(height). We have
1

1
A = (4)(8) = 16.
2

The average value is found by multiplying the area by 1/(4 − 0). Thus, the average value of the function is
1
(16) = 4
4

Set the average value equal to f (c) and solve for c .

8 − 2c = 4

c =2

At c = 2, f (2) = 4 .

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Figure 5.3.1 : By the Mean Value Theorem, the continuous function f (x) takes on its average value at c at least once over a
closed interval.

 Exercise 5.3.1
x
Find the average value of the function f (x) = over the interval [0, 6] and find c such that f (c) equals the average value of
2
the function over [0, 6].

Hint
Use the procedures from Example 5.3.1to solve the problem

Answer
The average value is 1.5 and c = 3 .

 Example 5.3.2: Finding the Point Where a Function Takes on Its Average Value
3

Given ∫ 2
x dx = 9 , find c such that f (c) equals the average value of f (x) = x over [0, 3].2

Solution
We are looking for the value of c such that
3
1 1
2
f (c) = ∫ x dx = (9) = 3.
3 −0 0
3

Replacing f (c) with c , we have

2
c =3

–
c = ±√3.

– –
Since −√3 is outside the interval, take only the positive value. Thus, c = √3 (Figure 5.3.2).

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–
Figure 5.3.2 : Over the interval [0, 3] , the function f (x) = x takes on its average value at c = √3 .
2

 Exercise 5.3.2
3

Given ∫ 2
(2 x − 1) dx = 15 , find c such that f (c) equals the average value of f (x) = 2x 2
−1 over [0, 3].
0

Hint
Use the procedures from Example 5.3.2to solve the problem.

Answer
–
c = √3

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part 1: Integrals and Antiderivatives

As mentioned earlier, the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is an extremely powerful theorem that establishes the relationship
between differentiation and integration, and gives us a way to evaluate definite integrals without using Riemann sums or
calculating areas. The theorem is comprised of two parts, the first of which, the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1, is
stated here. Part 1 establishes the relationship between differentiation and integration.

 Theorem 5.3.2: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1

If f (x) is continuous over an interval [a, b], and the function F (x) is defined by
x

F (x) = ∫ f (t) dt,

then F '(x) = f (x) over [a, b].

Before we delve into the proof, a couple of subtleties are worth mentioning here. First, a comment on the notation. Note that we
have defined a function, F (x), as the definite integral of another function, f (t), from the point a to the point x. At first glance, this
is confusing, because we have said several times that a definite integral is a number, and here it looks like it’s a function. The key
here is to notice that for any particular value of x, the definite integral is a number. So the function F (x) returns a number (the
value of the definite integral) for each value of x.
Second, it is worth commenting on some of the key implications of this theorem. There is a reason it is called the Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus. Not only does it establish a relationship between integration and differentiation, but also it guarantees that
any integrable function has an antiderivative. Specifically, it guarantees that any continuous function has an antiderivative.

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 Proof: Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1

Applying the definition of the derivative, we have

F (x + h) − F (x)
F '(x) = lim
h→0 h

x+h x
1
= lim [∫ f (t)dt − ∫ f (t) dt]
h→0 h a a

x+h a
1
= lim [∫ f (t) dt + ∫ f (t) dt]
h→0 h a x

x+h
1
= lim ∫ f (t) dt.
h→0 h x

x+h
1
Looking carefully at this last expression, we see ∫ f (t) dt is just the average value of the function f (x) over the
h x

interval [x, x + h]. Therefore, by Equation 5.3.1, there is some number c in [x, x + h] such that
x+h
1
∫ f (t) dt = f (c).
h x

In addition, since c is between x and h , c approaches x as h approaches zero. Also, since f (x) is continuous, we have

lim f (c) = lim f (c) = f (x)

h→0 c→x

Putting all these pieces together, we have

x+h
1
F '(x) = lim ∫ f (t) dt = lim f (c) = f (x),
h→0 h x
h→0

and the proof is complete.

□

 Example 5.3.3: Finding a Derivative with the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1 to find the derivative of

x
1
g(x) = ∫ dt.
3
1 t +1

Solution
According to the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, the derivative is given by
1
g'(x) = .
3
x +1

 Exercise 5.3.3
r
−−−−−
Use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1 to find the derivative of g(r) = ∫ √x2 + 4 dx .
0

Hint
Follow the procedures from Example 5.3.3to solve the problem.

Answer
−− −−−
2
g'(r) = √r + 4

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 Example 5.3.4: Using the Fundamental Theorem and the Chain Rule to Calculate Derivatives
√x

Let F (x) = ∫ sin t dt. Find F '(x).

Solution
u(x)

Letting u(x) = √−
x , we have F (x) = ∫ sin t dt .
1

Thus, by the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and the chain rule,

−
du 1 sin √x
−1/2
F '(x) = sin(u(x)) = sin(u(x)) ⋅ ( x ) = .
−
dx 2 2 √x

 Exercise 5.3.4
3
x

Let F (x) = ∫ cos t dt . Find F '(x).

Hint
Use the chain rule to solve the problem.

Answer
2 3
F '(x) = 3 x cos x

 Example 5.3.5: Using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus with Two Variable Limits of Integration
2x

Let F (x) = ∫ t
3
dt . Find F '(x).
x

Solution
2x

We have F (x) = ∫ t
3
dt . Both limits of integration are variable, so we need to split this into two integrals. We get
x

2x 0 2x
3 3 3
F (x) = ∫ t dt = ∫ t dt + ∫ t dt
x x 0

x 2x
3 3
= −∫ t dt + ∫ t dt.
0 0

Differentiating the first term, we obtain

x
d
3 3
[− ∫ t dt] = −x .
dx 0

Differentiating the second term, we first let (x) = 2x. Then,

2x u(x)
d d
3 3
[∫ t dt] = [∫ t dt]
dx 0
dx 0

3
= (u(x)) du dx

3 3
= (2x ) ⋅ 2 = 16 x .

Thus,

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x 2x
d d
3 3
F '(x) = [− ∫ t dt] + [∫ t dt]
dx 0 dx 0

3 3 3
= −x + 16 x = 15 x

 Exercise 5.3.5
2
x

Let F (x) = ∫ cos t dt. Find F '(x).

Hint
Use the procedures from Example 5.3.5to solve the problem

Answer
2
F '(x) = 2x cos x − cos x

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2: The Evaluation Theorem

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2, is perhaps the most important theorem in calculus. After tireless efforts by
mathematicians for approximately 500 years, new techniques emerged that provided scientists with the necessary tools to explain
many phenomena. Using calculus, astronomers could finally determine distances in space and map planetary orbits. Everyday
financial problems such as calculating marginal costs or predicting total profit could now be handled with simplicity and accuracy.
Engineers could calculate the bending strength of materials or the three-dimensional motion of objects. Our view of the world was
forever changed with calculus.
After finding approximate areas by adding the areas of n rectangles, the application of this theorem is straightforward by
comparison. It almost seems too simple that the area of an entire curved region can be calculated by just evaluating an
antiderivative at the first and last endpoints of an interval.

 Theorem 5.3.3: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2

If f (x) is continuous over the interval [a, b] and F (x) is any antiderivative of f (x), then
b

∫ f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a). (5.3.2)

We often see the notation F (x)| to denote the expression F (b) − F (a) . We use this vertical bar and associated limits a and b to
b

indicate that we should evaluate the function F (x) at the upper limit (in this case, b ), and subtract the value of the function F (x)
evaluated at the lower limit (in this case, a ).
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2 (also known as the evaluation theorem) states that if we can find an
antiderivative for the integrand, then we can evaluate the definite integral by evaluating the antiderivative at the endpoints of the
interval and subtracting.

 Proof

Let P = xi , i = 0, 1, … , n be a regular partition of [a, b]. Then, we can write

F (b) − F (a) = F (xn ) − F (x0 )

= [F (xn ) − F (xn−1 )] + [F (xn−1 ) − F (xn−2 )] + … + [F (x1 ) − F (x0 )]

= ∑[F (xi ) − F (xi−1 )].

i=1

Now, we know F is an antiderivative of f over [a, b], so by the Mean Value Theorem for derivatives (see The Mean Value
Theorem) for i = 0, 1, … , n we can find c in [x , x ] such that
i i−1 i

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F (xi ) − F (xi−1 ) = F '(ci )(xi − xi−1 ) = f (ci ) Δx.

Then, substituting into the previous equation, we have

F (b) − F (a) = ∑ f (ci ) Δx.

i=1

Taking the limit of both sides as n → ∞, we obtain

n b

F (b) − F (a) = lim ∑ f (ci )Δx = ∫ f (x) dx.

n→∞
i=1 a

 Example 5.3.6: Evaluating an Integral with the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Use Equation 5.3.2 to evaluate
2
2
∫ (t − 4) dt.
−2

Solution
Recall the power rule for Antiderivatives:
If y = x ,
n

n+1
n
x
∫ x dx = + C.
n+1

Use this rule to find the antiderivative of the function and then apply the theorem. We have
2 3 2
t ∣
2
∫ (t − 4)dt = ( − 4t) ∣
−2
3 ∣
−2

3 3
(2) (−2)
=[ − 4(2)] − [ − 4(−2)]
3 3

8 8
=[ − 8] − [− + 8]
3 3

8 8
= −8 + −8
3 3

16 32
= − 16 = − .
3 3

Analysis
Notice that we did not include the “+C ” term when we wrote the antiderivative. The reason is that, according to the
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2 (Equation 5.3.2), any antiderivative works. So, for convenience, we chose the
antiderivative with C = 0 . If we had chosen another antiderivative, the constant term would have canceled out. This always
happens when evaluating a definite integral.
The region of the area we just calculated is depicted in Figure 5.3.3. Note that the region between the curve and the x-axis is
all below the x-axis. Area is always positive, but a definite integral can still produce a negative number (a net signed area). For
example, if this were a profit function, a negative number indicates the company is operating at a loss over the given interval.

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Figure 5.3.3 : The evaluation of a definite integral can produce a negative value, even though area is always positive.

 Example 5.3.7: Evaluating a Definite Integral Using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2

Evaluate the following integral using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2 (Equation 5.3.2):
9
x −1
∫ − dx.
1 √x

Solution
First, eliminate the radical by rewriting the integral using rational exponents. Then, separate the numerator terms by writing
each one over the denominator:
9 9
x −1 x 1
∫ dx = ∫ ( − ) dx.
1/2 1/2 1/2
1 x 1 x x

Use the properties of exponents to simplify:

9 9
x 1
1/2 −1/2
∫ ( − ) dx = ∫ (x −x ) dx.
1/2 1/2
1 x x 1

Now, integrate using the power rule:

9
9 3/2 1/2 ∣
x x
1/2 −1/2 ∣
∫ (x −x ) dx = ( − )
3 1 ∣
1 ∣
2 2 1

3/2 1/2 3/2 1/2

(9) (9) (1) (1)
=[ − ] −[ − ]
3 1 3 1

2 2 2 2

2 2
=[ (27) − 2(3)] − [ (1) − 2(1)]
3 3

2 40
= 18 − 6 − +2 = .
3 3

See Figure 5.3.4.

Figure 5.3.4 : The area under the curve from x = 1 to x = 9 can be calculated by evaluating a definite integral.

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 Exercise 5.3.6
2

Use Note to evaluate ∫ −4

x dx.
1

Hint
Use the power rule.

Answer
7

 Example 5.3.8: A Roller-Skating Race

James and Kathy are racing on roller skates. They race along a long, straight track, and whoever has gone the farthest after 5
sec wins a prize. If James can skate at a velocity of f (t) = 5 + 2t ft/sec and Kathy can skate at a velocity of
t) ft/sec, who is going to win the race?
π
g(t) = 10 + cos(
2

Solution
We need to integrate both functions over the interval [0, 5] and see which value is bigger. For James, we want to calculate
5

∫ (5 + 2t) dt.
0

Using the power rule, we have

5
5
2
∫ (5 + 2t) dt = (5t + t )∣
∣
0
0

= (25 + 25)

= 50.

Thus, James has skated 50 ft after 5 sec. Turning now to Kathy, we want to calculate
5
π
∫ 10 + cos( t) dt.
0 2

We know sin t is an antiderivative of cos t , so it is reasonable to expect that an antiderivative of cos( t) would involve π

t). However, when we differentiate sin(π t), we get π cos(π t) as a result of the chain rule, so we have to account for
π 2 2 2
sin(
2

this additional coefficient when we integrate. We obtain

5 5
π 2 π ∣
∫ 10 + cos( t) dt = (10t + sin( t)) ∣
0 2 π 2 ∣
0

2 2
= (50 + ) − (0 − sin 0) ≈ 50.6.
π π

Kathy has skated approximately 50.6 ft after 5 sec. Kathy wins, but not by much!

 Exercise 5.3.7

Suppose James and Kathy have a rematch, but this time the official stops the contest after only 3 sec. Does this change the
outcome?

Hint
Change the limits of integration from those in Example 5.3.7.

Answer

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Kathy still wins, but by a much larger margin: James skates 24 ft in 3 sec, but Kathy skates 29.3634 ft in 3 sec.

 A Parachutist in Free Fall

Julie is an avid skydiver with more than 300 jumps under her belt and has mastered the art of making adjustments to her body
position in the air to control how fast she falls. If she arches her back and points her belly toward the ground, she reaches a
terminal velocity of approximately 120 mph (176 ft/sec). If, instead, she orients her body with her head straight down, she falls
faster, reaching a terminal velocity of 150 mph (220 ft/sec).

Figure 5.3.5 : Skydivers can adjust the velocity of their dive by changing the position of their body during the free fall. (credit:
Jeremy T. Lock)
Since Julie will be moving (falling) in a downward direction, we assume the downward direction is positive to simplify our
calculations. Julie executes her jumps from an altitude of 12,500 ft. After she exits the aircraft, she immediately starts falling at
a velocity given by v(t) = 32t.
She continues to accelerate according to this velocity function until she reaches terminal velocity. After she reaches terminal
velocity, her speed remains constant until she pulls her ripcord and slows down to land.
On her first jump of the day, Julie orients herself in the slower “belly down” position (terminal velocity is 176 ft/sec). Using
this information, answer the following questions.
1. How long after she exits the aircraft does Julie reach terminal velocity?
2. Based on your answer to question 1, set up an expression involving one or more integrals that represents the distance Julie
falls after 30 sec.
3. If Julie pulls her ripcord at an altitude of 3000 ft, how long does she spend in a free fall?
4. Julie pulls her ripcord at 3000 ft. It takes 5 sec for her parachute to open completely and for her to slow down, during which
time she falls another 400 ft. After her canopy is fully open, her speed is reduced to 16 ft/sec. Find the total time Julie
spends in the air, from the time she leaves the airplane until the time her feet touch the ground. On Julie’s second jump of
the day, she decides she wants to fall a little faster and orients herself in the “head down” position. Her terminal velocity in
this position is 220 ft/sec. Answer these questions based on this velocity:
5. How long does it take Julie to reach terminal velocity in this case?
6. Before pulling her ripcord, Julie reorients her body in the “belly down” position so she is not moving quite as fast when her
parachute opens. If she begins this maneuver at an altitude of 4000 ft, how long does she spend in a free fall before
beginning the reorientation?
Some jumpers wear “wingsuits” (Figure 5.3.6). These suits have fabric panels between the arms and legs and allow the wearer
to glide around in a free fall, much like a flying squirrel. (Indeed, the suits are sometimes called “flying squirrel suits.”) When
wearing these suits, terminal velocity can be reduced to about 30 mph (44 ft/sec), allowing the wearers a much longer time in
the air. Wingsuit flyers still use parachutes to land; although the vertical velocities are within the margin of safety, horizontal
velocities can exceed 70 mph, much too fast to land safely.

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Figure 5.3.6 : The fabric panels on the arms and legs of a wingsuit work to reduce the vertical velocity of a skydiver’s fall.
(credit: Richard Schneider)
Answer the following question based on the velocity in a wingsuit.
7. If Julie dons a wingsuit before her third jump of the day, and she pulls her ripcord at an altitude of 3000 ft, how long does
she get to spend gliding around in the air

Key Concepts
The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals states that for a continuous function over a closed interval, there is a value c such that
f (c) equals the average value of the function.

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1 shows the relationship between the derivative and the integral.
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2 is a formula for evaluating a definite integral in terms of an antiderivative of its
integrand. The total area under a curve can be found using this formula.

Key Equations
Mean Value Theorem for Integrals
If f (x) is continuous over an interval [a, b], then there is at least one point c ∈ [a, b] such that
b
1
f (c) = ∫ f (x) dx.
b −a a

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1

If f (x) is continuous over an interval [a, b], and the function F (x) is defined by
x

F (x) = ∫ f (t) dt,

then

F '(x) = f (x).

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2

If f is continuous over the interval [a, b] and F (x) is any antiderivative of f (x), then
b

∫ f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a).

Glossary
fundamental theorem of calculus
the theorem, central to the entire development of calculus, that establishes the relationship between differentiation and
integration

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fundamental theorem of calculus, part 1
uses a definite integral to define an antiderivative of a function

fundamental theorem of calculus, part 2

(also, evaluation theorem) we can evaluate a definite integral by evaluating the antiderivative of the integrand at the endpoints
of the interval and subtracting

mean value theorem for integrals

guarantees that a point c exists such that f (c) is equal to the average value of the function

This page titled 5.3: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or
curated by Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts
platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request.
5.3: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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5.3E: EXERCISES FOR SECTION 5.3
1) Consider two athletes running at variable speeds v (t) and v (t). The runners start and finish a race at exactly the same time. Explain
1 2

why the two runners must be going the same speed at some point.
2) Two mountain climbers start their climb at base camp, taking two different routes, one steeper than the other, and arrive at the peak at
exactly the same time. Is it necessarily true that, at some point, both climbers increased in altitude at the same rate?

Answer
Yes. It is implied by the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals.

3) To get on a certain toll road a driver has to take a card that lists the mile entrance point. The card also has a timestamp. When going to
pay the toll at the exit, the driver is surprised to receive a speeding ticket along with the toll. Explain how this can happen.
x

4) Set F (x) = ∫ (1 − t) dt. Find F '(2) and the average value of F over [1, 2].
′

Answer
F '(2) = −1; average value of F over [1, 2] is −1/2.
′

In exercises 5 - 16, use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1, to find each derivative.
x
d 2

5) [∫ e
−t
dt]
dx 1

x
d
6) [∫ e
cost
dt]
dx 1

Answer
x
d
cost cos t
[∫ e dt] = e
dx 1

x −−−−−
d
7) [∫ √9 − y
2
dy]
dx 3

x
d ds
8) [∫ −−−−− −]
dx 3 √16 − s2

Answer
x
d ds 1
[∫ −−−−− −] = −−−−− −
dx 3 √16 − s2 √16 − x2

2x
d
9) [∫ xt dt]
dx

√x
d
10) [∫ t dt]
dx 0

Answer
√x
d − d − 1
[∫ t dt] = √x ( √x ) =
dx 0
dx 2

sin x
d −−−−−
11) [∫
2
√1 − t dt]
dx 0

1
d −−−−−
12) [∫ √1 − t2 dt]
dx cos x

Answer
1
d −−−−−2
−−−− −−−
2
− d
[∫ √1 − t dt] = − √1 − cos x ( cos x) = | sin x| sin x
dx cos x
dx

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√x 2
d t
13) [∫
4
dt]
dx 1 1+ t

2
x
d √t
14) [∫ dt]
dx 1
1+ t

Answer
2
x
d √t |x|
[∫ dt] = 2x
dx 1
1+ t 1 + x2

ln x
d
15) [∫
t
e dt]
dx 0
x
e
d
16) [∫ ln u
2
du]
dx 1

Answer
x
e
d 2 2x
d x x
[∫ ln u du] = ln(e ) ( e ) = 2xe
dx 1 dx

17) The graph of y = ∫ f(t) dt , where f is a piecewise constant function, is shown here.
0

a. Over which intervals is f positive? Over which intervals is it negative? Over which intervals, if any, is it equal to zero?
b. What are the maximum and minimum values of f ?
c. What is the average value of f ?
x

18) The graph of y = ∫ f(t) dt , where f is a piecewise constant function, is shown here.
0

Answer
a. f is positive over [1, 2] and [5, 6] , negative over [0, 1] and [3, 4] , and zero over [2, 3] and [4, 5] .
b. The maximum value is 2 and the minimum is −3.
c. The average value is 0.
x

19) The graph of y = ∫ ℓ(t) dt , where ℓ is a piecewise linear function, is shown here.
0

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a. Over which intervals is ℓ positive? Over which intervals is it negative? Over which, if any, is it zero?
b. Over which intervals is ℓ increasing? Over which is it decreasing? Over which, if any, is it constant?
c. What is the average value of ℓ ?
x

20) The graph of y = ∫ ℓ(t) dt , where ℓ is a piecewise linear function, is shown here.
0

a. Over which intervals is ℓ positive? Over which intervals is it negative? Over which, if any, is it zero?
b. Over which intervals is ℓ increasing? Over which is it decreasing? Over which intervals, if any, is it constant?
c. What is the average value of ℓ ?

Answer
a. ℓ is positive over [0, 1] and [3, 6] , and negative over [1, 3] .
b. It is increasing over [0, 1] and [3, 5] , and it is constant over [1, 3] and [5, 6] .
1
c. Its average value is .
3

In exercises 21 - 26, use a calculator to estimate the area under the curve by computing T , the average of the left- and right-
10

endpoint Riemann sums using N = 10 rectangles. Then, using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2, determine the exact
area.
21) [T] y = x over [0, 4]
2

22) [T] y = x 3
+ 6x
2
+x−5 over [−4, 2]

Answer
3

3 2
T10 = 49.08, ∫ (x + 6x + x − 5) dx = 48
−2

−−
23) [T] y = √x over [0, 6]
3

−
24) [T] y = √x + x
2
over [1, 9]

Answer
9
− 2
T10 = 260.836, ∫ (√x + x ) dx = 260
1

25) [T] ∫ (cos x − sin x) dx over [0, π]

4
26) [T] ∫ 2
dx over [1, 4]
x

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Answer
4
4
T10 = 3.058, ∫ dx = 3
2
1 x

In exercises 27 - 46, evaluate each definite integral using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2.
2

27) ∫ (x
2
− 3x) dx
−1

28) ∫ (x
2
+ 3x − 5) dx
−2

Answer
3 2
x 3x 35
F (x) = + − 5x, F (3) − F (−2) = −
3 2 6

29) ∫ (t + 2)(t − 3)dt

−2

30) ∫ (t
2
− 9)(4 − t )dt
2

Answer
5 3
t 13t 62
F (x) = − + − 36t, F (3) − F (2) =
15
5 3

31) ∫ x
9
dx
1

32) ∫ x
99
dx
0

Answer
100
x 1
F (x) = , F (1) − F (0) =
100 100

33) ∫ (4t
5/2
− 3t
3/2
)dt
4

4
1
34) ∫ (x
2
− ) dx
1/4 x2

Answer
3
x 1 1 1125
F (x) = + , F (4) − F ( ) =
4 64
3 x

2
2
35) ∫ 3
dx
1 x

4
1
36) ∫ − dx
1 2√x

Answer
−
F (x) = √x , F (4) − F (1) = 1

4
2 − √t
37) ∫ 2
dt
1 t

16
dt
38) ∫
1 t1/4

Answer
4 3/4 28
F (t) = t , F (16) − F (1) =
3 3

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2π

39) ∫ cos θ dθ
0

π/2

40) ∫ sin θ dθ
0

Answer
π
F (θ) = − cos θ, F( ) − F (0) = 1
2

π/4

41) ∫ sec
2
θ dθ
0

π/4

42) ∫ sec θ tan θ dθ

Answer
π –
F (θ) = sec θ, F( ) − F (0) = √2 − 1
4

π/4

43) ∫ csc θ cot θ dθ

π/3

π/2

44) ∫ csc
2
θ dθ
π/4

Answer
π π
F (θ) = − cot θ, F( ) − F( ) = 1
2 4

2
1 1
45) ∫ (
2
−
3
) dt
1 t t

−1
1 1
46) ∫ ( − ) dt
−2 t2 t3

Answer
1 1 7
F (t) = − + , F (−1) − F (−2) =
2 8
t 2t

In exercises 47 - 50, use the evaluation theorem to express the integral as a function F (x).
x

47) ∫ t
2
dt
a

48) ∫ e dt
t

Answer
x
F (x) = e −e

49) ∫ cos t dt
0

50) ∫ sin t dt
−x

Answer
F (x) = 0

In exercises 51 - 54, identify the roots of the integrand to remove absolute values, then evaluate using the Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus, Part 2.
3

51) ∫ |x| dx
−2

52) ∫ ∣ t
2
− 2t − 3 ∣ dt
−2

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Answer
−1 3 4
2 2 2
46
∫ (t − 2t − 3) dt − ∫ (t − 2t − 3) dt + ∫ (t − 2t − 3) dt =
−2 −1 3
3

53) ∫ | cos t| dt
0

π/2

54) ∫ | sin t| dt
−π/2

Answer
0 π/2

−∫ sin t dt + ∫ sin t dt = 2
−π/2 0

55) Suppose that the number of hours of daylight on a given day in Seattle is modeled by the function −3.75 cos( πt

6
) + 12.25 , with t given
in months and t = 0 corresponding to the winter solstice.
a. What is the average number of daylight hours in a year?
b. At which times t and t , where 0 ≤ t
1 2 1 < t2 < 12, do the number of daylight hours equal the average number?
c. Write an integral that expresses the total number of daylight hours in Seattle between t and t 1 2

d. Compute the mean hours of daylight in Seattle between t1 and t , where 0 ≤ t

2 1 < t2 < 12 , and then between t2 and t , and show that
1

the average of the two is equal to the average day length.

56) Suppose the rate of gasoline consumption in the United States can be modeled by a sinusoidal function of the form
(11.21 − cos( )) × 10 gal/mo.
πt

6
9

a. What is the average monthly consumption, and for which values of t is the rate at time t equal to the average rate?
b. What is the number of gallons of gasoline consumed in the United States in a year?
c. Write an integral that expresses the average monthly U.S. gas consumption during the part of the year between the beginning of April
(t = 3) and the end of September (t = 9).

Answer
a. The average is 11.21 × 10 since cos( ) has period 12 and integral 0 over any period. Consumption is equal to the average
9 πt

when cos( ) = 0 , when t = 3, and when t = 9.

πt

b. Total consumption is the average rate times duration: 11.21 × 12 × 10 = 1.35 × 10 9 11

9
1 πt
c. 10 9
(11.21 − ∫ cos(
9
) dt) = 10 (11.21 + 2π) = 11.84x10
9

6 3
6

b
1
57) Explain why, if f is continuous over [a, b], there is at least one point c ∈ [a, b] such that f(c) = ∫ f(t) dt.
b− a a

58) Explain why, if f is continuous over [a, b] and is not equal to a constant, there is at least one point M ∈ [a, b] such that
b b
1 1
f(M ) = ∫ f(t) dt and at least one point m ∈ [a, b] such that f(m) < ∫ f(t) dt .
b− a a b− a a

Answer
If f is not constant, then its average is strictly smaller than the maximum and larger than the minimum, which are attained over
[a, b] by the extreme value theorem.

59) Kepler’s first law states that the planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus. The closest point of a planetary orbit to the
Sun is called the perihelion (for Earth, it currently occurs around January 3) and the farthest point is called the aphelion (for Earth, it
currently occurs around July 4). Kepler’s second law states that planets sweep out equal areas of their elliptical orbits in equal times. Thus,
the two arcs indicated in the following figure are swept out in equal times. At what time of year is Earth moving fastest in its orbit? When is
it moving slowest? Kepler’s first law states that the planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus. The closest point of a
planetary orbit to the Sun is called the perihelion (for Earth, it currently occurs around January 3) and the farthest point is called the
aphelion (for Earth, it currently occurs around July 4). Kepler’s second law states that planets sweep out equal areas of their elliptical orbits
in equal times. Thus, the two arcs indicated in the following figure are swept out in equal times. At what time of year is Earth moving
fastest in its orbit? When is it moving slowest?

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60) A point on an ellipse with major axis length 2a and minor axis length 2b has the coordinates (a cos θ, b sin θ), 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
−−−−−−
a. Show that the distance from this point to the focus at (−c, 0) is d(θ) = a + c cos θ , where c = √a 2
−b
2
.
Use these coordinates to show that the average distance d¯ from a point on the ellipse to the focus at (−c, 0), with respect to angle θ , is a .

Answer
a. d θ = (a cos θ + c)
2 2 2
+b sin
2
θ = a
2
+c
2 2
cos θ + 2ac cos θ = (a + c cos θ) ;
2

2π
1
b. d¯ = ∫ (a + 2c cos θ) dθ = a
2π 0

61) As implied earlier, according to Kepler’s laws, Earth’s orbit is an ellipse with the Sun at one focus. The perihelion for Earth’s orbit
around the Sun is 147,098,290 km and the aphelion is 152,098,232 km.
a. By placing the major axis along the x-axis, find the average distance from Earth to the Sun.
b. The classic definition of an astronomical unit (AU) is the distance from Earth to the Sun, and its value was computed as the average of
the perihelion and aphelion distances. Is this definition justified?
GmM
62) The force of gravitational attraction between the Sun and a planet is F (θ) = 2
, where m is the mass of the planet, M is the mass
r (θ)

of the Sun, G is a universal constant, and r(θ) is the distance between the Sun and the planet when the planet is at an angle θ with the major
axis of its orbit. Assuming that M , m, and the ellipse parameters a and b (half-lengths of the major and minor axes) are given, set up—but
do not evaluate—an integral that expresses in terms of G, m, M , a, b the average gravitational force between the Sun and the planet.

Answer
2π
GmM 1
Mean gravitational force = ∫ −−− −−− dθ .
2 2 2 2
0 (a + 2√a − b cos θ)

The displacement from rest of a mass attached to a spring satisfies the simple harmonic motion equation x(t) = Acos(ωt − ϕ),
where ϕ is a phase constant, ω is the angular frequency, and A is the amplitude. Find the average velocity, the average speed
(magnitude of velocity), the average displacement, and the average distance from rest (magnitude of displacement) of the mass.

5.3E: Exercises for Section 5.3 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
5.3E: Exercises for Section 5.3 has no license indicated.

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5.4: Integration Formulas and the Net Change Theorem
 Learning Objectives
Apply the basic integration formulas.
Explain the significance of the net change theorem.
Use the net change theorem to solve applied problems.
Apply the integrals of odd and even functions.

In this section, we use some basic integration formulas studied previously to solve some key applied problems. It is important to
note that these formulas are presented in terms of indefinite integrals. Although definite and indefinite integrals are closely related,
there are some key differences to keep in mind. A definite integral is either a number (when the limits of integration are constants)
or a single function (when one or both of the limits of integration are variables). An indefinite integral represents a family of
functions, all of which differ by a constant. As you become more familiar with integration, you will get a feel for when to use
definite integrals and when to use indefinite integrals. You will naturally select the correct approach for a given problem without
thinking too much about it. However, until these concepts are cemented in your mind, think carefully about whether you need a
definite integral or an indefinite integral and make sure you are using the proper notation based on your choice.

Basic Integration Formulas

Recall the integration formulas given in the section on Antiderivatives and the properties of definite integrals. Let’s look at a few
examples of how to apply these formulas and properties.

 Example 5.4.1: Integrating a Function Using the Power Rule

Use the power rule to integrate the function ∫ √t(1 + t) dt .

Solution
The first step is to rewrite the function and simplify it so we can apply the power rule:
4 4
1/2
∫ √t(1 + t) dt = ∫ t (1 + t) dt
1 1

4
1/2 3/2
=∫ (t +t ) dt.
1

Now apply the power rule:

4 4

1/2 3/2
2 3/2
2 5/2
∣
∫ (t +t ) dt = ( t + t )∣
1
3 5 ∣
1

2 3/2
2 5/2
2 3/2
2 5/2
=[ (4 ) + (4 ) ]−[ (1 ) + (1 ) ]
3 5 3 5

256
= .
15

 Exercise 5.4.1

Find the definite integral of f (x) = x 2

− 3x over the interval [1, 3].

Hint
Follow the process from Example 5.4.1to solve the problem.

Answer

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3
2
10
∫ (x − 3x) dx = −
1
3

The Net Change Theorem

The net change theorem considers the integral of a rate of change. It says that when a quantity changes, the new value equals the
initial value plus the integral of the rate of change of that quantity. The formula can be expressed in two ways. The second is more
familiar; it is simply the definite integral.

 Net Change Theorem

The new value of a changing quantity equals the initial value plus the integral of the rate of change:
b
′
F (b) = F (a) + ∫ F (x)dx (5.4.1)
a

or
b
′
∫ F (x)dx = F (b) − F (a). (5.4.2)
a

Subtracting F (a) from both sides of the Equation 5.4.1 yields Equation . Since they are equivalent formulas, which one we
5.4.2

use depends on the application.

The significance of the net change theorem lies in the results. Net change can be applied to area, distance, and volume, to name
only a few applications. Net change accounts for negative quantities automatically without having to write more than one integral.
To illustrate, let’s apply the net change theorem to a velocity function in which the result is displacement.
We looked at a simple example of this in The Definite Integral section. Suppose a car is moving due north (the positive direction) at
40 mph between 2 p.m. and 4 p.m., then the car moves south at 30 mph between 4 p.m. and 5 p.m. We can graph this motion as
shown in Figure 5.4.1.

Figure 5.4.1 : The graph shows speed versus time for the given motion of a car.
Just as we did before, we can use definite integrals to calculate the net displacement as well as the total distance traveled. The net
displacement is given by
5 4 5

∫ v(t) dt = ∫ 40 dt + ∫ −30 dt = 80 − 30 = 50.

2 2 4

Thus, at 5 p.m. the car is 50 mi north of its starting position. The total distance traveled is given by
5 4 5

∫ |v(t)| dt = ∫ 40 dt + ∫ 30 dt = 80 + 30 = 110.
2 2 4

Therefore, between 2 p.m. and 5 p.m., the car traveled a total of 110 mi.

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To summarize, net displacement may include both positive and negative values. In other words, the velocity function accounts for
both forward distance and backward distance. To find net displacement, integrate the velocity function over the interval. Total
distance traveled, on the other hand, is always positive. To find the total distance traveled by an object, regardless of direction, we
need to integrate the absolute value of the velocity function.

 Example 5.4.2: Finding Net Displacement

Given a velocity function v(t) = 3t − 5 (in meters per second) for a particle in motion from time t = 0 to time t = 3, find the
net displacement of the particle.
Solution
Applying the net change theorem, we have
3 2 3 2
3t ∣ 3(3) 27 27 30 3
∫ (3t − 5) dt = ( − 5t) ∣ =[ − 5(3)] − 0 = − 15 = − =− .
2 ∣ 2 2 2 2 2
0 0

The net displacement is − m (Figure 5.4.2).

Figure 5.4.2 : The graph shows velocity versus time for a particle moving with a linear velocity function.

 Example 5.4.3: Finding the Total Distance Traveled

Use Example 5.4.2 to find the total distance traveled by a particle according to the velocity function v(t) = 3t − 5 m/sec over
a time interval [0, 3].
Solution
The total distance traveled includes both the positive and the negative values. Therefore, we must integrate the absolute value
of the velocity function to find the total distance traveled.
To continue with the example, use two integrals to find the total distance. First, find the t -intercept of the function, since that is
where the division of the interval occurs. Set the equation equal to zero and solve for t . Thus,

3t − 5 = 0

3t = 5

5
t = .
3

The two subintervals are [0, ] and [ , 3]. To find the total distance traveled, integrate the absolute value of the function.
5

3
5

Since the function is negative over the interval [0, ], we have ∣∣v(t)∣∣ = −v(t) over that interval. Over [ , 3], the function is
5

3
5

positive, so ∣∣v(t)∣∣ = v(t) . Thus, we have

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3 5/3 3

∫ |v(t)| dt = ∫ −v(t) dt + ∫ v(t) dt

0 0 5/3

5/3 3

=∫ 5 − 3t dt + ∫ 3t − 5 dt
0 5/3

2 5/3 2 3
3t ∣ 3t ∣
= (5t − )∣ +( − 5t) ∣
2 ∣ 2 ∣
0 5/3

2 2
5 3(5/3) 27 3(5/3) 25
= [5( )− ]−0 +[ − 15] − [ − ]
3 2 2 2 3

25 25 27 25 25
= − + − 15 − +
3 6 2 6 3

41
=
6

So, the total distance traveled is 14

6
m.

 Exercise 5.4.2

Find the net displacement and total distance traveled in meters given the velocity function f (t) =
1

2
t
e −2 over the interval
[0, 2].

Hint
Follow the procedures from Examples 5.4.2and 5.4.3. Note that f (t) ≤ 0 for t ≤ ln 4 and f (t) ≥ 0 for t ≥ ln 4 .

Answer
2 2

Net displacement: e −9

2
≈ −0.8055 m; total distance traveled: 4 ln 4 − 7.5 + e

2
≈ 1.740 m.

Applying the Net Change Theorem

The net change theorem can be applied to the flow and consumption of fluids, as shown in Example 5.4.4.

 Example 5.4.4: How Many Gallons of Gasoline Are Consumed?

If the motor on a motorboat is started at t = 0 and the boat consumes gasoline at the rate of 5 − t gal/hr, how much gasoline 3

is used in the first 2 hours?

Solution
Express the problem as a definite integral, integrate, and evaluate using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. The limits of
integration are the endpoints of the interval [0,2]. We have
2 2
4
t ∣
3
∫ (5 − t ) dt = (5t − )∣
0
4 ∣
0

4
(2)
= [5(2) − ]−0
4

16
= 10 −
4

= 6.

Thus, the motorboat uses 6 gal of gas in 2 hours.

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 Example 5.4.5: Chapter Opener: Iceboats

As we saw at the beginning of the chapter, top iceboat racers can attain speeds of up to five times the wind speed. Andrew is
an intermediate iceboater, though, so he attains speeds equal to only twice the wind speed.

Figure 5.4.3 : (credit: modification of work by Carter Brown, Flickr)

Suppose Andrew takes his iceboat out one morning when a light 5-mph breeze has been blowing all morning. As Andrew gets
his iceboat set up, though, the wind begins to pick up. During his first half hour of iceboating, the wind speed increases
according to the function v(t) = 20t + 5. For the second half hour of Andrew’s outing, the wind remains steady at 15 mph. In
other words, the wind speed is given by
1
20t + 5, for 0 ≤ t ≤
2
v(t) = {
1
15, for ≤t ≤1
2

Recalling that Andrew’s iceboat travels at twice the wind speed, and assuming he moves in a straight line away from his
starting point, how far is Andrew from his starting point after 1 hour?
Solution
To figure out how far Andrew has traveled, we need to integrate his velocity, which is twice the wind speed. Then
1

Distance = ∫ 2v(t) dt.

Substituting the expressions we were given for v(t) , we get

1 1/2 1

∫ 2v(t) dt = ∫ 2v(t) dt + ∫ 2v(t) dt

0 0 1/2

1/2 1

=∫ 2(20t + 5) dt + ∫ 2(15) dt
0 1/3

1/2 1

=∫ (40t + 10) dt + ∫ 30 dt
0 1/2

1/2 1
2 ∣ ∣
= [20 t + 10t] ∣ + [30t] ∣
∣0 ∣1/2

20
=( + 5) − 0 + (30 − 15)
4

= 25.

Andrew is 25 mi from his starting point after 1 hour.

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 Exercise 5.4.3

Suppose that, instead of remaining steady during the second half hour of Andrew’s outing, the wind starts to die down
according to the function v(t) = −10t + 15. In other words, the wind speed is given by
1
20t + 5, for 0 ≤ t ≤
2
v(t) = { .
1
−10t + 15, for ≤t ≤1
2

Under these conditions, how far from his starting point is Andrew after 1 hour?

Hint
Don’t forget that Andrew’s iceboat moves twice as fast as the wind.

Answer
17.5 mi

Integrating Even and Odd Functions

We saw in Functions and Graphs that an even function is a function in which f (−x) = f (x) for all x in the domain—that is, the
graph of the curve is unchanged when x is replaced with −x. The graphs of even functions are symmetric about the y -axis. An odd
function is one in which f (−x) = −f (x) for all x in the domain, and the graph of the function is symmetric about the origin.
Integrals of even functions, when the limits of integration are from −a to a , involve two equal areas, because they are symmetric
about the y -axis. Integrals of odd functions, when the limits of integration are similarly [−a, a], evaluate to zero because the areas
above and below the x-axis are equal.

 Integrals of Even and Odd Functions

For continuous even functions such that f (−x) = f (x),

a a

∫ f (x) dx = 2 ∫ f (x) dx.

−a 0

For continuous odd functions such that f (−x) = −f (x),

∫ f (x) dx = 0.
−a

 Example 5.4.6: Integrating an Even Function

Integrate the even function ∫ 8

(3 x − 2) dx and verify that the integration formula for even functions holds.
−2

Solution
The symmetry appears in the graphs in Figure 5.4.4. Graph (a) shows the region below the curve and above the x-axis. We
have to zoom in to this graph by a huge amount to see the region. Graph (b) shows the region above the curve and below the x-
axis. The signed area of this region is negative. Both views illustrate the symmetry about the y -axis of an even function. We
have

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2 2
9
x ∣
8
∫ (3 x − 2) dx = ( − 2x) ∣
−2 3 ∣−2

9 9
(2) (−2)
=[ − 2(2)] − [ − 2(−2)]
3 3

512 512
=( − 4) − (− + 4)
3 3

1000
= .
3

To verify the integration formula for even functions, we can calculate the integral from 0 to 2 and double it, then check to
make sure we get the same answer.
2 9 2
8
x ∣ 512 500
∫ (3 x − 2) dx = ( − 2x) ∣ = −4 =
3 ∣ 3 3
0 0

Since 2 ⋅ 500

3
=
1000

3
, we have verified the formula for even functions in this particular example.

Figure 5.4.4 : Graph (a) shows the positive area between the curve and the x -axis, whereas graph (b) shows the negative area
between the curve and the x -axis. Both views show the symmetry about the y -axis.

 Example 5.4.7: Integrating an Odd Function

Evaluate the definite integral of the odd function −5 sin x over the interval [−π, π].
Solution
The graph is shown in Figure 5.4.5. We can see the symmetry about the origin by the positive area above the x-axis over
[−π, 0], and the negative area below the x-axis over [0, π]. we have

π π
∣
∫ −5 sin x dx = −5(− cos x)∣
∣−π
−π

π
∣
= 5 cos x ∣
∣
−π

= [5 cos π] − [5 cos(−π)]

= −5 − (−5) = 0.

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Figure 5.4.5 :The graph shows areas between a curve and the x -axis for an odd function.

 Exercise 5.4.4
2

Integrate the function ∫ 4

x dx.
−2

Hint
Integrate an even function.

Answer
64

Key Concepts
The net change theorem states that when a quantity changes, the final value equals the initial value plus the integral of the rate
of change. Net change can be a positive number, a negative number, or zero.
The area under an even function over a symmetric interval can be calculated by doubling the area over the positive x-axis. For
an odd function, the integral over a symmetric interval equals zero, because half the area is negative.

Key Equations
Net Change Theorem
b
′
F (b) = F (a) + ∫ F (x) dx
a

or
b
′
∫ F (x) dx = F (b) − F (a)
a

Glossary
net change theorem
if we know the rate of change of a quantity, the net change theorem says the future quantity is equal to the initial quantity plus
the integral of the rate of change of the quantity

This page titled 5.4: Integration Formulas and the Net Change Theorem is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed,
and/or curated by Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the
LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request.

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5.4: Integration Formulas and the Net Change Theorem by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original
source: https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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5.4E: EXERCISES FOR SECTION 5.4
In exercises 1 - 6, use basic integration formulas to compute the following antiderivatives.
− 1
1) ∫ (√x − − ) dx
√x

Answer
− 1 1/2 −1/2
2 3/2 1/2+
2 3/2 1/2
∫ (√x − ) dx = ∫ x dx − ∫ x dx = x + C1 − 2x C2 = x − 2x +C
−
√x 3 3

1
2) ∫ (e
2x
−
x/2
e ) dx
2

dx
3) ∫
2x

Answer
dx 1
∫ = ln |x| + C
2x 2

x−1
4) ∫ 2
dx
x
π

5) ∫ (sin x − cos x) dx
0

Answer
π π
π π
∫ sin x dx − ∫ cos x dx = − cos x∣
∣ − (sin x)∣
∣ = (−(−1) + 1) − (0 − 0) = 2
0 0
0 0

π/2

6) ∫ (x − sin x) dx
0

7) Write an integral that expresses the increase in the perimeter P (s) of a square when its side length s increases from 2 units to 4 units and
evaluate the integral.

Answer
4
dP
P (s) = 4s, so = 4 and ∫ 4 ds = 8.
ds 2

8) Write an integral that quantifies the change in the area A(s) = s of a square when the side length doubles from S units to 2S units and
2

evaluate the integral.

9) A regular N -gon (an N -sided polygon with sides that have equal length s , such as a pentagon or hexagon) has perimeter N s. Write an
integral that expresses the increase in perimeter of a regular N -gon when the length of each side increases from 1 unit to 2 units and
evaluate the integral.

Answer
2

∫ N ds = N
1

−−−−−−−−− −−−
−−−− −−−
–
10) The area of a regular pentagon with side length a > 0 is pa
2
with p =
1

4
√5 + √5 + 2√5 . The Pentagon in Washington, DC, has
inner sides of length 360 ft and outer sides of length 920 ft. Write an integral to express the area of the roof of the Pentagon according to
these dimensions and evaluate this area.
11) A dodecahedron is a Platonic solid with a surface that consists of 12 pentagons, each of equal area. By how much does the surface area
of a dodecahedron increase as the side length of each pentagon doubles from 1 unit to 2 units?

Answer
With p as in the previous exercise, each of the 12 pentagons increases in area from 2p to 4p units so the net increase in the area of
the dodecahedron is 36p units.

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12) An icosahedron is a Platonic solid with a surface that consists of 20 equilateral triangles. By how much does the surface area of an
icosahedron increase as the side length of each triangle doubles from a unit to 2a units?
13) Write an integral that quantifies the change in the area of the surface of a cube when its side length doubles from s unit to 2s units and
evaluate the integral.

Answer
2s

2
18s = 6∫ 2x dx
s

14) Write an integral that quantifies the increase in the volume of a cube when the side length doubles from s unit to 2s units and evaluate
the integral.
15) Write an integral that quantifies the increase in the surface area of a sphere as its radius doubles from R unit to 2R units and evaluate
the integral.

Answer
2R

2
12πR = 8π ∫ r dr
R

16) Write an integral that quantifies the increase in the volume of a sphere as its radius doubles from R unit to 2R units and evaluate the
integral.
17) Suppose that a particle moves along a straight line with velocity v(t) = 4 − 2t, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 2 (in meters per second). Find the
displacement at time t and the total distance traveled up to t = 2.

Answer
t

d(t) = ∫ v(s) ds = 4t − t .
2
The total distance is d(2) = 4 m.
0

18) Suppose that a particle moves along a straight line with velocity defined by v(t) = t
2
− 3t − 18, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 6 (in meters per
second). Find the displacement at time t and the total distance traveled up to t = 6.
19) Suppose that a particle moves along a straight line with velocity defined by v(t) = |2t − 6|, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 6 (in meters per second).
Find the displacement at time t and the total distance traveled up to t = 6.

Answer
t t

d(t) = ∫ v(s) ds. For t < 3, d(t) = ∫

0
t 2
(6 − 2t) dt = 6t − t . For t > 3, d(t) = d(3) + ∫ (2t − 6) dt = 9 + (t
2
− 6t).
0 3

The total distance is d(6) = 9 m.

20) Suppose that a particle moves along a straight line with acceleration defined by a(t) = t − 3, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 6 (in meters per second).
Find the velocity and displacement at time t and the total distance traveled up to t = 6 if v(0) = 3 and d(0) = 0.
21) A ball is thrown upward from a height of 1.5 m at an initial speed of 40 m/sec. Acceleration resulting from gravity is −9.8 m/sec . 2

Neglecting air resistance, solve for the velocity v(t) and the height h(t) of the ball t seconds after it is thrown and before it returns to the
ground.

Answer
v(t) = 40 − 9.8t; h(t) = 1.5 + 40t − 4.9t
2
m/s

22) A ball is thrown upward from a height of 3 m at an initial speed of 60 m/sec. Acceleration resulting from gravity is −9.8 m/sec . 2

Neglecting air resistance, solve for the velocity v(t) and the height h(t) of the ball t seconds after it is thrown and before it returns to the
ground.
23) The area A(t) of a circular shape is growing at a constant rate. If the area increases from 4π units to 9π units between times t = 2 and
t = 3, find the net change in the radius during that time.

Answer
The net increase is 1 unit.

24) A spherical balloon is being inflated at a constant rate. If the volume of the balloon changes from 36π in
3
to 288π in between time
3

t = 30 and t = 60 seconds, find the net change in the radius of the balloon during that time.

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3

25) Water flows into a conical tank with cross-sectional area πx at height x and volume
2
up to height x. If water flows into the tank at a
πx

rate of 1 m /min, find the height of water in the tank after 5 min. Find the change in height between 5 min and 10 min.
3

Answer
1/3 1/3 1/3

At t = 5, the height of water is x = ( 15

π
) m. The net change in height from t = 5 to t = 10 is (( 30

π
) −(
15

π
) ) m.

26) A horizontal cylindrical tank has cross-sectional area A(x) = 4(6x − x 2

)m
2
at height x meters above the bottom when x ≤ 3.
b

a. The volume V between heights a and b is ∫ A(x) dx. Find the volume at heights between 2 m and 3 m.
a

dx dx dV
b. Suppose that oil is being pumped into the tank at a rate of 50 L/min. Using the chain rule, = , at how many meters per
dt dV dt

minute is the height of oil in the tank changing, expressed in terms of x, when the height is at x meters?
c. How long does it take to fill the tank to 3 m starting from a fill level of 2 m?
27) The following table lists the electrical power in gigawatts—the rate at which energy is consumed—used in a certain city for different
hours of the day, in a typical 24-hour period, with hour 1 corresponding to midnight to 1 a.m.
Hour Power Hour Power
1 28 13 48
2 25 14 49
3 24 15 49
4 23 16 50
5 24 17 50
6 27 18 50
7 29 19 46
8 32 20 43
9 34 21 42
10 39 22 40
11 42 23 37
12 46 24 34

Find the total amount of power in gigawatt-hours (gW-h) consumed by the city in a typical 24-hour period.

Answer
The total daily power consumption is estimated as the sum of the hourly power rates, or 911 gW-h.

28) The average residential electrical power use (in hundreds of watts) per hour is given in the following table.
Hour Power Hour Power
1 8 13 12
2 6 14 13
3 5 15 14
4 4 16 15
5 5 17 17
6 6 18 19
7 7 19 18
8 8 20 17
9 9 21 16
10 10 22 16
11 10 23 13
12 11 24 11

a. Compute the average total energy used in a day in kilowatt-hours (kWh).

b. If a ton of coal generates 1842 kWh, how long does it take for an average residence to burn a ton of coal?
c. Explain why the data might fit a plot of the form p(t) = 11.5 − 7.5 sin( πt

12
).

29) The data in the following table are used to estimate the average power output produced by Peter Sagan for each of the last 18 sec of
Stage 1 of the 2012 Tour de France.

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Second Watts Second Watts
1 600 10 1200
2 500 11 1170
3 575 12 1125
4 1050 13 1100
5 925 14 1075
6 950 15 1000
7 1050 16 950
8 950 17 900
9 1100 18 780

Average Power OutputSource: sportsexercisengineering.com

Estimate the net energy used in kilojoules (kJ), noting that 1W = 1 J/s, and the average power output by Sagan during this time interval.

Answer
17 kJ

30) The data in the following table are used to estimate the average power output produced by Peter Sagan for each 15-min interval of Stage
1 of the 2012 Tour de France.
Minutes Watts Minutes Watts
15 200 165 170
30 180 180 220
45 190 195 140
60 230 210 225
75 240 225 170
90 210 240 10
105 210 255 200
1120 220 270 220
135 210 285 250
150 150 300 400

Average Power OutputSource: sportsexercisengineering.com

Estimate the net energy used in kilojoules, noting that 1W = 1 J/s.
31) The distribution of incomes as of 2012 in the United States in $5000 increments is given in the following table. The kth row denotes the
percentage of households with incomes between $5000xk and 5000xk + 4999 . The row k = 40 contains all households with income
between $200,000 and $250,000 and k = 41 accounts for all households with income exceeding $250,000.

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0 3.5 21 1.5
1 4.1 22 1.4
2 5.9 23 1.3
3 5.7 24 1.3
4 5.9 25 1.1
5 5.4 26 1.0
6 5.5 27 0.75
7 5.1 28 0.8
8 4.8 29 1.0
9 4.1 30 0.6
10 4.3 31 0.6
11 3.5 32 .5
12 3.7 33 0.5
13 3.2 34 0.4
14 3.0 35 0.3
15 2.8 36 0.3
16 2.5 37 0.3
17 2.2 38 0.2
18 2.2 39 1.8
19 1.8 40 2.3
20 2.1 41

Income DistributionsSource: www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/p60-245.pdf

a. Estimate the percentage of U.S. households in 2012 with incomes less than $55,000.
b. What percentage of households had incomes exceeding $85,000?
c. Plot the data and try to fit its shape to that of a graph of the form a(x + c)e −b(x+e)
for suitable a, b, c.

Answer
a. 54.3%;
b. 27.00%;
c. The curve in the following plot is 2.35(t + 3)e −0.15(t+3)
.

32) Newton’s law of gravity states that the gravitational force exerted by an object of mass M and one of mass m with centers that are
mM
separated by a distance r is F = G
2
, with G an empirical constant G = 6.67x10
−11 3
m /(kg⋅s )
2
. The work done by a variable force
r
b

over an interval [a, b] is defined as W = ∫ F (x) dx . If Earth has mass 5.97219 × 10 24

and radius 6371 km, compute the amount of work
a

to elevate a polar weather satellite of mass 1400 kg to its orbiting altitude of 850 km above Earth.
33) For a given motor vehicle, the maximum achievable deceleration from braking is approximately 7 m/sec on dry concrete. On wet 2

asphalt, it is approximately 2.5 m/sec . Given that 1 mph corresponds to 0.447 m/sec, find the total distance that a car travels in meters on
2

dry concrete after the brakes are applied until it comes to a complete stop if the initial velocity is 67 mph (30 m/sec) or if the initial braking
velocity is 56 mph (25 m/sec). Find the corresponding distances if the surface is slippery wet asphalt.

Answer

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In dry conditions, with initial velocity v
0 = 30 m/s, D = 64.3 and, if v 0 = 25, D = 44.64 . In wet conditions, if v0 = 30 , and
D = 180 and if v = 25, D = 125.
0

34) John is a 25-year old man who weighs 160 lb. He burns 500 − 50t calories/hr while riding his bike for t hours. If an oatmeal cookie has
55 cal and John eats 4t cookies during the t hour, how many net calories has he lost after 3 hours riding his bike?
th

35) Sandra is a 25-year old woman who weighs 120 lb. She burns 300 − 50t cal/hr while walking on her treadmill for t hours. Her caloric
intake from drinking Gatorade is 100t calories during the t hour. What is her net decrease in calories after walking for 3 hours?
th

Answer
225 cal

36) A motor vehicle has a maximum efficiency of 33 mpg at a cruising speed of 40 mph. The efficiency drops at a rate of 0.1 mpg/mph
between 40 mph and 50 mph, and at a rate of 0.4 mpg/mph between 50 mph and 80 mph. What is the efficiency in miles per gallon if the car
is cruising at 50 mph? What is the efficiency in miles per gallon if the car is cruising at 80 mph? If gasoline costs $3.50/gal, what is the cost
of fuel to drive 50 mi at 40 mph, at 50 mph, and at 80 mph?
37) Although some engines are more efficient at given a horsepower than others, on average, fuel efficiency decreases with horsepower at a
rate of 1/25 mpg/horsepower. If a typical 50-horsepower engine has an average fuel efficiency of 32 mpg, what is the average fuel
efficiency of an engine with the following horsepower: 150, 300, 450?

Answer
E(150) = 28, E(300) = 22, E(450) = 16

38) [T] The following table lists the 2013 schedule of federal income tax versus taxable income.
Taxable Income Range The Tax Is ... ... Of the Amount Over
$0–$8925 10% $0
$8925–$36,250 $892.50 + 15% $8925
$36,250–$87,850 $4,991.25 + 25% $36,250
$87,850–$183,250 $17,891.25 + 28% $87,850
$183,250–$398,350 $44,603.25 + 33% $183,250
$398,350–$400,000 $115,586.25 + 35% $398,350
> $400,000 $116,163.75 + 39.6% $400,000

Federal Income Tax Versus Taxable IncomeSource: http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-prior/i1040tt--2013.pdf.

Suppose that Steve just received a $10,000 raise. How much of this raise is left after federal taxes if Steve’s salary before receiving the raise
was $40,000? If it was $90,000? If it was $385,000?
39) [T] The following table provides hypothetical data regarding the level of service for a certain highway.
Highway Speed Range (mph) Vehicles per Hour per Lane Density Range (vehicles/mi)
>60 <600 <10
60-57 300-1000 10-20
57-54 1000-1500 20-30
57-54 1500-1900 30-45
46-30 1900-2100 48-70
<30 Unstable 70-200

a. Plot vehicles per hour per lane on the x-axis and highway speed on the y -axis.
b. Compute the average decrease in speed (in miles per hour) per unit increase in congestion (vehicles per hour per lane) as the latter
increases from 600 to 1000, from 1000 to 1500, and from 1500 to 2100. Does the decrease in miles per hour depend linearly on the increase
in vehicles per hour per lane?
c. Plot minutes per mile (60 times the reciprocal of miles per hour) as a function of vehicles per hour per lane. Is this function linear?

Answer
a.

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b. Between 600 and 1000 the average decrease in vehicles per hour per lane is −0.0075. Between 1000 and 1500 it is −0.006 per
vehicles per hour per lane, and between 1500 and 2100 it is −0.04 vehicles per hour per lane.

The graph is nonlinear, with minutes per mile increasing dramatically as vehicles per hour per lane reach 2000.

For the next two exercises use the data in the following table, which displays bald eagle populations from 1963 to 2000 in the
continental United States.
Year Population of Breeding Pairs of Bald Eagles
1963 487
1974 791
1981 1188
1986 1875
1992 3749
1996 5094
2000 6471

Population of Breeding Bald Eagle PairsSource: www.fws.gov/Midwest/eagle/pop.../chtofprs.html.

40) [T] The graph below plots the quadratic p(t) = 6.48t − 80.31t + 585.69 against the data in preceding table, normalized so that t = 0
2

corresponds to 1963. Estimate the average number of bald eagles per year present for the 37 years by computing the average value of p over
[0, 37].

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41) [T] The graph below plots the cubic p(t) = 0.07t + 2.42t − 25.63t + 521.23 against the data in the preceding table, normalized so
3 2

that t = 0 corresponds to 1963. Estimate the average number of bald eagles per year present for the 37 years by computing the average
value of p over [0, 37].

Answer
37 3 2
1 0.07(37) 2.42(37) 25.63(37)
∫ p(t) dt = + − + 521.23 ≈ 2037
37 0
4 3 2

Solution:
42) [T] Suppose you go on a road trip and record your speed at every half hour, as compiled in the following table. The best quadratic fit to
the data is q(t) = 5x − 11x + 49 , shown in the accompanying graph. Integrate q to estimate the total distance driven over the 3 hours.
2

Time (hr) Speed (m[h)

0 (start) 50
1 40
2 50
3 60

As a car accelerates, it does not accelerate at a constant rate; rather, the acceleration is variable. For the following exercises, use the
following table, which contains the acceleration measured at every second as a driver merges onto a freeway.

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Time (sec) Acceleration (mph/sec)
1 11.2
2 10.6
3 8.1
4 5.4
5 0

43) [T] The accompanying graph plots the best quadratic fit, a(t) = −0.70t + 1.44t + 10.44 , to the data from the preceding table.
2

Compute the average value of a(t) to estimate the average acceleration between t = 0 and t = 5.

Answer
5 2
1 0.7(5 ) 1.44(5)
Average acceleration is A = ∫ a(t) dt = − + + 10.44 ≈ 8.2 mph/s
5 0
3 2

44) [T] Using your acceleration equation from the previous exercise, find the corresponding velocity equation. Assuming the final velocity
is 0 mph, find the velocity at time t = 0.
45) [T] Using your velocity equation from the previous exercise, find the corresponding distance equation, assuming your initial distance is
0 mi. How far did you travel while you accelerated your car? (Hint: You will need to convert time units.)

Answer
1 t
7 7
d(t) = ∫ |v(t)| dt = ∫ ( t
3 2
− 0.72t − 10.44t + 41.033) dt =
4
t − 0.24t
3 3
− 5.22t + 41.033t. Then,
0 0
30 120

d(5) ≈ 81.12 mph × sec ≈ 119 feet.

46) [T] The number of hamburgers sold at a restaurant throughout the day is given in the following table, with the accompanying graph
plotting the best cubic fit to the data, b(t) = 0.12t − 2.13t + 12.13t + 3.91, with t = 0 corresponding to 9 a.m. and t = 12
3 3

corresponding to 9 p.m. Compute the average value of b(t) to estimate the average number of hamburgers sold per hour.
Hours Past Midnight No. of Burgers Sold
9 3
12 28
15 20
18 30
21 45

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47) [T] An athlete runs by a motion detector, which records her speed, as displayed in the following table. The best linear fit to this data,
ℓ(t) = −0.068t + 5.14 , is shown in the accompanying graph. Use the average value of ℓ(t) between t = 0 and t = 40 to estimate the

runner’s average speed.

Minutes Speed (m/sec)
0 5
10 4.8
20 3.6
30 3.0
40 2.5

Answer
40
0.068(40)
1

40
∫ (−0.068t + 5.14) dt = − + 5.14 = 3.78 m/sec
0
2

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5.4E: Exercises for Section 5.4 has no license indicated.

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5.5: Substitution
 Learning Objectives
Use substitution to evaluate indefinite integrals.
Use substitution to evaluate definite integrals.

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus gave us a method to evaluate integrals without using Riemann sums. The drawback of this
method, though, is that we must be able to find an antiderivative, and this is not always easy. In this section we examine a
technique, called integration by substitution, to help us find antiderivatives. Specifically, this method helps us find antiderivatives
when the integrand is the result of a chain-rule derivative.
At first, the approach to the substitution procedure may not appear very obvious. However, it is primarily a visual task—that is, the
integrand shows you what to do; it is a matter of recognizing the form of the function. So, what are we supposed to see? We are
looking for an integrand of the form f [g(x)]g'(x) dx. For example, in the integral

2 3
∫ (x − 3) 2x dx. (5.5.1)

we have
3
f (x) = x

and
2
g(x) = x − 3.

Then
′
g (x) = 2x.

and
2 3
f [g(x)]g'(x) = (x − 3 ) (2x),

and we see that our integrand is in the correct form. The method is called substitution because we substitute part of the integrand
with the variable u and part of the integrand with du. It is also referred to as change of variables because we are changing variables
to obtain an expression that is easier to work with for applying the integration rules.

 Substitution with Indefinite Integrals

Let u = g(x) ,, where g'(x) is continuous over an interval, let f (x) be continuous over the corresponding range of g , and let
F (x) be an antiderivative of f (x). Then,

∫ f [g(x)]g'(x) dx = ∫ f (u) du

= F (u) + C

= F (g(x)) + C

 Proof
Let f , g , u, and F be as specified in the theorem. Then
d
[F (g(x))] = F '(g(x))g'(x) = f [g(x)]g'(x).
dx

Integrating both sides with respect to x, we see that

∫ f [g(x)]g'(x) dx = F (g(x)) + C .

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If we now substitute u = g(x) , and du = g ′
(x) dx , we get

∫ f [g(x)]g'(x) dx = ∫ f (u) du = F (u) + C = F (g(x)) + C .

Returning to the problem we looked at originally, we let u = x 2

−3 and then du = 2x dx.
Rewrite the integral (Equation 5.5.1) in terms of u:

2 3 3
∫ (x − 3 ) (2x dx) = ∫ u du.

Using the power rule for integrals, we have

4
3
u
∫ u du = + C.
4

Substitute the original expression for x back into the solution:

4 2 4
u (x − 3)
+C = + C.
4 4

We can generalize the procedure in the following Problem-Solving Strategy.

 Problem-Solving Strategy: Integration by Substitution

1. Look carefully at the integrand and select an expression g(x) within the integrand to set equal to u. Let’s select g(x). such
that g'(x) is also part of the integrand.
2. Substitute u = g(x) and du = g'(x)dx. into the integral.
3. We should now be able to evaluate the integral with respect to u. If the integral can’t be evaluated we need to go back and
select a different expression to use as u.
4. Evaluate the integral in terms of u.
5. Write the result in terms of x and the expression g(x).

 Example 5.5.1: Using Substitution to Find an Antiderivative

Use substitution to find the antiderivative of ∫ 6x(3 x

2
+ 4)
4
dx.

Solution
The first step is to choose an expression for u. We choose u = 3x 2
+4 because then du = 6x dx and we already have du in
the integrand. Write the integral in terms of u:

2 4 4
∫ 6x(3 x + 4) dx = ∫ u du.

Remember that du is the derivative of the expression chosen for u, regardless of what is inside the integrand. Now we can
evaluate the integral with respect to u:
5 2 5
u (3 x + 4)
4
∫ u du = +C = + C.
5 5

Analysis
We can check our answer by taking the derivative of the result of integration. We should obtain the integrand. Picking a value
1
for C of 1, we let y = 2
(3 x + 4)
5
+ 1. We have
5

1
2 5
y = (3 x + 4) + 1,
5

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so
1 2 4
y' = ( ) 5(3 x + 4 ) 6x
5

2 4
= 6x(3 x + 4) .

This is exactly the expression we started with inside the integrand.

 Exercise 5.5.1

Use substitution to find the antiderivative of ∫ 2

3 x (x
3
− 3)
2
dx.

Hint
Let u = x 3
− 3.

Answer
1
2 3 2 3 3
∫ 3 x (x − 3) dx = (x − 3) +C
3

Sometimes we need to adjust the constants in our integral if they don’t match up exactly with the expressions we are substituting.

 Example 5.5.2: Using Substitution with Alteration

Use substitution to find the antiderivative of

− − −−−
2
∫ z√ z − 5 dz.

Solution

Rewrite the integral as ∫ z(z

2
− 5)
1/2
dz. Let u =z
2
−5 and du = 2z dz. Now we have a problem because du = 2z dz

and the original expression has only z dz. We have to alter our expression for du or the integral in u will be twice as large as it
1
should be. If we multiply both sides of the du equation by . we can solve this problem. Thus,
2

2
u =z −5

du = 2z dz

1 1
du = (2z) dz = z dz.
2 2

1
Write the integral in terms of u, but pull the outside the integration symbol:
2

1
2 1/2 1/2
∫ z(z − 5) dz = ∫ u du.
2

Integrate the expression in u:

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3/2
1 1/2
1 u
∫ u du = ( ) +C
2 2 3

1 2 3/2
=( )( )u +C
2 3

1 3/2
= u +C
3

1
2 3/2
= (z − 5) +C
3

 Exercise 5.5.2

Use substitution to find the antiderivative of ∫ 2

x (x
3
+ 5)
9
dx.

Hint
1
Multiply the du equation by .
3

Answer
3 10
(x + 5)
2 3 9
∫ x (x + 5) dx = +C
30

 Example 5.5.3: Using Substitution with Integrals of Trigonometric Functions

sin t
Use substitution to evaluate the integral ∫ 3
dt.
cos t

Solution
We know the derivative of cos t is − sin t , so we set u = cos t . Then du = − sin t dt.
Substituting into the integral, we have
sin t du
∫ dt = − ∫ .
3 3
cos t u

Evaluating the integral, we get

du −3
1 −2
−∫ = −∫ u du = − (− )u + C.
3
u 2

Putting the answer back in terms of t, we get

sin t 1 1
∫ dt = +C = + C.
3 2 2
cos t 2u 2 cos t

 Exercise 5.5.3
cos t
Use substitution to evaluate the integral ∫ 2
dt.
sin t

Hint
Use the process from Example 5.5.3to solve the problem.

Answer

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cos t 1
∫ dt = − +C
2
sin t sin t

 Exercise 5.5.4

Use substitution to evaluate the indefinite integral ∫ cos

3
t sin t dt.

Hint
Use the process from Example 5.5.3to solve the problem.

Answer
4
3
cos t
∫ cos t sin t dt = − +C
4

Sometimes we need to manipulate an integral in ways that are more complicated than just multiplying or dividing by a constant.
We need to eliminate all the expressions within the integrand that are in terms of the original variable. When we are done, u should
be the only variable in the integrand. In some cases, this means solving for the original variable in terms of u. This technique
should become clear in the next example.

 Example 5.5.4: Finding an Antiderivative Using u-Substitution

Use substitution to find the antiderivative of

x
∫ dx.
−−−−−
√x − 1

Solution
If we let u = x − 1, then du = dx . But this does not account for the x in the numerator of the integrand. We need to express x
in terms of u. If u = x − 1 , then x = u + 1. Now we can rewrite the integral in terms of u :
x u +1 − 1 1/2 −1/2
∫ −−−−− dx = ∫ − du = ∫ ( √u + − ) du = ∫ (u +u ) du.
√x − 1 √u √u

Then we integrate in the usual way, replace u with the original expression, and factor and simplify the result. Thus,
2
1/2 −1/2 3/2 1/2
∫ (u +u ) du = u + 2u +C
3

2 3/2 1/2
= (x − 1 ) + 2(x − 1 ) +C
3

1/2
2
= (x − 1 ) [ (x − 1) + 2] + C
3

2 2 6
1/2
= (x − 1 ) ( x− + )
3 3 3

2 4
1/2
= (x − 1 ) ( x+ )
3 3

2
1/2
= (x − 1 ) (x + 2) + C .
3

Substitution for Definite Integrals

Substitution can be used with definite integrals, too. However, using substitution to evaluate a definite integral requires a change to
the limits of integration. If we change variables in the integrand, the limits of integration change as well.

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 Substitution with Definite Integrals

Let u = g(x) and let g be continuous over an interval [a, b], and let f be continuous over the range of u = g(x). Then,
′

b g(b)

∫ f (g(x))g'(x) dx = ∫ f (u) du.

a g(a)

Although we will not formally prove this theorem, we justify it with some calculations here. From the substitution rule for
indefinite integrals, if F (x) is an antiderivative of f (x), we have

∫ f (g(x))g'(x) dx = F (g(x)) + C .

Then
b x=b
∣
∫ f [g(x)]g'(x) dx = F (g(x))∣
∣
a x=a

= F (g(b)) − F (g(a))

u=g(b)
∣
= F (u)∣
∣
u=g(a)

g(b)

=∫ f (u) du
g(a)

and we have the desired result.

 Example 5.5.5: Using Substitution to Evaluate a Definite Integral

Use substitution to evaluate

1
2 3 5
∫ x (1 + 2 x ) dx.
0

Solution
Let u = 1 + 2x , so du = 6x dx . Since the original function includes one factor of x and du = 6x
3 2 2 2
dx , multiply both sides
of the du equation by 1/6. Then,
2
du = 6 x dx

1 2
becomes du = x dx.
6

To adjust the limits of integration, note that when x = 0, u = 1 + 2(0) = 1, and when x = 1, u = 1 + 2(1) = 3.

Then
1 3
2 3 5
1 5
∫ x (1 + 2 x ) dx = ∫ u du.
0
6 1

Evaluating this expression, we get

3 6
1 1 u 3
5 ∣
∫ u du = ( )( )
∣
6 1
6 6 1

1 6 6
= [(3 ) − (1 ) ]
36

182
= .
9

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 Exercise 5.5.5
0

Use substitution to evaluate the definite integral ∫ y(2 y

2
− 3)
5
dy.
−1

Hint
Use the steps from Example 5.5.5to solve the problem.

Answer
0
91
2 5
∫ y(2 y − 3) dy =
−1
3

 Exercise 5.5.6
1
π
Use substitution to evaluate ∫ 2
x cos(
3
x ) dx.
0
2

Hint
Use the process from Example 5.5.5to solve the problem.

Answer
1
2
π 3
2
∫ x cos( x ) dx = ≈ 0.2122
0
2 3π

 Example 5.5.6: Using Substitution with an Exponential Function

Use substitution to evaluate
1
2
4 x +3
∫ xe dx.
0

Solution
Let u = 4x
3
Then, du = 8x dx. To adjust the limits of integration, we note that when
+ 3. x = 0, u = 3 , and when
x = 1, u = 7 . So our substitution gives

1 7
2 1
4 x +3 u
∫ xe dx = ∫ e du
0
8 3

1 7
u∣
= e
∣
8 3

7 3
e −e
=
8

≈ 134.568

Substitution may be only one of the techniques needed to evaluate a definite integral. All of the properties and rules of integration
apply independently, and trigonometric functions may need to be rewritten using a trigonometric identity before we can apply
substitution. Also, we have the option of replacing the original expression for u after we find the antiderivative, which means that
we do not have to change the limits of integration. These two approaches are shown in Example 5.5.7.

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 Example 5.5.7: Using Substitution to Evaluate a Trigonometric Integral
Use substitution to evaluate
π/2
2
∫ cos θ dθ.
0

Solution
1 + cos 2θ
Let us first use a trigonometric identity to rewrite the integral. The trig identity cos
2
θ = allows us to rewrite the
2
integral as
π/2 π/2
1 + cos 2θ
2
∫ cos θ dθ = ∫ dθ.
0 0
2

Then,
π/2 π/2
1 + cos 2θ 1 1
∫ ( ) dθ = ∫ ( + cos 2θ) dθ
0
2 0
2 2

π/2 π/2
1
= ∫ dθ + ∫ cos 2θ dθ.
2 0 0

We can evaluate the first integral as it is, but we need to make a substitution to evaluate the second integral. Let u = 2θ. Then,
1
du = 2 dθ, or du = dθ . Also, when θ = 0, u = 0, and when θ = π/2, u = π. Expressing the second integral in terms of
2
u , we have
π/2 π/2 π/2 π
1 1 1 1 1
∫ dθ + ∫ cos 2θ dθ = ∫ dθ + ( )∫ cos u du
2 0
2 0
2 0
2 2 0

θ=π/2 u=θ
θ ∣ 1 ∣
= ∣ + sin u ∣
2 ∣ θ=0 4 ∣
u=0

π π
=( − 0) + (0 − 0) =
4 4

Key Concepts
Substitution is a technique that simplifies the integration of functions that are the result of a chain-rule derivative. The term
‘substitution’ refers to changing variables or substituting the variable u and du for appropriate expressions in the integrand.
When using substitution for a definite integral, we also have to change the limits of integration.

Key Equations
Substitution with Indefinite Integrals

∫ f [g(x)]g'(x) dx = ∫ f (u) du = F (u) + C = F (g(x)) + C

Substitution with Definite Integrals

b g(b)
′
∫ f (g(x))g (x) dx = ∫ f (u) du
a g(a)

Glossary
change of variables
the substitution of a variable, such as u , for an expression in the integrand

integration by substitution

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a technique for integration that allows integration of functions that are the result of a chain-rule derivative

This page titled 5.5: Substitution is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert Strang &
Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is
available upon request.
5.5: Substitution by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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5.5E: EXERCISES FOR SECTION 5.5
1) Why is u-substitution referred to as a change of variable?
d
2) If f = g∘h , when reversing the chain rule, (g ∘ h)(x) = g'(h(x))h'(x) , should you take u = g(x) or u = h(x)?
dx

Answer
u = h(x)

In exercises 3 - 7, verify each identity using differentiation. Then, using the indicated u-substitution, identify f such that the integral
takes the form ∫ f(u) du.

−−−−− 2
3) ∫ x√x + 1 dx = (x + 1)
3/2
(3x − 2) + C; u = x+1
15

2
x 2 −−−−−
4) ∫ −−−−−
dx =
2
√x − 1 (3x + 4x + 8) + C, (x > 1); u = x−1
√x − 1 15

Answer
2
(u + 1)
f(u) =
−
√u

−−−−−− 1
5) ∫ 2
x√4x + 9 dx = (4x
2
+ 9)
3/2
+ C; u = 4x
2
+9
12

x 1 −−−−−−
6) ∫ −−−−−− dx =
√4x2 + 9 + C; u = 4x
2
+9
√4x2 + 9 4

Answer
1
du = 8x dx; f(u) =
8√u

x 1
7) ∫ 2 2
dx = −
2
+ C; u = 4x
2
+9
(4x + 9) 8(4x + 9)

In exercises 8 - 17, find the antiderivative using the indicated substitution.

8) ∫ (x + 1)
4
dx; u = x+1

Answer
1
4 5
∫ (x + 1) dx = (x + 1) +C
5

9) ∫ (x − 1)
5
dx; u = x−1

10) ∫ (2x − 3)
−7
dx; u = 2x − 3

Answer
−7
1
∫ (2x − 3) dx = − +C
6
12(2x − 3)

11) ∫ (3x − 2)
−11
dx; u = 3x − 2

x
12) ∫ −−−−− dx; u = x
2
+1
2
√x + 1

Answer
x −−−−−
∫ √x2 + 1 + C
−−−−− dx =
√x2 + 1

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x
13) ∫ −−−− − dx; u = 1− x
2

√1 − x2

14) ∫ (x − 1)(x
2
− 2x)
3
dx; u = x
2
− 2x

Answer
2 3
1 2 4
∫ (x − 1)(x − 2x) dx = (x − 2x) +C
8

15) ∫ (x
2
− 2x)(x
3
− 3x )
2 2
dx; u = x
3
= 3x
2

16) ∫ cos
3
θ dθ; u = sin θ (Hint: cos 2
θ = 1 − sin
2
θ )

Answer
3
sin θ
3
∫ cos θ dθ = sin θ − +C
3

17) ∫ sin
3
θ dθ; u = cos θ (Hint: sin 2
θ = 1 − cos
2
θ )

In exercises 18 - 34, use a suitable change of variables to determine the indefinite integral.

18) ∫ x(1 − x)
99
dx

Answer
101 100
(1 − x) (1 − x)
99
∫ x(1 − x) dx = − +C
101 100

100
(1 − x)
= − [100x + 1] + C
10100

19) ∫ t(1 − t )
2 10
dt

20) ∫ (11x − 7)
−3
dx

Answer
1
−3
∫ (11x − 7) dx = − +C
22(11x − 7)2

21) ∫ (7x − 11)

4
dx

22) ∫ cos
3
θ sin θ dθ

Answer
4
3
cos θ
∫ cos θ sin θ dθ = − +C
4

23) ∫ sin
7
θ cos θ dθ

24) ∫ 2
cos (πt) sin(πt) dt

Answer
3
cos (πt)
2
∫ cos (πt) sin(πt) dt = − +C
3π

25) ∫ sin
2
x cos
3
x dx (Hint: sin 2
x + cos
2
x = 1 )

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26) ∫ 2
t sin(t ) cos(t ) dt
2

Answer
1
2 2 2 2
∫ t sin(t ) cos(t ) dt = − cos (t ) + C
4

27) ∫ t
2 2 3
cos (t ) sin(t ) dt
3

2
x
28) ∫ 3 2
dx
(x − 3)

Answer
2
x 1
∫ dx = − +C
3 2 3
(x − 3) 3(x − 3)

3
x
29) ∫ −−−− −
dx
√1 − x2

5
y
30) ∫ 3 3/2
dy
(1 − y )

Answer
5 3
y 2(y − 2)
∫ dy = − +C
3 3/2
−−−− −
(1 − y ) 3√1 − y 3

31) ∫ cos θ(1 − cos θ)

99
sin θ dθ

32) ∫ (1 − cos
3
θ)
10
cos
2
θ sin θ dθ

Answer
3 10 2
1 3 11
∫ (1 − cos θ) cos θ sin θ dθ = (1 − cos θ) +C
33

33) ∫ (cos θ − 1)(cos

2
θ − 2 cos θ)
3
sin θ dθ

34) ∫ (sin
2
θ − 2 sin θ)(sin
3
θ − 3 sin
2
θ)
3
cos θ dθ

Answer
1
2 3 2 3 3 2 4
∫ (sin θ − 2 sin θ)(sin θ − 3 sin θ) cos θ dθ = (sin θ − 3 sin θ) +C
12

In exercises 35 - 38, use a calculator to estimate the area under the curve using left Riemann sums with 50 terms, then use
substitution to solve for the exact answer.
35) [T] y = 3(1 − x) over [0, 2] 2

36) [T] y = x(1 − x 2

)
3
over [−1, 2]

Answer
L50 = −8.5779. The exact area is −81

8
units .
2

37) [T] y = sin x(1 − cos x) over [0, π] 2

x
38) [T] y = 2 2
over [−1, 1]
(x + 1)

Answer
L50 = −0.006399 . The exact area is 0.

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In exercises 39 - 44, use a change of variables to evaluate the definite integral.
1
−−−− −
39) ∫ 2
x√1 − x dx
0

1
x
40) ∫ −−−− − dx
0 √1 + x2

Answer
1 2
x 1 –
2 −1/2
u = 1+ x , du = 2x dx, ∫ −−−− − dx = ∫ u du = √2 − 1
0 √1 + x2 2 1

2
t
41) ∫ −− −−− dt
0 √5 + t2

1 2
t
42) ∫ −− −−− dt
0 √1 + t3

Answer
1 2 2
3 2
t 1 −1/2
2 –
u = 1+ t , du = 3t , ∫ dt = ∫ u du = (√2 − 1)
−−−−−
0 √1 + t3 3 1 3

π/4

43) ∫ sec
2
θ tan θ dθ
0

π/4
sin θ
44) ∫ 4
dθ
0 cos θ

Answer
π/4 √2/2 1
sin θ −4 −4
1 –
u = cos θ, du = − sin θ dθ, ∫ dθ = − ∫ u du = ∫ u du = (2√2 − 1)
4
0 cos θ 1 √2/2 3

In exercises 45 - 50, evaluate the indefinite integral ∫ f(x) dx with constant C = 0 using u-substitution. Then, graph the function
and the antiderivative over the indicated interval. If possible, estimate a value of C that would need to be added to the
x

antiderivative to make it equal to the definite integral F (x) = ∫ f(t) dt , with a the left endpoint of the given interval.
a

45) [T] ∫ (2x + 1)e

x +x−6
dx over [−3, 2]

cos(ln(2x))
46) [T] ∫ dx on [0, 2]
x

Answer

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The antiderivative is y = sin(ln(2x)) . Since the antiderivative is not continuous at x = 0 , one cannot find a value of C that would
make y = sin(ln(2x)) − C work as a definite integral.
2
3x + 2x + 1
47) [T] ∫ −−−−−−−−−−− − dx over [−1, 2]
√x3 + x2 + x + 4

sin x
48) [T] ∫ 3
dx over [− π

3
,
π

3
]
cos x

Answer

The antiderivative is y = 1

2
2
sec x . You should take C = −2 so that F (− π

3
) = 0.

49) [T] ∫ (x + 2)e

− x −4x+3
dx over [−5, 1]
−−−−−−
50) [T] ∫ 2 3
3x √2x + 1 dx over [0, 1]

Answer

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The antiderivative is y = 1

3
3
(2x + 1)
3/2
. One should take C = −
1

3
.

51) If h(a) = h(b) in ∫ ′

g (h(x))h(x) dx, what can you say about the value of the integral?
a

2
x
52) Is the substitution u = 1 − x in the definite integral ∫
2

2
dx okay? If not, why not?
0 1− x

Answer
No, because the integrand is discontinuous at x = 1 .

In exercises 53 - 59, use a change of variables to show that each definite integral is equal to zero.
π

53) ∫ 2
cos (2θ) sin(2θ) dθ
0

√π

54) ∫ 2
t cos(t ) sin(t ) dt
2

Answer
0
1
u = sin(t );
2
the integral becomes ∫ u du.
2 0

55) ∫ (1 − 2t) dt
0

1
1 − 2t
56) ∫ 1
dt
2
0 1 + (t − )
2

Answer
5/4
1
u = 1 + (t −
1

2
) ;
2
the integral becomes − ∫ du .
5/4 u

π
3
57) ∫ sin((t −
π

2
) ) cos(t −
π

2
) dt
0

58) ∫ (1 − t) cos(πt) dt
0

Answer

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u = 1 − t; Since the integrand is odd, the integral becomes
−1 −1 −1 1

∫ u cos (π(1 − u)) du = ∫ u[cos π cos u − sin π sin u] du = − ∫ u cos u du = ∫ u cos u du = 0

1 1 1 −1

3π/4

59) ∫ sin
2
t cos t dt
π/4

60) Show that the average value of f(x) over an interval [a, b] is the same as the average value of f(cx) over the interval [ a

c
,
b

c
] for c > 0.

Answer
b/c u=b b
1 c du 1
Setting u = cx and du = c dx gets you b a
∫ f(cx) dx = ∫ f(u) = ∫ f(u) du.
− a/c b− a u=a c b− a a
c c

t
61) Find the area under the graph of f(t) = between t = 0 and t = x where a > 0 and a ≠ 1 is fixed, and evaluate the limit as
(1 + t2 )a

x → ∞ .
t
62) Find the area under the graph of g(t) = 2 a
between t = 0 and t = x, where 0 < x < 1 and a > 0 is fixed. Evaluate the limit as
(1 − t )

x → 1 .

Answer
x 1
1 du 1 1 1
∫ g(t) dt = ∫ = u
1−a
∣ 1u = (1 − (1 − x )
2 1−a
) As x → 1 the limit is if a < 1 ,
0
2 u=1−x
2 ua 2(1 − a) 2(1 − a) 2(1 − a)

and the limit diverges to +∞ if a > 1 .

1
−−−− −
63) The area of a semicircle of radius 1 can be expressed as ∫
2
√1 − x dx . Use the substitution x = cos t to express the area of a
−1

semicircle as the integral of a trigonometric function. You do not need to compute the integral.
64) The area of the top half of an ellipse with a major axis that is the x-axis from x = −1 to a and with a minor axis that is the y -axis from
−−−−−−
a 2
x
y = −b to y = b can be written as ∫ b√1 − dx . Use the substitution x = a cos t to express this area in terms of an integral of a
−a a2

trigonometric function. You do not need to compute the integral.

Answer
t=0 t=π
−−−− −−−−
2 2
∫ b√1 − cos t × (−a sin t) dt = ∫ ab sin t dt
t=π t=0

65) [T] The following graph is of a function of the form f(t) = a sin(nt) + b sin(mt) . Estimate the coefficients a and b and the frequency
π

parameters n and m. Use these estimates to approximate ∫ f(t) dt .

66) [T] The following graph is of a function of the form f(x) = a cos(nt) + b cos(mt). Estimate the coefficients a and b and the frequency
π

parameters n and m. Use these estimates to approximate ∫ f(t) dt.

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Answer
π/2
2
f(t) = 2 cos(3t) − cos(2t); ∫ (2 cos(3t) − cos(2t)) dt = −
0
3

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5.E: Integration (Exercises) has no license indicated.
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5.6: Integrals Involving Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
 Learning Objectives
Integrate functions involving exponential functions.
Integrate functions involving logarithmic functions.

Exponential and logarithmic functions are used to model population growth, cell growth, and financial growth, as well as
depreciation, radioactive decay, and resource consumption, to name only a few applications. In this section, we explore integration
involving exponential and logarithmic functions.

Integrals of Exponential Functions

The exponential function is perhaps the most efficient function in terms of the operations of calculus. The exponential function,
y = e , is its own derivative and its own integral.
x

 Rule: Integrals of Exponential Functions

Exponential functions can be integrated using the following formulas.

x x
∫ e dx = e +C (5.6.1)

x
x
a
∫ a dx = +C (5.6.2)
ln a

 Example 5.6.1: Finding an Antiderivative of an Exponential Function

Find the antiderivative of the exponential function e −x
.
Solution
Use substitution, setting u = −x, and then du = −1 dx . Multiply the du equation by −1, so you now have −du = dx . Then,

−x u u −x
∫ e dx = − ∫ e du = −e + C = −e + C.

 Exercise 5.6.1

Find the antiderivative of the function using substitution: x .

3
2 −2x
e

Hint
Let u equal the exponent on e .

Answer
2
3
−2x
1 3
−2x
∫ x e dx = − e +C
6

A common mistake when dealing with exponential expressions is treating the exponent on e the same way we treat exponents in
polynomial expressions. We cannot use the power rule for the exponent on e . This can be especially confusing when we have both
exponentials and polynomials in the same expression, as in the previous checkpoint. In these cases, we should always double-check
to make sure we’re using the right rules for the functions we’re integrating.

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 Example 5.6.2: Square Root of an Exponential Function
−−−− −
Find the antiderivative of the exponential function e x
√1 + ex .
Solution
First rewrite the problem using a rational exponent:

x − −−− −
x x x 1/2
∫ e √ 1 + e dx = ∫ e (1 + e ) dx.

Using substitution, choose u = 1 + e . Then, du = e x x

dx . We have

x x 1/2 1/2
∫ e (1 + e ) dx = ∫ u du.

Then
3/2
1/2
u 2 3/2
2 x 3/2
∫ u du = +C = u +C = (1 + e ) +C
3/2 3 3

Figure 5.6.1 : The graph shows an exponential function times the square root of an exponential function.

 Exercise 5.6.2
Find the antiderivative of e x
(3 e
x
− 2)
2
.

Hint
Let u = 3e x
−2 .

Answer
1
x x 2 x 3
∫ e (3 e − 2) dx = (3 e − 2) +C
9

 Example 5.6.3: Using Substitution with an Exponential Function

Use substitution to evaluate the indefinite integral ∫ 3x e

2 2x
dx.

Solution
Here we choose to let u equal the expression in the exponent on e . Let u = 2x
3
and 2
du = 6 x dx . Again, du is off by a
1
constant multiplier; the original function contains a factor of 3x , not 6x . Multiply both sides of the equation by 2 2
so that the
2
integrand in u equals the integrand in x. Thus,
3 1
2 2x u
∫ 3x e dx = ∫ e du.
2

Integrate the expression in u and then substitute the original expression in x back into the u-integral:
1 1 1 3
u u 2x
∫ e du = e +C = e + C.
2 2 2

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 Exercise 5.6.3
4

Evaluate the indefinite integral ∫ 3

2x e
x
dx .

Hint
Let u = x 4
.

Answer
3
4
x
1 4
x
∫ 2x e dx = e +C
2

As mentioned at the beginning of this section, exponential functions are used in many real-life applications. The number e is often
associated with compounded or accelerating growth, as we have seen in earlier sections about the derivative. Although the
derivative represents a rate of change or a growth rate, the integral represents the total change or the total growth. Let’s look at an
example in which integration of an exponential function solves a common business application.
A price–demand function tells us the relationship between the quantity of a product demanded and the price of the product. In
general, price decreases as quantity demanded increases. The marginal price–demand function is the derivative of the price–
demand function and it tells us how fast the price changes at a given level of production. These functions are used in business to
determine the price–elasticity of demand, and to help companies determine whether changing production levels would be
profitable.

 Example 5.6.4: Finding a Price–Demand Equation

Find the price–demand equation for a particular brand of toothpaste at a supermarket chain when the demand is 50 tubes per
week at $2.35 per tube, given that the marginal price—demand function, p'(x), for x number of tubes per week, is given as
′ −0.01x
p (x) = −0.015 e .

If the supermarket chain sells 100 tubes per week, what price should it set?
Solution
To find the price–demand equation, integrate the marginal price–demand function. First find the antiderivative, then look at the
particulars. Thus,

−0.01x −0.01x
p(x) = ∫ −0.015 e dx = −0.015 ∫ e dx.

Using substitution, let u = −0.01x and du = −0.01 dx. Then, divide both sides of the du equation by −0.01. This gives
−0.015
u u u −0.01
∫ e du = 1.5 ∫ e du = 1.5 e + C = 1.5 e x + C.
−0.01

The next step is to solve for C . We know that when the price is $2.35 per tube, the demand is 50 tubes per week. This means
−0.01(50)
p(50) = 1.5 e + C = 2.35.

Now, just solve for C :

−0.5
C = 2.35 − 1.5 e = 2.35 − 0.91 = 1.44.

Thus,
−0.01x
p(x) = 1.5 e + 1.44.

If the supermarket sells 100 tubes of toothpaste per week, the price would be

p(100) = 1.5e − 0.01(100) + 1.44 = 1.5e − 1 + 1.44 ≈ 1.99.

The supermarket should charge $1.99 per tube if it is selling 100 tubes per week.

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 Example 5.6.5: Evaluating a Definite Integral Involving an Exponential Function
2

Evaluate the definite integral ∫ e

1−x
dx.
1

Solution

Again, substitution is the method to use. Let u = 1 − x, so du = −1 dx or − du = dx . Then ∫ e

1−x
dx = − ∫ e
u
du.

Next, change the limits of integration. Using the equation u = 1 − x , we have:

When x = 1, u = 1 − (1) = 0,

and when x = 2, u = 1 − (2) = −1.

The integral then becomes

2 −1
1−x u
∫ e dx = − ∫ e du
1 0

0
u
=∫ e du
−1

0
u∣ 0 −1
=e ∣ = e − (e )
∣−1

−1
= −e + 1.

See Figure 5.6.2.

Figure 5.6.2 : The indicated area can be calculated by evaluating a definite integral using substitution.

 Exercise 5.6.4
2

Evaluate ∫ e
2x
dx.
0

Hint
Let u = 2x.

Answer
4
1 1
u 4
∫ e du = (e − 1)
2 0
2

 Example 5.6.6: Growth of Bacteria in a Culture

Suppose the rate of growth of bacteria in a Petri dish is given by q(t) = 3 , where t is given in hours and q(t) is given in t

thousands of bacteria per hour. If a culture starts with 10, 000 bacteria, find a function Q(t) that gives the number of bacteria
in the Petri dish at any time t . How many bacteria are in the dish after 2 hours?

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Solution
We have
t
3
t
Q(t) = ∫ 3 dt = + C.
ln 3

1
Then, at t = 0 we have Q(0) = 10 = + C, so C ≈ 9.090 and we get
ln 3

t
3
Q(t) = + 9.090.
ln 3

At time t = 2 , we have
2
3
Q(2) = + 9.090
ln 3

≈ 17.282.

After 2 hours, there are 17,282 bacteria in the dish.

 Exercise 5.6.5

From Example, suppose the bacteria grow at a rate of q(t) = 2

t
. Assume the culture still starts with 10, 000 bacteria. Find
Q(t). How many bacteria are in the dish after 3 hours?

Hint
Use the procedure from Example 5.6.6to solve the problem

Answer
t
2
Q(t) = + 8.557.
ln 2

Q(3) ≈ 20, 099

So there are 20, 099bacteria in the dish after 3 hours.

 Example 5.6.7: Fruit Fly Population Growth

Suppose a population of fruit flies increases at a rate of g(t) = 2e 0.02t

, in flies per day. If the initial population of fruit flies is
100 flies, how many flies are in the population after 10 days?

Solution
Let G(t) represent the number of flies in the population at time t . Applying the net change theorem, we have
10
0.02t
G(10) = G(0) + ∫ 2e dt
0

10
2 ∣
0.02t
= 100 + [ e ]∣
0.02 ∣0

10
0.02t
= 100 + [100 e ]∣
∣
0

0.2
= 100 + 100 e − 100

≈ 122.

There are 122 flies in the population after 10 days.

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 Exercise 5.6.6

Suppose the rate of growth of the fly population is given by g(t) = e 0.01t
, and the initial fly population is 100 flies. How many
flies are in the population after 15 days?

Hint
Use the process from Example 5.6.7to solve the problem.

Answer
There are 116 flies.

 Example 5.6.8: Evaluating a Definite Integral Using Substitution

Evaluate the definite integral using substitution:

2 1/x
e
∫ dx.
2
1 x

Solution
This problem requires some rewriting to simplify applying the properties. First, rewrite the exponent on e as a power of x, then
bring the x in the denominator up to the numerator using a negative exponent. We have
2

2 1/x 2
e −1
x −2
∫ dx = ∫ e x dx.
2
1 x 1

Let u = x −1
, the exponent on e . Then
−2
du = −x dx

−2
−du = x dx.

Bringing the negative sign outside the integral sign, the problem now reads

u
−∫ e du.

Next, change the limits of integration:

−1
u = (1 ) =1

−1
1
u = (2 ) = .
2

Notice that now the limits begin with the larger number, meaning we can multiply by −1 and interchange the limits. Thus,
1/2 1
u u u 1 1/2
−∫ e du = ∫ e du = e ∣
∣ = e−e = e − √e.
1/2
1 1/2

 Exercise 5.6.7

Evaluate the definite integral using substitution:

2
1 4x
−2

∫ e dx.
3
1 x

Hint
Let u = 4x −2
.

Answer

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2
1 −2 1
∫
3
e
4x
dx = [e
4
− e] .
1 x 8

Integrals Involving Logarithmic Functions

Integrating functions of the form f (x) = x result in the absolute value of the natural log function, as shown in the following
−1

rule. Integral formulas for other logarithmic functions, such as f (x) = ln x and f (x) = log x , are also included in the rule.
a

 Rule: Integration Formulas Involving Logarithmic Functions

The following formulas can be used to evaluate integrals involving logarithmic functions.

−1
∫ x dx = ln |x| + C

∫ ln x dx = x ln x − x + C = x(ln x − 1) + C

x
∫ loga x dx = (ln x − 1) + C
ln a

 Example 5.6.9: Finding an Antiderivative Involving ln x

3
Find the antiderivative of the function .
x − 10

Solution
First factor the 3 outside the integral symbol. Then use the u −1
rule. Thus,
3 1 du
∫ dx = 3 ∫ dx = 3 ∫ = 3 ln |u| + C = 3 ln |x − 10| + C , x ≠ 10.
x − 10 x − 10 u

See Figure 5.6.3.

Figure 5.6.3 : The domain of this function is x ≠ 10.

 Exercise 5.6.8
1
Find the antiderivative of .
x +2

Hint
Follow the pattern from Example 5.6.9to solve the problem.

Answer
1
∫ dx = ln |x + 2| + C
x +2

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 Example 5.6.10: Finding an Antiderivative of a Rational Function
3
2x + 3x
Find the antiderivative of 4 2
.
x + 3x

Solution

This can be rewritten as ∫ (2 x

3
+ 3x)(x
4
+ 3x )
2 −1
dx. Use substitution.

Let u = x 4 2
+ 3x , then du = (4x 3
+ 6x) dx. Alter du by factoring out the 2. Thus,
3 3
du = (4 x + 6x) dx = 2(2 x + 3x) dx

1
3
du = (2 x + 3x) dx.
2

Rewrite the integrand in u:

3 4 2 −1
1 −1
∫ (2 x + 3x)(x + 3x ) dx = ∫ u du.
2

Then we have
1 −1
1 1 4 2
∫ u du = ln |u| + C = ln ∣ x + 3x ∣ +C .
2 2 2

 Example 5.6.11: Finding an Antiderivative of a Logarithmic Function

Find the antiderivative of the log function log 2
x.

Solution
Follow the format in the formula listed in the rule on integration formulas involving logarithmic functions. Based on this
format, we have
x
∫ log2 x dx = (ln x − 1) + C .
ln 2

 Exercise 5.6.9

Find the antiderivative of log 3

x .

Hint
Follow Example 5.6.11and refer to the rule on integration formulas involving logarithmic functions.

Answer
x
∫ log3 x dx = (ln x − 1) + C
ln 3

Example 5.6.12 is a definite integral of a trigonometric function. With trigonometric functions, we often have to apply a
trigonometric property or an identity before we can move forward. Finding the right form of the integrand is usually the key to a
smooth integration.

 Example 5.6.12: Evaluating a Definite Integral

Evaluate the definite integral
π/2
sin x
∫ dx.
0 1 + cos x

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Solution
We need substitution to evaluate this problem. Let u = 1 + cos x so du = − sin x dx.

Rewrite the integral in terms of u, changing the limits of integration as well. Thus,
u = 1 + cos(0) = 2

π
u = 1 + cos( ) = 1.
2

Then
π/2 1
sin x
−1
∫ = −∫ u du
0
1 + cos x 2

2
−1
=∫ u du
1

2
∣
= ln |u| ∣
∣
1

= [ln 2 − ln 1] = ln 2

Key Concepts
Exponential and logarithmic functions arise in many real-world applications, especially those involving growth and decay.
Substitution is often used to evaluate integrals involving exponential functions or logarithms.

Key Equations
Integrals of Exponential Functions

x x
∫ e dx = e +C

x
a
x
∫ a dx = +C
ln a

Integration Formulas Involving Logarithmic Functions

−1
∫ x dx = ln |x| + C

∫ ln x dx = x ln x − x + C = x(ln x − 1) + C

x
∫ loga x dx = (ln x − 1) + C
ln a

This page titled 5.6: Integrals Involving Exponential and Logarithmic Functions is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored,
remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the
LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request.
5.6: Integrals Involving Exponential and Logarithmic Functions by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.
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5.6E: EXERCISES FOR SECTION 5.6
For exercises 1 - 8, compute each indefinite integral.

1) ∫ 2x
e dx

2) ∫ −3x
e dx

Answer
−3x
−1 −3x
∫ e dx = e +C
3

3) ∫ 2
x
dx

4) ∫ 3
−x
dx

Answer
−x
−x
3
∫ 3 dx = − +C
ln 3

1
5) ∫ dx
2x

2
6) ∫ dx
x

Answer
2
2
∫ dx = 2 ln x + C = ln(x ) + C
x

1
7) ∫ dx
x2

1
8) ∫ − dx
√x

Answer
1 −
∫ − dx = 2√x + C
√x

In exercises 9 - 16, find each indefinite integral by using appropriate substitutions.

ln x
9) ∫ dx
x

dx
10) ∫
x(ln x)2

Answer
dx 1
∫ = − +C
2
x(ln x) ln x

dx
11) ∫ (x > 1)
x ln x

dx
12) ∫
x ln x ln(ln x)

Answer
dx
∫ = ln(ln(ln x)) + C
x ln x ln(ln x)

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13) ∫ tan θ dθ

cos x − x sin x
14) ∫ dx
x cos x

Answer
cos x − x sin x
∫ dx = ln(x cos x) + C
x cos x

ln(sin x)
15) ∫ dx
tan x

16) ∫ ln(cos x) tan x dx

Answer
1 2
∫ ln(cos x) tan x dx = − (ln(cos(x))) +C
2

17) ∫ xe
−x
dx

18) ∫ x e
2 −x
dx

Answer
3
−x
2 −x
3 −e
∫ x e dx = +C
3

19) ∫ e
sin x
cos x dx

20) ∫ e
tan x
sec
2
x dx

Answer
tan x 2 tan x
∫ e sec x dx = e +C

ln x
e
21) ∫ dx
x

ln(1−t)
e
22) ∫ dt
1− t

Answer
ln(1−t)
e 1− t
∫ dt = ∫ dt = ∫ 1 dt = t+C
1− t 1− t

In exercises 23 - 28, verify by differentiation that ∫ ln x dx = x(ln x − 1) + C , then use appropriate changes of variables to
compute the integral.
1
23) ∫ ln x dx (Hint: ∫ ln x dx = ∫
2
x ln(x ) dx )
2

24) ∫ x
2
ln
2
x dx

Answer
2 2
1 3 3
∫ x ln x dx = x (ln(x ) − 1) + C
9

ln x 1
25) ∫ 2
dx (Hint: Set u = .)
x x

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ln x
26) ∫ − dx (Hint: Set u = √−
x. )
√x

Answer
ln x −
∫ − dx = 2√x (ln x − 2) + C
√x

1
27) Write an integral to express the area under the graph of y = from t = 1 to e and evaluate the integral.
x

28) Write an integral to express the area under the graph of y = e between t = 0 and t = ln x , and evaluate the integral.
t

Answer
ln x ln x
t t∣ ln x 0
∫ e dt = e ∣ = e −e = x−1
∣0
0

In exercises 29 - 35, use appropriate substitutions to express the trigonometric integrals in terms of compositions with logarithms.

29) ∫ tan(2x) dx

sin(3x) − cos(3x)
30) ∫ dx
sin(3x) + cos(3x)

Answer
sin(3x) − cos(3x) 1
∫ dx = − ln | sin(3x) + cos(3x)| + C
sin(3x) + cos(3x) 3

2
x sin(x )
31) ∫ 2
dx
cos(x )

32) ∫ x csc(x ) dx
2

Answer
2
1 2 2
∫ x csc(x ) dx = − ln ∣ csc(x ) + cot(x ) ∣ +C
2

33) ∫ ln(cos x) tan x dx

34) ∫ ln(csc x) cot x dx

Answer
1 2
∫ ln(csc x) cot x dx = − (ln(csc x)) +C
2

x −x
e −e
35) ∫ x
dx
e + e−x

In exercises 36 - 40, evaluate the definite integral.

2 2
1 + 2x + x
36) ∫ 2 3
dx
1 3x + 3x +x

Answer
2 2
1 + 2x + x 1 26
∫ dx = ln( )
2 7
1 3x + 3x + x3 3

π/4

37) ∫ tan x dx
0

π/3
sin x − cos x
38) ∫ dx
0 sin x + cos x

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Answer
π/3
sin x − cos x –
∫ dx = ln(√3 − 1)
0 sin x + cos x

π/2

39) ∫ csc x dx
π/6

π/3

40) ∫ cot x dx
π/4

Answer
π/3
1 3
∫ cot x dx = ln
π/4
2 2

In exercises 41 - 46, integrate using the indicated substitution.

x
41) ∫ dx; u = x − 100
x − 100

y−1
42) ∫ dy; u = y+1
y+1

Answer
y−1
∫ dy = y − 2 ln |y + 1| + C
y+1

2
1− x
43) ∫ dx; u = 3x − x
3

3x − x3

sin x + cos x
44) ∫ dx; u = sin x − cos x
sin x − cos x

Answer
sin x + cos x
∫ dx = ln | sin x − cos x| + C
sin x − cos x

−−−− −−
45) ∫ e
2x
√1 − e
2x
dx; u = 1− e
2x

−−−−−−− −
2
√1 − (ln x)
46) ∫ ln(x) dx; u = 1 − (ln x)
2

Answer
−−−−−−− −
√1 − (ln x)2 1
2 3/2
∫ ln(x) dx = − (1 − (ln x )) +C
x 3

−
√x −
47) ∫ − dx; u = √x + 2
√x + 2

Answer
−
√x
− 2 − −
∫ dx = (√x + 2) − 8 (√x + 2) + 8 ln(√x + 2) + C
−
√x + 2

48) ∫ e
x
sec(e
x
+ 1) tan(e
x
+ 1) dx; u = e
x
+1

Answer
x x x x
∫ e sec(e + 1) tan(e + 1) dx = sec(e + 1) + C

In exercises 49 - 54, state whether the right-endpoint approximation overestimates or underestimates the exact area. Then calculate
the right endpoint estimate R and solve for the exact area.
50

49) [T] y = e over [0, 1]

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50) [T] y = e −x
over [0, 1]

Answer
Since f is decreasing, the right endpoint estimate underestimates the area.
e−1
Exact solution: , R50 = 0.6258 .
e

51) [T] y = ln(x) over [1, 2]

x+1
52) [T] y = over [0, 1]
x2 + 2x + 6

Answer
Since f is increasing, the right endpoint estimate overestimates the area.
2 ln(3) − ln(6)
Exact solution: , R50 = 0.2033.
2

53) [T] y = 2 over [−1, 0]

54) [T] y = −2 −x
over [0, 1]

Answer
Since f is increasing, the right endpoint estimate overestimates the area (the actual area is a larger negative number).
1
Exact solution: − , R50 = −0.7164.
ln(4)

In exercises 55 - 58, f(x) ≥ 0 for a ≤ x ≤ b . Find the area under the graph of f(x) between the given values a and b by
integrating.
log 10 (x)
55) f(x) = ; a = 10, b = 100
x

log 2 (x)
56) f(x) = ; a = 32, b = 64
x

Answer
11
ln 2
2

57) f(x) = 2 −x
; a = 1, b = 2

58) f(x) = 2 −x
; a = 3, b = 4

Answer
1

ln(65, 536)

59) Find the area under the graph of the function f(x) = xe −x
between x = 0 and x = 5.
2 2

60) Compute the integral of f(x) = xe and find the smallest value of −x
N such that the area under the graph f(x) = xe
−x
between
x = N and x = N + 10 is, at most, 0.01 .

Answer
N+1
2 1 2 2

∫ xe
−x
dx = (e
−N
−e
−(N+1)
). The quantity is less than 0.01 when N = 2 .
N
2

61) Find the limit, as N tends to infinity, of the area under the graph of f(x) = xe −x
between x = 0 and x = 5.
b 1/a
dt dt
62) Show that ∫ = ∫ when 0 < a ≤ b .
a
t 1/b
t

Answer
b 1/a
dx 1 1 dx
∫ = ln(b) − ln(a) = ln( ) − ln( ) = ∫
a
x a b 1/b
x

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63) Suppose that f(x) > 0 for all x and that f and g are differentiable. Use the identity f g g ln f
= e and the chain rule to find the derivative
of f .
g

64) Use the previous exercise to find the antiderivative of h(x) = x x

(1 + ln x) and evaluate ∫ x
x (1 + ln x) dx .
2

Answer
23

65) Show that if c > 0 , then the integral of 1

x
from ac to bc (for 0 < a < b) is the same as the integral of 1

x
from a to b .
The following exercises are intended to derive the fundamental properties of the natural log starting from the definition
x
dt
ln(x) = ∫ , using properties of the definite integral and making no further assumptions.
1
t
x
dt 1
66) Use the identity ln(x) = ∫ to derive the identity ln( ) = − ln x .
1
t x

Answer
1/x
1 dt 1 dt du dt
We may assume that x > 1 ,so < 1. Then, ∫ . Now make the substitution u = , so du = − 2
and = − , and
x 1 t t t u t
1/x x
dt du
change endpoints: ∫ = −∫ = − ln x.
1
t 1
u

xy
1
67) Use a change of variable in the integral ∫ dt to show that ln xy = ln x + ln y for x, y > 0 .
1
t
x
dt
68) Use the identity ln x = ∫ to show that ln(x) is an increasing function of x on [0, ∞) , and use the previous exercises to show that
1 x

the range of ln(x) is (−∞, ∞). Without any further assumptions, conclude that ln(x) has an inverse function defined on (−∞, ∞).
69) Pretend, for the moment, that we do not know that e is the inverse function of ln(x), but keep in mind that ln(x) has an inverse
x

function defined on (−∞, ∞). Call it E . Use the identity ln xy = ln x + ln y to deduce that E(a + b) = E(a)E(b) for any real numbers
a, b.

70) Pretend, for the moment, that we do not know that e is the inverse function of ln x, but keep in mind that ln x has an inverse function
x

defined on (−∞, ∞). Call it E . Show that E (t) = E(t). ′

Answer
′
E (ln x)
x = E(ln(x)). Then, 1 = or x = E ′
(ln x) . Since any number t can be written t = ln x for some x , and for such t we
x

have x = E(t) , it follows that for any t, ′

E (t) = E(t).

x
sin t
71) The sine integral, defined as S (x) = ∫ dt is an important quantity in engineering. Although it does not have a simple closed
0
t

1
formula, it is possible to estimate its behavior for large x . Show that for k ≥ 1, |S (2πk) − S (2π(k + 1))| ≤ . (Hint:
k(2k + 1)π

sin(t + π) = − sin t )
1 2 2

72) [T] The normal distribution in probability is given by p(x) = −−e

−(x−μ) /2σ
, where σ is the standard deviation and μ is the
σ√2π

average. The standard normal distribution in probability, p , corresponds to μ = 0 and σ = 1. Compute the left endpoint estimates R
s 10 and
1
1 2/2

R100 of ∫ −−e
−x
dx.
−1 √2π

Answer
R10 = 0.6811, R100 = 0.6827

5.6E.6 https://math.libretexts.org/@go/page/137735
5
1 2

73) [T] Compute the right endpoint estimates R 50 and R100 of ∫ −−e
−(x−1) /8
.
−3 2√2π

CONTRIBUTORS AND ATTRIBUTIONS

Gilbert Strang (MIT) and Edwin “Jed” Herman (Harvey Mudd) with many contributing authors. This content by OpenStax is
licensed with a CC-BY-SA-NC 4.0 license. Download for free at http://cnx.org.
Paul Seeburger (Monroe Community College) added problems 47-48 to Section 5.6 exercises.

5.6E: Exercises for Section 5.6 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
5.E: Integration (Exercises) has no license indicated.
5.6E: Exercises for Section 5.6 has no license indicated.

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5.7: Integrals Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric Functions
 Learning Objectives
Integrate functions resulting in inverse trigonometric functions

In this section we focus on integrals that result in inverse trigonometric functions. We have worked with these functions before.
Recall, that trigonometric functions are not one-to-one unless the domains are restricted. When working with inverses of
trigonometric functions, we always need to be careful to take these restrictions into account. Also, we previously developed
formulas for derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions. The formulas developed there give rise directly to integration formulas
involving inverse trigonometric functions.

Integrals that Result in Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Let us begin this last section of the chapter with the three formulas. Along with these formulas, we use substitution to evaluate the
integrals. We prove the formula for the inverse sine integral.

 Rule: Integration Formulas Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The following integration formulas yield inverse trigonometric functions:
du −1
u
∫ − −−−− − = sin ( )+C (5.7.1)
√ a2 − u2 a

du 1 u
−1
∫ = tan ( )+C (5.7.2)
2 2
a +u a a

du 1 |u|
−1
∫ = sec ( ) +C (5.7.3)
− −−−− −
u √ u2 − a2 a a

 Proof of the first formula

Let y = sin −1 x

a
. Then a sin y = x . Now using implicit differentiation, we obtain
d d
(a sin y) = (x)
dx dx

dy
a cos y =1
dx

dy 1
= .
dx a cos y

−−−−−−−−
π π
For − ≤y ≤ , cos y ≥ 0. Thus, applying the Pythagorean identity sin
2 2
y + cos y =1 , we have cos y = √1 − sin
2
y.
2 2
This gives
1 1
= (5.7.4)
−−−−−−−−
a cos y 2
a√ 1 − sin y

1
= −−−−−−−−−− (5.7.5)
2
√ a2 − a2 sin y

1
= − −− −−−. (5.7.6)
√ a − x2
2

Then for −a ≤ x ≤ a, we have

1 −1
u
∫ −−− −−− du = sin ( ) + C.
2
√a − u 2 a

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 Example 5.7.1: Evaluating a Definite Integral Using Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Evaluate the definite integral

1/2
dx
∫ − −−− −.
0 √ 1 − x2

Solution
We can go directly to the formula for the antiderivative in the rule on integration formulas resulting in inverse trigonometric
functions, and then evaluate the definite integral. We have
1/2 1/2
dx ∣ π π
−1 −1 1 −1
∫ − −−− − = sin x∣ = sin − sin 0 = −0 = .
∣ 2
0 √ 1 − x2 0 6 6

Note that since the integrand is simply the derivative of sin −1

x , we are really just using this fact to find the antiderivative here.

 Exercise 5.7.1
dx
Find the indefinite integral using an inverse trigonometric function and substitution for ∫ −−−− − .
√9 − x2

Hint
Use the formula in the rule on integration formulas resulting in inverse trigonometric functions.

Answer
dx x
−1
∫ = sin ( )+C
−−−− −
√9 − x2 3

In many integrals that result in inverse trigonometric functions in the antiderivative, we may need to use substitution to see how to
use the integration formulas provided above.

 Example 5.7.2: Finding an Antiderivative Involving an Inverse Trigonometric Function using substitution
Evaluate the integral
dx
∫ − −−−− −.
√ 4 − 9x2

Solution
Substitute u = 3x. Then du = 3 dx and we have
dx 1 du
∫ = ∫ .
− −−−− − − −−− −
√ 4 − 9x2 3 √ 4 − u2

Applying the formula with a = 2, we obtain

dx 1 du 1 u 1 3x
−1 −1
∫ = ∫ = sin ( )+C = sin ( ) + C.
− −−−− − − −−− −
√ 4 − 9x2 3 √ 4 − u2 3 2 3 2

 Exercise 5.7.2
dx
Find the antiderivative of ∫ −−−− −−−.
√1 − 16x2

Hint

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Substitute u = 4x .

Answer
dx 1
−1
∫ = sin (4x) + C
−−−− −−−
√1 − 16x2 4

 Example 5.7.3: Evaluating a Definite Integral

Evaluate the definite integral

√3/2
du
∫ − −−− −.
0 √ 1 − u2

Solution
The format of the problem matches the inverse sine formula. Thus,
√3/2 √3/2
–
du ∣ √3 π
−1 −1 −1
∫ − −−− − = sin u∣ = [ sin ( )] − [ sin (0)] = .
√ 1 − u2 ∣ 2 3
0 0

Integrals Resulting in Other Inverse Trigonometric Functions

There are six inverse trigonometric functions. However, only three integration formulas are noted in the rule on integration
formulas resulting in inverse trigonometric functions because the remaining three are negative versions of the ones we use. The
only difference is whether the integrand is positive or negative. Rather than memorizing three more formulas, if the integrand is
negative, simply factor out −1 and evaluate the integral using one of the formulas already provided. To close this section, we
examine one more formula: the integral resulting in the inverse tangent function.

 Example 5.7.4: Finding an Antiderivative Involving the Inverse Tangent Function

1
Find the antiderivative of ∫ 2
dx.
9 +x

Solution
Apply the formula with a = 3 . Then,
dx 1 x
−1
∫ = tan ( ) + C.
2
9 +x 3 3

 Exercise 5.7.3
dx
Find the antiderivative of ∫ 2
.
16 + x

Hint
Follow the steps in Example 5.7.4.

Answer
dx 1 −1
x
∫ = tan ( )+C
2
16 + x 4 4

 Example 5.7.5: Applying the Integration Formulas WITH SUBSTITUTION

1
Find an antiderivative of ∫ 2
dx.
1 + 4x

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Solution
Comparing this problem with the formulas stated in the rule on integration formulas resulting in inverse trigonometric
functions, the integrand looks similar to the formula for tan u + C . So we use substitution, letting u = 2x, then du = 2 dx
−1

1
and du = dx. Then, we have
2

1 1 1 −1
1 −1
∫ du = tan u +C = tan (2x) + C .
2 1 + u2 2 2

 Exercise 5.7.4
dx
Use substitution to find the antiderivative of ∫ 2
.
25 + 4x

Hint
Use the solving strategy from Example 5.7.5 and the rule on integration formulas resulting in inverse trigonometric
functions.

Answer
dx 1 2x
−1
∫ = tan ( ) +C
2
25 + 4x 10 5

 Example 5.7.6: Evaluating a Definite Integral

√3
dx
Evaluate the definite integral ∫ 2
.
√3/3 1 +x

Solution
Use the formula for the inverse tangent. We have
√3 √3
–
dx ∣ – √3 π π π
−1 −1 −1
∫ = tan x∣ = [ tan (√3)] − [ tan ( )] = − = .
1 + x2 ∣√3/3 3 3 6 6
√3/3

 Exercise 5.7.5
2
dx
Evaluate the definite integral ∫ .
0
4 + x2

Hint
Follow the procedures from Example 5.7.6to solve the problem.

Answer
2
dx π
∫ =
2
0 4 +x 8

Key Concepts
Formulas for derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions developed in Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
lead directly to integration formulas involving inverse trigonometric functions.
Use the formulas listed in the rule on integration formulas resulting in inverse trigonometric functions to match up the correct
format and make alterations as necessary to solve the problem.
Substitution is often required to put the integrand in the correct form.

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Key Equations
Integrals That Produce Inverse Trigonometric Functions
du u
−1
∫ = sin ( )+C
−−−− −−
√a2 − u2 a

du 1 u
−1
∫ = tan ( )+C
2 2
a +u a a

du 1 |u|
−1
∫ = sec ( ) +C
−− −−−−
2
u √u − a
2 a a

Contributors and Attributions

Gilbert Strang (MIT) and Edwin “Jed” Herman (Harvey Mudd) with many contributing authors. This content by OpenStax is
licensed with a CC-BY-SA-NC 4.0 license. Download for free at http://cnx.org.
Includes some added textual clarifications and edits by Paul Seeburger (Monroe Community College)

This page titled 5.7: Integrals Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric Functions is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored,
remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the
LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request.
5.7: Integrals Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric Functions by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.
Original source: https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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5.7E: EXERCISES FOR SECTION 5.7
In exercises 1 - 6, evaluate each integral in terms of an inverse trigonometric function.
√3/2
dx
1) ∫ −−−− −
0 √1 − x2

Answer
√3/2 √3/2
dx −1 ∣ π
∫ = sin x∣ =
−−−− − ∣0
0 √1 − x2 3

1/2
dx
2) ∫ −−−− −
−1/2 √1 − x2

1
dx
3) ∫ −−−− −
√3 √1 + x2

Answer
1 1
dx ∣ π
−1
∫ −−−− − = tan x∣ = −
∣ 12
√3 √1 + x2 √3

√3
dx
4) ∫ 2
1
1+ x
√3

√2
dx
5) ∫ −−−−−
2
1 |x|√x − 1

Answer
√2 √2
dx −1 ∣ π
∫ = sec x∣ =
−−−−− ∣1
1 |x|√x2 − 1 4

√3 dx
6) ∫ −−−−−
1 |x|√x2 − 1

In exercises 7 - 12, find each indefinite integral, using appropriate substitutions.

dx
7) ∫ −−−− −
√9 − x2

Answer
dx −1
x
∫ −−−− − = sin ( )+ C
√9 − x2 3

dx
8) ∫ −−−− −−−
√1 − 16x2

dx
9) ∫
9 + x2

Answer
dx 1 −1
x
∫ = tan ( )+ C
9 + x2 3 3

dx
10) ∫
25 + 16x2

dx
11) ∫ −−−−−
x√x2 − 9

Answer

5.7E.1 https://math.libretexts.org/@go/page/137737
dx 1 |x|
−1
∫ −−−−− = sec ( )+C
2 3 3
x√x − 9

dx
12) ∫ −−− −−−−
2
x√4x − 16

dt
13) Explain the relationship − cos −1
t+C = ∫ −−− −− = sin
−1
t + C. Is it true, in general, that cos
−1
t = − sin
−1
t ?
√1 − t2

Answer
π
cos(
π

2
− θ) = sin θ. So, sin −1
t = − cos
−1
t. They differ by a constant.
2

dt
14) Explain the relationship sec −1
t+C = ∫ −− −−− = − csc
−1
t + C. Is it true, in general, that sec −1
t = − csc
−1
t ?
2
|t|√t − 1

2
dt
15) Explain what is wrong with the following integral: ∫ −−−−− .
1 √1 − t2

Answer
−−−−−
√1 − t2 is not defined as a real number when t > 1.
1
dt
16) Explain what is wrong with the following integral: ∫ −− −−− .
2
−1 |t|√t − 1

Answer
−− −−−
√t2 − 1 is not defined as a real number when −1 < t < 1 , and the integrand is undefined when t = −1 or t = 1.

In exercises 17 - 20, solve for the antiderivative of f with C = 0 , then use a calculator to graph f and the antiderivative over the
given interval [a, b] . Identify a value of C such that adding C to the antiderivative recovers the definite integral
x

F (x) = ∫ f(t) dt .
a

1
17) [T] ∫ −−−− − dx over [−3, 3]
√9 − x2

Answer

The antiderivative is sin −1

(
x

3
)+C . Taking C =
π

2
recovers the definite integral.

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9
18) [T] ∫ 2
dx over [−6, 6]
9+ x

cos x
19) [T] ∫ 2
dx over [−6, 6]
4 + sin x

Answer

sin(6)
The antiderivative is 1

2
tan
−1
(
sin x

2
)+C . Taking C =
1

2
tan
−1
(
2
) recovers the definite integral.
x
e
20) [T] ∫ dx over [−6, 6]
1 + e2x

In exercises 21 - 26, compute the antiderivative using appropriate substitutions.

−1
sin t
21) ∫ −−−−− dt
√1 − t2

Answer
−1
sin t dt 1 −1 2
∫ −−−−− = (sin t) +C
2
√1 − t2

dt
22) ∫ −1
−−−−−
2
sin t √1 − t
−1
tan (2t)
23) ∫ dt
1 + 4t2

Answer
−1
tan (2t) 1 −1 2
∫ dt = (tan (2t)) +C
2
1 + 4t 4

−1 2
t tan (t )
24) ∫ dt
1 + t4

−1 t
sec ( )
25) ∫ −− −−− dt
2

2
|t|√t − 4

Answer

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−1 t
sec ( )
2 1 −1 t 2
∫ dt = (sec ( )) +C
−− −−− 4 2
|t|√t2 − 4

−1 2
t sec (t )
26) ∫ −− −−−
dt
t2 √t4 − 1

In exercises 27 - 32, use a calculator to graph the antiderivative of f with C = 0 over the given interval [a, b]. Approximate a
x

value of C , if possible, such that adding C to the antiderivative gives the same value as the definite integral F (x) = ∫ f(t) dt.
a

1
27) [T] ∫ −−−−− dx over [2, 6]
x√x2 − 4

Answer

The antiderivative is 1

2
−1
sec (
x

2
)+C . Taking C = 0 recovers the definite integral over [2, 6] .

1
28) [T] ∫ − dx over [0, 6]
(2x + 2)√x

(sin x + x cos x)
29) [T] ∫ 2
over [−6, 6]
2
1+ x sin x dx

Answer

The general antiderivative is tan −1

(x sin x) + C . Taking C = − tan
−1
(6 sin(6)) recovers the definite integral.
−2x
2e
30) [T] ∫ −−−− −−− dx over [0, 2]
√1 − e−4x

1
31) [T] ∫ over [0, 2]
x + x ln 2x

Answer

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The general antiderivative is tan −1
(ln x) + C . Taking C =
π

2
= lim tan
−1
t recovers the definite integral.
t→∞

−1
sin x
32) [T] ∫ −−−− − over [−1, 1]
√1 − x2

In exercises 33 - 38, compute each integral using appropriate substitutions.

t
e
33) ∫ −−−−−−
dt
√1 − e2t

Answer
t
e
−1 t
∫ −−−−−− dt = sin (e ) + C
√1 − e2t

t
e
34) ∫ dt
1 + e2t

dt
35) ∫ −−−− −−−
2
t √1 − ln t

Answer
dt −1
∫ = sin (ln t) + C
−−−− −−−
2
t √1 − ln t

dt
36) ∫ 2
t(1 + ln t)

−1
cos (2t)
37) ∫ −−−− −−
dt
√1 − 4t2

Answer
−1
cos (2t) 1 −1 2
∫ dt = − (cos (2t)) +C
−−−− −−
√1 − 4t2 2

t −1 t
e cos (e )
38) ∫ −−−−−− dt
√1 − e2t

In exercises 39 - 42, compute each definite integral.

1/2 −1
tan(sin t)
39) ∫ −−−−−
dt
0 √1 − t2

Answer
1/2 −1
tan(sin t) 1 4
∫ −−−−− dt = ln( )
0 √1 − t2 2 3

1/2 −1
tan(cos t)
40) ∫ −−−−− dt
1/4 √1 − t2

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1/2 −1
sin(tan t)
41) ∫ 2
dt
0 1+ t

Answer
1/2 −1
sin(tan t) 2
∫ dt = 1−
2 –
0 1+ t √5

1/2 −1
cos(tan t)
42) ∫ 2
dt
0 1+ t

A
dt 1
43) For A > 0 , compute I(A) = ∫ 2
and evaluate lim I(A) , the area under the graph of 2
on [−∞, ∞] .
1+ t a→∞ 1+ t
−A

Answer
2 tan
−1
(A) → π as A → ∞
B
dt
44) For 1 < B < ∞ , compute I(B) = ∫ −− −−−
and evaluate lim I(B) , the area under the graph of 1

2
over [1, ∞) .
2 t√t −1
1 t √t − 1 B→∞

– dx
45) Use the substitution u = √2 cot x and the identity 1 + cot 2
x = csc
2
x to evaluate ∫ 2
. (Hint: Multiply the top and bottom
1 + cos x

of the integrand by csc 2

x .)

Answer
2 2
csc x csc x – –
Using the hint, one has ∫ 2
dx = ∫
2
dx. Set u = √2 cot x. Then, du = −√2 csc 2
x and the
2
csc x + cot x 1 + 2 cot x
du √2 √2 –
integral is − √2
1
∫
2
= −
2
tan
−1
u+C =
2
tan
−1
(√2 cot x) + C . If one uses the identity
1+ u
√2
tan
−1
s + tan
−1
(
1

s
) =
π

2
, then this can also be written 2
tan
−1
(
tan x

√2
) + C.

46) [T] Approximate the points at which the graphs of f(x) = 2x

2
−1 and g(x) = (1 + 4x )
2 −3/2
intersect, and approximate the area
between their graphs accurate to three decimal places.
47) [T] Approximate the points at which the graphs of f(x) = x 2
−1 and f(x) = x 2
−1 intersect, and approximate the area between their
graphs accurate to three decimal places.

Answer
x ≈ ±1.13525. The left endpoint estimate with N = 100 is 2.796 and these decimals persist for N = 500 .
x
−−−−− 1 −−−− − 1
48) Use the following graph to prove that ∫ 2
√1 − t dt =
2
x√1 − x + sin
−1
x.
0
2 2

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5.E: Integration (Exercises) has no license indicated.
5.7E: Exercises for Section 5.7 has no license indicated.

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5.8: Calculus of the Hyperbolic Functions
 Learning Objectives
Apply the formulas for derivatives and integrals of the hyperbolic functions.
Apply the formulas for the derivatives of the inverse hyperbolic functions and their associated integrals.
Describe the common applied conditions of a catenary curve.

We were introduced to hyperbolic functions previously, along with some of their basic properties. In this section, we look at
differentiation and integration formulas for the hyperbolic functions and their inverses.

Derivatives and Integrals of the Hyperbolic Functions

Recall that the hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine are defined as
x −x
e −e
sinh x =
2

and
x −x
e +e
cosh x = .
2

The other hyperbolic functions are then defined in terms of sinh x and cosh x. The graphs of the hyperbolic functions are shown in
Figure 5.8.1.

Figure 5.8.1 : Graphs of the hyperbolic functions.

It is easy to develop differentiation formulas for the hyperbolic functions. For example, looking at sinh x we have

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x −x
d d e −e
(sinh x) = ( )
dx dx 2

1 d d
x −x
= [ (e ) − (e )]
2 dx dx

1
x −x
= [e +e ]
2

= cosh x.

Similarly,
d
cosh x = sinh x.
dx

We summarize the differentiation formulas for the hyperbolic functions in Table 5.8.1.
Table 5.8.1 : Derivatives of the Hyperbolic Functions
d
f(x) f(x)
dx

sinh x cosh x

cosh x sinh x

2
tanh x sech x

2
coth x −csch x

sech x −sech x tanh x

csch x −csch x coth x

Let’s take a moment to compare the derivatives of the hyperbolic functions with the derivatives of the standard trigonometric
functions. There are a lot of similarities, but differences as well. For example, the derivatives of the sine functions match:
d
sin x = cos x
dx

and
d
sinh x = cosh x.
dx

The derivatives of the cosine functions, however, differ in sign:

d
cos x = − sin x,
dx

but
d
cosh x = sinh x.
dx

As we continue our examination of the hyperbolic functions, we must be mindful of their similarities and differences to the
standard trigonometric functions. These differentiation formulas for the hyperbolic functions lead directly to the following integral
formulas.

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∫ sinh u du = cosh u + C (5.8.1)

2
∫ csch u du = − coth u + C (5.8.2)

∫ cosh u du = sinh u + C (5.8.3)

∫ sech u tanh u du = −sech u + C − csch u + C (5.8.4)

2
∫ sech u du = tanh u + C (5.8.5)

∫ csch u coth u du = −csch u + C (5.8.6)

 Example 5.8.1: Differentiating Hyperbolic Functions

Evaluate the following derivatives:

d
a. (sinh(x ))
2

dx
d
b. (cosh x )
2

Solution:
Using the formulas in Table 5.8.1 and the chain rule, we get
d
a. 2
(sinh(x )) = cosh(x ) ⋅ 2x
2

dx
d
b. (cosh x )
2
= 2 cosh x sinh x
dx

 Exercise 5.8.1

Evaluate the following derivatives:

d
a. (tanh(x
2
+ 3x))
dx
d 1
b. (
2
)
dx (sinh x)

Hint
Use the formulas in Table 5.8.1and apply the chain rule as necessary.
Answer a
d
2 2 2
(tanh(x + 3x)) = (sech (x + 3x))(2x + 3)
dx

Answer b
d 1 d
−2 −3
( ) = (sinh x ) = −2(sinh x ) cosh x
2
dx (sinh x) dx

 Example 5.8.2: Integrals Involving Hyperbolic Functions

Evaluate the following integrals:

a. ∫
2
x cosh(x )dx

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b. ∫ tanh x dx

Solution
We can use u-substitution in both cases.
a. Let u = x . Then, du = 2x dx and
2

1
2
∫ x cosh(x )dx = ∫ cosh u du
2

1
= sinh u + C
2

1 2
= sinh(x ) + C .
2

b. Let u = cosh x . Then, du = sinh x dx and

sinh x
∫ tanh x dx = ∫ dx
cosh x

1
=∫ du
u

= ln |u| + C

= ln | cosh x| + C .

Note that cosh x > 0 for all x, so we can eliminate the absolute value signs and obtain

∫ tanh x dx = ln(cosh x) + C .

 Exercise 5.8.2

Evaluate the following integrals:

a. ∫ sinh
3
x cosh x dx

b. ∫ sech
2
(3x) dx

Hint
Use the formulas above and apply u -substitution as necessary.
Answer a
4
sinh x
3
∫ sinh x cosh x dx = +C
4

Answer b
tanh(3x)
2
∫ sech (3x) dx = +C
3

Calculus of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

Looking at the graphs of the hyperbolic functions, we see that with appropriate range restrictions, they all have inverses. Most of
the necessary range restrictions can be discerned by close examination of the graphs. The domains and ranges of the inverse
hyperbolic functions are summarized in Table 5.8.2.
Table 5.8.2 : Domains and Ranges of the Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Function Domain Range

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Function Domain Range

sinh
−1
x (−∞,∞) (−∞,∞)

cosh
−1
x (1,∞) [0,∞)

tanh
−1
x (−1,1) (−∞,∞)

coth
−1
x (−∞,1)∪(1,∞) (−∞,0)∪(0,∞)

sech
−1
x (0,1) [0,∞)

csch
−1
x (−∞,0)∪(0,∞) (−∞,0)∪(0,∞)

The graphs of the inverse hyperbolic functions are shown in the following figure.

Figure 5.8.3 : Graphs of the inverse hyperbolic functions.

To find the derivatives of the inverse functions, we use implicit differentiation. We have
−1
y = sinh x (5.8.7)

sinh y = x (5.8.8)

d d
sinh y = x (5.8.9)
dx dx

dy
cosh y = 1. (5.8.10)
dx

−−−−−−−−−
Recall that cosh2
y − sinh
2
y = 1, so cosh y = √1 + sinh 2
y .Then,

dy 1 1 1
= = −−−−−−−−− = − −−− −.
dx cosh y 2 √ 1 + x2
√ 1 + sinh y

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We can derive differentiation formulas for the other inverse hyperbolic functions in a similar fashion. These differentiation
formulas are summarized in Table 5.8.3.
Table 5.8.3 : Derivatives of the Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
d
f (x) f (x)
dx

1
−1
sinh x −−−− −
√1 + x2

1
−1
cosh x −−−−−
√x2 − 1

1
−1
tanh x
2
1 −x

1
−1
coth x
2
1 −x

−1
−1
sech x −−−− −
2
x √1 − x

−1
−1
csch x −−−− −
2
|x|√1 + x

Note that the derivatives of tanh x and coth x are the same. Thus, when we integrate 1/(1 − x ) , we need to select the
−1 −1 2

proper antiderivative based on the domain of the functions and the values of x. Integration formulas involving the inverse
hyperbolic functions are summarized as follows.
1
−1
∫ du = sinh u +C
− −−− −
√ 1 + u2

1 −1
∫ − −−− − du = −sech |u| + C
2
u√ 1 − u

1 −1
∫ − −−−− du = cosh u +C
√ u2 − 1

1
−1
∫ du = −csch |u| + C
− −−− −
2
u√ 1 + u

−1
1 tanh u +C if |u| < 1
∫ du = {
2 −1
1 −u coth u +C if |u| > 1

 Example 5.8.3: Differentiating Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

Evaluate the following derivatives:

d x
a. (sinh
−1
( ))
dx 3
d 2
b. (tanh
−1
x)
dx

Solution
Using the formulas in Table 5.8.3 and the chain rule, we obtain the following results:
d x 1 1
a. (sinh
−1
( )) = −−−−−− = −−−− −
dx 3 x
2
√9 + x2
3 √1 +
9
−1
d 2(tanh x)
b. (tanh
−1
x)
2
=
2
dx 1 −x

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 Exercise 5.8.3
Evaluate the following derivatives:
d
a. (cosh
−1
(3x))
dx
d
b. (coth
−1
x)
3

Hint
Use the formulas in Table 5.8.3and apply the chain rule as necessary.
Answer a
d −1
3
(cosh (3x)) =
−−−−− −
dx √9 x2 − 1

Answer b
−1 2
d 3(coth x)
−1 3
(coth x) =
2
dx 1 −x

 Example 5.8.4: Integrals Involving Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

Evaluate the following integrals:
1
a. ∫
−−−−− −
dx
√4 x2 − 1
1
b. ∫ −−−−− − dx
2
2x √1 − 9x

Solution
We can use u-substitution in both cases.
Let u = 2x. Then, du = 2 dx and we have
1 1
∫ − −−−− − dx = ∫ − −−−− du
√ 4 x2 − 1 2
2√ u − 1

1
−1
= cosh u +C
2

1 −1
= cosh (2x) + C .
2

Let u = 3x. Then, du = 3 dx and we obtain

1 1 1
∫ dx = ∫ du
− −−−− − − −−− −
2x √ 1 − 9x2 2 u √ 1 − u2

1 −1
=− sech |u| + C
2

1 −1
=− sech |3x| + C
2

 Exercise 5.8.4

Evaluate the following integrals:

1
a. ∫ −−−−− dx, x > 2
√x2 − 4

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1
b. ∫ −−− −−− dx
√1 − e2x

Hint
Use the formulas above and apply u -substitution as necessary.
Answer a
1 −1
x
∫ −−−−− dx = cosh ( )+C
2
√x − 4 2

Answer b
1 −1 x
∫ −−− −− − dx = −sech (e ) + C
2x
√1 − e

Applications
One physical application of hyperbolic functions involves hanging cables. If a cable of uniform density is suspended between two
supports without any load other than its own weight, the cable forms a curve called a catenary. High-voltage power lines, chains
hanging between two posts, and strands of a spider’s web all form catenaries. The following figure shows chains hanging from a
row of posts.

Figure 5.8.3 : Chains between these posts take the shape of a catenary. (credit: modification of work by OKFoundryCompany,
Flickr)
Hyperbolic functions can be used to model catenaries. Specifically, functions of the form y = a ⋅ cosh(x/a) are catenaries. Figure
5.8.4 shows the graph of y = 2 cosh(x/2).

Figure 5.8.4 : A hyperbolic cosine function forms the shape of a catenary.

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 Example 5.8.5: Using a Catenary to Find the Length of a Cable

Assume a hanging cable has the shape 10 cosh(x/10) for −15 ≤ x ≤ 15 , where x is measured in feet. Determine the length
of the cable (in feet).
Solution
Recall from Section 6.4 that the formula for arc length is
b −−−−−−−−−
2
∫ √ 1 + [f '(x)] dx .
a

Arc Length

We have f (x) = 10 cosh(x/10), so f '(x) = sinh(x/10). Then the arc length is

b −−−−−−−−− 15 −−−−−−−−−−− −
x
2 2
∫ √ 1 + [f '(x)] dx = ∫ √ 1 + sinh ( ) dx.
a −15
10

Now recall that

2 2
1 + sinh x = cosh x,

so we have
15 −−−−−−−−−−− −
2
x
Arc Length = ∫ √ 1 + sinh ( ) dx
−15
10

15
x
=∫ cosh( )dx
−15 10

15
x ∣
= 10 sinh( )
10 ∣
−15

3 3
= 10 [sinh( ) − sinh(− )]
2 2

3
= 20 sinh( )
2

≈ 42.586 ft.

 Exercise 5.8.5:

Assume a hanging cable has the shape 15 cosh(x/15) for −20 ≤ x ≤ 20 . Determine the length of the cable (in feet).

Answer
52.95 ft

Key Concepts
Hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of exponential functions.
Term-by-term differentiation yields differentiation formulas for the hyperbolic functions. These differentiation formulas give
rise, in turn, to integration formulas.
With appropriate range restrictions, the hyperbolic functions all have inverses.
Implicit differentiation yields differentiation formulas for the inverse hyperbolic functions, which in turn give rise to integration
formulas.
The most common physical applications of hyperbolic functions are calculations involving catenaries.

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Glossary
catenary
a curve in the shape of the function y = a ⋅ cosh(x/a) is a catenary; a cable of uniform density suspended between two
supports assumes the shape of a catenary

This page titled 5.8: Calculus of the Hyperbolic Functions is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated
by Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a
detailed edit history is available upon request.
6.9: Calculus of the Hyperbolic Functions by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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5.8E: Exercises for Section 5.8
1) [T] Find expressions for cosh x + sinh x and cosh x − sinh x. Use a calculator to graph these functions and ensure your
expression is correct.

Answer
e
x
and e −x

2) From the definitions of cosh(x) and sinh(x), find their antiderivatives.

3) Show that cosh(x) and sinh(x) satisfy y ′′
=y .

Answer
Answers may vary

d
4) Use the quotient rule to verify that ( tanh(x)) = sech (x).
2

5) Derive cosh 2 2
(x) + sinh (x) = cosh(2x) from the definition.

Answer
Answers may vary

6) Take the derivative of the previous expression to find an expression for sinh(2x).
7) Prove sinh(x + y) = sinh(x) cosh(y) + cosh(x) sinh(y) by changing the expression to exponentials.

Answer
Answers may vary

8) Take the derivative of the previous expression to find an expression for cosh(x + y).
In exercises 9 - 18, find the derivatives of the given functions and graph along with the function to ensure your answer is
correct.
9) [T] cosh(3x + 1)

Answer
3 sinh(3x + 1)

10) [T] sinh(x 2

)

1
11) [T]
cosh(x)

Answer
− tanh(x)sech(x)

12) [T] sinh(ln(x))

13) [T] cosh 2
(x) + sinh (x)
2

Answer
4 cosh(x) sinh(x)

14) [T] cosh 2

(x) − sinh (x)
2

−−−−−
15) [T] tanh(√x 2
+1 )

Answer

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2
−−−−−
2
x sech (√x + 1 )
−−−−−
√x2 + 1

1 + tanh(x)
16) [T]
1 − tanh(x)

17) [T] sinh 6

(x)

Answer
5
6 sinh (x) cosh(x)

18) [T] ln(sech(x) + tanh(x))

In exercises 19 - 28, find the antiderivatives for the given functions.
19) cosh(2x + 1)

Answer
1
sinh(2x + 1) + C
2

20) tanh(3x + 2)
21) x cosh(x 2
)

Answer
1 2 2
sinh (x ) + C
2

22) 3x 3
tanh(x )
4

23) cosh 2
(x) sinh(x)

Answer
1 3
cosh (x) + C
3

24) tanh 2
(x)sech (x)
2

sinh(x)
25)
1 + cosh(x)

Answer
ln(1 + cosh(x)) + C

26) coth(x)
27) cosh(x) + sinh(x)

Answer
cosh(x) + sinh(x) + C

28) (cosh(x) + sinh(x)) n

In exercises 29 - 35, find the derivatives for the functions.

29) tanh −1
(4x)

Answer
4

2
1 − 16x

30) sinh −1
(x )
2

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31) sinh −1
(cosh(x))

Answer
sinh(x)

−−−−−−−−−−
2
√cosh (x) + 1

32) cosh −1
(x )
3

33) tanh −1
(cos(x))

Answer
− csc(x)

−1

34) e sinh (x)

35) ln(tanh −1
(x))

Answer
1
−
2 −1
(x − 1) tanh (x)

In exercises 36 - 42, find the antiderivatives for the functions.

dx
36) ∫ 2
4 −x

dx
37) ∫ 2 2
a −x

Answer
1 x
−1
tanh ( )+C
a a

dx
38) ∫ −−−−−
√x2 + 1

xdx
39) ∫ −−−−−
√x2 + 1

Answer
−−−−−
√x2 + 1 + C

dx
40) ∫ − −−−− −
2
x √1 − x
x
e
41) ∫ −−− −−−
√e2x − 1

Answer
−1 x
cosh (e ) + C

2x
42) ∫ −
4
x −1

dv
In exercises 43 - 45, use the fact that a falling body with friction equal to velocity squared obeys the equation = g−v
2
.
dt

43) Show that v(t) = √g tanh(√gt) satisfies this equation.

Answer

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Answers may vary

dv
44) Derive the previous expression for v(t) by integrating 2
= dt .
g−v

45) [T] Estimate how far a body has fallen in 12seconds by finding the area underneath the curve of v(t) .

Answer
37.30

dy
In exercises 46 - 48, use this scenario: A cable hanging under its own weight has a slope S = that satisfies
dx
dS −−−−−−
= c√1 + S
2
. The constant c is the ratio of cable density to tension.
dx

46) Show that S = sinh(cx) satisfies this equation.

dy
47) Integrate = sinh(cx) to find the cable height y(x) if y(0) = 1/c.
dx

Answer
1
y = cosh(cx)
c

48) Sketch the cable and determine how far down it sags at x = 0 .
In exercises 49 - 52, solve each problem.
49) [T] A chain hangs from two posts 2m apart to form a catenary described by the equation y = 2 cosh(x/2) − 1 . Find the slope
of the catenary at the left fence post.

Answer
−0.521095

50) [T] A chain hangs from two posts four meters apart to form a catenary described by the equation y = 4 cosh(x/4) − 3. Find
the total length of the catenary (arc length).
51) [T] A high-voltage power line is a catenary described by y = 10 cosh(x/10). Find the ratio of the area under the catenary to its
arc length. What do you notice?

Answer
10

52) A telephone line is a catenary described by y = a cosh(x/a). Find the ratio of the area under the catenary to its arc length.
Does this confirm your answer for the previous question?
53) Prove the formula for the derivative of y = sinh −1
(x) by differentiating x = sinh(y).
(Hint: Use hyperbolic trigonometric identities.)
54) Prove the formula for the derivative of y = cosh −1
(x) by differentiating x = cosh(y).
(Hint: Use hyperbolic trigonometric identities.)
55) Prove the formula for the derivative of y = sech −1
(x) by differentiating x = sech(y).
(Hint: Use hyperbolic trigonometric identities.)
56) Prove that cosh(x) + sinh(x)) n
= cosh(nx) + sinh(nx).

y −y
e −e
57) Prove the expression for sinh −1
(x). Multiply x = sinh(y) = by 2e and solve for y . Does your expression match
y

2
the textbook?

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y −y
e +e
58) Prove the expression for cosh −1
(x). Multiply x = cosh(y) = by 2e and solve for y . Does your expression match
y

2
the textbook?

Contributors
Gilbert Strang (MIT) and Edwin “Jed” Herman (Harvey Mudd) with many contributing authors. This content by OpenStax is
licensed with a CC-BY-SA-NC 4.0 license. Download for free at http://cnx.org.

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Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit
history is available upon request.
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5.9: CHAPTER 5 REVIEW EXERCISES
In exercises 1 - 4, answer True or False. Justify your answer with a proof or a counterexample. Assume all functions f and g are
continuous over their domains.
b

1) If f(x) > 0, f'(x) > 0 for all x, then the right-hand rule underestimates the integral ∫ f(x) dx. Use a graph to justify your answer.
a

Answer
False
b b

2) ∫ f(x)
2
dx = ∫ f(x) dx
a a

b b

3) If f(x) ≤ g(x) for all x ∈ [a, b] , then ∫ f(x) dx ≤ ∫ g(x) dx.

a a

Answer
True

4) All continuous functions have an antiderivative.

In exercises 5 - 8, evaluate the Riemann sums L and R for the given functions over the specified interval. Compare your answer
4 4

with the exact answer, when possible, or use a calculator to determine the answer.
5) y = 3x 2
− 2x + 1) over [−1, 1]

Answer
L4 = 5.25, R4 = 3.25, exact answer: 4

6) y = ln(x 2
+ 1) over [0, e]
7) y = x 2
sin x over [0, π]

Answer
L4 = 5.364, R4 = 5.364, exact answer: 5.870

8) y = √−
x+
1

x
over [1, 4]
In exercises 9 - 12, evaluate the integrals.
1

9) ∫ (x
3
− 2x
2
+ 4x) dx
−1

Answer
4
−
3

4
3t
10) ∫ −−− −−− dt
0 √1 + 6t2

π/2

11) ∫ 2 sec(2θ) tan(2θ) dθ

π/3

Answer
1

π/4
2

12) ∫ e
cos x
sin x cos x dx
0

In exercises 13 - 16, find the antiderivative.

dx
13) ∫ 3
(x + 4)

Answer

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1
− +C
2(x + 4)2

14) ∫ x ln(x ) dx
2

2
4x
15) ∫ −−−− − dx
√1 − x6

Answer
4 −1 3
sin (x ) + C
3

2x
e
16) ∫ 4x
dx
1+ e

In exercises 17 - 20, find the derivative.

t
d sin x
17) ∫ −−−− − dx
dt 0 √1 + x2

Answer
sin t
−−−−−
√1 + t2

3
x
d −−−−−
18) ∫ √4 − t2 dt
dx 1

ln(x)
d
19) ∫ (4t + e ) dt
t

dx 1

Answer
ln x
4 +1
x

cos x
d 2

20) ∫ e
t
dt
dx 0

In exercises 21 - 23, consider the historic average cost per gigabyte of RAM on a computer.
Year 5-Year Change ($)
1980 0

1985 −5, 468, 750

1990 −755, 495

1995 −73, 005

2000 −29, 768

2005 −918

2010 −177

21) If the average cost per gigabyte of RAM in 2010 is $12, find the average cost per gigabyte of RAM in 1980.

Answer
$6, 328, 113

Solution: $6,328,113
22) The average cost per gigabyte of RAM can be approximated by the function C(t) = 8, 500, 000(0.65) , where t is measured in years
t

since 1980, and C is cost in US dollars. Find the average cost per gigabyte of RAM for the period from 1980 to 2010.
23) Find the average cost of 1 GB RAM from 2005 to 2010.

Answer
$73.36

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24) The velocity of a bullet from a rifle can be approximated by v(t) = 6400t − 6505t + 2686, where t is seconds after the shot and v is
2

the velocity measured in feet per second. This equation only models the velocity for the first half-second after the shot: 0 ≤ t ≤ 0.5. What
is the total distance the bullet travels in 0.5 sec?
25) What is the average velocity of the bullet for the first half-second?

Answer
19117

12
ft/sec, or about 1593 ft/sec

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5.8: Chapter 5 Review Exercises has no license indicated.

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW

6: Introduction to Differential Equations

Many real-world phenomena can be modeled mathematically by using differential equations. Population growth, radioactive decay,
predator-prey models, and spring-mass systems are four examples of such phenomena. In this chapter we study some of these
applications. A goal of this chapter is to develop solution techniques for different types of differential equations. As the equations
become more complicated, the solution techniques also become more complicated, and in fact an entire course could be dedicated
to the study of these equations. In this chapter we study several types of differential equations and their corresponding methods of
solution.
6.0: Prelude to Differential Equations
6.1: Basics of Differential Equations
6.1E: Exercises
6.2: Direction Fields and Numerical Methods
6.2E: Exercises
6.3: Separable Equations
6.3E: Exercises
6.4: The Logistic Equation
6.4E: Exercises
6.5: First-order Linear Equations
6.5E: Exercises
6.6: Chapter 6 Review Exercises

This page titled 6: Introduction to Differential Equations is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated
by Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a
detailed edit history is available upon request.

1
6.0: Prelude to Differential Equations
Many real-world phenomena can be modeled mathematically by using differential equations. Population growth, radioactive decay,
predator-prey models, and spring-mass systems are four examples of such phenomena. In this chapter we study some of these
applications. Suppose we wish to study a population of deer over time and determine the total number of animals in a given area.
We can first observe the population over a period of time, estimate the total number of deer, and then use various assumptions to
derive a mathematical model for different scenarios. Some factors that are often considered are environmental impact, threshold
population values, and predators. In this chapter we see how differential equations can be used to predict populations over time.

Figure 6.0.1 : The white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) of the eastern United States. Differential equations can be used to
study animal populations. (credit: modification of work by Rachel Kramer, Flickr)
Another goal of this chapter is to develop solution techniques for different types of differential equations. As the equations become
more complicated, the solution techniques also become more complicated, and in fact an entire course could be dedicated to the
study of these equations. In this chapter we study several types of differential equations and their corresponding methods of
solution.

This page titled 6.0: Prelude to Differential Equations is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a
detailed edit history is available upon request.
8.0: Prelude to Differential Equations by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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6.1: Basics of Differential Equations
 Learning Objectives
Identify the order of a differential equation.
Explain what is meant by a solution to a differential equation.
Distinguish between the general solution and a particular solution of a differential equation.
Identify an initial-value problem.
Identify whether a given function is a solution to a differential equation or an initial-value problem.

Calculus is the mathematics of change, and rates of change are expressed by derivatives. Thus, one of the most common ways to
use calculus is to set up an equation containing an unknown function y = f (x) and its derivative, known as a differential equation.
Solving such equations often provides information about how quantities change and frequently provides insight into how and why
the changes occur.
Techniques for solving differential equations can take many different forms, including direct solution, use of graphs, or computer
calculations. We introduce the main ideas in this chapter and describe them in a little more detail later in the course. In this section
we study what differential equations are, how to verify their solutions, some methods that are used for solving them, and some
examples of common and useful equations.

General Differential Equations

Consider the equation y' = 3x , which is an example of a differential equation because it includes a derivative. There is a
2

relationship between the variables x and y : y is an unknown function of x. Furthermore, the left-hand side of the equation is the
derivative of y . Therefore we can interpret this equation as follows: Start with some function y = f (x) and take its derivative. The
answer must be equal to 3x . What function has a derivative that is equal to 3x ? One such function is y = x , so this function is
2 2 3

considered a solution to a differential equation.

 Definition: differential equation

A differential equation is an equation involving an unknown function y = f (x) and one or more of its derivatives. A solution
to a differential equation is a function y = f (x) that satisfies the differential equation when f and its derivatives are substituted
into the equation.
Go to this website to explore more on this topic.

Some examples of differential equations and their solutions appear in Table 6.1.1.
Table 6.1.1 : Examples of Differential Equations and Their Solutions
Equation Solution
′ 2
y = 2x y = x

′ −3x
y + 3y = 6x + 11 y = e + 2x + 3

′′ ′ −2x x 2x −2x
y − 3y + 2y = 24 e y = 3e − 4e + 2e

Note that a solution to a differential equation is not necessarily unique, primarily because the derivative of a constant is zero. For
example, y = x + 4 is also a solution to the first differential equation in Table 6.1.1. We will return to this idea a little bit later in
2

this section. For now, let’s focus on what it means for a function to be a solution to a differential equation.

 Example 6.1.1: Verifying Solutions of Differential Equations

Verify that the function y = e −3x

+ 2x + 3 is a solution to the differential equation y' + 3y = 6x + 11 .
Solution
To verify the solution, we first calculate y' using the chain rule for derivatives. This gives y' = −3 e
−3x
+2 . Next we
substitute y and y' into the left-hand side of the differential equation:

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−2x −2x
(−3 e + 2) + 3(e + 2x + 3).

The resulting expression can be simplified by first distributing to eliminate the parentheses, giving
−2x −2x
−3 e + 2 + 3e + 6x + 9.

Combining like terms leads to the expression 6x + 11 , which is equal to the right-hand side of the differential equation. This
result verifies that y = e + 2x + 3 is a solution of the differential equation.
−3x

 Exercise 6.1.1

Verify that y = 2e 3x
− 2x − 2 is a solution to the differential equation y' − 3y = 6x + 4.

Hint
First calculate y' then substitute both y' and y into the left-hand side.

It is convenient to define characteristics of differential equations that make it easier to talk about them and categorize them. The
most basic characteristic of a differential equation is its order.

 Definition: order of a differential equation

The order of a differential equation is the highest order of any derivative of the unknown function that appears in the equation.

 Example 6.1.2: Identifying the Order of a Differential Equation

The highest derivative in the equation is y',

What is the order of each of the following differential equations?
a. y' − 4y = x 2
− 3x + 4

b. x y − 3x y
2 ′′′ ′′
+ xy' − 3y = sin x

c. y − y
4

x
(4) 6
2
x
′′
+
12

x
4
y =x
3
− 3x
2
+ 4x − 12

Solution
a. The highest derivative in the equation is y',so the order is 1.
b. The highest derivative in the equation is y , so the order is 3.
′′′

c. The highest derivative in the equation is y , so the order is 4.

(4)

 Exercise 6.1.2

What is the order of the following differential equation?

4 (5) 2
(x − 3x)y − (3 x + 1)y' + 3y = sin x cos x

Hint
What is the highest derivative in the equation?

Answer
5

General and Particular Solutions

We already noted that the differential equation y' = 2x has at least two solutions: y = x and y = x + 4 . The only difference
2 2

between these two solutions is the last term, which is a constant. What if the last term is a different constant? Will this expression
still be a solution to the differential equation? In fact, any function of the form y = x + C , where C represents any constant, is a
2

solution as well. The reason is that the derivative of x + C is 2x, regardless of the value of C . It can be shown that any solution of
2

this differential equation must be of the form y = x + C . This is an example of a general solution to a differential equation. A
2

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graph of some of these solutions is given in Figure 6.1.1. (Note: in this graph we used even integer values for C ranging between
−4 and 4 . In fact, there is no restriction on the value of C ; it can be an integer or not.)

Figure 6.1.1 : Family of solutions to the differential equation y' = 2x.

In this example, we are free to choose any solution we wish; for example, y = x − 3 is a member of the family of solutions to this
2

differential equation. This is called a particular solution to the differential equation. A particular solution can often be uniquely
identified if we are given additional information about the problem.

 Example 6.1.3: Finding a Particular Solution

Find the particular solution to the differential equation y' = 2x passing through the point (2, 7).
Solution
Any function of the form y = x + C is a solution to this differential equation. To determine the value of C , we substitute the
2

values x = 2 and y = 7 into this equation and solve for C :

2
y =x +C

2
7 =2 +C

= 4 +C

C = 3.

Therefore the particular solution passing through the point (2, 7) is y = x 2

+3 .

 Exercise 6.1.3
Find the particular solution to the differential equation

y' = 4x + 3

passing through the point (1, 7), given that y = 2x 2

+ 3x + C is a general solution to the differential equation.

Hint
First substitute x = 1 and y = 7 into the equation, then solve for C .

Answer
2
y = 2x + 3x + 2

Initial-Value Problems
Usually a given differential equation has an infinite number of solutions, so it is natural to ask which one we want to use. To choose
one solution, more information is needed. Some specific information that can be useful is an initial value, which is an ordered pair
that is used to find a particular solution.

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A differential equation together with one or more initial values is called an initial-value problem. The general rule is that the
number of initial values needed for an initial-value problem is equal to the order of the differential equation. For example, if we
have the differential equation y' = 2x, then y(3) = 7 is an initial value, and when taken together, these equations form an initial-
value problem. The differential equation y − 3y' + 2y = 4e is second order, so we need two initial values. With initial-value
′′ x

problems of order greater than one, the same value should be used for the independent variable. An example of initial values for
this second-order equation would be y(0) = 2 and y'(0) = −1. These two initial values together with the differential equation
form an initial-value problem. These problems are so named because often the independent variable in the unknown function is t ,
which represents time. Thus, a value of t = 0 represents the beginning of the problem.

 Example 6.1.4: Verifying a Solution to an Initial-Value Problem

Verify that the function y = 2e −2t

+e
t
is a solution to the initial-value problem
t
y' + 2y = 3 e , y(0) = 3.

Solution
For a function to satisfy an initial-value problem, it must satisfy both the differential equation and the initial condition. To
show that y satisfies the differential equation, we start by calculating y'. This gives y' = −4e + e . Next we substitute both −2t t

y and y' into the left-hand side of the differential equation and simplify:

−2t t −2t t
y' + 2y = (−4 e + e ) + 2(2 e +e )

−2t t −2t t t
= −4 e + e + 4e + 2e = 3e .

This is equal to the right-hand side of the differential equation, so y = 2e

−2t
+e
t
solves the differential equation. Next we
calculate y(0):
−2(0) 0
y(0) = 2 e +e = 2 + 1 = 3.

This result verifies the initial value. Therefore the given function satisfies the initial-value problem.

 Exercise 6.1.4
Verify that y = 3e 2t
+ 4 sin t is a solution to the initial-value problem

y' − 2y = 4 cos t − 8 sin t, y(0) = 3.

Hint
First verify that y solves the differential equation. Then check the initial value.

In Example 6.1.4, the initial-value problem consisted of two parts. The first part was the differential equation y' + 2y = 3e , and x

the second part was the initial value y(0) = 3. These two equations together formed the initial-value problem.
The same is true in general. An initial-value problem will consists of two parts: the differential equation and the initial condition.
The differential equation has a family of solutions, and the initial condition determines the value of C . The family of solutions to
the differential equation in Example 6.1.4 is given by y = 2e + C e . This family of solutions is shown in Figure 6.1.2, with the
−2t t

particular solution y = 2e + e labeled.

−2t t

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Figure 6.1.2 : A family of solutions to the differential equation y' + 2y = 3e . The particular solution y = 2e
t −2t
+e
t
is labeled.

 Example 6.1.5: Solving an Initial-value Problem

Solve the following initial-value problem:

x 2
y' = 3 e +x − 4, y(0) = 5.

Solution
The first step in solving this initial-value problem is to find a general family of solutions. To do this, we find an antiderivative
of both sides of the differential equation

x 2
∫ y' dx = ∫ (3 e +x − 4) dx,

namely,
y + C1 = 3 e
x
+
1

3
x
3
− 4x + C2 .
We are able to integrate both sides because the y term appears by itself. Notice that there are two integration constants: C and 1

C . Solving this equation for y gives

x 1 3
y = 3e + x − 4x + C2 − C1 .
3

Because C and C are both constants, C

1 2 2 − C1 is also a constant. We can therefore define C = C2 − C1 , which leads to the
equation
x 1 3
y = 3e + x − 4x + C .
3

Next we determine the value of C . To do this, we substitute x = 0 and y = 5 into this equation and solve for C :
1
0 3
5 = 3e + 0 − 4(0) + C
3
.
5 = 3 +C

C =2

Now we substitute the value C =2 into the general equation. The solution to the initial-value problem is
x 1 3
y = 3e + x − 4x + 2.
3

Analysis
The difference between a general solution and a particular solution is that a general solution involves a family of functions,
either explicitly or implicitly defined, of the independent variable. The initial value or values determine which particular
solution in the family of solutions satisfies the desired conditions.

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 Exercise 6.1.5

Solve the initial-value problem

2 x
y' = x − 4x + 3 − 6 e , y(0) = 8.

Hint
First take the antiderivative of both sides of the differential equation. Then substitute x =0 and y =8 into the resulting
equation and solve for C .

Answer
1 3 2 x
y = x − 2x + 3x − 6 e + 14
3

In physics and engineering applications, we often consider the forces acting upon an object, and use this information to understand
the resulting motion that may occur. For example, if we start with an object at Earth’s surface, the primary force acting upon that
object is gravity. Physicists and engineers can use this information, along with Newton’s second law of motion (in equation form
F = ma , where F represents force, m represents mass, and a represents acceleration), to derive an equation that can be solved.

Figure 6.1.3 : For a baseball falling in air, the only force acting on it is gravity (neglecting air resistance).
In Figure 6.1.3 we assume that the only force acting on a baseball is the force of gravity. This assumption ignores air resistance.
(The force due to air resistance is considered in a later discussion.) The acceleration due to gravity at Earth’s surface, g, is
approximately 9.8 m/s . We introduce a frame of reference, where Earth’s surface is at a height of 0 meters. Let v(t) represent the
2

velocity of the object in meters per second. If v(t) > 0 , the ball is rising, and if v(t) < 0 , the ball is falling (Figure).

Figure 6.1.4 : Possible velocities for the rising/falling baseball.

Our goal is to solve for the velocity v(t) at any time t . To do this, we set up an initial-value problem. Suppose the mass of the ball
is m, where m is measured in kilograms. We use Newton’s second law, which states that the force acting on an object is equal to its
mass times its acceleration (F = ma) . Acceleration is the derivative of velocity, so a(t) = v'(t) . Therefore the force acting on the
baseball is given by F = mv'(t) . However, this force must be equal to the force of gravity acting on the object, which (again using
Newton’s second law) is given by F = −mg , since this force acts in a downward direction. Therefore we obtain the equation
g

F = F , which becomes mv'(t) = −mg . Dividing both sides of the equation by m gives the equation
g

v'(t) = −g.

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Notice that this differential equation remains the same regardless of the mass of the object.
We now need an initial value. Because we are solving for velocity, it makes sense in the context of the problem to assume that we
know the initial velocity, or the velocity at time t = 0. This is denoted by v(0) = v . 0

 Example 6.1.6: Velocity of a Moving Baseball

A baseball is thrown upward from a height of 3 meters above Earth’s surface with an initial velocity of 10 m/s, and the only
force acting on it is gravity. The ball has a mass of 0.15 kg at Earth’s surface.
a. Find the velocity v(t) of the basevall at time t .
b. What is its velocity after 2 seconds?
Solution
a. From the preceding discussion, the differential equation that applies in this situation is
v'(t) = −g,

where g = 9.8 m/s . The initial condition is

2
v(0) = v0 , where v0 = 10 m/s. Therefore the initial-value problem is
2
v'(t) = −9.8 m/s , v(0) = 10 m/s.

The first step in solving this initial-value problem is to take the antiderivative of both sides of the differential equation. This
gives

∫ v'(t) dt = ∫ −9.8 dt

v(t) = −9.8t + C .

The next step is to solve for C . To do this, substitute t = 0 and v(0) = 10 :

v(t) = −9.8t + C

v(0) = −9.8(0) + C

10 = C .

Therefore C = 10 and the velocity function is given by v(t) = −9.8t + 10.

b. To find the velocity after 2 seconds, substitute t = 2 into v(t) .
v(t) = −9.8t + 10

v(2) = −9.8(2) + 10

v(2) = −9.6

The units of velocity are meters per second. Since the answer is negative, the object is falling at a speed of 9.6 m/s.

 Exercise 6.1.6
Suppose a rock falls from rest from a height of 100 meters and the only force acting on it is gravity. Find an equation for the
velocity v(t) as a function of time, measured in meters per second.

Hint
What is the initial velocity of the rock? Use this with the differential equation in Example 6.1.6 to form an initial-value
problem, then solve for v(t).

Answer
v(t) = −9.8t

A natural question to ask after solving this type of problem is how high the object will be above Earth’s surface at a given point in
time. Let s(t) denote the height above Earth’s surface of the object, measured in meters. Because velocity is the derivative of

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position (in this case height), this assumption gives the equation s'(t) = v(t) . An initial value is necessary; in this case the initial
height of the object works well. Let the initial height be given by the equation s(0) = s . Together these assumptions give the
0

initial-value problem

s'(t) = v(t), s(0) = s0 .

If the velocity function is known, then it is possible to solve for the position function as well.

 Example 6.1.7: Height of a Moving Baseball

A baseball is thrown upward from a height of 3 meters above Earth’s surface with an initial velocity of 10m/s , and the only
force acting on it is gravity. The ball has a mass of 0.15 kilogram at Earth’s surface.
a. Find the position s(t) of the baseball at time t .
b. What is its height after 2 seconds?
Solution
We already know the velocity function for this problem is v(t) = −9.8t + 10 . The initial height of the baseball is 3 meters, so
s = 3 . Therefore the initial-value problem for this example is
0

To solve the initial-value problem, we first find the antiderivatives:

∫ s'(t) dt = ∫ (−9.8t + 10) dt

2
s(t) = −4.9 t + 10t + C .

Next we substitute t = 0 and solve for C :

2
s(t) = −4.9 t + 10t + C

2
s(0) = −4.9(0 ) + 10(0) + C

3 =C .
Therefore the position function is s(t) = −4.9t 2
+ 10t + 3.

b. The height of the baseball after 2 sec is given by s(2) :

2
s(2) = −4.9(2 ) + 10(2) + 3 = −4.9(4) + 23 = 3.4.

Therefore the baseball is 3.4 meters above Earth’s surface after 2 seconds. It is worth noting that the mass of the ball cancelled
out completely in the process of solving the problem.

Key Concepts
A differential equation is an equation involving a function y = f (x) and one or more of its derivatives. A solution is a function
y = f (x) that satisfies the differential equation when f and its derivatives are substituted into the equation.

The order of a differential equation is the highest order of any derivative of the unknown function that appears in the equation.
A differential equation coupled with an initial value is called an initial-value problem. To solve an initial-value problem, first
find the general solution to the differential equation, then determine the value of the constant. Initial-value problems have many
applications in science and engineering.

Glossary
differential equation
an equation involving a function y = y(x) and one or more of its derivatives

general solution (or family of solutions)

the entire set of solutions to a given differential equation

initial value(s)
a value or set of values that a solution of a differential equation satisfies for a fixed value of the independent variable

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initial velocity
the velocity at time t = 0

initial-value problem
a differential equation together with an initial value or values

order of a differential equation

the highest order of any derivative of the unknown function that appears in the equation

particular solution
member of a family of solutions to a differential equation that satisfies a particular initial condition

solution to a differential equation

a function y = f (x) that satisfies a given differential equation

This page titled 6.1: Basics of Differential Equations is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a
detailed edit history is available upon request.
8.1: Basics of Differential Equations by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
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6.1E: Exercises
In exercises 1 - 7, determine the order of each differential equation.
1) y' + y = 3y 2

Answer
1st-order

2) (y') 2
= y' + 2y

3) y ′′′
+y
′′
y' = 3 x
2

Answer
3rd-order

4) y' = y ′′
+ 3t
2

dy
5) =t
dt

Answer
1st-order
2
dy d y
6) +
2
= 3x
4

dx dx

2
dy dy
7) ( ) +8 + 3y = 4t
dt dt

Answer
1st-order

In exercises 8 - 17, verify that the given function is a solution to the given differential equation.
3
x
8) y = solves y' = x
2

9) y = 2e −x
+x −1 solves y' = x − y

x
e
10) y = e 3x
− solves y' = 3y + e
x

1
11) y = solves y' = y
2

1 −x
2
x
e
12) y = solves y' = xy
2

13) y = 4 + ln x solves xy' = 1

14) y = 3 − x + x ln x solves y' = ln x

15) y = 2e x
−x −1 solves y' = y + x

sin x cos x
16) y = e x
+ − solves y' = cos x + y
2 2

17) y = πe − cos x
solves y' = y sin x

In exercises 18 - 27, verify the given general solution and find the particular solution.
3
4x
18) Find the particular solution to the differential equation y' = 4x that passes through (−3, −30), given that y = C +
2
is a
3
general solution.

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4
3x
19) Find the particular solution to the differential equation y' = 3x
3
that passes through (1, 4.75) , given that y =C + is a
4
general solution.

Answer
4
3x
y =4+
4

20) Find the particular solution to the differential equation y' = 3x that passes through (0, 12), given that y = C e is a general
3
2 x
y

solution.
21) Find the particular solution to the differential equation that passes through , given that is a general
2
1 x
y' = 2xy (0, ) y = Ce
2

solution.

Answer
2
1 x
y = e
2

2 3
22) Find the particular solution to the differential equation y' = (2xy) that passes through (1, − 1

2
, given that y = −
)
3
is
C + 4x

a general solution.
23) Find the particular solution to the differential equation y'x 2
=y that passes through (1, 2

e
, given that y = C e
)
−1/x
is a general
solution.

Answer
−1/x
y = 2e

dx
24) Find the particular solution to the differential equation 8 = −2 cos(2t) − cos(4t) that passes through (π, π) , given that
dt
x =C −
1

8
sin(2t) −
1

32
sin(4t) is a general solution.
du
25) Find the particular solution to the differential equation = tan u that passes through (1, π

2
, given that u = sin
)
−1
(e
C +t
) is
dt
a general solution.

Answer
−1 −1+t
u = sin (e )

dy
26) Find the particular solution to the differential equation =e
t+y
that passes through (1, 0), given that y = − ln(C − e t
) is a
dt
general solution.
27) Find the particular solution to the differential equation 2
y'(1 − x ) = 1 + y that passes through (0, −2), given that
−−−−−
√x + 1
y =C
−−−−−
−1 is a general solution.
√1 − x

Answer
−−−−−
√x + 1
y =− −1
−−−−−
√1 − x

In exercises 28 - 37, find the general solution to the differential equation.

28) y' = 3x + e x

29) y' = ln x + tan x

Answer
y = C − x + x ln x − ln(cos x)

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30) y' = sin xe cos x

31) y' = 4 x

Answer
x
4
y =C +
ln 4

32) y' = sin −1

(2x)

−− −−−−
33) 2
y' = 2t√t + 16

Answer
2
−− −−−−
2
y = √t2 + 16 (t + 16) + C
3

34) x' = coth t + ln t + 3t 2

−−−−
35) x' = t√4 + t

Answer
2 −−−− 2
x = √4 + t (3 t + 4t − 32) + C
15

36) y' = y
y
37) y' =
x

Answer
y = Cx

In exercises 38 - 42, solve the initial-value problems starting from y(t = 0) = 1 and y(t = 0) = −1. Draw both solutions
on the same graph.
dy
38) = 2t
dt

dy
39) = −t
dt

Answer
2 2
t t
y =1− , and y = − −1
2 2

dy
40) = 2y
dt

dy
41) = −y
dt

Answer
y =e
−t
and y = −e −t

dy
42) =2
dt

In exercises 43 - 47, solve the initial-value problems starting from y 0 = 10 . At what time does y increase to 100 or drop to
1?

dy
43) = 4t
dt

Answer
–
y = 2(t
2
+ 5), When t = 3√5, y will increase to 100.

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dy
44) = 4y
dt

dy
45) = −2y
dt

Answer
y = 10 e
−2t
, When t = − 1

2
ln(
1

10
), y will decrease to 1.

dy
46) =e
4t

dy
47) =e
−4t

Answer
y =
1

4
(41 − e
−4t
), Neither condition will ever happen.

Recall that a family of solutions includes solutions to a differential equation that differ by a constant. For exercises 48 - 52,
use your calculator to graph a family of solutions to the given differential equation. Use initial conditions from
y(t = 0) = −10 to y(t = 0) = 10 increasing by 2 . Is there some critical point where the behavior of the solution begins

to change?
48) [T] y' = y(x)
49) [T] xy' = y

Answer
Solution changes from increasing to decreasing at y(0) = 0.

50) [T] y' = t 3

51) [T] y' = x + y (Hint: y = C e x

−x −1 is the general solution)

Answer
Solution changes from increasing to decreasing at y(0) = 0.

52) [T] y' = x ln x + sin x

53) Find the general solution to describe the velocity of a ball of mass 1 lb that is thrown upward at a rate of a ft/sec.

Answer
v(t) = −32t + a

54) In the preceding problem, if the initial velocity of the ball thrown into the air is a = 25 ft/s, write the particular solution to the
velocity of the ball. Solve to find the time when the ball hits the ground.
55) You throw two objects with differing masses m and m upward into the air with the same initial velocity of a ft/s. What is the
1 2

difference in their velocity after 1 second?

Answer
0 ft/s

56) [T] You throw a ball of mass 1 kilogram upward with a velocity of a = 25 m/s on Mars, where the force of gravity is
2
g = −3.711 m/s . Use your calculator to approximate how much longer the ball is in the air on Mars.

57) [T] For the previous problem, use your calculator to approximate how much higher the ball went on Mars.

Answer
4.86 meters

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58) [T] A car on the freeway accelerates according to a = 15 cos(πt), where t is measured in hours. Set up and solve the
differential equation to determine the velocity of the car if it has an initial speed of 51 mph. After 40 minutes of driving, what is the
driver’s velocity?
59) [T] For the car in the preceding problem, find the expression for the distance the car has traveled in time t , assuming an initial
distance of 0. How long does it take the car to travel 100 miles? Round your answer to hours and minutes.

Answer
x = 50t −
15

π
2
cos(πt) +
3
2
π
,2 hours 1 minute

60) [T] For the previous problem, find the total distance traveled in the first hour.
61) Substitute y = Be 3t
into y' − y = 8e 3t
to find a particular solution.

Answer
3t
y = 4e

62) Substitute y = a cos(2t) + b sin(2t) into y' + y = 4 sin(2t) to find a particular solution.
63) Substitute y = a + bt + ct 2
into y' + y = 1 + t 2
to find a particular solution.

Answer
2
y = 1 − 2t + t

64) Substitute y = ae t t
cos t + b e sin t into y' = 2e t
cos t to find a particular solution.
65) Solve y' = e kt
with the initial condition y(0) = 0 and solve y' = 1 with the same initial condition. As k approaches 0, what do
you notice?

Answer
y =
1

k
(e
kt
− 1) and y = t

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available upon request.
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6.2: Direction Fields and Numerical Methods
 Learning Objectives
Draw the direction field for a given first-order differential equation.
Use a direction field to draw a solution curve of a first-order differential equation.
Use Euler’s Method to approximate the solution to a first-order differential equation.

For the rest of this chapter we will focus on various methods for solving differential equations and analyzing the behavior of the
solutions. In some cases it is possible to predict properties of a solution to a differential equation without knowing the actual
solution. We will also study numerical methods for solving differential equations, which can be programmed by using various
computer languages or even by using a spreadsheet program, such as Microsoft Excel.

Creating Direction Fields

Direction fields (also called slope fields) are useful for investigating first-order differential equations. In particular, we consider a
first-order differential equation of the form
′
y = f (x, y).

An applied example of this type of differential equation appears in Newton’s law of cooling, which we will solve explicitly later in
this chapter. First, though, let us create a direction field for the differential equation

T '(t) = −0.4(T − 72).

Here T (t) represents the temperature (in degrees Fahrenheit) of an object at time t , and the ambient temperature is 72°F . Figure
6.2.1 shows the direction field for this equation.

Figure 6.2.1 : Direction field for the differential equation T '(t) = −0.4(T − 72) . Two solutions are plotted: one with initial
temperature less than 72°F and the other with initial temperature greater than 72°F .
The idea behind a direction field is the fact that the derivative of a function evaluated at a given point is the slope of the tangent line
to the graph of that function at the same point. Other examples of differential equations for which we can create a direction field
include
′
y = 3x + 2y − 4

′ 2 2
y =x −y

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′
2x + 4
y = .
y −2

To create a direction field, we start with the first equation: y = 3x + 2y − 4 . We let (x , y ) be any ordered pair, and we
′
0 0

substitute these numbers into the right-hand side of the differential equation. For example, if we choose x = 1 and y = 2 ,
substituting into the right-hand side of the differential equation yields
y' = 3x + 2y − 4 = 3(1) + 2(2) − 4 = 3.

This tells us that if a solution to the differential equation y = 3x + 2y − 4 passes through the point (1, 2), then the slope of the
′

solution at that point must equal 3. To start creating the direction field, we put a short line segment at the point (1, 2) having slope
3 . We can do this for any point in the domain of the function f (x, y) = 3x + 2y − 4, which consists of all ordered pairs (x, y) in

R . Therefore any point in the Cartesian plane has a slope associated with it, assuming that a solution to the differential equation
2

passes through that point. The direction field for the differential equation y' = 3x + 2y − 4 is shown in Figure 6.2.2.

Figure 6.2.2 : Direction field for the differential equation y ′

= 3x + 2y − 4 .
We can generate a direction field of this type for any differential equation of the form y ′
= f (x, y).

 Definition: Direction Field (Slope Field)

A direction field (slope field) is a mathematical object used to graphically represent solutions to a first-order differential
equation. At each point in a direction field, a line segment appears whose slope is equal to the slope of a solution to the
differential equation passing through that point.

Using Direction Fields

We can use a direction field to predict the behavior of solutions to a differential equation without knowing the actual solution. For
example, the direction field in Figure 6.2.3 serves as a guide to the behavior of solutions to the differential equation
′
y = 3x + 2y − 4.

To use a direction field, we start by choosing any point in the field. The line segment at that point serves as a signpost telling us
what direction to go from there. For example, if a solution to the differential equation passes through the point (0, 1), then the slope
of the solution passing through that point is given by y = 3(0) + 2(1) − 4 = −2. Now let x increase slightly, say to x = 0.1.
′

Using the method of linear approximations gives a formula for the approximate value of y for x = 0.1. In particular,

L(x) = y0 + f '(x0 )(x − x0 ) = 1 − 2(x0 − 0) = 1 − 2 x0 .

Substituting x 0 = 0.1 into L(x) gives an approximate y value of 0.8.

At this point the slope of the solution changes (again according to the differential equation). We can keep progressing, recalculating
the slope of the solution as we take small steps to the right, and watching the behavior of the solution. Figure 6.2.3 shows a graph

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of the solution passing through the point (0, 1).

Figure 6.2.3 : Direction field for the differential equation y ′

= 3x + 2y − 4 with the solution passing through the point (0, 1).
The curve is the graph of the solution to the initial-value problem
′
y = 3x + 2y − 4, y(0) = 1.

This curve is called a solution curve passing through the point (0, 1). The exact solution to this initial-value problem is
3 5 1 2x
y =− x+ − e ,
2 4 4

and the graph of this solution is identical to the curve in Figure 6.2.3.

 Exercise 6.2.1

Create a direction field for the differential equation y

′
=x
2
−y
2
and sketch a solution curve passing through the point
(−1, 2).

Hint
Use x and y values ranging from −5 to 5. For each coordinate pair, calculate y using the right-hand side of the differential
′

equation.

Answer

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Now consider the direction field for the differential equation y = (x − 3)(y − 4) , shown in Figure 6.2.4. This direction field has
′ 2

several interesting properties. First of all, at y = −2 and y = 2 , horizontal dashes appear all the way across the graph. This means
that if y = −2 , then y = 0. Substituting this expression into the right-hand side of the differential equation gives
′

2 2
(x − 3)(y − 4) = (x − 3)((−2 ) − 4)

= (x − 3)(0)

′
=y .

Therefore y = −2 is a solution to the differential equation. Similarly, y = 2 is a solution to the differential equation. These are the
only constant-valued solutions to the differential equation, as we can see from the following argument. Suppose y = k is a constant
solution to the differential equation. Then y' = 0 . Substituting this expression into the differential equation yields
0 = (x − 3)(k − 4) . This equation must be true for all values of x, so the second factor must equal zero. This result yields the
2

equation k − 4 = 0 . The solutions to this equation are k = −2 and k = 2 , which are the constant solutions already mentioned.
2

These are called the equilibrium solutions to the differential equation.

Figure 6.2.4 : Direction field for the differential equation y = (x − 3)(y − 4) showing two solutions. These solutions are very
′ 2

close together, but one is barely above the equilibrium solution x = −2 and the other is barely below the same equilibrium
solution.

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 Definition: Equilibrium Solutions

Consider the differential equation y ′

= f (x, y). An equilibrium solution is any solution to the differential equation of the form
y = c , where c is a constant.

To determine the equilibrium solutions to the differential equation y = f (x, y), set the right-hand side equal to zero. An
′

equilibrium solution of the differential equation is any function of the form y = k such that f (x, k) = 0 for all values of x in the
domain of f .
An important characteristic of equilibrium solutions concerns whether or not they approach the line y =k as an asymptote for
large values of x.

 Definition: asymptotically Stable, Unstable and Semi-Stable Solutions

Consider the differential equation y' = f (x, y), and assume that all solutions to this differential equation are defined for
x ≥ x . Let y = k be an equilibrium solution to the differential equation.
0

1. y = k is an asymptotically stable solution to the differential equation if there exists ε > 0 such that for any value
c ∈ (k − ε, k + ε) the solution to the initial-value problem y' = f (x, y), y(x ) = c approaches k as x approaches
0

infinity.
2. y = k is an asymptotically unstable solution to the differential equation if there exists ε > 0 such that for any value
c ∈ (k − ε, k + ε) the solution to the initial-value problem y' = f (x, y), y(x ) = c never approaches k as x approaches
0

infinity.
3. y = k is an asymptotically semi-stable solution to the differential equation if it is neither asymptotically stable nor
asymptotically unstable.

Now we return to the differential equation y = (x − 3)(y − 4) , with the initial condition y(0) = 0.5. The direction field for this
′ 2

initial-value problem, along with the corresponding solution, is shown in Figure 6.2.5.

Figure 6.2.5 : Direction field for the initial-value problem y ′

= (x − 3)( y
2
− 4), y(0) = 0.5. A second solution curve is graphed
with initial condition (2, −2.2) .
The values of the solution to this initial-value problem stay between y = −2 and y = 2 , which are the equilibrium solutions to the
differential equation. Furthermore, as x approaches infinity, although they initially appear to approach the line y = 2, the y -
coordinates clearly approach −2. The behavior of solutions is similar if the initial value is below −2, for example, y(2) = −2.2. In
this case, the solutions increase and approach y = −2 as x approaches infinity. Therefore y = −2 is an asymptotically stable
solution to this differential equation.
What happens when the initial value is above y = 2 ? This scenario is illustrated in Figure 6.2.6, with the initial value y(0) = 3.

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Figure 6.2.6 : Direction field for the initial-value problem y ′
= (x − 3)( y
2
− 4), y(0) = 3.

The solution increases rapidly toward positive infinity as x approaches infinity. Furthermore, if the initial value is slightly below 2,
then the solution approaches −2, which is the other equilibrium solution. Therefore in neither case does the solution approach
y = 2 , so y = 2 is called an asymptotically unstable, or unstable, equilibrium solution.

 Example 6.2.1: Stability of an Equilibrium Solution

Create a direction field for the differential equation y = (y − 3) (y + y − 2)

′ 2 2
and identify any equilibrium solutions.
Classify each of the equilibrium solutions as stable, unstable, or semi-stable.
Solution
The direction field is shown in Figure 6.2.7.

Figure 6.2.7 : Direction field for the differential equation y ′ 2

= (y − 3) ( y
2
+ y − 2).

The equilibrium solutions are y = −2, y = 1, and y = 3 . To classify each of the solutions, look at an arrow directly above or
below each of these values. For example, at y = −2 the arrows directly below this solution point up, and the arrows directly
above the solution point down. Therefore all initial conditions close to y = −2 approach y = −2 , and the solution is stable.
For the solution y = 1 , all initial conditions above and below y = 1 are repelled (pushed away) from y = 1 , so this solution is
unstable. The solution y = 3 is semi-stable, because for initial conditions slightly greater than 3, the solution approaches
infinity, and for initial conditions slightly less than 3, the solution approaches y = 1 .
Analysis
It is possible to find the equilibrium solutions to the differential equation by setting the right-hand side equal to zero and
solving for y. This approach gives the same equilibrium solutions as those we saw in the direction field.

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 Exercise 6.2.2
Create a direction field for the differential equation y = (x + 5)(y + 2)(y − 4y + 4) and identify any equilibrium solutions.
′ 2

Classify each of the equilibrium solutions as stable, unstable, or semi-stable.

Hint
First create the direction field and look for horizontal dashes that go all the way across. Then examine the slope lines
directly above and below the equilibrium solutions.

Answer
The equilibrium solutions are y = −2 and y = 2 . For this equation, y = −2 is an unstable equilibrium solution, and y = 2
is a semi-stable equilibrium solution.

Euler’s Method
Consider the initial-value problem

y' = 2x − 3, y(0) = 3.

Integrating both sides of the differential equation gives y = x − 3x + C , and solving for C yields the particular solution
2

y = x − 3x + 3. The solution for this initial-value problem appears as the parabola in Figure 6.2.8.
2

Figure 6.2.8 : Euler’s Method for the initial-value problem y' = 2x − 3, y(0) = 3.

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The red graph consists of line segments that approximate the solution to the initial-value problem. The graph starts at the same
initial value of (0, 3). Then the slope of the solution at any point is determined by the right-hand side of the differential equation,
and the length of the line segment is determined by increasing the x value by 0.5 each time (the step size). This approach is the
basis of Euler’s Method.
Before we state Euler’s Method as a theorem, let’s consider another initial-value problem:
2 2
y' = x − y , y(−1) = 2.

The idea behind direction fields can also be applied to this problem to study the behavior of its solution. For example, at the point
(−1, 2), the slope of the solution is given by y = (−1 ) − 2 = −3 , so the slope of the tangent line to the solution at that point is
′ 2 2

also equal to −3. Now we define x = −1 and y = 2 . Since the slope of the solution at this point is equal to −3, we can use the
0 0

method of linear approximation to approximate y near (−1, 2).

L(x) = y0 + f '(x0 )(x − x0 ).

Here x 0 = −1, y0 = 2, and f '(x 0) = −3, so the linear approximation becomes

L(x) = 2 − 3(x − (−1)) = 2 − 3x − 3 = −3x − 1.

Now we choose a step size. The step size is a small value, typically 0.1 or less, that serves as an increment for x; it is represented
by the variable h . In our example, let h = 0.1 . Incrementing x by h gives our next x value:
0

x1 = x0 + h = −1 + 0.1 = −0.9.

We can substitute x 1 = −0.9 into the linear approximation to calculate y . 1

y1 = L(x1 ) = −3(−0.9) − 1 = 1.7.

Therefore the approximate y value for the solution when x = −0.9 is y = 1.7 . We can then repeat the process, using x 1 = −0.9

and y = 1.7 to calculate x and y . The new slope is given by y = (−0.9) − (1.7) = −2.08.
1 2 2
′ 2 2
First,
x = x + h = −0.9 + 0.1 = −0.8. Using linear approximation gives
2 1

L(x) = y1 + f '(x1 )(x − x1 )

= 1.7 − 2.08(x − (−0.9))

= 1.7 − 2.08x − 1.872

= −2.08x − 0.172.

Finally, we substitute x 2 = −0.8 into the linear approximation to calculate y . 2

y2 = L(x2 )

= −2.08 x2 − 0.172

= −2.08(−0.8) − 0.172

= 1.492.

Therefore the approximate value of the solution to the differential equation is y = 1.492 when x = −0.8.
What we have just shown is the idea behind Euler’s Method. Repeating these steps gives a list of values for the solution. These
values are shown in the table, rounded off to four decimal places.
Table 6.2.1 : Using Euler’s Method to Approximate Solutions to a Differential Equation
n 0 1 2 3 4 5

xn −1 −0.9 −0.8 −0.7 −0.6 −0.5

yn 2 1.7 1.492 1.3334 1.2046 1.0955

n 6 7 8 9 10

xn −0.4 −0.3 −0.2 −0.1 0

yn 1.0004 1.9164 1.8414 1.7746 1.7156

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 Euler’s method

Consider the initial-value problem

′
y = f (x, y), y(x0 ) = y0 .

To approximate a solution to this problem using Euler’s method, define

xn = x0 + nh

yn = yn−1 + hf (xn−1 , yn−1 ) .

Here h > 0 represents the step size and n is an integer, starting with 1. The number of steps taken is counted by the variable n .

Typically h is a small value, say 0.1 or 0.05. The smaller the value of h , the more calculations are needed. The higher the value of
h , the fewer calculations are needed. However, the tradeoff results in a lower degree of accuracy for larger step size, as illustrated

in Figure 6.2.9.

Figure 6.2.9 : Euler’s method for the initial-value problem y' = 2x − 3, y(0) = 3 with (a) a step size of h = 0.5 ; and (b) a step
size of h = 0.25.

 Example 6.2.2: Using Euler’s Method

Consider the initial-value problem

2 2
y' = 3 x −y + 1, y(0) = 2.

Use Euler’s method with a step size of 0.1 to generate a table of values for the solution for values of x between 0 and 1.
Solution
We are given h = 0.1 and f (x, y) = 3x − y + 1. Furthermore, the initial condition
2 2
y(0) = 2 gives x0 = 0 and y0 = 2 .
Using Equation with n = 0 , we can generate this table.
Table 6.2.2 : Using Euler’s Method to Approximate Solutions to a Differential Equation
n xn yn = yn−1 + hf(xn−1 , yn−1 )

0 0 2

1 0.1 y1 = y0 + hf (x0 , y0 ) = 1.7

2 0.2 y2 = y1 + hf (x1 , y1 ) = 1.514

3 0.3 y3 = y2 + hf (x2 , y2 ) = 1.3968

4 0.4 y4 = y3 + hf (x3 , y3 ) = 1.3287

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n xn yn = yn−1 + hf(xn−1 , yn−1 )

5 0.5 y5 = y4 + hf (x4 , y4 ) = 1.3001

6 0.6 y6 = y5 + hf (x5 , y5 ) = 1.3061

7 0.7 y7 = y6 + hf (x6 , y6 ) = 1.3435

8 0.8 y8 = y7 + hf (x7 , y7 ) = 1.4100

9 0.9 y9 = y8 + hf (x8 , y8 ) = 1.5032

10 1.0 y10 = y9 + hf (x9 , y9 ) = 1.6202

With ten calculations, we are able to approximate the values of the solution to the initial-value problem for values of x between
0 and 1 .

Go to this website for a chance to visually explore Euler’s method.

 Exercise 6.2.3

Consider the initial-value problem

3 2
y' = x + y , y(1) = −2.

Using a step size of 0.1, generate a table with approximate values for the solution to the initial-value problem for values of x

between 1 and 2.

Hint
Start by identifying the value of h , then figure out what f (x, y) is. Then use the formula for Euler’s Method to calculate
y , y , and so on.
1 2

Answer
Table 6.2.3: Using Euler’s Method to approximate solutions to the differential equation in Exercise 6.2.3.
n \( x_n) yn = yn−1 + hf (xn−1 , yn−1 )

0 1 −2

1 1.1 y1 = y0 + hf (x0 , y0 ) = −1.5

2 1.2 y2 = y1 + hf (x1 , y1 ) = −1.1419

3 1.3 y3 = y2 + hf (x2 , y2 ) = −0.8387

4 1.4 y4 = y3 + hf (x3 , y3 ) = −0.5487

5 1.5 y5 = y4 + hf (x4 , y4 ) = −0.2442

6 1.6 y6 = y5 + hf (x5 , y5 ) = 0.0993

7 1.7 y7 = y6 + hf (x6 , y6 ) = 0.5099

8 1.8 y8 = y7 + hf (x7 , y7 ) = 1.0272

9 1.9 y9 = y8 + hf (x8 , y8 ) = 1.7159

10 2 y10 = y9 + hf (x9 , y9 ) = 2.6962

Key Concepts
A direction field is a mathematical object used to graphically represent solutions to a first-order differential equation.
Euler’s Method is a numerical technique that can be used to approximate solutions to a differential equation.

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Key Equations
Euler’s Method
xn = x0 + nh

yn = yn−1 + hf (xn−1 , yn−1 ) , where h is the step size

Glossary
asymptotically semi-stable solution
y =k if it is neither asymptotically stable nor asymptotically unstable

asymptotically stable solution

y =k if there exists ε > 0 such that for any value c ∈ (k − ε, k + ε) the solution to the initial-value problem
y' = f (x, y), y(x0 ) = c approaches k as x approaches infinity

asymptotically unstable solution

y =k if there exists ε > 0 such that for any value c ∈ (k − ε, k + ε) the solution to the initial-value problem
y' = f (x, y), y(x0 ) = c never approaches k as x approaches infinity

direction field (slope field)

a mathematical object used to graphically represent solutions to a first-order differential equation; at each point in a direction
field, a line segment appears whose slope is equal to the slope of a solution to the differential equation passing through that
point

equilibrium solution
any solution to the differential equation of the form y = c, where c is a constant

Euler’s Method
a numerical technique used to approximate solutions to an initial-value problem

solution curve
a curve graphed in a direction field that corresponds to the solution to the initial-value problem passing through a given point in
the direction field

step size
the increment hh that is added to the xx value at each step in Euler’s Method

Contributors and Attributions

This page titled 6.2: Direction Fields and Numerical Methods is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or
curated by Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts
platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request.
8.2: Direction Fields and Numerical Methods by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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6.2E: Exercises
For exercises 1 - 3, use the direction field below from the differential equation y ′
= −2y. Sketch the graph of the solution
for the given initial conditions.

1) y(0) = 1
2) y(0) = 0

Answer

3) y(0) = −1
4) Are there any equilibria among the solutions of the differential equation from exercises 1 - 3? List any equilibria along with their
stabilities.

Answer
y =0 is a stable equilibrium

For exercises 5 - 7, use the direction field below from the differential equation ′
y = y
2
− 2y . Sketch the graph of the
solution for the given initial conditions.

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5) y(0) = 3
6) y(0) = 1

Answer

7) y(0) = −1
8) Are there any equilibria among the solutions of the differential equation from exercises 5 - 7? List any equilibria along with their
stabilities.

Answer
y =0 is a stable equilibrium and y = 2 is unstable

In exercises 9 - 13, draw the direction field for the following differential equations, then solve the differential equation.
Draw your solution on top of the direction field. Does your solution follow along the arrows on your direction field?
9) y ′
=t
3

10) y ′
=e
t

Answer

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dy
11) =x
2
cos x
dx

dy
12) = te
t

Answer

dx
13) = cosh(t)
dt

In exercises 14 - 18, draw the directional field for the following differential equations. What can you say about the behavior
of the solution? Are there equilibria? What stability do these equilibria have?
14) y ′
=y
2
−1

Answer
There appear to be equlibria at y = −1 (stable) and y = 1 (unstable).

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15) y ′
= y −x

16) y ′
= 1 −y
2 2
−x

Answer
There do not appear to be any equilibria.

17) y ′
=t
2
sin y

18) y ′
= 3y + xy

Answer
There appears to be an unstable equilibrium at y = 0.

Match the direction field with the given differential equations. Explain your selections.

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19) y ′
= −3y

20) y ′
= −3t

Answer
E

21) y ′
=e
t

22) y ′
=
1

2
y +t

Answer

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23) y ′
= −ty

Match the direction field with the given differential equations. Explain your selections.

24) y ′
= t sin y

Answer
B

25) y ′
= −t cos y

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26) y ′
= t tan y

Answer
A

27) y ′
= sin
2
y

28) y ′
=y t
2 3

Answer
C

Estimate the following solutions using Euler’s method with n = 5 steps over the interval t = [0, 1]. If you are able to solve
the initial-value problem exactly, compare your solution with the exact solution. If you are unable to solve the initial-value
problem, the exact solution will be provided for you to compare with Euler’s method. How accurate is Euler’s method?
29) y ′
= −3y, y(0) = 1

30) y ′
=t ,
2
y(0) = 1

Answer
2.24, exact: 3

Solution:
31) y' = 3t − y, y(0) = 1. Exact solution is y = 3t + 4e −t
−3

32) y' = y + t 2
, y(0) = 3. Exact solution is y = 5e t
−2 −t
2
− 2t

Answer
7.739364, exact: 5(e − 1)

33) y' = 2t, y(0) = 0

34) [T] y ′
=e
x+y
, y(0) = −1. Exact solution is y = − ln(e + 1 − e x
)

Answer
−0.2535, exact: 0

1
35) y' = y 2
ln(x + 1), y(0) = 1. Exact solution is y = −
(x + 1)(ln(x + 1) − 1)

x
2 −1
36) y' = 2 x
, y(0) = 0. Exact solution is y =
ln 2

Answer
1.345, exact: 1

ln(2)

37) y' = y, y(0) = −1. Exact solution is y = −e . x

38) y' = −5t, y(0) = −2. Exact solution is y = − 5

2
2
t −2

Answer
−4, exact: −1/2

Differential equations can be used to model disease epidemics. In the next set of problems, we examine the change of size of two
sub-populations of people living in a city: individuals who are infected and individuals who are susceptible to infection. S
represents the size of the susceptible population, and I represents the size of the infected population. We assume that if a
susceptible person interacts with an infected person, there is a probability c that the susceptible person will become infected. Each
infected person recovers from the infection at a rate r and becomes susceptible again. We consider the case of influenza, where we

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assume that no one dies from the disease, so we assume that the total population size of the two sub-populations is a constant
number, N . The differential equations that model these population sizes are
S
′
= rI − cSI and I ′
= cSI − rI .

Here c represents the contact rate and r is the recovery rate.

39) Show that, by our assumption that the total population size is constant (S + I = N ), you can reduce the system to a single
differential equation in I : I = c(N − I )I − rI .
′

40) Assuming the parameters are c = 0.5, N = 5, and r = 0.5, draw the resulting directional field.

Answer

41) [T] Use computational software or a calculator to compute the solution to the initial-value problem y = ty, y(0) = 2 using ′

Euler’s Method with the given step size h . Find the solution at t = 1 . For a hint, here is “pseudo-code” for how to write a computer
program to perform Euler’s Method for y = f (t, y), y(0) = 2 :
′

Create function f (t, y)

Define parameters y(1) = y 0, t(0) = 0, step size h , and total number of steps, N
Write a for-loop:
for k = 1 to N
f n = f (t(k), y(k))

y(k + 1) = y(k) + h ∗ f n

t(k + 1) = t(k) + h

42) Solve the initial-value problem for the exact solution.

Answer
2
′ t /2
y = 2e

43) Draw the directional field

44) h = 1

Answer
2

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45) [T] h = 10
46) [T] h = 100

Answer
3.2756

47) [T] h = 1000

48) [T] Evaluate the exact solution at t = 1 . Make a table of errors for the relative error between the Euler’s method solution and
the exact solution. How much does the error change? Can you explain?

Answer
Exact solution: y =2√e.

Step Size Error

h = 1 0.3935

h = 10 0.06163

h = 100 0.006612

h = 10000 0.0006661

For exercises 49 - 53, consider the initial-value problem y ′

= −2y, with y(0) = 2.
49) Show that y = 2e −2x
solves this initial-value problem.
50) Draw the directional field of this differential equation.

Answer

51) [T] By hand or by calculator or computer, approximate the solution using Euler’s Method at t = 10 using h = 5 .
52) [T] By calculator or computer, approximate the solution using Euler’s Method at t = 10 using h = 100.

Answer
−10
4.0741e

53) [T] Plot exact answer and each Euler approximation (for h = 5 and h = 100 ) at each h on the directional field. What do you
notice?

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Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is
available upon request.

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6.3: Separable Equations
 Learning Objectives
Use separation of variables to solve a differential equation.
Solve applications using separation of variables.

We now examine a solution technique for finding exact solutions to a class of differential equations known as separable differential
equations. These equations are common in a wide variety of disciplines, including physics, chemistry, and engineering. We
illustrate a few applications at the end of the section.

Separation of Variables
We start with a definition and some examples.

 Definition: Separable Differential Equations

A separable differential equation is any equation that can be written in the form
′
y = f (x)g(y). (6.3.1)

The term ‘separable’ refers to the fact that the right-hand side of Equation 6.3.1 can be separated into a function of x times a
function of y . Examples of separable differential equations include
′ 2
y = (x − 4)(3y + 2) (6.3.2)

′ 2
y = 6x + 4x (6.3.3)

′
y = sec y + tan y (6.3.4)

′
y = xy + 3x − 2y − 6. (6.3.5)

Equation 6.3.3 is separable with f (x) = 6x + 4x and g(y) = 1 , Equation 6.3.4 is separable with f (x) = 1 and
2

g(y) = sec y + tan y, and the right-hand side of Equation 6.3.5 can be factored as (x + 3)(y − 2) , so it is separable as well.

Equation 6.3.4 is also called an autonomous differential equation because the right-hand side of the equation is a function of y
alone. If a differential equation is separable, then it is possible to solve the equation using the method of separation of variables.

 Problem-Solving Strategy: Separation of Variables

1. Check for any values of y that make g(y) = 0. These correspond to constant solutions.
2. Rewrite the differential equation in the form
dy
= f (x)dx.
g(y)

3. Integrate both sides of the equation.

4. Solve the resulting equation for y if possible.
5. If an initial condition exists, substitute the appropriate values for x and y into the equation and solve for the constant.

Note that Step 4 states “Solve the resulting equation for y if possible.” It is not always possible to obtain y as an explicit function of
x. Quite often we have to be satisfied with finding y as an implicit function of x.

 Example 6.3.1: Using Separation of Variables

Find a general solution to the differential equation y ′
= (x
2
− 4)(3y + 2) using the method of separation of variables.
Solution
Follow the five-step method of separation of variables.

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2
1. In this example, f (x) = x 2
−4 and g(y) = 3y + 2 . Setting g(y) = 0 gives y = − as a constant solution.
3

2. Rewrite the differential equation in the form

dy
2
= (x − 4) dx.
3y + 2

3. Integrate both sides of the equation:

dy 2
∫ = ∫ (x − 4) dx.
3y + 2

dy
Let u = 3y + 2 . Then du = 3 dx , so the equation becomes
dx

1 1 1
3
∫ du = x − 4x + C
3 u 3

1 1 3
ln |u| = x − 4x + C
3 3

1 1
3
ln |3y + 2| = x − 4x + C .
3 3

4. To solve this equation for y , first multiply both sides of the equation by 3.
3
ln |3y + 2| = x − 12x + 3C

Now we use some logic in dealing with the constant C . Since C represents an arbitrary constant, 3C also represents an
arbitrary constant. If we call the second arbitrary constant C , where C = 3C , the equation becomes
1 1

3
ln |3y + 2| = x − 12x + C1 .

Now exponentiate both sides of the equation (i.e., make each side of the equation the exponent for the base e ).
3
ln |3y+2| x −12x+C1
e =e
3
C1 x −12x
|3y + 2| = e e

Again define a new constant C 2 =e

C1
(note that C 2 >0 ):
3
x −12x
|3y + 2| = C2 e .

Because of the absolute value on the left side of the equation, this corresponds to two separate equations:
3
x −12x
3y + 2 = C2 e

and
3
x −12x
3y + 2 = −C2 e .

The solution to either equation can be written in the form

3
x −12x
−2 ± C2 e
y = .
3

Since C > 0 , it does not matter whether we use plus or minus, so the constant can actually have either sign. Furthermore, the
2

subscript on the constant C is entirely arbitrary, and can be dropped. Therefore the solution can be written as
3
x −12x
−2 + C e
y = , where C = ±C2 or C = 0.
3

Note that in writing a single general solution in this way, we are also allowing C to equal 0. This gives us the singular solution,
2
y =− , for the given differential equation. Check that this is indeed a solution of this differential equation!
3

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5. No initial condition is imposed, so we are finished.

 Exercise 6.3.1

Use the method of separation of variables to find a general solution to the differential equation
′
y = 2xy + 3y − 4x − 6.

Hint
First factor the right-hand side of the equation by grouping, then use the five-step strategy of separation of variables.
Answer
2
x +3x
y = 2 + Ce

 Example 6.3.2: Solving an Initial-Value Problem

Using the method of separation of variables, solve the initial-value problem

′ 2
y = (2x + 3)(y − 4), y(0) = −1.

Solution
Follow the five-step method of separation of variables.
1. In this example, f (x) = 2x + 3 and g(y) = y 2
−4 . Setting g(y) = 0 gives y = ±2 as constant solutions.
2. Divide both sides of the equation by y 2
−4 and multiply by dx. This gives the equation
dy
= (2x + 3) dx.
2
y −4

3. Next integrate both sides:

1
∫ dy = ∫ (2x + 3) dx. (6.3.6)
2
y −4

To evaluate the left-hand side, use the method of partial fraction decomposition. This leads to the identity
1 1 1 1
= ( − ).
2
y −4 4 y −2 y +2

Then Equation 6.3.6 becomes

1 1 1
∫ ( − ) dy = ∫ (2x + 3) dx
4 y −2 y +2

1
2
(ln |y − 2| − ln |y + 2|) = x + 3x + C .
4

Multiplying both sides of this equation by 4 and replacing 4C with C gives 1

2
ln |y − 2| − ln |y + 2| = 4 x + 12x + C1

∣ y −2 ∣ 2
ln∣ ∣ = 4 x + 12x + C1 .
∣ y +2 ∣

4. It is possible to solve this equation for y. First exponentiate both sides of the equation and define C 2 =e
C1
:
∣ y −2 ∣ 2
4 x +12x
∣ ∣ = C2 e .
∣ y +2 ∣

Next we can remove the absolute value and let a new constant C be positive, negative, or zero, i.e., C
3 3 = ±C2 or C
3 = 0.

Then multiply both sides by y + 2 .

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2
4 x +12x
y − 2 = C3 (y + 2)e

2 2
4 x +12x 4 x +12x
y − 2 = C3 y e + 2 C3 e .

Now collect all terms involving y on one side of the equation, and solve for y :
2 2
4 x +12x 4 x +12x
y − C3 y e = 2 + 2 C3 e

2 2
4 x +12x 4 x +12x
y(1 − C3 e ) = 2 + 2 C3 e

2
4 x +12x
2 + 2C3 e
y = .
2
4 x +12x
1 − C3 e

5. To determine the value of C3 , substitute x =0 and y = −1 into the general solution. Alternatively, we can put the same
y −2
values into an earlier equation, namely the equation . This is much easier to solve for C :
2
4 x +12
= C3 e 3
y +2

y −2 2
4 x +12x
= C3 e
y +2

−1 − 2 2
4(0 ) +12(0)
= C3 e
−1 + 2

C3 = −3.

Therefore the solution to the initial-value problem is

2
4 x +12x
2 − 6e
y = .
4 x2 +12x
1 + 3e

A graph of this solution appears in Figure 6.3.1.

Figure 6.3.1 : Graph of the solution to the initial-value problem y ′

= (2x + 3)( y
2
− 4), y(0) = −1 .

 Exercise 6.3.2
Find the solution to the initial-value problem
′ 2
6y = (2x + 1)(y − 2y − 8)

with y(0) = −3 using the method of separation of variables.

Hint
Follow the steps for separation of variables to solve the initial-value problem.
Answer
2
x +x
4 + 14e
y =
x2 +x
1 − 7e

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Applications of Separation of Variables
Many interesting problems can be described by separable equations. We illustrate two types of problems: solution concentrations
and Newton’s law of cooling.
Solution concentrations
Consider a tank being filled with a salt solution. We would like to determine the amount of salt present in the tank as a function of
time. We can apply the process of separation of variables to solve this problem and similar problems involving solution
concentrations.

 Example 6.3.3: Determining Salt Concentration over Time

A tank containing 100 L of a brine solution initially has 4 kg of salt dissolved in the solution. At time t = 0 , another brine
solution flows into the tank at a rate of 2 L/min. This brine solution contains a concentration of 0.5 kg/L of salt. At the same
time, a stopcock is opened at the bottom of the tank, allowing the combined solution to flow out at a rate of 2 L/min, so that the
level of liquid in the tank remains constant (Figure 6.3.2). Find the amount of salt in the tank as a function of time (measured
in minutes), and find the limiting amount of salt in the tank, assuming that the solution in the tank is well mixed at all times.

Figure 6.3.2 : A brine tank with an initial amount of salt solution accepts an input flow and delivers an output flow. How does
the amount of salt change with time?
Solution
du
First we define a function u(t) that represents the amount of salt in kilograms in the tank as a function of time. Then
dt
represents the rate at which the amount of salt in the tank changes as a function of time. Also, u(0) represents the amount of
salt in the tank at time t = 0 , which is 4 kilograms.
The general setup for the differential equation we will solve is of the form
du
= INFLOW RATE − OUTFLOW RATE.
dt

INFLOW RATE represents the rate at which salt enters the tank, and OUTFLOW RATE represents the rate at which salt leaves
the tank. Because solution enters the tank at a rate of 2 L/min, and each liter of solution contains 0.5 kilogram of salt, every
minute 2(0.5) = 1 kilogram of salt enters the tank. Therefore INFLOW RATE = 1.
To calculate the rate at which salt leaves the tank, we need the concentration of salt in the tank at any point in time. Since the
actual amount of salt varies over time, so does the concentration of salt. However, the volume of the solution remains fixed at
u(t)
100 liters. The number of kilograms of salt in the tank at time t is equal to u(t). Thus, the concentration of salt is kg/L,
100
u(t) u(t)
and the solution leaves the tank at a rate of 2 L/min. Therefore salt leaves the tank at a rate of ⋅2 = kg/min, and
100 50
u(t) du u
OUTFLOW RATE is equal to . Therefore the differential equation becomes =1− , and the initial condition is
50 dt 50
u(0) = 4. The initial-value problem to be solved is
du u
=1− , u(0) = 4.
dt 50

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The differential equation is a separable equation, so we can apply the five-step strategy for solution.
u
Step 1. Setting 1 − =0 gives u = 50 as a constant solution. Since the initial amount of salt in the tank is 4 kilograms, this
50
solution does not apply.
Step 2. Rewrite the equation as
du 50 − u
= .
dt 50

Then multiply both sides by dt and divide both sides by 50 − u :

du dt
= .
50 − u 50

Step 3. Integrate both sides:

du dt
∫ =∫
50 − u 50

t
− ln |50 − u| = + C.
50

Step 4. Solve for u(t):

t
ln |50 − u| = − −C
50

ln |50−u| −(t/50)−C
e =e

−t/50 −C
|50 − u| = C1 e , where C1 = e .

Eliminate the absolute value by allowing the constant to be positive, negative, or zero, i.e., C 1 = ±e
−C
or C
1 =0 :
−t/50
50 − u = C1 e .

Finally, solve for u(t):

−t/50
u(t) = 50 − C1 e .

Step 5. Solve for C : 1

−0/50
u(0) = 50 − C1 e

4 = 50 − C1

C1 = 46.

The solution to the initial value problem is u(t) = 50 − 46e −t/50

. To find the limiting amount of salt in the tank, take the limit
as t approaches infinity:
−t/50
lim u(t) = 50 − 46e
t→∞

= 50 − 46(0) = 50.

Note that this was the constant solution to the differential equation. If the initial amount of salt in the tank is 50 kilograms, then
it remains constant. If it starts at less than 50 kilograms, then it approaches 50 kilograms over time.

 Exercise 6.3.3

A tank contains 3 kilograms of salt dissolved in 75 liters of water. A salt solution of 0.4 kg salt/L is pumped into the tank at a
rate of 6 L/min and is drained at the same rate. Solve for the salt concentration at time t . Assume the tank is well mixed at all
times.

Hint

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Follow the steps in Example 6.3.3 and determine an expression for INFLOW and OUTFLOW. Formulate an initial-value
problem, and then solve it.
Initial value problem:
du 2u
= 2.4 − , u(0) = 3
dt 25

Answer
−t/50
u(t) = 30 − 27e

Newton’s Law of Cooling

Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate of change of an object’s temperature is proportional to the difference between its own
temperature and the ambient temperature (i.e., the temperature of its surroundings). If we let T (t) represent the temperature of an
dT
object as a function of time, then represents the rate at which that temperature changes. The temperature of the object’s
dt
surroundings can be represented by T . Then Newton’s law of cooling can be written in the form
s

dT
= k(T (t) − Ts )
dt

or simply
dT
= k(T − Ts ).
dt

The temperature of the object at the beginning of any experiment is the initial value for the initial-value problem. We call this
temperature T . Therefore the initial-value problem that needs to be solved takes the form
0

dT
= k(T − Ts ) (6.3.7)
dt

with T (0) = T , where k is a constant that needs to be either given or determined in the context of the problem. We use these
0

equations in Example 6.3.4.

 Example 6.3.4: Waiting for a Pizza to Cool

A pizza is removed from the oven after baking thoroughly, and the temperature of the oven is 350°F . The temperature of the
kitchen is 75°F , and after 5 minutes the temperature of the pizza is 340°F. We would like to wait until the temperature of the
pizza reaches 300°F before cutting and serving it (Figure 6.3.3). How much longer will we have to wait?

Figure 6.3.3 : From Newton’s law of cooling, if the pizza cools 10°F in 5 minutes, how long before it cools to 300°F ?
Solution
The ambient temperature (surrounding temperature) is 75°F , so T = 75 . The temperature of the pizza when it comes out of
s

the oven is 350°F, which is the initial temperature (i.e., initial value), so T = 350 . Therefore Equation 6.3.7 becomes
0

dT
= k(T − 75)
dt

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with T (0) = 350.
To solve the differential equation, we use the five-step technique for solving separable equations.
1. Setting the right-hand side equal to zero gives T = 75 as a constant solution. Since the pizza starts at 350°F , this is not the
solution we are seeking.
2. Rewrite the differential equation by multiplying both sides by dt and dividing both sides by T − 75 :
dT
= k dt.
T − 75

3. Integrate both sides:

dT
∫ =∫ k dt
T − 75

ln |T − 75| = kt + C .

4. Solve for T by first exponentiating both sides:

ln |T −75| kt+C
e =e

kt C
|T − 75| = C1 e , where C1 = e .

kt
T − 75 = ±C1 e

kt
T − 75 = C e , where C = ±C1 or C = 0.
kt
T (t) = 75 + C e .

5. Solve for C by using the initial condition T (0) = 350 :

kt
T (t) = 75 + C e

k(0)
T (0) = 75 + C e

350 = 75 + C

C = 275.

Therefore the solution to the initial-value problem is

kt
T (t) = 75 + 275 e .

To determine the value of k , we need to use the fact that after 5 minutes the temperature of the pizza is 340°F . Therefore
T (5) = 340. Substituting this information into the solution to the initial-value problem, we have

kt
T (t) = 75 + 275e

5k
T (5) = 340 = 75 + 275e

5k
265 = 275e

53
5k
e =
55

5k
53
ln e = ln( )
55

53
5k = ln( )
55

1 53
k = ln( ) ≈ −0.007408.
5 55

So now we have T (t) = 75 + 275e −0.007048t

. When is the temperature 300°F? Solving for t, we find
−0.007048t
T (t) = 75 + 275e

−0.007048t
300 = 75 + 275e

−0.007048t
225 = 275e

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−0.007048t
9
e =
11

9
−0.007048t
ln e = ln
11

9
−0.007048t = ln
11

1 9
t =− ln ≈ 28.5.
0.007048 11

Therefore we need to wait an additional 23.5 minutes (after the temperature of the pizza reached 340°F). That should be just
enough time to finish this calculation.

 Exercise 6.3.4

A cake is removed from the oven after baking thoroughly, and the temperature of the oven is 450°F . The temperature of the
kitchen is 70°F , and after 10 minutes the temperature of the cake is 430°F.
a. Write the appropriate initial-value problem to describe this situation.
b. Solve the initial-value problem for T (t) .
c. How long will it take until the temperature of the cake is within 5°F of room temperature?

Hint
Determine the values of T and T then use Equation 6.3.7.
s 0

Answer a
Initial-value problem
dT
= k(T − 70), T (0) = 450
dt

Answer b
kt
T (t) = 70 + 380e

Answer c
Approximately 114 minutes.

Key Concepts
A separable differential equation is any equation that can be written in the form y = f (x)g(y). ′

The method of separation of variables is used to find the general solution to a separable differential equation.

Key Equations
Separable differential equation
y' = f (x)g(y)

Solution concentration
du
= INFLOW RATE − OUTFLOW RATE
dt

Newton’s law of cooling

dT
= k(T − Ts )
dt

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Glossary
autonomous differential equation
an equation in which the right-hand side is a function of y alone

separable differential equation

any equation that can be written in the form y ′
= f (x)g(y)

separation of variables
a method used to solve a separable differential equation

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Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit
history is available upon request.
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6.3E: Exercises
In exercises 1 - 4, solve the following initial-value problems with the initial condition y
0 = 0 and graph the solution.
dy
1) = y +1
dt

Answer
t
y = e −1

dy
2) = y −1
dt

dy
3) = −y + 1
dt

Answer
−t
y = 1 −e

dy
4) = −y − 1
dt

In exercises 5 - 14, find the general solution to the differential equation.

5) x 2
y
′
= (x + 1)y

Answer
−1/x
y = C xe

6) y ′
= tan(y)x

7) y ′
= 2x y
2

Answer
1
y =
2
C −x

dy
8) = y cos(3t + 2)
dt

dy
9) 2x =y
2

Answer
2
y =−
C + ln |x|

10) y ′
=e x
y 2

11) (1 + x)y ′
= (x + 2)(y − 1)

Answer
x
y = C e (x + 1) + 1

dx
12) 2
= 3 t (x
2
+ 4)
dt

dy −−−− −
13) t = √1 − y
2

Answer
y = sin(ln |t| + C )

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14) y ′
=e e
x y

In exercises 15 - 24, find the solution to the initial-value problem.

15) y ′
=e
y−x
, y(0) = 0

Answer
y = − ln(e
−x
) which simplifies to y = x

16) y ′ 2
= y (x + 1), y(0) = 2

dy
17)
2
3 x
= y xe , y(0) = 1
dx

Answer
1
y = −−−− −−
2
√2 − ex

dy
18) =y e
2 x
sin(3x), y(0) = 1
dt

x
19) y ′
=
2
, y(0) = 0
sech y

Answer
2
−1
x
y = tanh ( )
2

20) y ′
= 2xy(1 + 2y), y(0) = −1

dx −−−− −
21) 2
= ln(t)√1 − x , x(1) = 0
dt

Answer
x = sin(1 − t + t ln t)

22) y ′
= 3 x (y
2 2
+ 4), y(0) = 0

23) y ′
=e 5 ,
y x
y(0) = ln(ln(5))

Answer
x
y = ln(ln(5)) − ln(2 − 5 )

π
24) y ′
= −2x tan(y), y(0) =
2

For problems 25 - 29, use a software program or your calculator to generate the directional fields. Solve explicitly and draw
solution curves for several initial conditions. Are there some critical initial conditions that change the behavior of the
solution?
25) [T] y ′
= 1 − 2y

Answer
1
−2
y = Ce x+
2

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26) [T] y ′
=y x
2 3

27) [T] y ′
=y e
3 x

Answer
1
y = – −−−−−−
√2√C − ex

28) [T] y ′
=e
y

29) [T] y ′
= y ln(x)

Answer
−x x
y = Ce x

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30) Most drugs in the bloodstream decay according to the equation y = cy , where y is the concentration of the drug in the
′

bloodstream. If the half-life of a drug is 2 hours, what fraction of the initial dose remains after 6 hours?
31) A drug is administered intravenously to a patient at a rate r mg/h and is cleared from the body at a rate proportional to the
amount of drug still present in the body, d Set up and solve the differential equation, assuming there is no drug initially present in
the body.

Answer
r −dt
y = (1 − e )
d

32) [T] How often should a drug be taken if its dose is 3 mg, it is cleared at a rate c = 0.1 mg/h, and 1 mg is required to be in the
bloodstream at all times?
33) A tank contains 1 kilogram of salt dissolved in 100 liters of water. A salt solution of 0.1 kg salt/L is pumped into the tank at a
rate of 2 L/min and is drained at the same rate. Solve for the salt concentration at time t . Assume the tank is well mixed.

Answer
−t/50
y(t) = 10 − 9e

34) A tank containing 10 kilograms of salt dissolved in 1000 liters of water has two salt solutions pumped in. The first solution of
0.2 kg salt/L is pumped in at a rate of 20 L/min and the second solution of 0.05 kg salt/L is pumped in at a rate of 5 L/min. The

tank drains at 25 L/min. Assume the tank is well mixed. Solve for the salt concentration at time t .
35) [T] For the preceding problem, find how much salt is in the tank 1 hour after the process begins.

Answer
134.3 kilograms

36) Torricelli’s law states that for a water tank with a hole in the bottom that has a cross-section of A and with a height of water h
above the bottom of the tank, the rate of change of volume of water flowing from the tank is proportional to the square root of the
dV −−− dV dh
height of water, according to = −A√2gh , where g is the acceleration due to gravity. Note that =A . Solve the
dt dt dt
resulting initial-value problem for the height of the water, assuming a tank with a hole of radius 2 ft. The initial height of water is
100 ft.

37) For the preceding problem, determine how long it takes the tank to drain.

Answer
720 seconds

For problems 38 - 44, use Newton’s law of cooling.

38) The liquid base of an ice cream has an initial temperature of 200°F before it is placed in a freezer with a constant temperature
of 0°F . After 1 hour, the temperature of the ice-cream base has decreased to 140°F. Formulate and solve the initial-value problem
to determine the temperature of the ice cream.
39) [T] The liquid base of an ice cream has an initial temperature of 210°F before it is placed in a freezer with a constant
temperature of 20°F . After 2 hours, the temperature of the ice-cream base has decreased to 170°F. At what time will the ice
cream be ready to eat? (Assume 30°F is the optimal eating temperature.)

Answer
24 hours 55 minutes

40) [T] You are organizing an ice cream social. The outside temperature is 80°F and the ice cream is at 10°F . After 10 minutes,
the ice cream temperature has risen by 10°F . How much longer can you wait before the ice cream melts at 40°F ?
41) You have a cup of coffee at temperature 70°C and the ambient temperature in the room is 20°C. Assuming a cooling rate k of
0.125, write and solve the differential equation to describe the temperature of the coffee with respect to time.

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Answer
−0.125t
T (t) = 20 + 50e

42) [T] You have a cup of coffee at temperature 70°C that you put outside, where the ambient temperature is 0°C . After 5

minutes, how much colder is the coffee?

43) You have a cup of coffee at temperature 70°C and you immediately pour in 1 part milk to 5 parts coffee. The milk is initially
at temperature 1°C . Write and solve the differential equation that governs the temperature of this coffee.

Answer
−0.125t
T (t) = 20 + 38.5e

44) You have a cup of coffee at temperature 70°C , which you let cool 10 minutes before you pour in the same amount of milk at
1°C as in the preceding problem. How does the temperature compare to the previous cup after 10 minutes?

45) Solve the generic problem y ′

= ay + b with initial condition y(0) = c.

Answer
ax b
y = (c + ba)e −
a

46) Prove the basic continual compounded interest equation. Assuming an initial deposit of P and an interest rate of r, set up and
0

solve an equation for continually compounded interest.

47) Assume an initial nutrient amount of I kilograms in a tank with L liters. Assume a concentration of c kg/L being pumped in at
a rate of r L/min. The tank is well mixed and is drained at a rate of r L/min. Find the equation describing the amount of nutrient in
the tank.

Answer
−rt/L
y(t) = cL + (I − cL)e

48) Leaves accumulate on the forest floor at a rate of 2 g/cm2/yr and also decompose at a rate of 90% per year. Write a differential
equation governing the number of grams of leaf litter per square centimeter of forest floor, assuming at time 0 there is no leaf litter
on the ground. Does this amount approach a steady value? What is that value?
49) Leaves accumulate on the forest floor at a rate of 4 g/cm2/yr. These leaves decompose at a rate of 10% per year. Write a
differential equation governing the number of grams of leaf litter per square centimeter of forest floor. Does this amount approach a
steady value? What is that value?

Answer
dy
Differential Equation: = 4 − 0.1y
dt

Solution, the model for this situation: y = 40(1 − e −0.1t

) ,
Amount approaches a steady value of 40 g/cm2

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Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is
available upon request.

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6.4: The Logistic Equation
 Learning Objectives
Describe the concept of environmental carrying capacity in the logistic model of population growth.
Draw a direction field for a logistic equation and interpret the solution curves.
Solve a logistic equation and interpret the results.

Differential equations can be used to represent the size of a population as it varies over time. We saw this in an earlier chapter in
the section on exponential growth and decay, which is the simplest model. A more realistic model includes other factors that affect
the growth of the population. In this section, we study the logistic differential equation and see how it applies to the study of
population dynamics in the context of biology.

Population Growth and Carrying Capacity

To model population growth using a differential equation, we first need to introduce some variables and relevant terms. The
variable t . will represent time. The units of time can be hours, days, weeks, months, or even years. Any given problem must
specify the units used in that particular problem. The variable P will represent population. Since the population varies over time, it
is understood to be a function of time. Therefore we use the notation P (t) for the population as a function of time. If P (t) is a
differentiable function, then the first derivative represents the instantaneous rate of change of the population as a function of
dP

time.
In Exponential Growth and Decay, we studied the exponential growth and decay of populations and radioactive substances. An
example of an exponential growth function is P (t) = P e . In this function, P (t) represents the population at time t, P
0
rt
0

represents the initial population (population at time t = 0 ), and the constant r > 0 is called the growth rate. Figure 6.4.1 shows a
graph of P (t) = 100e . Here P = 100 and r = 0.03.
0.03t
0

Figure 6.4.1 : An exponential growth model of population.

We can verify that the function P (t) = P 0e
rt
satisfies the initial-value problem
dP
= rP
dt

with P (0) = P 0.

This differential equation has an interesting interpretation. The left-hand side represents the rate at which the population increases
(or decreases). The right-hand side is equal to a positive constant multiplied by the current population. Therefore the differential
equation states that the rate at which the population increases is proportional to the population at that point in time. Furthermore, it
states that the constant of proportionality never changes.
One problem with this function is its prediction that as time goes on, the population grows without bound. This is unrealistic in a
real-world setting. Various factors limit the rate of growth of a particular population, including birth rate, death rate, food supply,
predators, and so on. The growth constant r usually takes into consideration the birth and death rates but none of the other factors,
and it can be interpreted as a net (birth minus death) percent growth rate per unit time. A natural question to ask is whether the
population growth rate stays constant, or whether it changes over time. Biologists have found that in many biological systems, the
population grows until a certain steady-state population is reached. This possibility is not taken into account with exponential
growth. However, the concept of carrying capacity allows for the possibility that in a given area, only a certain number of a given
organism or animal can thrive without running into resource issues.

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 Definition: Carrying Capacity

The carrying capacity of an organism in a given environment is defined to be the maximum population of that organism that
the environment can sustain indefinitely.

We use the variable K to denote the carrying capacity. The growth rate is represented by the variable r. Using these variables, we
can define the logistic differential equation.

 Definition: Logistic Differential Equation

Let K represent the carrying capacity for a particular organism in a given environment, and let r be a real number that
represents the growth rate. The function P (t) represents the population of this organism as a function of time t , and the
constant P represents the initial population (population of the organism at time t = 0 ). Then the logistic differential equation
0

is
dP P
= rP (1 − ). (6.4.1)
dt K

The logistic equation was first published by Pierre Verhulst in 1845 . This differential equation can be coupled with the initial
condition P (0) = P to form an initial-value problem for P (t).
0

Suppose that the initial population is small relative to the carrying capacity. Then is small, possibly close to zero. Thus, the
P

quantity in parentheses on the right-hand side of Equation 6.4.1 is close to 1, and the right-hand side of this equation is close to rP .
If r > 0 , then the population grows rapidly, resembling exponential growth.
However, as the population grows, the ratio also grows, because K is constant. If the population remains below the carrying
K
P

capacity, then is less than 1, so 1 − > 0 . Therefore the right-hand side of Equation 6.4.1 is still positive, but the quantity in
P

K
P

parentheses gets smaller, and the growth rate decreases as a result. If P = K then the right-hand side is equal to zero, and the
population does not change.
Now suppose that the population starts at a value higher than the carrying capacity. Then > 1, and 1 −
P

K
< 0 . Then the right-
P

hand side of Equation 6.4.1 is negative, and the population decreases. As long as P > K , the population decreases. It never
actually reaches K because dP

dt
will get smaller and smaller, but the population approaches the carrying capacity as t approaches
infinity. This analysis can be represented visually by way of a phase line. A phase line describes the general behavior of a solution
to an autonomous differential equation, depending on the initial condition. For the case of a carrying capacity in the logistic
equation, the phase line is as shown in Figure 6.4.2.

dP P
Figure 6.4.2 : A phase line for the differential equation = rP (1 − ).
dt K

This phase line shows that when P is less than zero or greater than K , the population decreases over time. When P is between 0

and K , the population increases over time.

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 Example 6.4.1: Examining the Carrying Capacity of a Deer Population

Let’s consider the population of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in the state of Kentucky. The Kentucky Department
of Fish and Wildlife Resources (KDFWR) sets guidelines for hunting and fishing in the state. Before the hunting season of
2004, it estimated a population of 900,000 deer. Johnson notes: “A deer population that has plenty to eat and is not hunted by
humans or other predators will double every three years.” (George Johnson, “The Problem of Exploding Deer Populations Has
No Attractive Solutions,” January 12,2001, accessed April 9, 2015)

Figure 6.4.3 : (credit: modification of work by Rachel Kramer, Flickr)

ln(2)
This observation corresponds to a rate of increase r = = 0.2311, so the approximate growth rate is 23.11% per year.
3
(This assumes that the population grows exponentially, which is reasonable––at least in the short term––with plentiful food
supply and no predators.) The KDFWR also reports deer population densities for 32 counties in Kentucky, the average of
which is approximately 27 deer per square mile. Suppose this is the deer density for the whole state (39,732 square miles). The
carrying capacity K is 39,732 square miles times 27 deer per square mile, or 1,072,764 deer.
a. For this application, we have P = 900, 000, K = 1, 072, 764, and r = 0.2311. Substitute these values into Equation
0

6.4.1 and form the initial-value problem.

b. Solve the initial-value problem from part a.

c. According to this model, what will be the population in 3 years? Recall that the doubling time predicted by Johnson for the
deer population was 3 years. How do these values compare?
Suppose the population managed to reach 1,200,000 What does the logistic equation predict will happen to the population in
this scenario?
Solution
a. The initial value problem is
dP P
= 0.2311P (1 − ), P (0) = 900, 000.
dt 1, 072, 764

b. The logistic equation is an autonomous differential equation, so we can use the method of separation of variables.
Step 1: Setting the right-hand side equal to zero gives P = 0 and P = 1, 072, 764. This means that if the population starts at
zero it will never change, and if it starts at the carrying capacity, it will never change.
Step 2: Rewrite the differential equation and multiply both sides by:
dP 1, 072, 764 − P
= 0.2311P ( )
dt 1, 072, 764

1, 072, 764 − P
dP = 0.2311P ( ) dt
1, 072, 764

dP 0.2311
= dt.
P (1, 072, 764 − P ) 1, 072, 764

Step 3: Integrate both sides of the equation using partial fraction decomposition:

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dP 0.2311
∫ =∫ dt
P (1, 072, 764 − P ) 1, 072, 764

1 1 1 0.2311t
∫ ( + ) dP = +C
1, 072, 764 P 1, 072, 764 − P 1, 072, 764

1 0.2311t
(ln |P | − ln |1, 072, 764 − P |) = + C.
1, 072, 764 1, 072, 764

Step 4: Multiply both sides by 1,072,764 and use the quotient rule for logarithms:
∣ P ∣
ln∣ ∣ = 0.2311t + C1 .
∣ 1, 072, 764 − P ∣

Here C 1 = 1, 072, 764C . Next exponentiate both sides and eliminate the absolute value:
∣ P ∣
∣ ∣
ln
∣ ∣
∣ 1, 072, 764 − P ∣ 0.2311t+C1
e =e

∣ P ∣ 0.2311t
∣ ∣ = C2 e
∣ 1, 072, 764 − P ∣

P
0.2311t
= C2 e .
1, 072, 764 − P

Here C 2 =e
C1
but after eliminating the absolute value, it can be negative as well. Now solve for:
0.2311t
P = C2 e (1, 072, 764 − P )

0.2311t 0.2311t
P = 1, 072, 764 C2 e − C2 P e

0.2311t 0.2311t
P + C2 P e = 1, 072, 764 C2 e

0.2311t 0.2311t
P (1 + C2 e = 1, 072, 764 C2 e

0.2311t
1, 072, 764C2 e
P (t) = .
0.2311t
1 + C2 e

Step 5: To determine the value of C , it is actually easier to go back a couple of steps to where C was defined. In particular,
2 2

use the equation

P
0.2311t
= C2 e .
1, 072, 764 − P

The initial condition is P (0) = 900, 000. Replace P with 900, 000 and t with zero:
P
0.2311t
= C2 e
1, 072, 764 − P

900, 000
0.2311(0)
= C2 e
1, 072, 764 − 900, 000

900, 000
= C2
172, 764

25, 000
C2 =
4, 799

≈ 5.209.

Therefore

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25000
0.2311t
1, 072, 764 ( )e
4799
P (t) =
0.2311t
1 + (250004799)e

0.2311t
1, 072, 764(25000)e
=
0.2311t
4799 + 25000 e .

Dividing the numerator and denominator by 25,000 gives

0.2311t
1, 072, 764e
P (t) = .
0.2311t
0.19196 + e

Figure is a graph of this equation.

Figure 6.4.4 : Logistic curve for the deer population with an initial population of 900,000 deer.
c. Using this model we can predict the population in 3 years.
0.2311(3)
1, 072, 764e
P (3) = ≈ 978, 830 deer
0.2311(3)
0.19196 + e

This is far short of twice the initial population of 900, 000. Remember that the doubling time is based on the assumption that
the growth rate never changes, but the logistic model takes this possibility into account.
d. If the population reached 1,200,000 deer, then the new initial-value problem would be
dP P
= 0.2311P (1 − ) , P (0) = 1, 200, 000.
dt 1, 072, 764

The general solution to the differential equation would remain the same.
0.2311t
1, 072, 764C2 e
P (t) =
0.2311t
1 + C2 e

To determine the value of the constant, return to the equation

P
0.2311t
= C2 e .
1, 072, 764 − P

Substituting the values t = 0 and P = 1, 200, 000, you get

1, 200, 000
0.2311(0)
C2 e =
1, 072, 764 − 1, 200, 000

100, 000
C2 = − ≈ −9.431.
10, 603

Therefore

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0.2311t
1, 072, 764C2 e
P (t) =
0.2311t
1 + C2 e

100, 000
0.2311t
1, 072, 764 (− )e
10, 603
=
100, 000
0.2311t
1 + (− )e
10, 603

0.2311t
107, 276, 400, 000e
=−
0.2311t
100, 000 e − 10, 603

0.2311t
10, 117, 551e
≈
0.2311t
9.43129 e −1

This equation is graphed in Figure 6.4.5.

Figure 6.4.5 : Logistic curve for the deer population with an initial population of 1,200,000 deer.

Solving the Logistic Differential Equation

The logistic differential equation is an autonomous differential equation, so we can use separation of variables to find the general
solution, as we just did in Example 6.4.1.
Step 1: Setting the right-hand side equal to zero leads to P = 0 and P = K as constant solutions. The first solution indicates that
when there are no organisms present, the population will never grow. The second solution indicates that when the population starts
at the carrying capacity, it will never change.
Step 2: Rewrite the differential equation in the form
dP rP (K − P )
= .
dt K

Then multiply both sides by dt and divide both sides by P (K − P ). This leads to
dP r
= dt.
P (K − P ) K

Multiply both sides of the equation by K and integrate:

K
∫ dP = ∫ rdt. (6.4.2)
P (K − P )

The left-hand side of this equation can be integrated using partial fraction decomposition. We leave it to you to verify that
K 1 1
= + .
P (K − P ) P K −P

Then the Equation 6.4.2 becomes

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1 1
∫ + dP = ∫ rdt
P K −P

ln |P | − ln |K − P | = rt + C

P
ln ∣ ∣= rt + C .
K −P

Now exponentiate both sides of the equation to eliminate the natural logarithm:
P ∣
∣
ln∣
∣
K −P ∣ rt+C
e =e

∣ P
C rt
∣ ∣= e e .
∣ K −P

We define C 1 =e
c
so that the equation becomes
P rt
= C1 e . (6.4.3)
K −P

To solve this equation for P (t), first multiply both sides by K − P and collect the terms containing P on the left-hand side of the
equation:
rt
P = C1 e (K − P )

rt rt
= C1 K e − C1 P e

rt rt
P + C1 P e = C1 K e .

Next, factor P from the left-hand side and divide both sides by the other factor:
rt rt
P (1 + C1 e ) = C1 K e

rt
C1 K e
P (t) = .
rt
1 + C1 e

The last step is to determine the value of C . The easiest way to do this is to substitute t = 0 and P in place of P in Equation and
1 0

solve for C :
1

P
rt
= C1 e
K −P

P0 r(0)
= C1 e
K − P0

P0
C1 = .
K − P0

Finally, substitute the expression for C into Equation 6.4.3:

P0
rt
Ke
rt
C1 K e K − P0
P (t) = =
1 + C1 ert P0
rt
1+ e
K − P0

Now multiply the numerator and denominator of the right-hand side by (K − P 0) and simplify:

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P0
rt
Ke
K − P0
P (t) =
P0
rt
1+ e
K − P0

P0
rt
Ke
rt
K − P0 K − P0 P0 K e
= ⋅ = .
P0 K − P0 (K − P0 ) + P0 ert
1+ ert
K − P0

We state this result as a theorem.

 Solution of the Logistic Differential Equation

Consider the logistic differential equation subject to an initial population of P0 with carrying capacity K and growth rate r.
The solution to the corresponding initial-value problem is given by
rt
P0 K e
P (t) =
rt
(K − P0 ) + P0 e

Now that we have the solution to the initial-value problem, we can choose values for P , r, and K and study the solution curve.
0

For example, in Example we used the values r = 0.2311, K = 1, 072, 764, and an initial population of 900, 000 deer. This leads
to the solution
rt
P0 K e
P (t) =
rt
(K − P0 ) + P0 e

0.2311t
900, 000(1, 072, 764)e
=
0.2311t
(1, 072, 764 − 900, 000) + 900, 000e

0.2311t
900, 000(1, 072, 764)e
= .
172, 764 + 900, 000e0.2311t

Dividing top and bottom by 900, 000 gives

0.2311t
1, 072, 764e
P (t) = .
0.2311t
0.19196 + e

This is the same as the original solution. The graph of this solution is shown again in blue in Figure 6.4.6, superimposed over the
graph of the exponential growth model with initial population 900, 000 and growth rate 0.2311 (appearing in green). The red
dashed line represents the carrying capacity, and is a horizontal asymptote for the solution to the logistic equation.

Figure 6.4.6 : A comparison of exponential versus logistic growth for the same initial population of 900, 000 organisms and growth
rate of 23.11

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Working under the assumption that the population grows according to the logistic differential equation, this graph predicts that
approximately 20 years earlier (1984), the growth of the population was very close to exponential. The net growth rate at that time
would have been around 23.1 per year. As time goes on, the two graphs separate. This happens because the population increases,
and the logistic differential equation states that the growth rate decreases as the population increases. At the time the population
was measured (2004), it was close to carrying capacity, and the population was starting to level off.
The solution to the logistic differential equation has a point of inflection. To find this point, set the second derivative equal to zero:
rt
P0 K e
P (t) =
(K − P0 ) + P0 ert

rt
rP0 K(K − P 0)e
P '(t) =
rt 2
((K − P0 ) + P0 e )

2 2 rt 2 2 2rt
r P0 K(K − P0 ) e −r P K(K − P0 )e
′′ 0
P (t) =
((K − P0 ) + P0 ert )3

2 rt rt
r P0 K(K − P0 )e ((K − P0 ) − P0 e )
= .
rt 3
((K − P0 ) + P0 e )

Setting the numerator equal to zero,

2 rt rt
r P0 K(K − P0 )e ((K − P0 ) − P0 e ) = 0.

As long as P 0 ≠K , the entire quantity before and including e is nonzero, so we can divide it out:
rt

rt
(K − P0 ) − P0 e = 0.

Solving for t ,
rt
P0 e = K − P0

rt
K − P0
e =
P0

rt
K − P0
ln e = ln
P0

K − P0
rt = ln
P0

1 K − P0
t = ln .
r P0

Notice that if P > K , then this quantity is undefined, and the graph does not have a point of inflection. In the logistic graph, the
0

point of inflection can be seen as the point where the graph changes from concave up to concave down. This is where the “leveling
off” starts to occur, because the net growth rate becomes slower as the population starts to approach the carrying capacity.

 Exercise 6.4.1

A population of rabbits in a meadow is observed to be 200 rabbits at time t = 0 . After a month, the rabbit population is
observed to have increased by 4. Using an initial population of 200 and a growth rate of 0.04, with a carrying capacity of 750
rabbits,
a. Write the logistic differential equation and initial condition for this model.
b. Draw a slope field for this logistic differential equation, and sketch the solution corresponding to an initial population of
200 rabbits.

c. Solve the initial-value problem for P (t).

d. Use the solution to predict the population after 1 year.

Hint

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First determine the values of r, K, and P . Then create the initial-value problem, draw the direction field, and solve
0

the problem.

Answer
dP P
a. = 0.04(1 − ), P (0) = 200
dt 750

.04t
3000e
c. P (t) = .04t
11 + 4e

d. After 12 months, the population will be P (12) ≈ 278 rabbits.

 Student Project: Logistic Equation with a Threshold Population

An improvement to the logistic model includes a threshold population. The threshold population is defined to be the
minimum population that is necessary for the species to survive. We use the variable T to represent the threshold population. A
differential equation that incorporates both the threshold population T and carrying capacity K is
dP P P
= −rP (1 − ) (1 − )
dt K T

where r represents the growth rate, as before.

1. The threshold population is useful to biologists and can be utilized to determine whether a given species should be placed
on the endangered list. A group of Australian researchers say they have determined the threshold population for any species
to survive: 5000 adults. (Catherine Clabby, “A Magic Number,” American Scientist 98(1): 24, doi:10.1511/2010.82.24.
accessed April 9, 2015, www.americanscientist.org/iss...a-magic-number). Therefore we use T = 5000 as the threshold
population in this project. Suppose that the environmental carrying capacity in Montana for elk is 25, 000. Set up Equation
using the carrying capacity of 25, 000 and threshold population of 5000. Assume an annual net growth rate of 18%.
2. Draw the direction field for the differential equation from step 1, along with several solutions for different initial
populations. What are the constant solutions of the differential equation? What do these solutions correspond to in the
original population model (i.e., in a biological context)?
3. What is the limiting population for each initial population you chose in step 2? (Hint: use the slope field to see what
happens for various initial populations, i.e., look for the horizontal asymptotes of your solutions.)
4. This equation can be solved using the method of separation of variables. However, it is very difficult to get the solution as
an explicit function of t . Using an initial population of 18, 000 elk, solve the initial-value problem and express the solution
as an implicit function of t, or solve the general initial-value problem, finding a solution in terms of r, K, T , and P .
0

Key Concepts
When studying population functions, different assumptions—such as exponential growth, logistic growth, or threshold
population—lead to different rates of growth.

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The logistic differential equation incorporates the concept of a carrying capacity. This value is a limiting value on the
population for any given environment.
The logistic differential equation can be solved for any positive growth rate, initial population, and carrying capacity.

Key Equations
Logistic differential equation and initial-value problem
dP P
= rP (1 − ), P (0) = P0
dt K

Solution to the logistic differential equation/initial-value problem

rt
P0 K e
P (t) =
rt
(K − P0 ) + P0 e

Threshold population model

dP P P
= −rP (1 − ) (1 − )
dt K T

Glossary
carrying capacity
the maximum population of an organism that the environment can sustain indefinitely

growth rate
the constant r > 0 in the exponential growth function P (t) = P 0e
rt

initial population
the population at time t = 0

logistic differential equation

a differential equation that incorporates the carrying capacity K and growth rate rr into a population model

phase line
a visual representation of the behavior of solutions to an autonomous differential equation subject to various initial conditions

threshold population
the minimum population that is necessary for a species to survive

This page titled 6.4: The Logistic Equation is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert
Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit
history is available upon request.
8.4: The Logistic Equation by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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6.4E: Exercises
Basic Logistic Model
For problems 1 - 11, consider the logistic equation in the form P
′
= CP − P
2
. Draw the directional field and find the
stability of the equilibria.
1) C =3

2) C =0

Answer
P =0 semi-stable

3) C = −3

4) Solve the logistic equation for C = 10 and an initial condition of P (0) = 2.

Answer
10x
10e
P =
e10x + 4

5) Solve the logistic equation for C = −10 and an initial condition of P (0) = 2 .
6) A population of deer inside a park has a carrying capacity of 200 and a growth rate of 2. If the initial population is 50 deer, what
is the population of deer at any given time?

Answer
0.02t
10000e
P (t) =
0.02t
150 + 50e

7) A population of frogs in a pond has a growth rate of 5 If the initial population is 1000 frogs and the carrying capacity is 6000 ,
what is the population of frogs at any given time?
8) [T] Bacteria grow at a rate of 20 per hour in a petri dish. If there is initially one bacterium and a carrying capacity of 1 million
cells, how long does it take to reach 500, 000 cells?

Answer

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69 hours 5 minutes

9) [T] Rabbits in a park have an initial population of 10 and grow at a rate of 4 per year. If the carrying capacity is 500, at what
time does the population reach 100 rabbits?
10) [T] Two monkeys are placed on an island. After 5 years, there are 8 monkeys, and the estimated carrying capacity is 25

monkeys. When does the population of monkeys reach 16 monkeys?

Answer
8 years 11 months

11) [T] A butterfly sanctuary is built that can hold 2000 butterflies, and 400 butterflies are initially moved in. If after 2 months
there are now 800 butterflies, when does the population get to 1500 butterflies?

Logistic Population Model with Depletion

The following problems consider the logistic equation with an added term for depletion, either through death or
emigration.
P
12) [T] The population of trout in a pond is given by P ′
= 0.4P (1 − ) − 400 , where 400 trout are caught per year. Use
10000

your calculator or computer software to draw a directional field and draw a few sample solutions. What do you expect for the
behavior?

Answer

13) In the preceding problem, what are the stabilities of the equilibria 0 < P 1 < P2 ?
14) [T] For the preceding problem, use software to generate a directional field for the value f = 400 . What are the stabilities of the
equilibria?

Answer
P1 semi-stable

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15) [T] For the preceding problems, use software to generate a directional field for the value f = 600. What are the stabilities of
the equilibria?
16) [T] For the preceding problems, consider the case where a certain number of fish are added to the pond, or f = −200. What
are the nonnegative equilibria and their stabilities?

Answer
P2 > 0 stable

It is more likely that the amount of fishing is governed by the current number of fish present, so instead of a constant number of
fish being caught, the rate is proportional to the current number of fish present, with proportionality constant k , as
P
′
P = 0.4P (1 − ) − kP .
10000

17) [T] For the previous fishing problem, draw a directional field assuming k = 0.1 . Draw some solutions that exhibit this
behavior. What are the equilibria and what are their stabilities?

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18) [T] Use software or a calculator to draw directional fields for k = 0.4 . What are the nonnegative equilibria and their stabilities?

Answer
P1 = 0 is semi-stable

19) [T] Use software or a calculator to draw directional fields for k = 0.6 . What are the equilibria and their stabilities?
20) Solve this equation, assuming a value of k = 0.05 and an initial condition of 2000 fish.

Answer
−20
y =
−6
4 × 10 − 0.002 e0.01t

21) Solve this equation, assuming a value of k = 0.05 and an initial condition of 5000 fish.

Minimal Sustainable Population Thresholds

The following problems add in a minimal threshold value for the species to survive, T , which changes the differential
P T
equation to P ′
(t) = rP (1 − ) (1 − ) .
K P

22) Draw the directional field of the threshold logistic equation, assuming K = 10, r = 0.1, T = 2 . When does the population
survive? When does it go extinct?

Answer

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23) For the preceding problem, solve the logistic threshold equation, assuming the initial condition P (0) = P . 0

24) Bengal tigers in a conservation park have a carrying capacity of 100 and need a minimum of 10 to survive. If they grow in
population at a rate of 1 per year, with an initial population of 15 tigers, solve for the number of tigers present.

Answer
0.009t
850 + 500e
P (t) =
0.009t
85 + 5e

25) A forest containing ring-tailed lemurs in Madagascar has the potential to support 5000 individuals, and the lemur population
grows at a rate of 5 per year. A minimum of 500 individuals is needed for the lemurs to survive. Given an initial population of 600
lemurs, solve for the population of lemurs.
26) The population of mountain lions in Northern Arizona has an estimated carrying capacity of 250 and grows at a rate of 0.25 per
year and there must be 25 for the population to survive. With an initial population of 30 mountain lions, how many years will it
take to get the mountain lions off the endangered species list (at least 100)?

Answer
13 years months

The Gompertz Equation

The following questions consider the Gompertz equation, a modification for logistic growth, which is often used for
modeling cancer growth, specifically the number of tumor cells.

27) The Gompertz equation is given by ′

P (t) = α ln(
K

P (t)
)P (t). Draw the directional fields for this equation assuming all
parameters are positive, and given that K = 1.
28) Assume that for a population, K = 1000 and α = 0.05. Draw the directional field associated with this differential equation
and draw a few solutions. What is the behavior of the population?

Answer

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29) Solve the Gompertz equation for generic α and K and P (0) = P . 0

30) [T] The Gompertz equation has been used to model tumor growth in the human body. Starting from one tumor cell on day 1
and assuming α = 0.1 and a carrying capacity of 10 million cells, how long does it take to reach “detection” stage at 5 million
cells?

Answer
31.465 days

31) [T] It is estimated that the world human population reached 3 billion people in 1959 and 6 billion in 1999. Assuming a
carrying capacity of 16 billion humans, write and solve the differential equation for logistic growth, and determine what year the
population reached 7 billion.
32) [T] It is estimated that the world human population reached 3 billion people in 1959 and 6 billion in 1999. Assuming a
carrying capacity of 16 billion humans, write and solve the differential equation for Gompertz growth, and determine what year the
population reached 7 billion. Was logistic growth or Gompertz growth more accurate, considering world population reached 7
billion on October 31, 2011?

Answer
September 2008

P
33) Show that the population grows fastest when it reaches half the carrying capacity for the logistic equation P ′
= rP (1 − ) .
K

P T
34) When does population increase the fastest in the threshold logistic equation P ′
(t) = rP (1 − ) (1 − ) ?
K P

Answer
K +T

35) When does population increase the fastest for the Gompertz equation P (t) ′
= α ln(
K

P (t)
)P (t)?

Below is a table of the populations of whooping cranes in the wild from 1940 to 2000. The population rebounded from near
extinction after conservation efforts began. The following problems consider applying population models to fit the data. Assume a
carrying capacity of 10, 000 cranes. Fit the data assuming years since 1940 (so your initial population at time 0 would be 22
cranes).

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Year (years since conservation began) Whooping Crane Population

1940(0) 22

1950(10) 31

1960(20) 36

1970(30) 57

1980(40) 91

1990(50) 159

2000(60) 256

Source: www.savingcranes.org/images/...wc_numbers.pdf
36) Find the equation and parameter r that best fit the data for the logistic equation.

Answer
r = 0.0405

37) Find the equation and parameters r and T that best fit the data for the threshold logistic equation.
38) Find the equation and parameter α that best fit the data for the Gompertz equation.

Answer
α = 0.0081

39) Graph all three solutions and the data on the same graph. Which model appears to be most accurate?
40) Using the three equations found in the previous problems, estimate the population in 2010 (year 70 after conservation). The
real population measured at that time was 437. Which model is most accurate?

Answer
Logistic: 361, Threshold: 436, Gompertz: 309.

This page titled 6.4E: Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert Strang &
Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is
available upon request.

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6.5: First-order Linear Equations
 Learning Objectives
Write a first-order linear differential equation in standard form.
Find an integrating factor and use it to solve a first-order linear differential equation.
Solve applied problems involving first-order linear differential equations.

Earlier, we studied an application of a first-order differential equation that involved solving for the velocity of an object. In
particular, if a ball is thrown upward with an initial velocity of v ft/s, then an initial-value problem that describes the velocity of
0

the ball after t seconds is given by

dv
= −32
dt

with v(0) = v 0.

This model assumes that the only force acting on the ball is gravity. Now we add to the problem by allowing for the possibility of
air resistance acting on the ball.
Air resistance always acts in the direction opposite to motion. Therefore if an object is rising, air resistance acts in a downward
direction. If the object is falling, air resistance acts in an upward direction (Figure 6.5.1). There is no exact relationship between
the velocity of an object and the air resistance acting on it. For very small objects, air resistance is proportional to velocity; that is,
the force due to air resistance is numerically equal to some constant k times v . For larger (e.g., baseball-sized) objects, depending
on the shape, air resistance can be approximately proportional to the square of the velocity. In fact, air resistance may be
proportional to v , or v , or some other power of v .
1.5 0.9

Figure 6.5.1 : Forces acting on a moving baseball: gravity acts in a downward direction and air resistance acts in a direction
opposite to the direction of motion.
We will work with the linear approximation for air resistance. If we assume k > 0 , then the expression for the force F due to air
A

resistance is given by F A − kv . Therefore the sum of the forces acting on the object is equal to the sum of the gravitational force
=

and the force due to air resistance. This, in turn, is equal to the mass of the object multiplied by its acceleration at time t (Newton’s
second law). This gives us the differential equation
dv
m = −kv − mg.
dt

Finally, we impose an initial condition v(0) = v , where

0 v0 is the initial velocity measured in meters per second. This makes
g = 9.8m/ s . The initial-value problem becomes
2

dv
m = −kv − mg
dt

with v(0) = v 0.

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The differential equation in this initial-value problem is an example of a first-order linear differential equation. (Recall that a
differential equation is first-order if the highest-order derivative that appears in the equation is 1.) In this section, we study first-
order linear equations and examine a method for finding a general solution to these types of equations, as well as solving initial-
value problems involving them.

 Definition: Linear first-order differential equation

A first-order differential equation is linear if it can be written in the form

a(x)y' + b(x)y = c(x),

where a(x), b(x), and c(x) are arbitrary functions of x.

Remember that the unknown function y depends on the variable x; that is, x is the independent variable and y is the dependent
variable. Some examples of first-order linear differential equations are
2 ′
(3 x − 4)y + (x − 3)y = sin x

′
(sin x)y − (cos x)y = cot x

′ 3
4x y + (3 ln x)y = x − 4x.

Examples of first-order nonlinear differential equations include

′ 4 ′ 3
(y ) − (y ) = (3x − 2)(y + 4)

′ 3
4y + 3y = 4x − 5

′ 2
(y ) = sin y + cos x.

These equations are nonlinear because of terms like 4

(y' ) , y ,
3
etc. Due to these terms, it is impossible to put these equations into
the same form as Equation.

Standard Form
Consider the differential equation
2
(3 x − 4)y' + (x − 3)y = sin x.

Our main goal in this section is to derive a solution method for equations of this form. It is useful to have the coefficient of y' be
equal to 1. To make this happen, we divide both sides by 3x − 4. 2

x −3 sin x
y' + ( )y =
2 2
3x −4 3x −4

This is called the standard form of the differential equation. We will use it later when finding the solution to a general first-order
linear differential equation. Returning to Equation, we can divide both sides of the equation by a(x). This leads to the equation
b(x) c(x)
y' + y = . (6.5.1)
a(x) a(x)

Now define
b(x)
p(x) =
a(x)

and
c(x)
q(x) =
a(x)

Then Equation 6.5.1 becomes

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y' + p(x)y = q(x).

We can write any first-order linear differential equation in this form, and this is referred to as the standard form for a first-order
linear differential equation.

 Example 6.5.1: Writing First-Order Linear Equations in Standard Form

Put each of the following first-order linear differential equations into standard form. Identify p(x) and q(x) for each equation.
a. y
′
= 3x − 4y
′
3xy
b. =2 (here x > 0 )
4y − 3

c. y = 3y − 4x
′ 2
+5

Solution
a. Add 4y to both sides:
′
y + 4y = 3x.

In this equation, p(x) = 4 and q(x) = 3x.

b. Multiply both sides by 4y − 3 , then subtract 8y from each side:
′
3xy
=2
4y − 3

′
3x y = 2(4y − 3)

′
3x y = 8y − 6

′
3x y − 8y = −6.

Finally, divide both sides by 3x to make the coefficient of y equal to 1: ′

8 2
′
y − y =− .
3x 3x

This is allowable because in the original statement of this problem we assumed that x > 0 . (If x = 0 then the original equation
becomes 0 = 2 , which is clearly a false statement.)
8 2
In this equation, p(x) = − and q(x) = − .
3x 3x

c. Subtract y from each side and add 4x 2

−5 :
′ 2
3y − y = 4x − 5.

Next divide both sides by 3:

1 4 5
y −
′
y =
2
x − .
3 3 3

1 4 5
In this equation, p(x) = − and q(x) = x
2
− .
3 3 3

 Exercise 6.5.1
′
(x + 3)y
Put the equation =5 into standard form and identify p(x) and q(x).
2x − 3y − 4

Hint
Multiply both sides by the common denominator, then collect all terms involving y on one side.

Answer
15 10x − 20
′
y + y =
x +3 x +3

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15
p(x) =
x +3

and
10x − 20
q(x) =
x +3

Integrating Factors
We now develop a solution technique for any first-order linear differential equation. We start with the standard form of a first-order
linear differential equation:
′
y + p(x)y = q(x). (6.5.2)

The first term on the left-hand side of Equation is the derivative of the unknown function, and the second term is the product of a
known function with the unknown function. This is somewhat reminiscent of the power rule. If we multiply Equation 6.5.2 by a
yet-to-be-determined function μ(x), then the equation becomes
μ(x)y' + μ(x)p(x)y = μ(x)q(x). (6.5.3)

The left-hand side Equation 6.5.3 can be matched perfectly to the product rule:
d
[f (x)g(x)] = f '(x)g(x) + f (x)g'(x).
dx

Matching term by term gives y = f (x), g(x) = μ(x) , and g'(x) = μ(x)p(x). Taking the derivative of g(x) = μ(x) and setting it
equal to the right-hand side of g'(x) = μ(x)p(x) leads to
μ'(x) = μ(x)p(x).

This is a first-order, separable differential equation for μ(x). We know p(x) because it appears in the differential equation we are
solving. Separating variables and integrating yields
μ'(x)
= p(x) (6.5.4)
μ(x)

μ'(x)
∫ dx = ∫ p(x)dx (6.5.5)
μ(x)

ln |μ(x)| = ∫ p(x)dx + C (6.5.6)

ln |μ(x)| ∫ p(x)dx+C
e =e (6.5.7)

∫ p(x)dx
|μ(x)| = C1 e (6.5.8)

∫ p(x)dx
μ(x) = C2 e . (6.5.9)

Here C can be an arbitrary (positive or negative) constant. This leads to a general method for solving a first-order linear
2

differential equation. We first multiply both sides of Equation by the integrating factor μ(x). This gives

μ(x)y' + μ(x)p(x)y = μ(x)q(x). (6.5.10)

d
The left-hand side of Equation 6.5.10 can be rewritten as (μ(x)y) .
dx

d
(μ(x)y) = μ(x)q(x). (6.5.11)
dx

Next integrate both sides of Equation 6.5.11 with respect to x.

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d
∫ (μ(x)y)dx = ∫ μ(x)q(x)dx (6.5.12)
dx

μ(x)y = ∫ μ(x)q(x)dx (6.5.13)

Divide both sides of Equation 6.5.11 by μ(x):

1
y = [∫ μ(x)q(x)dx + C ] .
μ(x)

Since μ(x) was previously calculated, we are now finished. An important note about the integrating constant C : It may seem that
we are inconsistent in the usage of the integrating constant. However, the integral involving p(x) is necessary in order to find an
integrating factor for Equation. Only one integrating factor is needed in order to solve the equation; therefore, it is safe to assign a
value for C for this integral. We chose C = 0 . When calculating the integral inside the brackets in Equation, it is necessary to keep
our options open for the value of the integrating constant, because our goal is to find a general family of solutions to Equation. This
integrating factor guarantees just that.

 Problem-Solving Strategy: Solving a First-order Linear Differential Equation

1. Put the equation into standard form and identify p(x) and q(x).
2. Calculate the integrating factor
∫ p(x)dx
μ(x) = e .

3. Multiply both sides of the differential equation by μ(x).

4. Integrate both sides of the equation obtained in step 3, and divide both sides by μ(x).
5. If there is an initial condition, determine the value of C .

 Example 6.5.2: Solving a First-order Linear Equation

Find a general solution for the differential equation x y ′

+ 3y = 4 x
2
− 3x. Assume x > 0.
Solution
1. To put this differential equation into standard form, divide both sides by x:

′
3
y + y = 4x − 3.
x

3
Therefore p(x) = and q(x) = 4x − 3.
x

2. The integrating factor is μ(x) = e ∫ (3/x)

dx = e
3 ln x
=x
3
.
3. Multiplying both sides of the differential equation by μ(x) gives us

3 3
3 3
x y' + x ( ) = x (4x − 3)
x

3 2 4 3
x y' + 3 x y = 4 x − 3x

d 3 4 3
(x y) = 4 x − 3x .
dx

4. Integrate both sides of the equation.

d
3 4 3
∫ (x y)dx = ∫ 4x − 3 x dx
dx

5 4
4x 3x
3
x y = − +C
5 4

2
4x 3x
−3
y = − + Cx .
5 4

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5. There is no initial value, so the problem is complete.
Analysis
You may have noticed the condition that was imposed on the differential equation; namely, x > 0 . For any nonzero value of C ,
the general solution is not defined at x = 0 . Furthermore, when x < 0 , the integrating factor changes. The integrating factor is
given by Equation as f (x) = e . For this p(x) we get
∫ p(x)dx

∫ p(x)dx ∫ (3/x)dx
e =e

3 ln |x|
=e

3
= |x|

since x < 0 . The behavior of the general solution changes at x = 0 largely due to the fact that p(x) is not defined there.

 Exercise 6.5.2

Find the general solution to the differential equation (x − 2)y ′

+ y = 3x
2
+ 2x. Assume x > 2 .

Hint
Use the method outlined in the problem-solving strategy for first-order linear differential equations.

Answer
3 2
x +x +C
y =
x −2

Now we use the same strategy to find the solution to an initial-value problem.

 Example 6.5.3: A First-order Linear Initial-Value Problem

Solve the initial-value problem

y' + 3y = 2x − 1, y(0) = 3.

Solution
1. This differential equation is already in standard form with p(x) = 3 and q(x) = 2x − 1 .
2. The integrating factor is μ(x) = e ∫ 3dx
=e
3x
.
3. Multiplying both sides of the differential equation by μ(x) gives
3x 3x 3x
e y' + 3 e y = (2x − 1)e

d
3x 3x
[y e ] = (2x − 1)e .
dx

Integrate both sides of the equation:

d
3x 3x
∫ [y e ]dx = ∫ (2x − 1)e dx
dx

3x
e 2
3x 3x
ye = (2x − 1) − ∫ e dx
3 3

3x 3x
e (2x − 1) 2e
3x
ye = − +C
3 9

2x − 1 2
−3x
y = − + Ce
3 9

2x 5
y = − + Ce
−3x
.
3 9

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4. Now substitute x = 0 and y = 3 into the general solution and solve for C :
2 5 −3x
y = x− + Ce
3 9

2 5
−3(0)
3 = (0) − + Ce
3 9

5
3 =− +C
9

32
C = .
9

Therefore the solution to the initial-value problem is

2 5 32
−3x
y = x− + e .
3 9 9

 Example 6.5.4:

Solve the initial-value problem

′
y − 2y = 4x + 3y(0) = −2.

Solution
2x
y = −2x − 4 + 2e

Applications of First-order Linear Differential Equations

We look at two different applications of first-order linear differential equations. The first involves air resistance as it relates to
objects that are rising or falling; the second involves an electrical circuit. Other applications are numerous, but most are solved in a
similar fashion.

Free fall with air resistance

We discussed air resistance at the beginning of this section. The next example shows how to apply this concept for a ball in vertical
motion. Other factors can affect the force of air resistance, such as the size and shape of the object, but we ignore them here.

 Example 6.5.5: A Ball with Air Resistance

A racquetball is hit straight upward with an initial velocity of 2m/s. The mass of a racquetball is approximately 0.0427 kg. Air
resistance acts on the ball with a force numerically equal to 0.5v, where v represents the velocity of the ball at time t .
a. Find the velocity of the ball as a function of time.
b. How long does it take for the ball to reach its maximum height?
c. If the ball is hit from an initial height of 1 meter, how high will it reach?
Solution
a. The mass m = 0.0427kg, k = 0.5, and g = 9.8m/s
2
. The initial velocity is v0 = 2m/s . Therefore the initial-value
problem is
dv
0.0427 = −0.5v − 0.0427(9.8), v0 = 2.
dt

Dividing the differential equation by 0.0427 gives

dv
= −11.7096v − 9.8, v0 = 2.
dt

The differential equation is linear. Using the problem-solving strategy for linear differential equations:
dv
Step 1. Rewrite the differential equation as + 11.7096v = −9.8 . This gives p(t) = 11.7096 and q(t) = −9.8
dt

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Step 2. The integrating factor is μ(t) = e ∫ 11.7096dt
=e
11.7096t
.

Step 3. Multiply the differential equation by μ(t) :

dv
11.7096t

e dt + 11.7096ve11.7096t = −9.8 e11.7096t

d
11.7096t 11.7096t
[ve ] = −9.8 e .
dt

Step 4. Integrate both sides:

d
11.7096t 11.7096t
∫ [ve ]dt = ∫ −9.8 e dt
dt

−9.8
11.7096t 11.7096t
ve = e +C
11.7096

−11.7096t
v(t) = −0.8369 + C e .

Step 5. Solve for C using the initial condition v 0 = v(0) = 2 :

−11.7096t
v(t) = −0.8369 + C e

−11.7096(0)
v(0) = −0.8369 + C e

2 = −0.8369 + C

C = 2.8369.

Therefore the solution to the initial-value problem is

−11.7096t
v(t) = 2.8369 e − 0.8369.

b. The ball reaches its maximum height when the velocity is equal to zero. The reason is that when the velocity is positive, it is
rising, and when it is negative, it is falling. Therefore when it is zero, it is neither rising nor falling, and is at its maximum
height:
−11.7096t
2.8369 e − 0.8369 = 0

−11.7096t
2.8369 e = 0.8369

0.8369
−11.7096t
e = ≈ 0.295
2.8369

−11.7096t
lne = ln0.295 ≈ −1.221

−11.7096t = −1.221

t ≈ 0.104.

Therefore it takes approximately 0.104 second to reach maximum height.

c. To find the height of the ball as a function of time, use the fact that the derivative of position is velocity, i.e., if h(t)
represents the height at time t , then h'(t) = v(t) . Because we know v(t) and the initial height, we can form an initial-value
problem:
−11.7096t
h'(t) = 2.8369 e − 0.8369, h(0) = 1.

Integrating both sides of the differential equation with respect to t gives

−11.7096t
∫ h'(t)dt = ∫ 2.8369 e − 0.8369dt

2.8369
−11.7096t
h(t) = − e − 0.8369t + C
11.7096

−11.7096t
h(t) = −0.2423 e − 0.8369t + C .

Solve for C by using the initial condition:

−11.7096t
h(t) = −0.2423 e − 0.8369t + C

−11.7096(0)
h(0) = −0.2423 e − 0.8369(0) + C

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1 = −0.2423 + C

C = 1.2423.

Therefore
−11.7096t
h(t) = −0.2423 e − 0.8369t + 1.2423.

After 0.104 second, the height is given by

h(0.2) = −0.2423 e
−11.7096t
− 0.8369t + 1.2423 ≈ 1.0836 meter.

 Exercise 6.5.3

The weight of a penny is 2.5 grams (United States Mint, “Coin Specifications,” accessed April 9, 2015,
www.usmint.gov/about_the_mint...specifications), and the upper observation deck of the Empire State Building is 369 meters
above the street. Since the penny is a small and relatively smooth object, air resistance acting on the penny is actually quite
small. We assume the air resistance is numerically equal to 0.0025v. Furthermore, the penny is dropped with no initial velocity
imparted to it.
a. Set up an initial-value problem that represents the falling penny.
b. Solve the problem for v(t) .
c. What is the terminal velocity of the penny (i.e., calculate the limit of the velocity as t approaches infinity)?

Hint
Set up the differential equation the same way as Example. Remember to convert from grams to kilograms.

Answer
dv
a. = −v − 9.8 v(0) = 0
dt

b. v(t) = 9.8(e −t
− 1)

c. lim t→∞ v(t) = limt→∞ (9.8(e

−t
− 1)) = −9.8m/s ≈ −21.922mph

Electrical Circuits
A source of electromotive force (e.g., a battery or generator) produces a flow of current in a closed circuit, and this current
produces a voltage drop across each resistor, inductor, and capacitor in the circuit. Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule states that the sum of the
voltage drops across resistors, inductors, and capacitors is equal to the total electromotive force in a closed circuit. We have the
following three results:
1. The voltage drop across a resistor is given by
ER = Ri,

where R is a constant of proportionality called the resistance, and i is the current.

2. The voltage drop across an inductor is given by
EL = Li' ,
where L is a constant of proportionality called the inductance, and i again denotes the current.
3. The voltage drop across a capacitor is given by
1
EC = q ,
C

where C is a constant of proportionality called the capacitance, and q is the instantaneous charge on the capacitor. The relationship
between i and q is i = q' .
We use units of volts (V ) to measure voltage E , amperes (A) to measure current i, coulombs (C ) to measure charge q, ohms (Ω)
to measure resistance R , henrys (H ) to measure inductance L, and farads (F ) to measure capacitance C . Consider the circuit in

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Figure 6.5.2.

Figure 6.5.2 : A typical electric circuit, containing a voltage generator (V ), capacitor (C ), inductor (L), and resistor (R).
S

Applying Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule to this circuit, we let E denote the electromotive force supplied by the voltage generator. Then
EL + ER + EC = E .
Substituting the expressions for E L, ER , and E into this equation, we obtain
C

1
Li' + Ri + q = E.
C

If there is no capacitor in the circuit, then the equation becomes

Li' + Ri = E.

This is a first-order differential equation in i. The circuit is referred to as an LRcircuit.

Next, suppose there is no inductor in the circuit, but there is a capacitor and a resistor, so L = 0, R ≠ 0, and C ≠ 0. Then Equation
can be rewritten as
1
Rq' + q = E,
C

which is a first-order linear differential equation. This is referred to as an RC circuit. In either case, we can set up and solve an
initial-value problem.

 Electric Circuit

A circuit has in series an electromotive force given by E = 50 sin 20tV , a resistor of , and an inductor of
5Ω 0.4H . If the
initial current is 0, find the current at time t > 0 .
Solution
We have a resistor and an inductor in the circuit, so we use Equation. The voltage drop across the resistor is given by
E R = R = 5 . The voltage drop across the inductor is given by E
i i = Li' = 0.4i'. The electromotive force becomes the
L

right-hand side of Equation. Therefore Equation becomes

0.4i' + 5i = 50 sin 20t.

Dividing both sides by 0.4 gives the equation

i' + 12.5i = 125 sin 20t.

Since the initial current is 0, this result gives an initial condition of i(0) = 0. We can solve this initial-value problem using the
five-step strategy for solving first-order differential equations.
Step 1. Rewrite the differential equation as i' + 12.5i = 125 sin 20t. This gives p(t) = 12.5 and q(t) = 125 sin 20t .
Step 2. The integrating factor is μ(t) = e ∫ 12.5dt
=e
12.5t
.
Step 3. Multiply the differential equation by μ(t) :
12.5t 12.5t 12.5t
e i' + 12.5 e i = 125 e sin 20t

d
[i e
12.5
t] = 125 e
12.5t
sin 20t .
dt

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Step 4. Integrate both sides:
d
12.5t 12.5t
∫ [i e ]dt = ∫ 125 e sin 20tdt
dt

250 sin 20t − 400 cos 20t

12.5t 12.5t
ie =( )e +C
89

250 sin 20t − 400 cos 20t

i(t) = + Ce
−12.5t
.
89

Step 5. Solve for C using the initial condition v(0) = 2 :

250 sin 20t − 400 cos 20t
−12.5t
i(t) = + Ce
89

250sin20(0) − 400cos20(0)
−12.5(0)
i(0) = + Ce
89

400
0 =− +C
89

400
C = .
89

Therefore the solution to the initial-value problem is

−12.5t −12.5t
250 sin 20t − 400 cos 20t + 400e 250 sin 20t − 400 cos 20t 400e
i(t) = = + .
89 89 89

−−−−−−−−− −−
The first term can be rewritten as a single cosine function. First, multiply and divide by √250 2
+ 400
2
= 50 √89 :
−− −−
250 sin 20t − 400 cos 20t 50 √89 250 sin 20t − 400 cos 20t 50 √89 8 cos 20t 5 sin 20t
= ( −− ) =− ( −− − −− ) .
89 89 50 √89 89 √89 √89

8 5
Next, define φ to be an acute angle such that cos φ = −− . Then sin φ = −− and
√89 √89

−− −− −−
50 √89 8 cos 20t 5 sin 20t 50 √89 50 √89
− ( −− − −− ) =− (cos φ cos 20t − sin φ sin 20t) = − cos(20t + φ).
89 √89 √89 89 89

Therefore the solution can be written as

−− −12.5t
50 √89 400e
i(t) = − cos(20t + φ) + .
89 89

The second term is called the attenuation term, because it disappears rapidly as t grows larger. The phase shift is given by φ ,
−−
50 √89
and the amplitude of the steady-state current is given by . The graph of this solution appears in Figure 6.5.3:
89

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Figure 6.5.3 .

 Exercise 6.5.4

A circuit has in series an electromotive force given by E = 20sin5t V, a capacitor with capacitance 0.02F, and a resistor of
8Ω. If the initial charge is 4C , find the charge at time t > 0 .

Hint
Use Equation for an RC circuit to set up an initial-value problem.

Answer
Initial-value problem:
1
8q' + q = 20sin5t, q(0) = 4
0.02

−6.25t
10sin5t − 8cos5t + 172e
q(t) =
41

Key Concepts
Any first-order linear differential equation can be written in the form y + p(x)y = q(x) .
′

We can use a five-step problem-solving strategy for solving a first-order linear differential equation that may or may not include
an initial value.
Applications of first-order linear differential equations include determining motion of a rising or falling object with air
resistance and finding current in an electrical circuit.

Key Equations
standard form
′
y + p(x)y = q(x)

integrating factor
∫ p(x)dx
μ(x) = e

Glossary
integrating factor

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any function f (x) that is multiplied on both sides of a differential equation to make the side involving the unknown function
equal to the derivative of a product of two functions

linear
description of a first-order differential equation that can be written in the form a(x)y' + b(x)y = c(x)

standard form
the form of a first-order linear differential equation obtained by writing the differential equation in the form y ′
+ p(x)y = q(x)

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6.5E: Exercises
In exercises 1 - 5, state if each of the following differential equations is linear? Explain your reasoning.
dy
1) 2
= x y + sin x
dx

dy
2) = ty
dt

Answer
Y es

dy
3) +y
2
=x
dt

4) y ′
=x
3
+e
x

Answer
Y es

5) y ′
= y +e
y

In exercises 6 - 10, write the following first-order differential equations in standard form.
6) y ′ 3
= x y + sin x

Answer
′ 3
y − x y = sin x

7) y ′
+ 3y − ln x = 0

8) −x y ′
= (3x + 2)y + x e
x

Answer
(3x+2)
′ x
y + y = −e
x

dy
9) = 4y + ty + tan t
dt

dy
10) = yx(x + 1)
dt

Answer
dy
− yx(x + 1) = 0
dt

In exercises 11 - 15, state the integrating factors for each of the following differential equations.
11) y ′
= xy + 3

12) y ′ x
+ e y = sin x

Answer
x
e

13) y ′
= x ln(x)y + 3x

dy
14) = tanh(x)y + 1
dx

Answer
− ln(cosh x)

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dy
15) + 3ty = e y
t

In exercises 16 - 25, solve each differential equation by using integrating factors.

16) y ′
= 3y + 2

Answer
3x 2
y = Ce −
3

17) y ′
= 2y − x
2

18) x y ′
= 3y − 6 x
2

Answer
3 2
y = Cx + 6x

19) (x + 2)y ′
= 3x + y

20) y ′
= 3x + xy

Answer
2
x /2
y = Ce −3

21) x y ′
= x +y

22) sin(x)y ′
= y + 2x

Answer
x x x
y = C tan( ) − 2x + 4 tan( ) ln(sin( ))
2 2 2

23) y ′
= y +e
x

24) x y ′
= 3y + x
2

Answer
3 2
y = Cx −x

y
25) y ′
+ ln x =
x

In exercises 26 - 33, solve the given differential equation. Use your calculator to draw a family of solutions. Are there certain
initial conditions that change the behavior of the solution?
26) [T] (x + 2)y ′
= 2y − 1

Answer
2 1
y = C (x + 2 ) +
2

27) [T] y ′
= 3e
t/3
− 2y

y
28) [T] x y ′
+ = sin(3t)
2

Answer
C
y = + 2 sin(3t)
−
√x

cos x
29) [T] x y ′
=2 − 3y
x

30) [T] (x + 1)y ′

= 3y + x
2
+ 2x + 1

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Answer
3 2
y = C (x + 1 ) −x − 2x − 1

31) [T] sin(x)y ′

+ cos(x)y = 2x

−−−−−
32) [T] √x2 + 1 y ′ = y + 2

Answer
−1
sinh x
y = Ce −2

33) [T] x 3 ′
y + 2x y = x + 1
2

In exercises 34 - 43, solve each initial-value problem by using integrating factors.

34) y ′
+ y = x, y(0) = 3

Answer
x
y = x + 4e −1

35) y ′
= y + 2x ,
2
y(0) = 0

36) x y ′
= y − 3x ,
3
y(1) = 0

Answer
3x
2
y =− (x − 1)
2

37) x 2
y
′
= xy − ln x, y(1) = 1

38) (1 + x 2
)y
′
= y − 1, y(0) = 0

Answer
−1
tan x
y = 1 −e

39) x y ′
= y + 2x ln x, y(1) = 5

40) (2 + x)y ′
= y + 2 + x, y(0) = 0

Answer
x +2
y = (x + 2) ln( )
2

41) y ′
= xy + 2x e ,
x
y(0) = 2

− ′
42) √x y = y + 2x, y(0) = 1

Answer
2 √x −
y = 2e − 2x − 2 √x − 1

43) y ′
= 2y + x e ,
x
y(0) = −1

44) A falling object of mass m can reach terminal velocity when the drag force is proportional to its velocity, with proportionality
constant k. Set up the differential equation and solve for the velocity given an initial velocity of 0.

Answer
gm
−kt/m
v(t) = (1 − e )
k

45) Using your expression from the preceding problem, what is the terminal velocity? (Hint: Examine the limiting behavior; does
the velocity approach a value?)

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46) [T] Using your equation for terminal velocity, solve for the distance fallen. How long does it take to fall 5000 meters if the
mass is 100 kilograms, the acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s2 and the proportionality constant is 4?

Answer
40.451 seconds

47) A more accurate way to describe terminal velocity is that the drag force is proportional to the square of velocity, with a
proportionality constant k . Set up the differential equation and solve for the velocity.
48) Using your expression from the preceding problem, what is the terminal velocity? (Hint: Examine the limiting behavior: Does
the velocity approach a value?)

Answer
−−−
gm
√
k

49) [T] Using your equation for terminal velocity, solve for the distance fallen. How long does it take to fall 5000 meters if the
mass is 100 kilograms, the acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s2 and the proportionality constant is 4? Does it take more or less
time than your initial estimate?
In exercises 50 - 54, determine how parameter a affects the solution.
50) Solve the generic equation y ′
= ax + y . How does varying a change the behavior?

Answer
x
y = Ce − a(x + 1)

51) Solve the generic equation y ′

= ax + y. How does varying a change the behavior?
52) Solve the generic equation y ′
= ax + xy . How does varying a change the behavior?

Answer
2
x /2
y = Ce −a

53) Solve the generic equation y ′

= x + axy. How does varying a change the behavior?
54) Solve y ′
−y = e
kt
with the initial condition y(0) = 0 . As k approaches 1, what happens to your formula?

Answer
kt t
e −e
y =
k−1

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6.6: Chapter 6 Review Exercises
True or False? Justify your answer with a proof or a counterexample.
1) The differential equation y ′ 2
= 3 x y − cos(x)y
′′
is linear.
2) The differential equation y ′
= x −y is separable.

Answer
F

3) You can explicitly solve all first-order differential equations by separation or by the method of integrating factors.
4) You can determine the behavior of all first-order differential equations using directional fields or Euler’s method.

Answer
T

For the following problems, find the general solution to the differential equations.
5) y' = x 2
+ 3e
x
− 2x

6) y ′
=2
x
+ cos
−1
x

Answer
2
x −−−− −
−1 2
y(x) = + xcos x − √1 − x + C
ln(2)

7) y ′
= y(x
2
+ 1)

8) y ′
=e
−y
sin x

Answer
y(x) = ln(C − cos x)

9) y ′
= 3x − 2y

10) y ′
= y ln y

Answer
C+ x
e
y(x) = e

For the following problems, find the solution to the initial value problem.
11) y ′
= 8x − ln x − 3 x ,
4
y(1) = 5

12) y ′
= 3x − cos x + 2, y(0) = 4

Answer
3 2
y(x) = 4 + x + 2x − sin x
2

13) x y ′
= y(x − 2), y(1) = 3

14) y ′ 2
= 3 y (x + cos x), y(0) = −2

Answer
2
y(x) = −
2
1 + 3(x + 2 sin x)

15) (x − 1)y ′
= y − 2, y(0) = 0

16) y ′
= 3y − x + 6 x ,
2
y(0) = −1

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Answer
2 1 2 3x
y(x) = −2 x − 2x − − e
3 3

For the following problems, draw the directional field associated with the differential equation, then solve the differential
equation. Draw a sample solution on the directional field.
17) y ′
= 2y − y
2

1
18) y ′
= + ln x − y, for x > 0
x

Answer
−x
y(x) = C e + ln x

For the following problems, use Euler’s Method with n = 5 steps over the interval t = [0, 1]. Then solve the initial-value
problem exactly. How close is your Euler’s Method estimate?
19) y ′
= −4yx, y(0) = 1

20) y ′
=3
x
− 2y, y(0) = 0

Answer
Euler: 0.6939,
x −2x
3 −e
Exact solution: y(x) =
2 + ln(3)

For the following problems, set up and solve the differential equations.
21) A car drives along a freeway, accelerating according to a = 5 sin(πt), where t represents time in minutes. Find the velocity at
any time t , assuming the car starts with an initial speed of 60 mph.
22) You throw a ball of mass 2 kilograms into the air with an upward velocity of 8 m/s. Find exactly the time the ball will remain in
2
the air, assuming that gravity is given by g = 9.8 m/s .

Answer
40

49
second

23) You drop a ball with a mass of 5 kilograms out an airplane window at a height of 5000 m. How long does it take for the ball to
reach the ground?

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24) You drop the same ball of mass 5 kilograms out of the same airplane window at the same height, except this time you assume a
drag force proportional to the ball’s velocity, using a proportionality constant of 3 and the ball reaches terminal velocity. Solve for
the distance fallen as a function of time. How long does it take the ball to reach the ground?

Answer
x(t) = 5000 +
245

9
−
49

3
t−
245

9
e
−5/3t
, t = 307.8 seconds

25) A drug is administered to a patient every 24 hours and is cleared at a rate proportional to the amount of drug left in the body,
with proportionality constant 0.2. If the patient needs a baseline level of 5 mg to be in the bloodstream at all times, how large
should the dose be?
26) A 1000-liter tank contains pure water and a solution of 0.2 kg salt/L is pumped into the tank at a rate of 1 L/min and is drained
at the same rate. Solve for total amount of salt in the tank at time t .

Answer
−t/1000
T (t) = 200 (1 − e )

27) You boil water to make tea. When you pour the water into your teapot, the temperature is 100°C . After 5 minutes in your
15°C room, the temperature of the tea is 85°C. Solve the equation to determine the temperatures of the tea at time t . How long

must you wait until the tea is at a drinkable temperature (72°C)?

28) The human population (in thousands) of Nevada in 1950 was roughly 160. If the carrying capacity is estimated at 10 million
individuals, and assuming a growth rate of 2% per year, develop a logistic growth model and solve for the population in Nevada at
any time (use 1950 as time = 0). What population does your model predict for 2000? How close is your prediction to the true value
of 1, 998, 257?

Answer
0.02t
1600000e
P (t) =
0.02t
9840 + 160e

29) Repeat the previous problem but use Gompertz growth model. Which is more accurate?

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW

7: Applications of Integration
In this chapter, we use definite integrals to calculate the force exerted on the dam when the reservoir is full and we examine how
changing water levels affect that force. Hydrostatic force is only one of the many applications of definite integrals we explore in
this chapter. From geometric applications such as surface area and volume, to physical applications such as mass and work, to
growth and decay models, definite integrals are a powerful tool to help us understand and model the world around us.
7.0: Prelude to Applications of Integration
7.1: Areas between Curves
7.1E: Exercises
7.2: Determining Volumes by Slicing
7.2E: Exercises
7.3: Volumes of Revolution - Cylindrical Shells
7.3E: Exercises
7.4: Arc Length of a Curve and Surface Area
7.4E: Exercises
7.5: Physical Applications of Integration
7.5E: Exercises
7.6: Moments and Centers of Mass
7.6E: Exercises
7.7: Chapter 7 Review Exercises

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history is available upon request.

1
7.0: Prelude to Applications of Integration
The Hoover Dam is an engineering marvel. When Lake Mead, the reservoir behind the dam, is full, the dam withstands a great deal
of force. However, water levels in the lake vary considerably as a result of droughts and varying water demands. Later in this
chapter, we use definite integrals to calculate the force exerted on the dam when the reservoir is full and we examine how changing
water levels affect that force. Hydrostatic force is only one of the many applications of definite integrals we explore in this chapter.
From geometric applications such as surface area and volume, to physical applications such as mass and work, to growth and decay
models, definite integrals are a powerful tool to help us understand and model the world around us.

Figure 7.0.1 : Hoover Dam is one of the United States’ iconic landmarks, and provides irrigation and hydroelectric power for
millions of people in the southwest United States. (credit: modification of work by Lynn Betts, Wikimedia).

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platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request.
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7.1: Areas between Curves
 Learning Objectives
Determine the area of a region between two curves by integrating with respect to the independent variable.
Find the area of a compound region.
Determine the area of a region between two curves by integrating with respect to the dependent variable.

In Introduction to Integration, we developed the concept of the definite integral to calculate the area below a curve on a given
interval. In this section, we expand that idea to calculate the area of more complex regions. We start by finding the area between
two curves that are functions of x, beginning with the simple case in which one function value is always greater than the other. We
then look at cases when the graphs of the functions cross. Last, we consider how to calculate the area between two curves that are
functions of y .

Area of a Region between Two Curves

Let f (x) and g(x) be continuous functions over an interval [a, b] such that f (x) ≥ g(x) on . We want to find the area
[a, b]

between the graphs of the functions, as shown in Figure 7.1.1.

Figure 7.1.1 : The area between the graphs of two functions, f (x) and g(x), on the interval [a, b]
As we did before, we are going to partition the interval on the x-axis and approximate the area between the graphs of the functions
with rectangles. So, for i = 0, 1, 2, … , n, let P = x be a regular partition of [a, b]. Then, for i = 1, 2, … , n, choose a point
i

, x ] , and on each interval [ x , x ] construct a rectangle that extends vertically from g(x ) to f (x ). Figure 7.1.2a
∗ ∗ ∗
x ∈ [x i−1 i i−1 i
i i i

shows the rectangles when x is selected to be the left endpoint of the interval and n = 10 . Figure 7.1.2b shows a representative
∗
i

rectangle in detail.

Figure 7.1.2 : (a)We can approximate the area between the graphs of two functions, f (x) and g(x), with rectangles. (b) The area of
a typical rectangle goes from one curve to the other.
The height of each individual rectangle is f (x ) − g(x ) and the width of each rectangle is
∗
i
∗
i
Δx . Adding the areas of all the
rectangles, we see that the area between the curves is approximated by
n

∗ ∗
A ≈ ∑[f (x ) − g(x )]Δx.
i i

i=1

This is a Riemann sum, so we take the limit as n → ∞ and we get

n b

∗ ∗
A = lim ∑[f (x ) − g(x )]Δx = ∫ [f (x) − g(x)]dx.
i i
n→∞
a
i=1

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These findings are summarized in the following theorem.

 Finding the Area between Two Curves

Let f (x) and g(x) be continuous functions such that f (x) ≥ g(x) over an interval [a, b] . Let R denote the region bounded
above by the graph of f (x), below by the graph of g(x), and on the left and right by the lines x = a and x = b , respectively.
Then, the area of R is given by
b

A =∫ [f (x) − g(x)]dx.
a

We apply this theorem in the following example.

 Example 7.1.1: Finding the Area of a Region between Two Curves I

If R is the region bounded above by the graph of the function f (x) = x + 4 and below by the graph of the function
x
g(x) = 3 − over the interval [1, 4], find the area of region R .
2

Solution
The region is depicted in the following figure.

Figure 7.1.3 : A region between two curves is shown where one curve is always greater than the other.
We have
b

A =∫ [f (x) − g(x)] dx
a

4 4
x 3x
=∫ [(x + 4) − (3 − )] dx = ∫ [ + 1] dx
1 2 1 2

2 4
3x ∣ 7 57
=[ + x] ∣ = (16 − ) = .
4 ∣ 4 4
1

57
The area of the region is units
2
.
4

 Exercise 7.1.1
x 1
If R is the region bounded by the graphs of the functions f (x) = +5 and g(x) = x + over the interval , find the
[1, 5]
2 2
area of region R .

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Hint
Graph the functions to determine which function’s graph forms the upper bound and which forms the lower bound, then
follow the process used in Example.

Answer
12 units2

In Example 7.1.1, we defined the interval of interest as part of the problem statement. Quite often, though, we want to define our
interval of interest based on where the graphs of the two functions intersect. This is illustrated in the following example.

 Example 7.1.2: Finding the Area of a Region between Two Curves II

If is the region bounded above by the graph of the function

R
2
f (x) = 9 − (x/2) and below by the graph of the function
g(x) = 6 − x , find the area of region R .

Solution
The region is depicted in the following figure.

Figure 7.1.4 : This graph shows the region below the graph of f (x) and above the graph of g(x).
We first need to compute where the graphs of the functions intersect. Setting f (x) = g(x), we get
f (x) = g(x)

x 2
9 −( ) = 6 −x
2

2
x
9− = 6 −x
4

2
36 − x = 24 − 4x

2
x − 4x − 12 = 0

(x − 6)(x + 2) = 0.

The graphs of the functions intersect when x =6 or x = −2, so we want to integrate from −2 to 6. Since f (x) ≥ g(x) for
−2 ≤ x ≤ 6, we obtain

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A =∫ [f (x) − g(x)] dx
a

6
x 2
=∫ [9 − ( ) − (6 − x)] dx
−2 2
6 2
x
=∫ [3 − + x] dx
−2
4

6
3 2
x x ∣ 64
= [3x − + ]∣ = .
12 2 ∣ −2 3

The area of the region is 64/3 units2.

 Exercise 7.1.2

If R is the region bounded above by the graph of the function f (x) = x and below by the graph of the function g(x) = x
4
,
find the area of region R .

Hint
Use the process from Example 7.1.2.

Answer
3
unit2
10

Areas of Compound Regions

So far, we have required f (x) ≥ g(x) over the entire interval of interest, but what if we want to look at regions bounded by the
graphs of functions that cross one another? In that case, we modify the process we just developed by using the absolute value
function.

 Finding the Area of a Region between Curves That Cross

Let f (x) and g(x) be continuous functions over an interval [a, b]. Let R denote the region between the graphs of f (x) and
g(x) , and be bounded on the left and right by the lines x = a and x = b , respectively. Then, the area of R is given by

A =∫ |f (x) − g(x)|dx.
a

In practice, applying this theorem requires us to break up the interval [a, b] and evaluate several integrals, depending on which of
the function values is greater over a given part of the interval. We study this process in the following example.

 Example 7.1.3: Finding the Area of a Region Bounded by Functions That Cross

If R is the region between the graphs of the functions f (x) = sin x and g(x) = cos x over the interval [0, π], find the area of
region R .
Solution
The region is depicted in the following figure.

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Figure 7.1.5 : The region between two curves can be broken into two sub-regions.
The graphs of the functions intersect at x = π/4 . For x ∈ [0, π/4], cos x ≥ sin x, so
|f (x) − g(x)| = | sin x − cos x| = cos x − sin x.

On the other hand, for x ∈ [π/4, π], sin x ≥ cos x, so

|f (x) − g(x)| = | sin x − cos x| = sin x − cos x.

Then
b

A =∫ |f (x) − g(x)|dx
a

π π/4 π

=∫ | sin x − cos x|dx = ∫ (cos x − sin x)dx + ∫ (sin x − cos x)dx

0 0 π/4

π/4 π
= [sin x + cos x] | + [− cos x − sin x] |
0 π/4

– – –
= (√2 − 1) + (1 + √2) = 2 √2.

–
The area of the region is 2√2 units2.

 Exercise 7.1.3

If R is the region between the graphs of the functions f (x) = sin x and g(x) = cos x over the interval [π/2, 2π], find the area
of region R .

Hint
The two curves intersect at x = (5π)/4.

Answer
units2
–
2 + 2 √2

 Example 7.1.4: Finding the Area of a Complex Region

Consider the region depicted in Figure 7.1.6. Find the area of R .

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Figure 7.1.6 : Two integrals are required to calculate the area of this region.
Solution
As with Example 7.1.3, we need to divide the interval into two pieces. The graphs of the functions intersect at x = 1 (set
f (x) = g(x) and solve for x), so we evaluate two separate integrals: one over the interval [0, 1] and one over the interval [1, 2].

Over the interval [0, 1], the region is bounded above by f (x) = x and below by the x-axis, so we have
2

1 3
x 1
2 1
A1 = ∫ x dx = ∣ = .
0
0
3 3

Over the interval [1, 2], the region is bounded above by g(x) = 2 − x and below by the x-axis, so we have
2 2
x 1
2
A2 = ∫ (2 − x)dx = [2x − ] ∣ = .
1
1
2 2

Adding these areas together, we obtain

1 1 5
A = A1 + A2 = + = .
3 2 6

The area of the region is 5/6 units2.

 Exercise 7.1.4

Consider the region depicted in the following figure. Find the area of R .

Hint
The two curves intersect at x=1

Answer
5
units2
3

Regions Defined with Respect to y

In Example 7.1.4, we had to evaluate two separate integrals to calculate the area of the region. However, there is another approach
that requires only one integral. What if we treat the curves as functions of y , instead of as functions of x? Review Figure. Note that
the left graph, shown in red, is represented by the function y = f (x) = x . We could just as easily solve this for x and represent
2

the curve by the function x = v(y) = √y . (Note that x = −√y is also a valid representation of the function y = f (x) = x as a 2

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function of y . However, based on the graph, it is clear we are interested in the positive square root.) Similarly, the right graph is
represented by the function y = g(x) = 2 − x , but could just as easily be represented by the function x = u(y) = 2 − y . When
the graphs are represented as functions of y , we see the region is bounded on the left by the graph of one function and on the right
by the graph of the other function. Therefore, if we integrate with respect to y , we need to evaluate one integral only. Let’s develop
a formula for this type of integration.
Let u(y) and v(y) be continuous functions over an interval [c, d] such that u(y) ≥ v(y) for all y ∈ [c, d]. We want to find the area
between the graphs of the functions, as shown in Figure 7.1.7.

Figure 7.1.7 : We can find the area between the graphs of two functions, u(y) and v(y).
This time, we are going to partition the interval on the y-axis and use horizontal rectangles to approximate the area between the
functions. So, for i = 0, 1, 2, … , n, let Q = y be a regular partition of [c, d]. Then, for i = 1, 2, … , n, choose a point
i

, y ] , then over each interval [ y , y ] construct a rectangle that extends horizontally from v(y ∗ ) to u(y ). Figure
∗ 0 ∗
y ∈ [y i−1 i i−1 i i
i i

7.1.8ashows the rectangles when y is selected to be the lower endpoint of the interval and n = 10 . Figure 7.1.8b shows a
∗
i

representative rectangle in detail.

Figure 7.1.8 : (a) Approximating the area between the graphs of two functions, u(y) and , with rectangles. (b) The area of a
v(y)

typical rectangle.
The height of each individual rectangle is Δy and the width of each rectangle is ∗
u(y ) − v(y )
i
∗
i
. Therefore, the area between the
curves is approximately
n

∗ ∗
A ≈ ∑[u(y ) − v(y )]Δy.
i i

i=1

This is a Riemann sum, so we take the limit as n → ∞, obtaining

∗ ∗
A = lim ∑[u(y ) − v(y )]Δy
i i
n→∞
i=1

=∫ [u(y) − v(y)]dy.
c

These findings are summarized in the following theorem.

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 Finding the Area between Two Curves, Integrating along the y-axis
Let u(y) and v(y) be continuous functions such that u(y) ≥ v(y) for all y ∈ [c, d]. Let R denote the region bounded on the
right by the graph of u(y), on the left by the graph of v(y) , and above and below by the lines y = d and y = c , respectively.
Then, the area of R is given by
d

A =∫ [u(y) − v(y)]dy.
c

 Example 7.1.5: Integrating with Respect to y

Let’s revisit Example 7.1.4, only this time let’s integrate with respect to y . Let R be the region depicted in Figure 7.1.9. Find
the area of R by integrating with respect to y .

Figure 7.1.9 : The area of region R can be calculated using one integral only when the curves are treated as functions of y .
Solution
We must first express the graphs as functions of y . As we saw at the beginning of this section, the curve on the left can be
represented by the function x = v(y) = √y , and the curve on the right can be represented by the function x = u(y) = 2 − y .
Now we have to determine the limits of integration. The region is bounded below by the x-axis, so the lower limit of
integration is y = 0 . The upper limit of integration is determined by the point where the two graphs intersect, which is the
point (1, 1), so the upper limit of integration is y = 1 . Thus, we have [c, d] = [0, 1].
Calculating the area of the region, we get
d

A =∫ [u(y) − v(y)]dy
c

=∫ [(2 − y) − √y]dy
0

2 1
y 2 ∣
3/2
= [2y − − y ]∣
2 3 ∣0

5
= .
6

The area of the region is 5/6 units2.

 Exercise 7.1.5

Let’s revisit the checkpoint associated with Example 7.1.4, only this time, let’s integrate with respect to y . Let R be the region
depicted in the following figure. Find the area of R by integrating with respect to y .

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Hint
Follow the process from the previous example.

Answer
5
units2
3

Key Concepts
Just as definite integrals can be used to find the area under a curve, they can also be used to find the area between two curves.
To find the area between two curves defined by functions, integrate the difference of the functions.
If the graphs of the functions cross, or if the region is complex, use the absolute value of the difference of the functions. In this
case, it may be necessary to evaluate two or more integrals and add the results to find the area of the region.
Sometimes it can be easier to integrate with respect to y to find the area. The principles are the same regardless of which
variable is used as the variable of integration.

Key Equations
Area between two curves, integrating on the x-axis
b

A =∫ [f (x) − g(x)]dx
a

Area between two curves, integrating on the y-axis

A =∫ [u(y) − v(y)]dy
c

This page titled 7.1: Areas between Curves is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert
Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit
history is available upon request.
6.1: Areas between Curves by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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7.1E: EXERCISES
For exercises 1 - 2, determine the area of the region between the two curves in the given figure by integrating over the x-axis.
1) y = x2
−3 and y = 1

Answer
32
2
units
3

2) y = x and y = 3x + 4
2

For exercises 3 - 4, split the region between the two curves into two smaller regions, then determine the area by integrating over the
x -axis. Note that you will have two integrals to solve.

3) y = x and y = x
3 2
+x

Answer
13 2
units
12

4) y = cos θ and y = 0.5 , for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π

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For exercises 5-6, determine the area of the region between the two curves by integrating over the y -axis.
5) x = y and x = 9
2

Answer
2
36 units

6) y = x and x = y 2

For exercises 7 - 13, graph the equations and shade the area of the region between the curves. Determine its area by integrating over
the x-axis.
7) y = x and y = −x
2 2
+ 18x

Answer

243 square units

1 1
8) y = , y =
2
, and x = 3
x x

9) y = cos x and y = cos 2

x on x ∈ [−π, π]

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Answer

4 square units

10) y = e x
, y = e
2x−1
, and x = 0
11) y = ex
, y = e
−x
, x = −1 and x = 1

Answer

2
2(e − 1)
2
units
e

12) y = e, y = e ,
x
and y = e −x

13) y = |x| and y = x 2

Answer

1
2
units
3

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For exercises 14 - 19, graph the equations and shade the area of the region between the curves. If necessary, break the region into
sub-regions to determine its entire area.
14) y = sin(πx), y = 2x, and x > 0
−
15) y = 12 − x, y = √x , and y = 1

Answer

34 2
units
3

16) y = sin x and y = cos x over x ∈ [−π, π]

17) y = x and y = x
3 2
− 2x over x ∈ [−1, 1]

Answer

5
2
units
2

18) y = x2
+9 and y = 10 + 2x over x ∈ [−1, 3]
19) y = x3
+ 3x and y = 4x

Answer

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1
2
units
2

For exercises 20 -25, graph the equations and shade the area of the region between the curves. Determine its area by integrating
over the y -axis.
20) x = y and x = 3y − 2
3

21) x = y and x = y 3
−y

Answer

9 2
units
2

22) x = −3 + y and x = y − y
2 2

23) y 2
= x and x = y + 2

Answer

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9 2
units
2

24) x = |y| and 2x = −y 2

25) x = sin y, x = cos(2y), y = π/2 , and y = −π/2

Answer

–
3√3
2
units
2

For exercises 26 - 37, graph the equations and shade the area of the region between the curves. Determine its area by integrating
over the x-axis or y -axis, whichever seems more convenient.
26) x = y and x = y
4 5

27) y = xe x
, y = e ,
x
x = 0 , and x = 1.

Answer

−2 2
e units

28) y = x and y = x
6 4

29) x = y 3
+ 2y
2
+1 and x = −y 2
+1

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Answer

27 2
units
4

30) y = |x| and y = x 2

−1

1
31) y = 4 − 3x and y =
x

Answer

4 2
( − ln(3)) units
3

32) y = sin x, x = −π/6, x = π/6, and y = cos 3

33) y = x 2
− 3x + 2 and y = x 3
− 2x
2
−x+2

Answer

1
square units
2

π π
34) y = 2 cos 3
(3x), y = −1, x = , and x = −
4 4

35) y + y 3
= x and 2y = x

Answer

7.1E.7 https://math.libretexts.org/@go/page/137744
1
square units
2

−−−−−
36) y = √1 − x and y = x 2 2
−1

37) y = cos −1
x, y = sin
−1
x, x = −1, and x = 1

Answer

–
−2(√2 − π) square units

For exercises 38 - 47, find the exact area of the region bounded by the given equations if possible. If you are unable to determine the
intersection points analytically, use a calculator to approximate the intersection points with three decimal places and determine the
approximate area of the region.
38) [T] x = e and y = x − 2
y

−−−−−
39) [T] y = x and y = √1 − x
2 2

Answer
1.067 square units

40) [T] y = 3x 2
+ 8x + 9 and 3y = x + 24
−−−− −
41) [T] x = √4 − y 2 and y 2
= 1+ x
2

Answer
0.852 square units

42) [T] x 2
= y
3
and x = 3y
43) [T] y = sin 3
x + 2, y = tan x, x = −1.5, and x = 1.5

Answer
7.523 square units
−−−−−
44) [T] y = √1 − x and y 2 2
= x
2

−−−− −
45) [T] y = √1 − x
2
and y = x 2
+ 2x + 1

Answer

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3π − 4
square units
12

46) [T] x = 4 − y and x = 1 + 3y + y

2 2

47) [T] y = cos x, x

y = e , x = −π, and x = 0

Answer
1.429 square units

48) The largest triangle with a base on the x-axis that fits inside the upper half of the unit circle y 2 2
+x = 1 is given by y = 1+ x and
y = 1 − x . See the following figure. What is the area inside the semicircle but outside the triangle?

49) A factory selling cell phones has a marginal cost function C(x) = 0.01x − 3x + 229 , where x represents the number of cell phones,
2

and a marginal revenue function given by R(x) = 429 − 2x. Find the area between the graphs of these curves and x = 0. What does this
area represent?

Answer
$33,333.33 total profit for 200 cell phones sold

50) An amusement park has a marginal cost function C(x) = 1000e − x + 5 , where x represents the number of tickets sold, and a marginal
revenue function given by R(x) = 60 − 0.1x . Find the total profit generated when selling 550 tickets. Use a calculator to determine
intersection points, if necessary, to two decimal places.
51) The tortoise versus the hare: The speed of the hare is given by the sinusoidal function H(t) = 1 − cos((πt)/2) whereas the speed of the
tortoise is T (t) = (1/2) tan (t/4) , where t is time measured in hours and the speed is measured in miles per hour. Find the area between
−1

the curves from time t = 0 to the first time after one hour when the tortoise and hare are traveling at the same speed. What does it
represent? Use a calculator to determine the intersection points, if necessary, accurate to three decimal places.

Answer
3.263 mi represents how far ahead the hare is from the tortoise

52) The tortoise versus the hare: The speed of the hare is given by the sinusoidal function H(t) = (1/2) − (1/2) cos(2πt) whereas the
speed of the tortoise is T (t) = √t, where t is time measured in hours and speed is measured in kilometers per hour. If the race is over in 1
hour, who won the race and by how much? Use a calculator to determine the intersection points, if necessary, accurate to three decimal
places.
For exercises 53 - 55, find the area between the curves by integrating with respect to x and then with respect to y . Is one method
easier than the other? Do you obtain the same answer?
53) y = x 2
+ 2x + 1 and y = −x 2
− 3x + 4

Answer
343
square units
24

54) y = x and x = y
4 5

55) x = y 2
−2 and x = 2y

Answer
–
4√3 square units

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For exercises 56 - 57, solve using calculus, then check your answer with geometry.
56) Determine the equations for the sides of the square that touches the unit circle on all four sides, as seen in the following figure. Find the
area between the perimeter of this square and the unit circle. Is there another way to solve this without using calculus?

3
57) Find the area between the perimeter of the unit circle and the triangle created from y = 2x + 1, y = 1 − 2x and y = − , as seen in
5

the following figure. Is there a way to solve this without using calculus?

Answer
32
(π − ) square units
25

CONTRIBUTORS
Gilbert Strang (MIT) and Edwin “Jed” Herman (Harvey Mudd) with many contributing authors. This content by OpenStax is licensed with
a CC-BY-SA-NC 4.0 license. Download for free at http://cnx.org.

7.1E: Exercises is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

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7.2: Determining Volumes by Slicing
 Learning Objectives
Determine the volume of a solid by integrating a cross-section (the slicing method).
Find the volume of a solid of revolution using the disk method.
Find the volume of a solid of revolution with a cavity using the washer method.

In the preceding section, we used definite integrals to find the area between two curves. In this section, we use definite integrals to
find volumes of three-dimensional solids. We consider three approaches—slicing, disks, and washers—for finding these volumes,
depending on the characteristics of the solid.

Volume and the Slicing Method

Just as area is the numerical measure of a two-dimensional region, volume is the numerical measure of a three-dimensional solid.
Most of us have computed volumes of solids by using basic geometric formulas. The volume of a rectangular solid, for example,
can be computed by multiplying length, width, and height: V = lwh. The formulas for the volumes of:
a sphere
4
3
Vsphere = πr ,
3

a cone
1
2
Vcone = πr h
3

and a pyramid
1
Vpyramid = Ah
3

have also been introduced. Although some of these formulas were derived using geometry alone, all these formulas can be obtained
by using integration.
We can also calculate the volume of a cylinder. Although most of us think of a cylinder as having a circular base, such as a soup
can or a metal rod, in mathematics the word cylinder has a more general meaning. To discuss cylinders in this more general
context, we first need to define some vocabulary.
We define the cross-section of a solid to be the intersection of a plane with the solid. A cylinder is defined as any solid that can be
generated by translating a plane region along a line perpendicular to the region, called the axis of the cylinder. Thus, all cross-
sections perpendicular to the axis of a cylinder are identical. The solid shown in Figure 7.2.1 is an example of a cylinder with a
noncircular base. To calculate the volume of a cylinder, then, we simply multiply the area of the cross-section by the height of the
cylinder: V = A ⋅ h. In the case of a right circular cylinder (soup can), this becomes V = π r h.
2

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Figure 7.2.1 : Each cross-section of a particular cylinder is identical to the others.
If a solid does not have a constant cross-section (and it is not one of the other basic solids), we may not have a formula for its
volume. In this case, we can use a definite integral to calculate the volume of the solid. We do this by slicing the solid into pieces,
estimating the volume of each slice, and then adding those estimated volumes together. The slices should all be parallel to one
another, and when we put all the slices together, we should get the whole solid. Consider, for example, the solid S shown in Figure
7.2.2, extending along the x-axis.

Figure 7.2.2 : A solid with a varying cross-section.

We want to divide S into slices perpendicular to the x-axis. As we see later in the chapter, there may be times when we want to
slice the solid in some other direction—say, with slices perpendicular to the y -axis. The decision of which way to slice the solid is
very important. If we make the wrong choice, the computations can get quite messy. Later in the chapter, we examine some of these
situations in detail and look at how to decide which way to slice the solid. For the purposes of this section, however, we use slices
perpendicular to the x-axis.
Because the cross-sectional area is not constant, we let A(x) represent the area of the cross-section at point x. Now let
P =x ,x …,X
0 1 nbe a regular partition of [a, b], and for i = 1, 2, … n, let S represent the slice of S stretching from x
i to x . i−1 i

The following figure shows the sliced solid with n = 3 .

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Figure 7.2.3 : The solid S has been divided into three slices perpendicular to the x -axis.
Finally, for i = 1, 2, … n, let x be an arbitrary point in [x , x ]. Then the volume of slice S can be estimated by
∗
i i−1 i i

) Δx . Adding these approximations together, we see the volume of the entire solid S can be approximated by
∗
V (Si ) ≈ A(x
i

∗
V (S) ≈ ∑ A(x ) Δx.
i

i=1

By now, we can recognize this as a Riemann sum, and our next step is to take the limit as n → ∞. Then we have
n b

∗
V (S) = lim ∑ A(x ) Δx = ∫ A(x) dx.
i
n→∞
a
i=1

The technique we have just described is called the slicing method. To apply it, we use the following strategy.

 Problem-Solving Strategy: Finding Volumes by the Slicing Method

1. Examine the solid and determine the shape of a cross-section of the solid. It is often helpful to draw a picture if one is not
provided.
2. Determine a formula for the area of the cross-section.
3. Integrate the area formula over the appropriate interval to get the volume.

Recall that in this section, we assume the slices are perpendicular to the x-axis. Therefore, the area formula is in terms of x and the
limits of integration lie on the x-axis. However, the problem-solving strategy shown here is valid regardless of how we choose to
slice the solid.

 Example 7.2.1: Deriving the Formula for the Volume of a Pyramid

1
We know from geometry that the formula for the volume of a pyramid is V = Ah . If the pyramid has a square base, this
3
1
becomes V =
2
a h , where a denotes the length of one side of the base. We are going to use the slicing method to derive this
3
formula.
Solution
We want to apply the slicing method to a pyramid with a square base. To set up the integral, consider the pyramid shown in
Figure 7.2.4, oriented along the x-axis.

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Figure 7.2.4 : (a) A pyramid with a square base is oriented along the x -axis. (b) A two-dimensional view of the pyramid is seen
from the side.
We first want to determine the shape of a cross-section of the pyramid. We know the base is a square, so the cross-sections are
squares as well (step 1). Now we want to determine a formula for the area of one of these cross-sectional squares. Looking at
Figure 7.2.4 (b), and using a proportion, since these are similar triangles, we have
s x
=
a h

or
ax
s = .
h

Therefore, the area of one of the cross-sectional squares is

2
2
ax
A(x) = s =( ) (step 2)
h

Then we find the volume of the pyramid by integrating from 0 to h (step 3):
h h 2 h 2 h
2 ∣
ax a a 1 1
2 3 2
V =∫ A(x) dx = ∫ ( ) dx = ∫ x dx = [ ( x ) ]∣ = a h.
2 2
0 0
h h 0 h 3 ∣ 3
0

This is the formula we were looking for.

 Exercise 7.2.1

Use the slicing method to derive the formula

1 2
V = πr h
3

for the volume of a circular cone.

Hint
Use similar triangles, as in Example 7.2.1.

Solids of Revolution
If a region in a plane is revolved around a line in that plane, the resulting solid is called a solid of revolution, as shown in the
following figure.

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Figure 7.2.5 : (a) This is the region that is revolved around the x -axis. (b) As the region begins to revolve around the axis, it sweeps
out a solid of revolution. (c) This is the solid that results when the revolution is complete.
Solids of revolution are common in mechanical applications, such as machine parts produced by a lathe. We spend the rest of this
section looking at solids of this type. The next example uses the slicing method to calculate the volume of a solid of revolution.

 Example 7.2.2: Using the Slicing Method to find the Volume of a Solid of Revolution
Use the slicing method to find the volume of the solid of revolution bounded by the graphs of f (x) = x 2
− 4x + 5, x = 1 ,and
x = 4, and rotated about the x-axis.

Solution
Using the problem-solving strategy, we first sketch the graph of the quadratic function over the interval [1, 4] as shown in the
following figure.

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Figure 7.2.6 : A region used to produce a solid of revolution.
Next, revolve the region around the x-axis, as shown in the following figure.

Figure 7.2.7 : Two views, (a) and (b), of the solid of revolution produced by revolving the region in Figure 7.2.6 about the x -
axis.
Since the solid was formed by revolving the region around the x-axis, the cross-sections are circles (step 1). The area of the
cross-section, then, is the area of a circle, and the radius of the circle is given by f (x). Use the formula for the area of the
circle:
2 2 2 2
A(x) = π r = π[f (x)] = π(x − 4x + 5 ) (step 2).

The volume, then, is (step 3)

V =∫ A(x) dx
a

4
2 2
=∫ π(x − 4x + 5 ) dx
1

4
4 3 2
=π∫ (x − 8x + 26 x − 40x + 25) dx
1

4
5 3
x 26x ∣
4 2
= π( − 2x + − 20 x + 25x) ∣
5 3 ∣
1

78
= π
5

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The volume is 78π/5 units 3
.

 Exercise 7.2.2

Use the method of slicing to find the volume of the solid of revolution formed by revolving the region between the graph of the
function f (x) = 1/x and the x-axis over the interval [1, 2] around the x-axis. See the following figure.

Hint
Use the problem-solving strategy presented earlier and follow Example 7.2.2to help with step 2.

Answer
π
3
units
2

The Disk Method

When we use the slicing method with solids of revolution, it is often called the disk method because, for solids of revolution, the
slices used to over approximate the volume of the solid are disks. To see this, consider the solid of revolution generated by
revolving the region between the graph of the function f (x) = (x − 1) + 1 and the x-axis over the interval [−1, 3] around the x-
2

axis. The graph of the function and a representative disk are shown in Figure 7.2.8 (a) and (b). The region of revolution and the
resulting solid are shown in Figure 7.2.8 (c) and (d).

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Figure 7.2.8 : (a) A thin rectangle for approximating the area under a curve. (b) A representative disk formed by revolving the
rectangle about the x -axis. (c) The region under the curve is revolved about the x -axis, resulting in (d) the solid of revolution.

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Figure 7.2.8: (e) A dynamic version of this solid of revolution generated using CalcPlot3D.
We already used the formal Riemann sum development of the volume formula when we developed the slicing method. We know
that
b

∫ A(x) dx.
a

The only difference with the disk method is that we know the formula for the cross-sectional area ahead of time; it is the area of a
circle. This gives the following rule.

 The Disk Method

Let f (x) be continuous and nonnegative. Define R as the region bounded above by the graph of f (x), below by the x-axis, on
the left by the line x = a , and on the right by the line x = b . Then, the volume of the solid of revolution formed by revolving
R around the x-axis is given by

b
2
V =∫ π[f (x)] dx.
a

The volume of the solid we have been studying (Figure 7.2.8) is given by

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b
2
V =∫ π [f (x)] dx
a

3 3
2 2 4 2 2
=∫ π[(x − 1 ) + 1] dx = π ∫ [(x − 1 ) + 2(x − 1 ) + 1] dx
−1 −1

3
1 5
2 3 ∣
=π [ (x − 1 ) + (x − 1 ) + x]∣
5 3 ∣ −1

32 16 32 16
= π [( + + 3) − (− − − 1)]
5 3 5 3

412π
3
= units .
15

Let’s look at some examples.

 Example 7.2.3: Using the Disk Method to Find the Volume of a Solid of Revolution 1
Use the disk method to find the volume of the solid of revolution generated by rotating the region between the graph of
−
f (x) = √x and the x-axis over the interval [1, 4] around the x-axis.

Solution
The graphs of the function and the solid of revolution are shown in the following figure.

Figure 7.2.9 : (a) The function f (x) = √−x over the interval [1, 4] . (b) The solid of revolution obtained by revolving the region

under the graph of f (x) about the x -axis.

We have
b
2
V =∫ π[f (x)] dx
a

4 4
−2
=∫ π [ √x ] dx = π ∫ x dx
1 1

4
π 2∣
15π
= x ∣ =
2 ∣1 2

The volume is (15π)/2 units 3

 Exercise 7.2.3
Use the disk method to find the volume of the solid of revolution generated by rotating the region between the graph of
−−−−−
f (x) = √4 − x and the x-axis over the interval [0, 4] around the x-axis.

Hint

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Use the procedure from Example 7.2.3.

Answer
3
8π units

So far, our examples have all concerned regions revolved around the x-axis, but we can generate a solid of revolution by revolving
a plane region around any horizontal or vertical line. In the next example, we look at a solid of revolution that has been generated
by revolving a region around the y -axis. The mechanics of the disk method are nearly the same as when the x-axis is the axis of
revolution, but we express the function in terms of y and we integrate with respect to y as well. This is summarized in the following
rule.

 Rule: The Disk Method for Solids of Revolution around the y -axis
Let g(y) be continuous and nonnegative. Define Q as the region bounded on the right by the graph of g(y) , on the left by the
y -axis, below by the line y = c , and above by the line y = d . Then, the volume of the solid of revolution formed by revolving

Q around the y -axis is given by

d
2
V =∫ π[g(y)] dy.
c

The next example shows how this rule works in practice.

 Example 7.2.4: Using the Disk Method to Find the Volume of a Solid of Revolution 2
−−−−
Let R be the region bounded by the graph of g(y) = √4 − y and the y -axis over the y -axis interval [0, 4]. Use the disk
method to find the volume of the solid of revolution generated by rotating R around the y -axis.
Solution
Figure 7.2.10 shows the function and a representative disk that can be used to estimate the volume. Notice that since we are
revolving the function around the y -axis, the disks are horizontal, rather than vertical.

−−−−
Figure 7.2.10 : (a) Shown is a thin rectangle between the curve of the function g(y) = √4 − y and the y -axis. (b) The
rectangle forms a representative disk after revolution around the y -axis.
The region to be revolved and the full solid of revolution are depicted in the following figure.

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−−−−
Figure 7.2.11 : (a) The region to the left of the function g(y) = √4 − y over the y -axis interval [0, 4] . (b) The solid of
revolution formed by revolving the region about the y -axis.
To find the volume, we integrate with respect to y . We obtain
d 4 4 2 4
2 − −−− 2 y ∣
V =∫ π[g(y)] dy = ∫ π [ √ 4 − y ] dy = π ∫ (4 − y) dy = π [4y − ]∣ = 8π.
c 0 0
2 ∣
0

The volume is 8π units . 3

 Exercise 7.2.4

Use the disk method to find the volume of the solid of revolution generated by rotating the region between the graph of
g(y) = y and the y -axis over the interval [1, 4] around the y -axis.

Hint
Use the procedure from Example 7.2.4.

Answer
3
21π units

The Washer Method

Some solids of revolution have cavities in the middle; they are not solid all the way to the axis of revolution. Sometimes, this is just
a result of the way the region of revolution is shaped with respect to the axis of revolution. In other cases, cavities arise when the
region of revolution is defined as the region between the graphs of two functions. A third way this can happen is when an axis of
revolution other than the x-axis or y -axis is selected.
When the solid of revolution has a cavity in the middle, the slices used to approximate the volume are not disks, but washers (disks
with holes in the center). For example, consider the region bounded above by the graph of the function f (x) = √− x and below by

the graph of the function g(x) = 1 over the interval [1, 4]. When this region is revolved around the x-axis, the result is a solid with
a cavity in the middle, and the slices are washers. The graph of the function and a representative washer are shown in Figure 7.2.12
(a) and (b). The region of revolution and the resulting solid are shown in Figure 7.2.12 (c) and (d).

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Figure 7.2.12 : (a) A thin rectangle in the region between two curves. (b) A representative disk formed by revolving the rectangle
about the x -axis. (c) The region between the curves over the given interval. (d) The resulting solid of revolution.

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Figure 7.2.12: (e) A dynamic version of this solid of revolution generated using CalcPlot3D.
The cross-sectional area, then, is the area of the outer circle less the area of the inner circle. In this case,
− 2 2
A(x) = π (√x ) − π(1 ) = π(x − 1).

Then the volume of the solid is

b 4 4
2
x ∣ 9
3
V =∫ A(x) dx = ∫ π(x − 1) dx = π [ − x]∣ = π units .
a 1 2 ∣1 2

Generalizing this process gives the washer method.

 Rule: The Washer Method

Suppose f (x) and g(x) are continuous, nonnegative functions such that f (x) ≥ g(x) over [a, b]. Let R denote the region
bounded above by the graph of f (x), below by the graph of g(x), on the left by the line x = a , and on the right by the line
x = b . Then, the volume of the solid of revolution formed by revolving R around the x-axis is given by

b
2 2
V =∫ π [(f (x)) − (g(x)) ] dx.
a

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 Example 7.2.5: Using the Washer Method

Find the volume of a solid of revolution formed by revolving the region bounded above by the graph of f (x) = x and below
by the graph of g(x) = 1/x over the interval [1, 4] around the x-axis.
Solution
The graphs of the functions and the solid of revolution are shown in the following figure.

Figure 7.2.13 : (a) The region between the graphs of the functions f (x) = x and g(x) = 1/x over the interval [1, 4] . (b)
Revolving the region about the x -axis generates a solid of revolution with a cavity in the middle.
We have
b 4 2

2 2 2
1
V =∫ π[(f (x)) − (g(x)) ] dx = π ∫ [x −( ) ] dx
a 1
x

3 4
x 1 ∣
= π[ + ]∣
3 x ∣
1

81π 3
= units .
4

Figure 7.2.13: (c) A dynamic version of this solid of revolution generated using CalcPlot3D.

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 Exercise 7.2.5
Find the volume of a solid of revolution formed by revolving the region bounded by the graphs of f (x) = √−
x and g(x) = 1/x

over the interval [1, 3] around the x-axis.

Hint
Graph the functions to determine which graph forms the upper bound and which graph forms the lower bound, then use the
procedure from Example 7.2.5.

Answer
10π 3
units
3

As with the disk method, we can also apply the washer method to solids of revolution that result from revolving a region around the
y -axis. In this case, the following rule applies.

 Rule: The Washer Method for Solids of Revolution around the y -axis
Suppose u(y) and v(y) are continuous, nonnegative functions such that v(y) ≤ u(y) for y ∈ [c, d]. Let Q denote the region
bounded on the right by the graph of u(y), on the left by the graph of v(y) , below by the line y = c , and above by the line
y = d . Then, the volume of the solid of revolution formed by revolving Q around the y -axis is given by

d
2 2
V =∫ π [(u(y)) − (v(y)) ] dy.
c

Rather than looking at an example of the washer method with the y -axis as the axis of revolution, we now consider an example in
which the axis of revolution is a line other than one of the two coordinate axes. The same general method applies, but you may
have to visualize just how to describe the cross-sectional area of the volume.

 Example 7.2.6:

Find the volume of a solid of revolution formed by revolving the region bounded above by f (x) = 4 − x and below by the x-
axis over the interval [0, 4] around the line y = −2.
Solution
The graph of the region and the solid of revolution are shown in the following figure.

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Figure 7.2.14 : (a) The region between the graph of the function f (x) = 4 − x and the x -axis over the interval [0, 4] . (b)
Revolving the region about the line y = −2 generates a solid of revolution with a cylindrical hole through its middle.
We can’t apply the volume formula to this problem directly because the axis of revolution is not one of the coordinate axes.
However, we still know that the area of the cross-section is the area of the outer circle less the area of the inner circle. Looking
at the graph of the function, we see the radius of the outer circle is given by f (x) + 2, which simplifies to
f (x) + 2 = (4 − x) + 2 = 6 − x.

The radius of the inner circle is g(x) = 2. Therefore, we have

4
2 2
V =∫ π [(6 − x ) − (2 ) ] dx
0

4 4
3
x ∣
2 2
=π∫ (x − 12x + 32) dx = π [ − 6x + 32x]∣
0
3 ∣
0

160π 3
= units .
3

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Figure 7.2.14: (c) A dynamic version of this solid of revolution generated using CalcPlot3D.

 Exercise 7.2.6
Find the volume of a solid of revolution formed by revolving the region bounded above by the graph of f (x) = x + 2 and
below by the x-axis over the interval [0, 3] around the line y = −1.

Hint
Use the procedure from Example 7.2.6.

Answer
60π units3

Key Concepts
Definite integrals can be used to find the volumes of solids. Using the slicing method, we can find a volume by integrating the
cross-sectional area.
For solids of revolution, the volume slices are often disks and the cross-sections are circles. The method of disks involves
applying the method of slicing in the particular case in which the cross-sections are circles, and using the formula for the area of
a circle.
If a solid of revolution has a cavity in the center, the volume slices are washers. With the method of washers, the area of the
inner circle is subtracted from the area of the outer circle before integrating.

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Key Equations
Disk Method along the x-axis
b
2
V =∫ π[f (x)] dx
a

Disk Method along the y -axis

d
2
V =∫ π[g(y)] dy
c

Washer Method
b
2 2
V =∫ π [(f (x)) − (g(x)) ] dx
a

Glossary
cross-section
the intersection of a plane and a solid object

disk method
a special case of the slicing method used with solids of revolution when the slices are disks

slicing method
a method of calculating the volume of a solid that involves cutting the solid into pieces, estimating the volume of each piece,
then adding these estimates to arrive at an estimate of the total volume; as the number of slices goes to infinity, this estimate
becomes an integral that gives the exact value of the volume

solid of revolution
a solid generated by revolving a region in a plane around a line in that plane

washer method
a special case of the slicing method used with solids of revolution when the slices are washers

This page titled 7.2: Determining Volumes by Slicing is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a
detailed edit history is available upon request.
6.2: Determining Volumes by Slicing by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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7.2E: Exercises
1) Derive the formula for the volume of a sphere using the slicing method.
2) Use the slicing method to derive the formula for the volume of a cone.
3) Use the slicing method to derive the formula for the volume of a tetrahedron with side length a.
4) Use the disk method to derive the formula for the volume of a trapezoidal cylinder.
5) Explain when you would use the disk method versus the washer method. When are they interchangeable?

Volumes by Slicing
For exercises 6 - 10, draw a typical slice and find the volume using the slicing method for the given volume.
6) A pyramid with height 6 units and square base of side 2 units, as pictured here.

Solution:
Here the cross-sections are squares taken perpendicular to the y-axis.
We use the vertical cross-section of the pyramid through its center to obtain an equation relating x and y.
Here this would be the equation, y = 6 − 6x . Since we need the dimensions of the square at each y-level, we solve this
y
equation for x to get, x = 1 − . 6

This is half the distance across the square cross-section at the y-level, so the side length of the square cross-section is,
y
s = 2 (1 − ).
6

Thus, we have the area of a cross-section is,

2 2
y y
A(y) = [2 (1 − )] = 4 (1 − ) .
6 6

6
2
y
Then, V =∫ 4 (1 − ) dy
6
0

0
2 y 1
= −24 ∫ u du, where u = 1 − , so du = − dy, ⟹ −6 du = dy
6 6
1

1 3 1
u ∣
2
= 24 ∫ u du = 24 ∣
0
3 ∣0

1
3∣
= 8u ∣
∣
0

3 3 3
= 8 (1 −0 ) = 8 units

7) A pyramid with height 4 units and a rectangular base with length 2 units and width 3 units, as pictured here.

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8) A tetrahedron with a base side of 4 units,as seen here.

Answer
units3
32 16 √2
V = =
3 √2 3

9) A pyramid with height 5 units, and an isosceles triangular base with lengths of 6 units and 8 units, as seen here.

10) A cone of radius r and height h has a smaller cone of radius r/2 and height h/2 removed from the top, as seen here. The
resulting solid is called a frustum.

Answer
V =
7π

12
hr
2
units3

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For exercises 11 - 16, draw an outline of the solid and find the volume using the slicing method.
11) The base is a circle of radius a . The slices perpendicular to the base are squares.
12) The base is a triangle with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0), and (0, 1). Slices perpendicular to the xy-plane are semicircles.

Answer

1 2
π(1 − x) π
V =∫ dx = units3
0
8 24

13) The base is the region under the parabola y = 1 − x in the first quadrant. Slices perpendicular to the xy-plane are squares.
2

14) The base is the region under the parabola y = 1 − x and above the x-axis. Slices perpendicular to the y -axis are squares.
2

Answer

V =∫ 4(1 − y) dy = 2 units3
0

15) The base is the region enclosed by y = x 2

) and y = 9. Slices perpendicular to the x-axis are right isosceles triangles.
16) The base is the area between y = x and y = x . Slices perpendicular to the x-axis are semicircles.
2

Answer

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1
π π
units3
2 2
V =∫ (x − x ) dx =
0
8 240

Disk and Washer Method

For exercises 17 - 24, draw the region bounded by the curves. Then, use the disk or washer method to find the volume when
the region is rotated around the x-axis.
17) x + y = 8, x =0 , and y = 0
18) y = 2x 2
, x = 0, x = 4, and y = 0

Answer

4
4096π
V =∫ 4π x
4
dx = units3
0
5

19) y = e x
+ 1, x = 0, x = 1, and y = 0
20) y = x 4
, x =0 , and y = 1

Answer

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1 1
8π
units3
2
2 4 8
V =∫ π (1 − (x ) ) dx = ∫ π (1 − x ) dx =
0 0
9

21) y = √−
x, x = 0, x = 4, and y = 0
22) y = sin x, y = cos x, and x = 0

Answer

π/4 π/4
π
V =∫ π (cos
2
x − sin
2
x) dx = ∫ π cos 2x dx = units3
0 0
2

1
23) y = , x =2 , and y = 3
x

24) x2
−y
2
=9 and x + y = 9, y =0 and x = 0

Answer

V = 207π units3

For exercises 25 - 32, draw the region bounded by the curves. Then, find the volume when the region is rotated around the
y -axis.

1
25) y = 4 − x, x = 0, and y = 0
2

26) y = 2x 3
, x = 0, x = 1, and y = 0

Answer

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V =
4π

5
units3

27) y = 3x 2
, x = 0, and y = 3
−−−− −
28) 2
y = √4 − x , y = 0, and x = 0

Answer

V =
16π

3
units3

1
29) y = −−−−−
, x =0 , and x = 3
√x + 1

π
30) x = sec(y) and y = , y =0 and x = 0
4

Answer

V =π units3

1
31) y = , x =0 , and x = 2
x +1

32) y = 4 − x, y = x, and x = 0

Answer

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V =
16π

3
units3

For exercises 33 - 40, draw the region bounded by the curves. Then, find the volume when the region is rotated around the
x -axis.

33) y = x + 2, y = x + 6, x =0 , and x = 5
34) y = x and y = x + 2
2

Answer

V =
72π

5
units3

35) x2
=y
3
and x 3
=y
2

36) y = 4 − x and y = 2 − x
2

Answer

V =
108π

5
units3

37) [T] y = cos x, y =e

−x
, x =0 , and x = 1.2927
38) y = √−
x and y = x
2

Answer

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V =
3π

10
units3

39) y = sin x, y = 5 sin x, x =0 and x = π

−−−− − −−−− −
40) y = √1 + x
2
and y = √4 − x
2

Answer

–
V = 2 √6π units3

For exercises 41 - 45, draw the region bounded by the curves. Then, use the washer method to find the volume when the
region is revolved around the y -axis.
41) y = √−
x, x =4 , and y = 0
42) y = x + 2, y = 2x − 1 , and x = 0

Answer

V = 9π units3

3
43) y = and y = x 3

44) x = e 2y
, x =y ,
2
y =0 , and y = ln(2)

Answer

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π
V = (75 − 4 ln (2))
5
units3
20

−−−−−
45) x = √9 − y 2
, x =e
−y
, y =0 , and y = 3
46) Yogurt containers can be shaped like frustums. Rotate the line y = ( 1

m
)x around the y -axis to find the volume between y = a
and y = b .

Answer
2
m π
V =
3
(b −a )
3
units3
3

2 2
x y
47) Rotate the ellipse 2
+
2
=1 around the x-axis to approximate the volume of a football, as seen here.
a b

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2 2
x y
48) Rotate the ellipse 2
+
2
=1 around the y -axis to approximate the volume of a football.
a b

Answer
units3
2
4 a bπ
V =
3

49) A better approximation of the volume of a football is given by the solid that comes from rotating y = sin x)aroundthe\(x -
axis from x = 0 to x = π . What is the volume of this football approximation, as seen here?

For exercises 51 - 56, find the volume of the solid described.

51) The base is the region between y = x and y = x . Slices perpendicular to the x-axis are semicircles.
2

2 2
x y
52) The base is the region enclosed by the generic ellipse 2
+
2
= 1. Slices perpendicular to the x-axis are semicircles.
a b

Answer
units3
2
2ab π
V =
3

53) Bore a hole of radius a down the axis of a right cone and through the base of radius b , as seen here.

54) Find the volume common to two spheres of radius r with centers that are 2h apart, as shown here.

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Answer
V =
π

12
2
(r + h ) (6r − h) units3

55) Find the volume of a spherical cap of height h and radius r where h < r , as seen here.

56) Find the volume of a sphere of radius R with a cap of height h removed from the top, as seen here.

Answer
π
V = (h + R)(h − 2R)
2
units3
3

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available upon request.

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7.3: Volumes of Revolution - Cylindrical Shells
 Learning Objectives
Calculate the volume of a solid of revolution by using the method of cylindrical shells.
Compare the different methods for calculating a volume of revolution.

In this section, we examine the method of cylindrical shells, the final method for finding the volume of a solid of revolution. We
can use this method on the same kinds of solids as the disk method or the washer method; however, with the disk and washer
methods, we integrate along the coordinate axis parallel to the axis of revolution. With the method of cylindrical shells, we
integrate along the coordinate axis perpendicular to the axis of revolution. The ability to choose which variable of integration we
want to use can be a significant advantage with more complicated functions. Also, the specific geometry of the solid sometimes
makes the method of using cylindrical shells more appealing than using the washer method. In the last part of this section, we
review all the methods for finding volume that we have studied and lay out some guidelines to help you determine which method to
use in a given situation.

The Method of Cylindrical Shells

Again, we are working with a solid of revolution. As before, we define a region R , bounded above by the graph of a function
y = f (x), below by the x -axis, and on the left and right by the lines x = a and x = b , respectively, as shown in Figure 7.3.1a. We

then revolve this region around the y -axis, as shown in Figure 7.3.1b. Note that this is different from what we have done before.
Previously, regions defined in terms of functions of x were revolved around the x-axis or a line parallel to it.

Figure 7.3.1 : (a) A region bounded by the graph of a function of x . (b) The solid of revolution formed when the region is revolved
around the y -axis.
As we have done many times before, partition the interval [a, b] using a regular partition, P = x , x , … , x and, for
0 1 n

i = 1, 2, … , n, choose a point x ∈ [ x , x ] . Then, construct a rectangle over the interval [ x , x ] of height f (x ) and width
∗ ∗
i i−1 i i−1 i i

Δx. A representative rectangle is shown in Figure 7.3.2a. When that rectangle is revolved around the y -axis, instead of a disk or a

washer, we get a cylindrical shell, as shown in Figure 7.3.2.

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Figure 7.3.2 : (a) A representative rectangle. (b) When this rectangle is revolved around the y -axis, the result is a cylindrical shell.
(c) When we put all the shells together, we get an approximation of the original solid.
To calculate the volume of this shell, consider Figure 7.3.3.

Figure 7.3.3 : Calculating the volume of the shell.

The shell is a cylinder, so its volume is the cross-sectional area multiplied by the height of the cylinder. The cross-sections are
annuli (ring-shaped regions—essentially, circles with a hole in the center), with outer radius x and inner radius x . Thus, the
i i−1

cross-sectional area is π x − π x . The height of the cylinder is f (x ). Then the volume of the shell is
2
i
2
i−1
∗
i

∗ 2 2
Vshell = f (x )(π x −π x )
i i i−1

∗ 2 2
= π f (x )(x −x )
i i i−1

∗
= π f (x )(xi + xi−1 )(xi − xi−1 )
i

xi + xi−1
∗
= 2π f (x ) ( ) (xi − xi−1 ).
i
2

Note that x i − xi−1 = Δx, so we have

xi + xi−1
∗
Vshell = 2π f (x ) ( ) Δx.
i
2

xi + xi−1
Furthermore, is both the midpoint of the interval [x i−1 , xi ] and the average radius of the shell, and we can approximate
2
this by x . We then have
∗
i

∗ ∗
Vshell ≈ 2π f (x )x Δx.
i i

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Another way to think of this is to think of making a vertical cut in the shell and then opening it up to form a flat plate (Figure
7.3.4).

Figure 7.3.4 : (a) Make a vertical cut in a representative shell. (b) Open the shell up to form a flat plate.
In reality, the outer radius of the shell is greater than the inner radius, and hence the back edge of the plate would be slightly longer
than the front edge of the plate. However, we can approximate the flattened shell by a flat plate of height f (x ), width 2πx , and ∗
i
∗
i

thickness Δx (Figure). The volume of the shell, then, is approximately the volume of the flat plate. Multiplying the height, width,
and depth of the plate, we get
∗ ∗
Vshell ≈ f (x )(2π x ) Δx,
i i

which is the same formula we had before.

To calculate the volume of the entire solid, we then add the volumes of all the shells and obtain
n

∗ ∗
V ≈ ∑(2π x f (x ) Δx).
i i

i=1

Here we have another Riemann sum, this time for the function 2π x f (x).Taking the limit as n → ∞ gives us
n b

∗ ∗
V = lim ∑(2π x f (x ) Δx) = ∫ (2π x f (x)) dx.
i i
n→∞
a
i=1

This leads to the following rule for the method of cylindrical shells.

 Rule: The Method of Cylindrical Shells

Let f (x) be continuous and nonnegative. Define R as the region bounded above by the graph of f (x), below by the x-axis, on
the left by the line x = a , and on the right by the line x = b . Then the volume of the solid of revolution formed by revolving R
around the y -axis is given by
b

V =∫ (2π x f (x)) dx.

Now let’s consider an example.

 Example 7.3.1: The Method of Cylindrical Shells I

Define R as the region bounded above by the graph of f (x) = 1/x and below by the x-axis over the interval . Find the
[1, 3]

volume of the solid of revolution formed by revolving R around the y -axis.

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Solution
First we must graph the region R and the associated solid of revolution, as shown in Figure 7.3.5.

Figure 7.3.5 : (a) The region R under the graph of f (x) = 1/x over the interval [1, 3] . (b) The solid of revolution generated by
revolving R about the y -axis.

Figure 7.3.5 (c) Visualizing the solid of revolution with CalcPlot3D.

Then the volume of the solid is given by

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V =∫ (2π x f (x)) dx
a

3
1
=∫ (2π x ( )) dx
1 x
3

=∫ 2π dx
1

3
∣ 3
= 2π x ∣ = 4π units .
∣
1

 Exercise 7.3.1

Define R as the region bounded above by the graph of f (x) = x and below by the x-axis over the interval
2
[1, 2]. Find the
volume of the solid of revolution formed by revolving R around the y -axis.

Hint
Use the procedure from Example 7.3.1.

Answer
15π 3
units
2

 Example 7.3.2: The Method of Cylindrical Shells II

Define R as the region bounded above by the graph of f (x) = 2x − x and below by the x-axis over the interval [0, 2]. Find
2

the volume of the solid of revolution formed by revolving R around the y -axis.
Solution
First graph the region R and the associated solid of revolution, as shown in Figure 7.3.6.

Figure 7.3.6 : (a) The region R under the graph of f (x) = 2x − x

2
over the interval [0, 2]. (b) The volume of revolution
obtained by revolving R about the y -axis.
Then the volume of the solid is given by

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V =∫ (2π x f (x)) dx
a

2
2
=∫ (2π x(2x − x )) dx
0

2
2 3
= 2π ∫ (2 x − x ) dx
0

2
3 4
2x x ∣
= 2π [ − ]∣
3 4 ∣0

8π
3
= units
3

 Exercise 7.3.2

Define R as the region bounded above by the graph of f (x) = 3x − x and below by the x-axis over the interval [0, 2]. Find
2

the volume of the solid of revolution formed by revolving R around the y -axis.

Hint
Use the process from Example 7.3.2.

Answer
3
8π units

As with the disk method and the washer method, we can use the method of cylindrical shells with solids of revolution, revolved
around the x-axis, when we want to integrate with respect to y . The analogous rule for this type of solid is given here.

 Rule: The Method of Cylindrical Shells for Solids of Revolution around the x-axis

Let g(y) be continuous and nonnegative. Define Q as the region bounded on the right by the graph of g(y) , on the left by the
y -axis, below by the line y = c , and above by the line y = d . Then, the volume of the solid of revolution formed by revolving

Q around the x-axis is given by

V =∫ (2π y g(y)) dy.

 Example 7.3.3: The Method of Cylindrical Shells for a Solid Revolved around the x-axis

Define Q as the region bounded on the right by the graph of g(y) = 2√y and on the left by the y -axis for y ∈ [0, 4]. Find the
volume of the solid of revolution formed by revolving Q around the x-axis.
Solution
First, we need to graph the region Q and the associated solid of revolution, as shown in Figure 7.3.7.

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Figure 7.3.7 : (a) The region Q to the left of the function g(y) over the interval [0, 4] . (b) The solid of revolution generated by
revolving Q around the x -axis.
Label the shaded region Q. Then the volume of the solid is given by
d

V =∫ (2π y g(y)) dy
c

=∫ (2π y(2 √y)) dy

4
3/2
= 4π ∫ y dy
0

4
5/2
2y ∣
= 4π [ ]∣
5 ∣0

256π
3
= units
5

 Exercise 7.3.3

Define Q as the region bounded on the right by the graph of g(y) = 3/y and on the left by the y -axis for y ∈ [1, 3]. Find the
volume of the solid of revolution formed by revolving Q around the x-axis.

Hint
Use the process from Example 7.3.3.

Answer
12π units3

For the next example, we look at a solid of revolution for which the graph of a function is revolved around a line other than one of
the two coordinate axes. To set this up, we need to revisit the development of the method of cylindrical shells. Recall that we found
the volume of one of the shells to be given by

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∗ 2 2
Vshell = f (x )(π x −π x )
i i i−1

∗ 2 2
= π f (x )(x −x )
i i i−1

∗
= π f (x )(xi + xi−1 )(xi − xi−1 )
i

xi + xi−1
∗
= 2π f (x ) ( ) (xi − xi−1 ).
i
2

This was based on a shell with an outer radius of x and an inner radius of x . If, however, we rotate the region around a line
i i−1

other than the y -axis, we have a different outer and inner radius. Suppose, for example, that we rotate the region around the line
x = −k, where k is some positive constant. Then, the outer radius of the shell is x + k and the inner radius of the shell is
i

xi−1 + k . Substituting these terms into the expression for volume, we see that when a plane region is rotated around the line

x = −k, the volume of a shell is given by

(xi + k) + (xi−1 + k)
∗
Vshell = 2π f (x )( )((xi + k) − (xi−1 + k))
i
2

xi + xi−2
∗
= 2π f (x ) (( ) + k) Δx.
i
2

xi + xi−1
As before, we notice that is the midpoint of the interval [ xi−1 , xi ] and can be approximated by x
∗
i
. Then, the
2
approximate volume of the shell is
∗ ∗
Vshell ≈ 2π(x + k)f (x )Δx.
i i

The remainder of the development proceeds as before, and we see that

V =∫ (2π(x + k)f (x))dx.

We could also rotate the region around other horizontal or vertical lines, such as a vertical line in the right half plane. In each case,
the volume formula must be adjusted accordingly. Specifically, the x-term in the integral must be replaced with an expression
representing the radius of a shell. To see how this works, consider the following example.

 Example 7.3.4: A Region of Revolution Revolved around a Line

Define R as the region bounded above by the graph of f (x) = x and below by the x-axis over the interval [1, 2] . Find the
volume of the solid of revolution formed by revolving R around the line x = −1.
Solution
First, graph the region R and the associated solid of revolution, as shown in Figure 7.3.8.

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Figure 7.3.8 : (a) The region R between the graph of f (x) and the x -axis over the interval [1, 2] . (b) The solid of revolution
generated by revolving R around the line x = −1.
Note that the radius of a shell is given by x + 1 . Then the volume of the solid is given by
2

V =∫ 2π(x + 1)f (x) dx

2 2
2
=∫ 2π(x + 1)x dx = 2π ∫ x + x dx
1 1

3 2 2
x x ∣
= 2π [ + ]∣
3 2 ∣
1

23π 3
= units
3

 Exercise 7.3.4

Define R as the region bounded above by the graph of f (x) = x and below by the x-axis over the interval
2
[0, 1]. Find the
volume of the solid of revolution formed by revolving R around the line x = −2 .

Hint
Use the process from Example 7.3.4.

Answer
11π
units3
6

For our final example in this section, let’s look at the volume of a solid of revolution for which the region of revolution is bounded
by the graphs of two functions.

 Example 7.3.5: A Region of Revolution Bounded by the Graphs of Two Functions

Define as the region bounded above by the graph of the function f (x) = √−
R x and below by the graph of the function

g(x) = 1/x over the interval [1, 4]. Find the volume of the solid of revolution generated by revolving R around the y -axis.

Solution
First, graph the region R and the associated solid of revolution, as shown in Figure 7.3.9.

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Figure 7.3.9 : (a) The region R between the graph of f (x) and the graph of g(x) over the interval [1, 4] . (b) The solid of
revolution generated by revolving R around the y -axis.
Note that the axis of revolution is the y -axis, so the radius of a shell is given simply by x. We don’t need to make any
adjustments to the x-term of our integrand. The height of a shell, though, is given by f (x) − g(x) , so in this case we need to
adjust the f (x) term of the integrand. Then the volume of the solid is given by
4

V =∫ (2π x(f (x) − g(x))) dx

4 4
− 1 3/2
=∫ (2π x(√x − )) dx = 2π ∫ (x − 1)dx
1
x 1

5/2 4
2x ∣ 94π
3
= 2π [ − x] ∣ = units .
5 ∣ 5
1

 Exercise 7.3.5
Define R as the region bounded above by the graph of f (x) = x and below by the graph of g(x) = x over the interval [0, 1]. 2

Find the volume of the solid of revolution formed by revolving R around the y -axis.

Hint
Hint: Use the process from Example 7.3.5.

Answer
π
units3
6

Which Method Should We Use?

We have studied several methods for finding the volume of a solid of revolution, but how do we know which method to use? It
often comes down to a choice of which integral is easiest to evaluate. Figure 7.3.10 describes the different approaches for solids of
revolution around the x-axis. It’s up to you to develop the analogous table for solids of revolution around the y -axis.

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Figure 7.3.10
Let’s take a look at a couple of additional problems and decide on the best approach to take for solving them.

 Example 7.3.6: Selecting the Best Method

For each of the following problems, select the best method to find the volume of a solid of revolution generated by revolving
the given region around the x-axis, and set up the integral to find the volume (do not evaluate the integral).
a. The region bounded by the graphs of y = x, y = 2 − x, and the x-axis.
b. The region bounded by the graphs of y = 4x − x and the x-axis.
2

Solution
a.
First, sketch the region and the solid of revolution as shown.

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Figure 7.3.11 : (a) The region R bounded by two lines and the x -axis. (b) The solid of revolution generated by revolving R

about the x -axis.

Looking at the region, if we want to integrate with respect to x, we would have to break the integral into two pieces, because
we have different functions bounding the region over [0, 1] and [1, 2]. In this case, using the disk method, we would have
1 2
2 2
V =∫ πx dx + ∫ π(2 − x ) dx.
0 1

If we used the shell method instead, we would use functions of y to represent the curves, producing
1 1

V =∫ 2π y[(2 − y) − y] dy = ∫ 2π y[2 − 2y] dy.

0 0

Neither of these integrals is particularly onerous, but since the shell method requires only one integral, and the integrand
requires less simplification, we should probably go with the shell method in this case.
b.
First, sketch the region and the solid of revolution as shown.

Figure 7.3.12 : (a) The region R between the curve and the x -axis. (b) The solid of revolution generated by revolving R about
the x -axis.

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Looking at the region, it would be problematic to define a horizontal rectangle; the region is bounded on the left and right by
the same function. Therefore, we can dismiss the method of shells. The solid has no cavity in the middle, so we can use the
method of disks. Then
4
2
2
V =∫ π (4x − x ) dx
0

 Exercise 7.3.6

Select the best method to find the volume of a solid of revolution generated by revolving the given region around the x-axis,
and set up the integral to find the volume (do not evaluate the integral): the region bounded by the graphs of y = 2 − x and 2

y =x .
2

Hint
Sketch the region and use Figure 7.3.12to decide which integral is easiest to evaluate.

Answer
Use the method of washers;
1
2 2 2 2
V =∫ π [ (2 − x ) − (x ) ] dx
−1

Key Concepts
The method of cylindrical shells is another method for using a definite integral to calculate the volume of a solid of revolution.
This method is sometimes preferable to either the method of disks or the method of washers because we integrate with respect
to the other variable. In some cases, one integral is substantially more complicated than the other.
The geometry of the functions and the difficulty of the integration are the main factors in deciding which integration method to
use.

Key Equations
Method of Cylindrical Shells
b

V =∫ (2π x f (x)) dx
a

Glossary
method of cylindrical shells
a method of calculating the volume of a solid of revolution by dividing the solid into nested cylindrical shells; this method is
different from the methods of disks or washers in that we integrate with respect to the opposite variable

This page titled 7.3: Volumes of Revolution - Cylindrical Shells is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or
curated by Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts
platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request.
6.3: Volumes of Revolution - Cylindrical Shells by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
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7.3E: Exercises
For exercises 1 - 6, find the volume generated when the region between the two curves is rotated around the given axis. Use
both the shell method and the washer method. Use technology to graph the functions and draw a typical slice by hand.
1) [T] Over the curve of y = 3x, x = 0, and y = 3 rotated around the y -axis.
2) [T] Under the curve of y = 3x, x = 0 , and x = 3 rotated around the y -axis.

Answer

V = 54π units3

3) [T] Over the curve of y = 3x, x = 0 , and y = 3 rotated around the x-axis.
4) [T] Under the curve of y = 3x, x = 0, and x = 3 rotated around the x-axis.

Answer

V = 81π units3

5) [T] Under the curve of y = 2x 3

, x = 0, and x = 2 rotated around the y -axis.
6) [T] Under the curve of y = 2x 3
, x = 0, and x = 2 rotated around the x-axis.

Answer

V =
512π

7
units3

For exercises 7 - 16, use shells to find the volumes of the given solids. Note that the rotated regions lie between the curve and
the x-axis and are rotated around the y -axis.

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7) y = 1 − x 2
, x = 0, and x = 1
8) y = 5x 3
, x =0 , and x = 1

Answer
V = 2π units3

1
9) y = , x = 1, and x = 100
x
−−−− −
10) 2
y = √1 − x , x = 0 , and x = 1

Answer
V =
2π

3
units3

1
11) y = 2
, x =0 ,and x = 3
1 +x

12) y = sin x 2
,x =0 , and x = √−
π

Answer
V = 2π units3

1
13) y = −−−− −, x =0 , and x = 1

2
√1 − x2

14) y = √−
x, x =0 , and x = 1

Answer
V =
4π

5
units3

15) y = (1 + x 2
) ,
3
x =0 , and x = 1
16) y = 5x 3
− 2x , x = 0
4
, and x = 2

Answer
V =
64π

3
units3

For exercises 17 - 26, use shells to find the volume generated by rotating the regions between the given curve and y = 0

around the x-axis.

−−−−−
17) y = √1 − x 2
, x =0 , and x = 1
18) y = x 2
, x =0 , and x = 2

Answer
V =
32π

5
units3

19) y = e x
, x =0 , and x = 1
20) y = ln(x), x = 1 , and x = e

Answer
V = π(e − 2) units3

1
21) x = 2
, y =1 , and y = 4
1 +y

2
1 +y
22) x = , y =0 , and y = 2
y

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Answer
V =
28π

3
units3

23) x = cos y, y = 0 , and y = π

24) x = y 3 2
− 4 y , x = −1 , and x = 2

Answer
V =
84π

5
units3

25) x = y e y
, x = −1 , and x = 2
26) x = e y
cos y, x = 0 , and x = π

Answer
V =e π
π 2
units3

For exercises 27 - 36, find the volume generated when the region between the curves is rotated around the given axis.
27) y = 3 − x , y = 0 , x = 0 , and x = 2 rotated around the y -axis.
28) y = x , y = 0 , x = 0 , and y = 8 rotated around the y -axis.
3

Answer
V =
64π

5
units3

29) y = x 2
, y = x, rotated around the y -axis.
−
30) y = √x , x = 0 , and x = 1 rotated around the line x = 2.

Answer
V =
28π

15
units3

1
31) y = , x = 1, and x = 2 rotated around the line x = 4 .
4 −x

32) y = √−
x and y = x rotated around the y -axis.
2

Answer
V =
3π

10
units3

33) y = √−
x and y = x rotated around the line x = 2 .
2

1
34) x = y 3
, y = , x =1 , and y = 2 rotated around the x-axis.
x

Answer
52π

5
units3

35) x = y and y = x rotated around the line y = 2 .

36) [T] Left of x = sin(πy), right of y = x , around the y -axis.

Answer
V ≈ 0.9876 units3

For exercises 37 - 44, use technology to graph the region. Determine which method you think would be easiest to use to
calculate the volume generated when the function is rotated around the specified axis. Then, use your chosen method to find
the volume.
37) [T] y = x and y = 4x rotated around the y -axis.
2

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38) [T] y = cos(πx), y = sin(πx), x = , and x = 1

4
5

4
rotated around the y -axis.

Answer

–
V = 3 √2 units3

39) [T] y = x 2
− 2x, x = 2, and x = 4 rotated around the y -axis.
40) [T] y = x 2
− 2x, x = 2, and x = 4 rotated around the x-axis.

Answer

V =
496π

15
units3

41) [T] y = 3x 3
− 2, y = x , and x = 2 rotated around the x-axis.
42) [T] y = 3x 3
− 2, y = x , and x = 2 rotated around the y -axis.

Answer

V =
398π

15
units3
–
43) [T] x = sin(π y 2
) and x = √2y rotated around the x-axis.
44) [T] x = y 2
, x =y
2
− 2y + 1 , and x = 2 rotated around the y -axis.

Answer

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V = 15.9074 units3

For exercises 45 - 51, use the method of shells to approximate the volumes of some common objects, which are pictured in
accompanying figures.
45) Use the method of shells to find the volume of a sphere of radius r.

46) Use the method of shells to find the volume of a cone with radius r and height h .

Answer
V =
1

3
2
πr h units3

47) Use the method of shells to find the volume of an ellipse (x 2 2 2 2

/ a ) + (y / b ) = 1 rotated around the x-axis.

48) Use the method of shells to find the volume of a cylinder with radius r and height h .

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Answer
V = πr h
2
units3

49) Use the method of shells to find the volume of the donut created when the circle x 2
+y
2
=4 is rotated around the line x = 4 .

50) Consider the region enclosed by the graphs of y = f (x), y = 1 + f (x), x = 0, y = 0, and x = a > 0 . What is the volume of
the solid generated when this region is rotated around the y -axis? Assume that the function is defined over the interval [0, a].

Answer
V = πa
2
units3

51) Consider the function y = f (x), which decreases from f (0) = b to f (1) = 0 . Set up the integrals for determining the volume,
using both the shell method and the disk method, of the solid generated when this region, with x = 0 and y = 0 , is rotated around
the y -axis. Prove that both methods approximate the same volume. Which method is easier to apply? (Hint: Since f (x) is one-to-
one, there exists an inverse f (y).)
−1

This page titled 7.3E: Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert Strang &
Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is
available upon request.
6.3E: Exercises for Section 6.3 by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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7.4: Arc Length of a Curve and Surface Area
 Learning Objectives
Determine the length of a curve, y = f (x), between two points.
Determine the length of a curve, x = g(y) , between two points.
Find the surface area of a solid of revolution.

In this section, we use definite integrals to find the arc length of a curve. We can think of arc length as the distance you would
travel if you were walking along the path of the curve. Many real-world applications involve arc length. If a rocket is launched
along a parabolic path, we might want to know how far the rocket travels. Or, if a curve on a map represents a road, we might want
to know how far we have to drive to reach our destination.
We begin by calculating the arc length of curves defined as functions of x, then we examine the same process for curves defined as
functions of y . (The process is identical, with the roles of x and y reversed.) The techniques we use to find arc length can be
extended to find the surface area of a surface of revolution, and we close the section with an examination of this concept.

Arc Length of the Curve y = f(x)

In previous applications of integration, we required the function f (x) to be integrable, or at most continuous. However, for
calculating arc length we have a more stringent requirement for f (x). Here, we require f (x) to be differentiable, and furthermore
we require its derivative, f '(x), to be continuous. Functions like this, which have continuous derivatives, are called smooth. (This
property comes up again in later chapters.)
Let f (x) be a smooth function defined over [a, b]. We want to calculate the length of the curve from the point (a, f (a)) to the point
(b, f (b)). We start by using line segments to approximate the length of the curve. For i = 0, 1, 2, … , n, let P = x be a regular
i

partition of [a, b]. Then, for i = 1, 2, … , n, construct a line segment from the point (x , f (x )) to the point (x , f (x )).
i−1 i−1 i i

Although it might seem logical to use either horizontal or vertical line segments, we want our line segments to approximate the
curve as closely as possible. Figure 7.4.1 depicts this construct for n = 5 .

Figure 7.4.1 : We can approximate the length of a curve by adding line segments.
To help us find the length of each line segment, we look at the change in vertical distance as well as the change in horizontal
distance over each interval. Because we have used a regular partition, the change in horizontal distance over each interval is given
by Δx. The change in vertical distance varies from interval to interval, though, so we use Δy = f (x ) − f (x ) to represent the
i i i−1

change in vertical distance over the interval [x , x ], as shown in Figure 7.4.2. Note that some (or all) Δy may be negative.
i−1 i i

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Figure 7.4.2 : A representative line segment approximates the curve over the interval [x i−1 , xi ].

By the Pythagorean theorem, the length of the line segment is

−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
√ (Δx ) + (Δyi ) .

We can also write this as

−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2
Δx √ 1 + ((Δyi )/(Δx)) .

Now, by the Mean Value Theorem, there is a point x

∗
i
∈ [ xi−1 , xi ] such that ∗
f '(x ) = (Δyi )/(Δx)
i
. Then the length of the line
segment is given by
−−−−−−−−−−
∗ 2
Δx √ 1 + [f '(x )] .
i

Adding up the lengths of all the line segments, we get

n
−−−−−−−−−−
∗ 2
Arc Length ≈ ∑ √ 1 + [f '(x )] Δx.
i

i=1

This is a Riemann sum. Taking the limit as n → ∞, we have

n
−−−−−−−−−−
∗ 2
Arc Length = lim ∑ √ 1 + [f '(x )] Δx
i
n→∞
i=1

b
−−−−−−−−−
2
=∫ √ 1 + [f '(x)] dx.
a

We summarize these findings in the following theorem.

 Arc Length for y = f (x)

Let f (x) be a smooth function over the interval [a, b]. Then the arc length of the portion of the graph of f (x) from the point
(a, f (a)) to the point (b, f (b)) is given by

b −−−−−−−−−
2
Arc Length = ∫ √ 1 + [f '(x)] dx.
a

Note that we are integrating an expression involving f '(x), so we need to be sure f '(x) is integrable. This is why we require f (x)
to be smooth. The following example shows how to apply the theorem.

 Example 7.4.1: Calculating the Arc Length of a Function of x

Let f (x) = 2x 3/2

. Calculate the arc length of the graph of f (x) over the interval . Round the answer to three decimal
[0, 1]

places.
Solution

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We have f '(x) = 3x 1/2
, so [f '(x)] 2
= 9x. Then, the arc length is
b −−−−−−−−−
2
Arc Length = ∫ √ 1 + [f '(x)] dx
a

1
−−−− −
=∫ √ 1 + 9x dx.
0

Substitute u = 1 + 9x. Then, du = 9dx. When x = 0 , then u = 1 , and when x = 1 , then u = 10. Thus,
1
−−−− −
Arc Length = ∫ √ 1 + 9x dx
0

1
1 −−−− −
= ∫ √ 1 + 9x 9dx
9 0

10
1 −
= ∫ √u du
9 1

1 2 2 −−
3/2 10
= ⋅ u ∣ = [10 √10 − 1]
1
9 3 27

≈ 2.268units.

 Exercise 7.4.1

Let f (x) = (4/3)x 3/2

. Calculate the arc length of the graph of f (x) over the interval [0, 1]. Round the answer to three decimal
places.

Hint
Use the process from the previous example. Don’t forget to change the limits of integration.

Answer
1 –
(5 √5 − 1) ≈ 1.697
6

Although it is nice to have a formula for calculating arc length, this particular theorem can generate expressions that are difficult to
integrate. We study some techniques for integration in Introduction to Techniques of Integration. In some cases, we may have to
use a computer or calculator to approximate the value of the integral.

 Example 7.4.2: Using a Computer or Calculator to Determine the Arc Length of a Function of x

Let f (x) = x . Calculate the arc length of the graph of f (x) over the interval [1, 3].
2

Solution
We have f '(x) = 2x, so [f '(x)] 2
= 4x .
2
Then the arc length is given by
b −−−−−−−−−
2
Arc Length = ∫ √ 1 + [f '(x)] dx
a

3
− −−−− −
2
=∫ √ 1 + 4x dx.
1

Using a computer to approximate the value of this integral, we get

3
− −−−− −
2
∫ √ 1 + 4x dx ≈ 8.26815.
1

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 Exercise 7.4.2

Let f (x) = sin x . Calculate the arc length of the graph of f (x) over the interval [0, π] . Use a computer or calculator to
approximate the value of the integral.

Hint
Use the process from the previous example.

Answer
Arc Length ≈ 3.8202

Arc Length of the Curve x = g(y)

We have just seen how to approximate the length of a curve with line segments. If we want to find the arc length of the graph of a
function of y , we can repeat the same process, except we partition the y-axis instead of the x-axis. Figure 7.4.3 shows a
representative line segment.

Figure 7.4.3 : A representative line segment over the interval [y i−1 , yi ].

Then the length of the line segment is

−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
√ (Δy ) + (Δxi ) ,

which can also be written as

−−−−−−−−−−−
2
Δxi
Δy √ 1 + ( ) .
Δy

If we now follow the same development we did earlier, we get a formula for arc length of a function x = g(y) .

 Arc Length for x = g(y)

Let g(y) be a smooth function over an interval [c, d]. Then, the arc length of the graph of g(y) from the point (c, g(c)) to the
point (d, g(d)) is given by
d −−−−−−−−−
2
Arc Length = ∫ √ 1 + [g'(y)] dy.
c

 Example 7.4.3: Calculating the Arc Length of a Function of y

Let g(y) = 3y 3
. Calculate the arc length of the graph of g(y) over the interval [1, 2].
Solution
We have g'(y) = 9y 2
, so [g'(y)]
2 4
= 81 y . Then the arc length is

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d −−−−−−−−−
2
Arc Length = ∫ √ 1 + [g'(y)] dy
c

2 −−−−−−−
4
=∫ √ 1 + 81y dy.
1

Using a computer to approximate the value of this integral, we obtain

2 −−−−−−−
4
∫ √ 1 + 81y dy ≈ 21.0277.
1

 Exercise 7.4.3

Let g(y) = 1/y . Calculate the arc length of the graph of g(y) over the interval . Use a computer or calculator to
[1, 4]

approximate the value of the integral.

Hint
Use the process from the previous example.

Answer
Arc Length = 3.15018

Area of a Surface of Revolution

The concepts we used to find the arc length of a curve can be extended to find the surface area of a surface of revolution. Surface
area is the total area of the outer layer of an object. For objects such as cubes or bricks, the surface area of the object is the sum of
the areas of all of its faces. For curved surfaces, the situation is a little more complex. Let f (x) be a nonnegative smooth function
over the interval [a, b]. We wish to find the surface area of the surface of revolution created by revolving the graph of y = f (x)
around the x-axis as shown in the following figure.

Figure 7.4.4 : (a) A curve representing the function . (b) The surface of revolution formed by revolving the graph of
f (x) f (x)

around the x − axis .

As we have done many times before, we are going to partition the interval [a, b] and approximate the surface area by calculating
the surface area of simpler shapes. We start by using line segments to approximate the curve, as we did earlier in this section. For
i = 0, 1, 2, … , n, let P = x be a regular partition of [a, b]. Then, for i = 1, 2, … , n, construct a line segment from the point
i

(xi−1 , f (x )) to the point (x , f (x )). Now, revolve these line segments around the x-axis to generate an approximation of the
i−1 i i

surface of revolution as shown in the following figure.

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Figure 7.4.5 : (a) Approximating f (x) with line segments. (b) The surface of revolution formed by revolving the line segments
around the x − axis .
Notice that when each line segment is revolved around the axis, it produces a band. These bands are actually pieces of cones (think
of an ice cream cone with the pointy end cut off). A piece of a cone like this is called a frustum of a cone.
To find the surface area of the band, we need to find the lateral surface area, S , of the frustum (the area of just the slanted outside
surface of the frustum, not including the areas of the top or bottom faces). Let r and r be the radii of the wide end and the narrow
1 2

end of the frustum, respectively, and let l be the slant height of the frustum as shown in the following figure.

Figure 7.4.6 : A frustum of a cone can approximate a small part of surface area.
We know the lateral surface area of a cone is given by

Lateral Surface Area = πrs,

where r is the radius of the base of the cone and s is the slant height (Figure 7.4.7).

Figure 7.4.7 : The lateral surface area of the cone is given by πrs .
Since a frustum can be thought of as a piece of a cone, the lateral surface area of the frustum is given by the lateral surface area of
the whole cone less the lateral surface area of the smaller cone (the pointy tip) that was cut off (Figure 7.4.8).

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Figure 7.4.8 : Calculating the lateral surface area of a frustum of a cone.
The cross-sections of the small cone and the large cone are similar triangles, so we see that
r2 s−l
=
r1 s

Solving for s , we get =s−ls

r2 s−l
=
r1 s

r2 s = r1 (s − l)

r2 s = r1 s − r1 l

r1 l = r1 s − r2 s

r1 l = (r1 − r2 )s

r1 l
=s
r1 − r2

Then the lateral surface area (SA) of the frustum is

S = (Lateral SA of large cone) − (Lateral SA of small cone)

= π r1 s − π r2 (s − l)

r1 l r1 l
= π r1 ( ) − π r2 ( )
r1 − r2 r1 − r2 − l

2
πr l π r1 r2 l
1
= − + π r2 l
1 2
r −r r1 − r2

2
πr l π r1 r2l π r2 l(r1 − r2 )
1
= − +
r1 − r2 r1 − r2 r1 − r2

2 2
πr π r1 r2 l π r1 r2 l πr l
1 2
= − + −
lr1 − r2 r1 − r2 r1 − r2 r1 − r3

2 2
π(r − r )l π(r1 − r + 2)(r1 + r2)l
1 2
= =
r1 − r2 r1 − r2

= π(r1 + r2 )l.

Let’s now use this formula to calculate the surface area of each of the bands formed by revolving the line segments around the
x − axis . A representative band is shown in the following figure.

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Figure 7.4.9 : A representative band used for determining surface area.
Note that the slant height of this frustum is just the length of the line segment used to generate it. So, applying the surface area
formula, we have

S = π(r1 + r2 )l
−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
= π(f (xi−1 ) + f (xi ))√ Δx + (Δyi )

−−−−−−−−−
Δyi
2
= π(f (xi−1 ) + f (xi ))Δx √ 1 + ( )
Δx

Now, as we did in the development of the arc length formula, we apply the Mean Value Theorem to select x ∗
i
∈ [ xi−1 , xi ] such that
f '(x ) = (Δy )/Δx. This gives us
∗
i i

−−−−−−−−−−
∗ 2
S = π(f (xi−1 ) + f (xi ))Δx √ 1 + (f '(x ))
i

Furthermore, sincef (x) is continuous, by the Intermediate Value Theorem, there is a point x
∗∗
i
∈ [ xi−1 , x[i] such that \
(f(x^{**}_i)=(1/2)[f(xi−1)+f(xi)],
so we get
−−−−−−−−−−
∗∗ ∗ 2
S = 2πf (x )Δx √ 1 + (f '(x )) .
i i

Then the approximate surface area of the whole surface of revolution is given by
n
−−−−−−−−−−
∗∗ ∗ 2
Surface Area ≈ ∑ 2πf (x )Δx √ 1 + (f '(x )) .
i i

i=1

This almost looks like a Riemann sum, except we have functions evaluated at two different points, x and x , over the interval ∗
i
∗∗
i

[xi−1 , x ]. Although we do not examine the details here, it turns out that because f (x) is smooth, if we let n→ ∞ , the limit works
i

the same as a Riemann sum even with the two different evaluation points. This makes sense intuitively. Both x and x^{**}_i\) are ∗
i

in the interval [x , x ], so it makes sense that as n → ∞ , both x and x approach x Those of you who are interested in the
i−1 i
∗
i
∗∗
i

details should consult an advanced calculus text.

Taking the limit as n → ∞, we get
−−−−−−−−−−
2 ∗∗ ∗ 2
Surface Area = lim ∑ n πf (x )Δx √ 1 + (f '(x ))
i i
n→∞
i=1

b −−−−−−−−−−
2
=∫ (2πf (x)√ 1 + (f '(x)) )
a

As with arc length, we can conduct a similar development for functions of y to get a formula for the surface area of surfaces of
revolution about the y − axis . These findings are summarized in the following theorem.

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 Surface Area of a Surface of Revolution

Let f (x) be a nonnegative smooth function over the interval [a, b]. Then, the surface area of the surface of revolution formed
by revolving the graph of f (x) around the x-axis is given by
b −−−−−−−−−−
2
Surface Area = ∫ (2πf (x)√ 1 + (f '(x)) )dx
a

Similarly, let g(y) be a nonnegative smooth function over the interval [c, d]. Then, the surface area of the surface of revolution
formed by revolving the graph of g(y) around the y − axis is given by
d −−−−−−−−−
2
Surface Area = ∫ (2πg(y)√ 1 + (g'(y)) dy
c

 Example 7.4.4: Calculating the Surface Area of a Surface of Revolution 1.

Let f (x) = √−x over the interval [1, 4]. Find the surface area of the surface generated by revolving the graph of f (x) around
the x-axis. Round the answer to three decimal places.
Solution
The graph of f (x) and the surface of rotation are shown in Figure 7.4.10.

Figure 7.4.10 : (a) The graph of f (x). (b) The surface of revolution.
−
We have f (x) = √x. Then, f '(x) = 1/(2√−
x ) and (f '(x))
2
= 1/(4x). Then,
b −−−−−−−−−−
2
Surface Area = ∫ (2πf (x)√ 1 + (f '(x)) dx
a

4
−−−−−−−−−−−
− 1
=∫ (√ 2π √x 1 + )dx
1
4x

4
−−−− −
=∫ (2π √ x + 14 dx.
1

Let u = x + 1/4. Then, du = dx . When x = 1, u = 5/4, and when x = 4, u = 17/4. This gives us
1
−−−−− 17/4
1 −
∫ (2π √ x + )dx = ∫ 2π √u du
0
4 5/4

17/4
2 ∣
3/2
= 2π [ u ]∣
3 ∣5/4

π −− –
= [17 √17 − 5 √5] ≈ 30.846
6

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 Exercise 7.4.4
−−−−−
Let f (x) = √1 − x over the interval [0, 1/2]. Find the surface area of the surface generated by revolving the graph of f (x)

around the x-axis. Round the answer to three decimal places.

Hint
Use the process from the previous example.

Answer
π – –
(5 √5 − 3 √3) ≈ 3.133
6

 Example 7.4.5: Calculating the Surface Area of a Surface of Revolution 2

[
Let f (x) = y = . Consider the portion of the curve where
]3x 0 ≤y ≤2 . Find the surface area of the surface generated by
3
revolving the graph of f (x) around the y -axis.
Solution
Notice that we are revolving the curve around the y -axis, and the interval is in terms of y , so we want to rewrite the function as
a function of y . We get x = g(y) = (1/3)y . The graph of g(y) and the surface of rotation are shown in the following figure.
3

Figure 7.4.11 : (a) The graph of g(y). (b) The surface of revolution.
We have g(y) = (1/3)y , so g'(y) = y and (g'(y))
3 2 2
=y
4
. Then
d −−−−−−−−−
2
Surface Area = ∫ (2πg(y)√ 1 + (g'(y)) )dy
c

2 −−−−−
1
3 4
=∫ (2π( y )√ 1 + y )dy
0
3

2 −−−−−
2π 3 4
= ∫ (y √ 1 + y )dy.
3 0

Let u = y 4
+ 1. Then du = 4y 3
dy . When y = 0, u = 1 , and when y = 2, u = 17. Then
2 −−−−− 17
2π 3 4
2π 1 −
∫ (y √ 1 + y )dy = ∫ √u du
3 0
3 1
4

π 2 π
3/2 17 3/2
= [ u ] ∣ = [(17 ) − 1] ≈ 24.118.
1
6 3 9

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 Exercise 7.4.5
−−−−−
Let g(y) = √9 − y 2
over the interval y ∈ [0, 2]. Find the surface area of the surface generated by revolving the graph of g(y)
around the y -axis.

Hint
Use the process from the previous example.

Answer
12π

Key Concepts
The arc length of a curve can be calculated using a definite integral.
The arc length is first approximated using line segments, which generates a Riemann sum. Taking a limit then gives us the
definite integral formula. The same process can be applied to functions of y .
The concepts used to calculate the arc length can be generalized to find the surface area of a surface of revolution.
The integrals generated by both the arc length and surface area formulas are often difficult to evaluate. It may be necessary to
use a computer or calculator to approximate the values of the integrals.

Key Equations
Arc Length of a Function of x
b −−−−−−−− −
Arc Length = ∫ a
√1 + [f '(x)]2 dx

Arc Length of a Function of y

d −−−− − −−−−
Arc Length = ∫ c
2
√1 + [g'(y)] dy

Surface Area of a Function of x

b −−−− −− −−−−
Surface Area = ∫ a
2
(2πf (x)√1 + (f '(x)) )dx

Glossary
arc length
the arc length of a curve can be thought of as the distance a person would travel along the path of the curve

frustum
a portion of a cone; a frustum is constructed by cutting the cone with a plane parallel to the base

surface area
the surface area of a solid is the total area of the outer layer of the object; for objects such as cubes or bricks, the surface area of
the object is the sum of the areas of all of its faces

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curated by Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts
platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request.
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7.4E: Exercises
For exercises 1 - 3, find the length of the functions over the given interval.
1) y = 5x from x = 0 to x = 2

Answer
−−
s = 2 √26 units

2) y = − 1

2
x + 25 from x = 1 to x = 4
3) x = 4y from y = −1 to y = 1

Answer
−−
s = 2 √17 units

4) Pick an arbitrary linear function x = g(y) over any interval of your choice (y1 , y2 ). Determine the length of the function and
then prove the length is correct by using geometry.
5) Find the surface area of the volume generated when the curve y = √−
x revolves around the x-axis from (1, 1) to (4, 2), as seen

here.

Answer
−− –
A =
π

6
(17 √17 − 5 √5) units2

6) Find the surface area of the volume generated when the curve y = x revolves around the y -axis from (1, 1) to (3, 9).
2

For exercises 7 - 16, find the lengths of the functions of x over the given interval. If you cannot evaluate the integral exactly,
use technology to approximate it.
7) y = x 3/2
from (0, 0) to (1, 1)

Answer
13 √13−8
s =
27
units

8) y = x 2/3
from (1, 1) to (8, 4)
9) y = 1

3
(x
2
+ 2)
3/2
from x = 0 to x = 1

Answer
s =
4

3
units

10) y = 1

3
(x
2
− 2)
3/2
from x = 2 to x = 4
11) [T] y = e on x = 0 to x = 1
x

Answer
s ≈ 2.0035 units
3
x 1
12) y = + from x = 1 to x = 3
3 4x

4
x 1
13) y = +
2
from x = 1 to x = 2
4 8x

Answer
s =
123

32
units

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3/2 1/2
2x x
14) y = − from x = 1 to x = 4
3 2

15) y = 1

27
(9 x
2
+ 6)
3/2
from x = 0 to x = 2

Answer
s = 10 units

16) [T] y = sin x on x = 0 to x = π

For exercises 17 - 26, find the lengths of the functions of y over the given interval. If you cannot evaluate the integral
exactly, use technology to approximate it.
5 − 3x
17) y = from y = 0 to y = 4
4

Answer
s =
20

3
units

18) x = 1

2
(e
y
+e
−y
) from y = −1 to y = 1
19) x = 5y 3/2
from y = 0 to y = 1

Answer
−−−
s =
675
1
(229 √229 − 8) units

20) [T] x = y from y = 0 to y = 1

21) x = √y from y = 0 to y = 1

Answer
– –
s =
1

8
(4 √5 + ln(9 + 4 √5)) units

22) x = 2

3
(y
2
+ 1)
3/2
from y = 1 to y = 3
23) [T] x = tan y from y = 0 to y = 3

Answer
s ≈ 1.201 units

24) [T] x = cos 2

y from y = − π

2
to y = π

25) [T] x = 4 from y = 0 to y = 2

Answer
s ≈ 15.2341 units

1
26) [T] x = ln(y) on y = to y = e
e

For exercises 27 - 34, find the surface area of the volume generated when the following curves revolve around the x-axis. If
you cannot evaluate the integral exactly, use your calculator to approximate it.
27) y = √−
x from x = 2 to x = 6

Answer
A =
49π

3
units2

28) y = x from x = 0 to x = 1
3

29) y = 7x from x = −1 to x = 1

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Answer
units2
–
A = 70π √2

30) [T] y = 1
2
x
from x = 1 to x = 3
−−−−−
31) y = √4 − x from x = 0 to x = 2
2

Answer
A = 8π units2
−−−−−
32) y = √4 − x from x = −1 to x = 1
2

33) y = 5x from x = 1 to x = 5

Answer
units2
−−
A = 120π √26

34) [T] y = tan x from x = − π

4
to x = π

For exercises 35 - 42, find the surface area of the volume generated when the following curves revolve around the y -axis. If
you cannot evaluate the integral exactly, use your calculator to approximate it.
35) y = x from x = 0 to x = 2
2

Answer
−−
A =
π

6
(17 √17 − 1) units2

36) y = 1

2
x
2
+
1

2
from x = 0 to x = 1
37) y = x + 1 from x = 0 to x = 3

Answer
–
A = 9 √2π units2

1 1
38) [T] y = from x = to x = 1
x 2
−
39) y = √x from x = 1 to x = 27
3

Answer
−−
units2
10 √10π
A = (73 √73 − 1)
27

40) [T] y = 3x from x = 0 to x = 1

1
41) [T] y = − from x = 1 to x = 3
√x

Answer
A ≈ 25.645 units2

42) [T] y = cos x from x = 0 to x = π

−−−−−−
43) The base of a lamp is constructed by revolving a quarter circle y = √2x − x around the y -axis from x = 1 to x = 2 , as seen
2

here. Create an integral for the surface area of this curve and compute it.

Answer
A = 2π units2

44) A light bulb is a sphere with radius 1/2 in. with the bottom sliced off to fit exactly onto a cylinder of radius 1/4 in. and length
1/3 in., as seen here. The sphere is cut off at the bottom to fit exactly onto the cylinder, so the radius of the cut is 1/4 in. Find the

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surface area (not including the top or bottom of the cylinder).
45) [T] A lampshade is constructed by rotating y = 1/x around the x-axis from y = 1 to y = 2 , as seen here. Determine how
much material you would need to construct this lampshade—that is, the surface area—accurate to four decimal places.

Answer
10.5017 units2

46) [T] An anchor drags behind a boat according to the function y = 24e − 24 , where y represents the depth beneath the boat
−x/2

and x is the horizontal distance of the anchor from the back of the boat. If the anchor is 23 ft below the boat, how much rope do
you have to pull to reach the anchor? Round your answer to three decimal places.
47) [T] You are building a bridge that will span 10 ft. You intend to add decorative rope in the shape of y = 5| sin((xπ)/5)|, where
x is the distance in feet from one end of the bridge. Find out how much rope you need to buy, rounded to the nearest foot.

Answer
23 ft

For exercise 48, find the exact arc length for the following problems over the given interval.
48) y = ln(sin x) from x = π

4
to x = 3π

4
. (Hint: Recall trigonometric identities.)
49) Draw graphs of y = x , y = x , and y = x . For y = x , as n increases, formulate a prediction on the arc length from (0, 0)
2 6 10 n

to (1, 1). Now, compute the lengths of these three functions and determine whether your prediction is correct.

Answer
2

50) Compare the lengths of the parabola x = y and the line x = by from (0, 0) to (b
2 2
, b) as b increases. What do you notice?
2
y
51) Solve for the length of x =y
2
from (0, 0) to . Show that
(1, 1) x = from (0, 0) to (2, 2) is twice as long. Graph both
2
functions and explain why this is so.

Answer
Answers may vary

1
52) [T] Which is longer between (1, 1) and (2, 1

2
: the hyperbola y =
) or the graph of x + 2y = 3 ?
x

53) Explain why the surface area is infinite when y = 1/x is rotated around the x-axis for 1 ≤ x < ∞, but the volume is finite.

Answer
For more information, look up Gabriel’s Horn.

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Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is
available upon request.
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7.5: Physical Applications of Integration
 Learning Objectives
Determine the mass of a one-dimensional object from its linear density function.
Determine the mass of a two-dimensional circular object from its radial density function.
Calculate the work done by a variable force acting along a line.
Calculate the work done in pumping a liquid from one height to another.
Find the hydrostatic force against a submerged vertical plate.

In this section, we examine some physical applications of integration. Let’s begin with a look at calculating mass from a density
function. We then turn our attention to work, and close the section with a study of hydrostatic force.

Mass and Density

We can use integration to develop a formula for calculating mass based on a density function. First we consider a thin rod or wire.
Orient the rod so it aligns with the x-axis, with the left end of the rod at x = a and the right end of the rod at x = b (Figure 7.5.1).
Note that although we depict the rod with some thickness in the figures, for mathematical purposes we assume the rod is thin
enough to be treated as a one-dimensional object.

Figure 7.5.1 : We can calculate the mass of a thin rod oriented along the x -axis by integrating its density function.
If the rod has constant density ρ, given in terms of mass per unit length, then the mass of the rod is just the product of the density
and the length of the rod: (b − a)ρ . If the density of the rod is not constant, however, the problem becomes a little more
challenging. When the density of the rod varies from point to point, we use a linear density function, ρ(x), to denote the density of
the rod at any point, x. Let ρ(x) be an integrable linear density function. Now, for i = 0, 1, 2, … , n let P = x be a regular i

partition of the interval [a, b], and for i = 1, 2, … , n choose an arbitrary point x ∈ [x , x ] . Figure 7.5.2 shows a representative
∗
i i−1 i

segment of the rod.

Figure 7.5.2 : A representative segment of the rod.

The mass m of the segment of the rod from x
i i−1 to x is approximated by
i

∗
mi ≈ ρ(x )(xi − xi−1 )
i

∗
= ρ(x )Δx.
i

Adding the masses of all the segments gives us an approximation for the mass of the entire rod:
n

m = ∑ mi

i=1

∗
≈ ∑ ρ(x )Δx.
i

i=1

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This is a Riemann sum. Taking the limit as n → ∞ , we get an expression for the exact mass of the rod:
n

∗
m = lim ∑ ρ(x )Δx
i
n→∞
i=1

=∫ ρ(x)dx.
a

We state this result in the following theorem.

 Mass–Density Formula of a One-Dimensional Object

Given a thin rod oriented along the x-axis over the interval [a, b], let ρ(x) denote a linear density function giving the density of
the rod at a point x in the interval. Then the mass of the rod is given by
b

m =∫ ρ(x)dx. (7.5.1)
a

We apply this theorem in the next example.

 Example 7.5.1: Calculating Mass from Linear Density

Consider a thin rod oriented on the x-axis over the interval [π/2, π]. If the density of the rod is given by ρ(x) = sin x , what is
the mass of the rod?
Solution
Applying Equation 7.5.1 directly, we have
b

m =∫ ρ(x)dx
a

=∫ sin x dx
π/2

π
∣
= − cos x
∣π/2

= 1.

 Exercise 7.5.1

Consider a thin rod oriented on the x-axis over the interval [1, 3]. If the density of the rod is given by ρ(x) = 2x 2
+ 3, what is
the mass of the rod?

Hint
Use the process from the previous example.
Solution
70/3

We now extend this concept to find the mass of a two-dimensional disk of radius r. As with the rod we looked at in the one-
dimensional case, here we assume the disk is thin enough that, for mathematical purposes, we can treat it as a two-dimensional
object. We assume the density is given in terms of mass per unit area (called area density), and further assume the density varies
only along the disk’s radius (called radial density). We orient the disk in the xy − plane , with the center at the origin. Then, the
density of the disk can be treated as a function of x, denoted ρ(x). We assume ρ(x) is integrable. Because density is a function of
x, we partition the interval from [0, r] along the x-axis. For i = 0, 1, 2, … , n, let P = x be a regular partition of the interval
i

[0, r], and for i = 1, 2, … , n, choose an arbitrary point x ∈ [ x , x ] . Now, use the partition to break up the disk into thin (two-
∗
i i−1 i

dimensional) washers. A disk and a representative washer are depicted in the following figure.

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Figure 7.5.3 : (a) A thin disk in the xy-plane. (b) A representative washer.
We now approximate the density and area of the washer to calculate an approximate mass, m . Note that the area of the washer is
i

given by
2 2
Ai = π(xi ) − π(xi−1 )

2 2
= π[ x −x ]
i i−1

= π(xi + xi−1 )(xi − xi−1 )

= π(xi + xi−1 )Δx.

You may recall that we had an expression similar to this when we were computing volumes by shells. As we did there, we use
)/2 to approximate the average radius of the washer. We obtain
∗
x ≈ (x + xi i−1
i

∗
Ai = π(xi + xi−1 )Δx ≈ 2π x Δx.
i

Using ρ(x ∗
i
) to approximate the density of the washer, we approximate the mass of the washer by
∗ ∗
mi ≈ 2π x ρ(x )Δx.
i i

Adding up the masses of the washers, we see the mass m of the entire disk is approximated by
n n

∗ ∗
m = ∑ mi ≈ ∑ 2π x ρ(x )Δx.
i i

i=1 i=1

We again recognize this as a Riemann sum, and take the limit as n → ∞. This gives us
n

∗ ∗
m = lim ∑ 2π x ρ(x )Δx
i i
n→∞
i=1

=∫ 2πxρ(x)dx.
0

We summarize these findings in the following theorem.

 Mass–Density Formula of a Circular Object

Let ρ(x) be an integrable function representing the radial density of a disk of radius r. Then the mass of the disk is given by
r

m =∫ 2πxρ(x)dx. (7.5.2)
0

 Example 7.5.2: Calculating Mass from Radial Density

−
Let ρ(x) = √x represent the radial density of a disk. Calculate the mass of a disk of radius 4.
Solution
Applying Equation 7.5.2, we find

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m =∫ 2πxρ(x)dx
0

4 4
− 3/2
=∫ 2πx √x dx = 2π ∫ x dx
0 0

2 4π
5/2 4
= 2π x ∣ = [32]
0
5 5

128π
= .
5

 Exercise 7.5.2

Let ρ(x) = 3x + 2 represent the radial density of a disk. Calculate the mass of a disk of radius 2.

Hint
Use the process from the previous example.
Solution
24π

Work Done by a Force

We now consider work. In physics, work is related to force, which is often intuitively defined as a push or pull on an object. When
a force moves an object, we say the force does work on the object. In other words, work can be thought of as the amount of energy
it takes to move an object. According to physics, when we have a constant force, work can be expressed as the product of force and
distance.
In the English system, the unit of force is the pound and the unit of distance is the foot, so work is given in foot-pounds. In the
metric system, kilograms and meters are used. One newton is the force needed to accelerate 1 kilogram of mass at the rate of 1
m/sec2. Thus, the most common unit of work is the newton-meter. This same unit is also called the joule. Both are defined as
kilograms times meters squared over seconds squared (kg ⋅ m /s ). 2 2

When we have a constant force, things are pretty easy. It is rare, however, for a force to be constant. The work done to compress (or
elongate) a spring, for example, varies depending on how far the spring has already been compressed (or stretched). We look at
springs in more detail later in this section.
Suppose we have a variable force F (x) that moves an object in a positive direction along the x-axis from point a to point b . To
calculate the work done, we partition the interval [a, b] and estimate the work done over each subinterval. So, for i = 0, 1, 2, … , n,
let P = x be a regular partition of the interval [a, b], and for i = 1, 2, … , n, choose an arbitrary point x ∈ [x , x ] . To
i
∗
i i−1 i

calculate the work done to move an object from point x to point x , we assume the force is roughly constant over the interval,
i−1 i

and use F (x ) to approximate the force. The work done over the interval [x , x ], then, is given by
∗
i i−1 i

∗ ∗
Wi ≈ F (x )(xi − xi−1 ) = F (x )Δx.
i i

Therefore, the work done over the interval [a, b] is approximately

n n

∗
W = ∑ Wi ≈ ∑ F (x )Δx.
i

i=1 i=1

Taking the limit of this expression as n → ∞ gives us the exact value for work:
n

∗
W = lim ∑ F (x )Δx
i
n→∞
i=1

=∫ F (x)dx.
a

Thus, we can define work as follows.

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 Definition: Work

If a variable force F (x) moves an object in a positive direction along the x-axis from point a to point b , then the work done on
the object is
b

W =∫ F (x)dx. (7.5.3)
a

Note that if F is constant, the integral evaluates to F ⋅ (b − a) = F ⋅ d, which is the formula we stated at the beginning of this
section.

Now let’s look at the specific example of the work done to compress or elongate a spring. Consider a block attached to a horizontal
spring. The block moves back and forth as the spring stretches and compresses. Although in the real world we would have to
account for the force of friction between the block and the surface on which it is resting, we ignore friction here and assume the
block is resting on a frictionless surface. When the spring is at its natural length (at rest), the system is said to be at equilibrium. In
this state, the spring is neither elongated nor compressed, and in this equilibrium position the block does not move until some force
is introduced. We orient the system such that x = 0 corresponds to the equilibrium position (Figure 7.5.4).

Figure 7.5.4 : A block attached to a horizontal spring at equilibrium, compressed, and elongated.
According to Hooke’s law, the force required to compress or stretch a spring from an equilibrium position is given by F (x) = kx ,
for some constant k . The value of k depends on the physical characteristics of the spring. The constant k is called the spring
constant and is always positive. We can use this information to calculate the work done to compress or elongate a spring, as shown
in the following example.

 Example 7.5.3: The Work Required to Stretch or Compress a Spring

Suppose it takes a force of 10 N (in the negative direction) to compress a spring 0.2 m from the equilibrium position. How
much work is done to stretch the spring 0.5 m from the equilibrium position?
Solution
First find the spring constant, k . When x = −0.2, we know F (x) = −10, so
F (x) = kx

−10 = k(−0.2)

k = 50

and F (x) = 50x. Then, to calculate work, we integrate the force function, obtaining

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W =∫ F (x)dx
a

0.5

=∫ 50x dx
0

2 0.5
= 25x ∣
∣
0

= 6.25.

The work done to stretch the spring is 6.25 J.

 Exercise 7.5.3

Suppose it takes a force of 8 lb to stretch a spring 6 in. from the equilibrium position. How much work is done to stretch the
spring 1 ft from the equilibrium position?

Hint
Use the process from the previous example. Be careful with units.
Solution
8 ft-lb

Work Done in Pumping

Consider the work done to pump water (or some other liquid) out of a tank. Pumping problems are a little more complicated than
spring problems because many of the calculations depend on the shape and size of the tank. In addition, instead of being concerned
about the work done to move a single mass, we are looking at the work done to move a volume of water, and it takes more work to
move the water from the bottom of the tank than it does to move the water from the top of the tank.
We examine the process in the context of a cylindrical tank, then look at a couple of examples using tanks of different shapes.
Assume a cylindrical tank of radius 4 m and height 10 m is filled to a depth of 8 m. How much work does it take to pump all the
water over the top edge of the tank?
The first thing we need to do is define a frame of reference. We let x represent the vertical distance below the top of the tank. That
is, we orient the x-axis vertically, with the origin at the top of the tank and the downward direction being positive (Figure 7.5.5).

Figure 7.5.5 : How much work is needed to empty a tank partially filled with water?
Using this coordinate system, the water extends from x = 2 to x = 10. Therefore, we partition the interval [2, 10] and look at the
work required to lift each individual “layer” of water. So, for i = 0, 1, 2, … , n, let P = x be a regular partition of the interval
i

[2, 10], and for i = 1, 2, … , n, choose an arbitrary point x ∈ [ x , x ] . Figure 7.5.6 shows a representative layer.
∗
i i−1 i

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Figure 7.5.6 : A representative layer of water.
In pumping problems, the force required to lift the water to the top of the tank is the force required to overcome gravity, so it is
3 3
equal to the weight of the water. Given that the weight-density of water is 9800 N/m , or 62.4 lb/ft , calculating the volume of
each layer gives us the weight. In this case, we have
2
V = π(4 ) Δx = 16πΔx.

Then, the force needed to lift each layer is

F = 9800 ⋅ 16πΔx = 156, 800πΔx.

Note that this step becomes a little more difficult if we have a noncylindrical tank. We look at a noncylindrical tank in the next
example.
We also need to know the distance the water must be lifted. Based on our choice of coordinate systems, we can use x
∗
i
as an
approximation of the distance the layer must be lifted. Then the work to lift the i layer of water W is approximately
th
i

∗
Wi ≈ 156, 800π x Δx.
i

Adding the work for each layer, we see the approximate work to empty the tank is given by
n

W = ∑ Wi

i=1

∗
≈ ∑ 156, 800π x Δx.
i

i=1

This is a Riemann sum, so taking the limit as n → ∞, we get

∗
W = lim ∑ 156, 800π x Δx
i
n→∞
i=1

= 156, 800π ∫ xdx

2 10
x ∣
= 156, 800π ( )∣ = 7, 526, 400π ≈ 23, 644, 883.
2 ∣
2

The work required to empty the tank is approximately 23,650,000 J.

For pumping problems, the calculations vary depending on the shape of the tank or container. The following problem-solving
strategy lays out a step-by-step process for solving pumping problems.

 Problem-Solving Strategy: Solving Pumping Problems

1. Sketch a picture of the tank and select an appropriate frame of reference.
2. Calculate the volume of a representative layer of water.
3. Multiply the volume by the weight-density of water to get the force.
4. Calculate the distance the layer of water must be lifted.
5. Multiply the force and distance to get an estimate of the work needed to lift the layer of water.

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6. Sum the work required to lift all the layers. This expression is an estimate of the work required to pump out the desired
amount of water, and it is in the form of a Riemann sum.
7. Take the limit as n → ∞ and evaluate the resulting integral to get the exact work required to pump out the desired amount
of water.

We now apply this problem-solving strategy in an example with a noncylindrical tank.

 Example 7.5.4: A Pumping Problem with a Noncylindrical Tank

Assume a tank in the shape of an inverted cone, with height 12 ft and base radius 4 ft. The tank is full to start with, and water
is pumped over the upper edge of the tank until the height of the water remaining in the tank is 4 ft. How much work is
required to pump out that amount of water?
Solution
The tank is depicted in Figure 7.5.7. As we did in the example with the cylindrical tank, we orient the x-axis vertically, with
the origin at the top of the tank and the downward direction being positive (step 1).

Figure 7.5.7 : A water tank in the shape of an inverted cone.

The tank starts out full and ends with 4 ft of water left, so, based on our chosen frame of reference, we need to partition the
interval [0, 8]. Then, for i = 0, 1, 2, … , n, let P = x be a regular partition of the interval [0, 8], and for i = 1, 2, … , n,
i

choose an arbitrary point x ∈ [x , x ] . We can approximate the volume of a layer by using a disk, then use similar triangles
∗
i i−1 i

to find the radius of the disk (Figure 7.5.8).

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Figure 7.5.8 : Using similar triangles to express the radius of a disk of water.
From properties of similar triangles, we have
ri 4 1
= = (step 1)
∗
12 − x 12 3
i

∗
3 ri = 12 − x
i

∗
12 − x
i
ri =
3

∗
x
i
=4− .
3

Then the volume of the disk is

∗ 2
x
i
Vi = π (4 − ) Δx. (step 2)
3

The weight-density of water is 62.4lb/ft3, so the force needed to lift each layer is approximately
∗ 2
x
i
Fi ≈ 62.4π (4 − ) Δx (step 3)
3

Based on the diagram, the distance the water must be lifted is approximately x feet (step 4), so the approximate work needed
∗
i

to lift the layer is

∗ 2
x
i
∗
Wi ≈ 62.4π x (4 − ) Δx. (step 5)
i
3

Summing the work required to lift all the layers, we get an approximate value of the total work:
n n ∗ 2
x
∗ i
W = ∑ Wi ≈ ∑ 62.4π x (4 − ) Δx. (step 6)
i
3
i=1 i=1

Taking the limit as n → ∞, we obtain

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n ∗
x
∗ i 2
W = lim ∑ 62.4π x (4 − ) Δx
i
n→∞ 3
i=1

8
2
x
=∫ 62.4πx (4 − ) dx
0 3

8 2 8 2 3
8x x 8x x
= 62.4π ∫ x (16 − + ) dx = 62.4π ∫ (16x − + ) dx
0
3 9 0
3 9

3 4 8
2
8x x ∣
= 62.4π [8 x − + ] ∣ = 10, 649.6π ≈ 33, 456.7.
9 36 ∣
0

It takes approximately 33, 450 ft-lb of work to empty the tank to the desired level.

 Exercise 7.5.4
A tank is in the shape of an inverted cone, with height 10 ft and base radius 6 ft. The tank is filled to a depth of 8 ft to start
with, and water is pumped over the upper edge of the tank until 3 ft of water remain in the tank. How much work is required to
pump out that amount of water?

Hint
Use the process from the previous example.
Solution
Approximately 43, 255.2ft-lb

Hydrostatic Force and Pressure

In this last section, we look at the force and pressure exerted on an object submerged in a liquid. In the English system, force is
measured in pounds. In the metric system, it is measured in newtons. Pressure is force per unit area, so in the English system we
have pounds per square foot (or, perhaps more commonly, pounds per square inch, denoted psi). In the metric system we have
newtons per square meter, also called pascals.
Let’s begin with the simple case of a plate of area A submerged horizontally in water at a depth s (Figure 7.5.9). Then, the force
exerted on the plate is simply the weight of the water above it, which is given by F = ρAs , where ρ is the weight density of water
(weight per unit volume). To find the hydrostatic pressure—that is, the pressure exerted by water on a submerged object—we
divide the force by the area. So the pressure is p = F /A = ρs .

Figure 7.5.9 : A plate submerged horizontally in water.

By Pascal’s principle, the pressure at a given depth is the same in all directions, so it does not matter if the plate is submerged
horizontally or vertically. So, as long as we know the depth, we know the pressure. We can apply Pascal’s principle to find the force
exerted on surfaces, such as dams, that are oriented vertically. We cannot apply the formula F = ρAs directly, because the depth
varies from point to point on a vertically oriented surface. So, as we have done many times before, we form a partition, a Riemann
sum, and, ultimately, a definite integral to calculate the force.

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Suppose a thin plate is submerged in water. We choose our frame of reference such that the x-axis is oriented vertically, with the
downward direction being positive, and point x = 0 corresponding to a logical reference point. Let s(x) denote the depth at point
x. Note we often let x = 0 correspond to the surface of the water. In this case, depth at any point is simply given by s(x) = x .
However, in some cases we may want to select a different reference point for x = 0 , so we proceed with the development in the
more general case. Last, let w(x) denote the width of the plate at the point x.
Assume the top edge of the plate is at point x = a and the bottom edge of the plate is at point x = b . Then, for i = 0, 1, 2, … , n ,
let P = x be a regular partition of the interval [a, b], and for i = 1, 2, … , n, choose an arbitrary point x
i
∗
i
∈ [ xi−1 , xi ] . The

partition divides the plate into several thin, rectangular strips (Figure 7.5.10).

Figure 7.5.10 : A thin plate submerged vertically in water.

Let’s now estimate the force on a representative strip. If the strip is thin enough, we can treat it as if it is at a constant depth, s(x ) . ∗
i

We then have
∗ ∗
Fi = ρAs = ρ[w(x )Δx]s(x ).
i i

Adding the forces, we get an estimate for the force on the plate:
n n

∗ ∗
F ≈ ∑ Fi = ∑ ρ[w(x )Δx]s(x ).
i i

i=1 i=1

This is a Riemann sum, so taking the limit gives us the exact force. We obtain
n b

∗ ∗
F = lim ∑ ρ[w(x )Δx]s(x ) = ∫ ρw(x)s(x)dx. (7.5.4)
i i
n→∞
a
i=1

Evaluating this integral gives us the force on the plate. We summarize this in the following problem-solving strategy.

 Problem-Solving Strategy: Finding Hydrostatic Force

1. Sketch a picture and select an appropriate frame of reference. (Note that if we select a frame of reference other than the one
used earlier, we may have to adjust Equation 7.5.4 accordingly.)
2. Determine the depth and width functions, s(x) and w(x).
3. Determine the weight-density of whatever liquid with which you are working. The weight-density of water is 62.4 lb/ft , 3

or 9800 N/m . 3

4. Use the equation to calculate the total force.

 Example 7.5.5: Finding Hydrostatic Force

A water trough 15 ft long has ends shaped like inverted isosceles triangles, with base 8 ft and height 3 ft. Find the force on one
end of the trough if the trough is full of water.
Solution
Figure 7.5.11 shows the trough and a more detailed view of one end.

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Figure 7.5.11 : (a) A water trough with a triangular cross-section. (b) Dimensions of one end of the water trough.

Select a frame of reference with the x-axis oriented vertically and the downward direction being positive. Select the top of the
trough as the point corresponding to x = 0 (step 1). The depth function, then, is s(x) = x . Using similar triangles, we see that
w(x) = 8 − (8/3)x (step 2). Now, the weight density of water is 62.4 lb/ft (step 3), so applying Equation 7.5.4, we obtain
3

F =∫ ρw(x)s(x)dx
a

3 3
8 8 2
=∫ 62.4 (8 − x) x dx = 62.4 ∫ (8x − x ) dx
0
3 0
3

2
8 3
∣
= 62.4 [4 x − x ]∣ = 748.8.
9 ∣
0

The water exerts a force of 748.8 lb on the end of the trough (step 4).

 Exercise 7.5.5

A water trough 12 m long has ends shaped like inverted isosceles triangles, with base 6 m and height 4 m. Find the force on
one end of the trough if the trough is full of water.

Hint
Follow the problem-solving strategy and the process from the previous example.
Solution
156, 800 N

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 Example 7.5.6: Finding Hydrostatic Force
We now return our attention to the Hoover Dam, mentioned at the beginning of this chapter. The actual dam is arched, rather
than flat, but we are going to make some simplifying assumptions to help us with the calculations. Assume the face of the
Hoover Dam is shaped like an isosceles trapezoid with lower base 750 ft, upper base 1250 ft, and height 750 ft (see the
following figure).

When the reservoir is full, Lake Mead’s maximum depth is about 530 ft, and the surface of the lake is about 10 ft below the top
of the dam (see the following figure).

Figure 7.5.12 : A simplified model of the Hoover Dam with assumed dimensions.
a. Find the force on the face of the dam when the reservoir is full.
b. The southwest United States has been experiencing a drought, and the surface of Lake Mead is about 125 ft below where it
would be if the reservoir were full. What is the force on the face of the dam under these circumstances?
Solution:
a.
We begin by establishing a frame of reference. As usual, we choose to orient the x-axis vertically, with the downward direction
being positive. This time, however, we are going to let x = 0 represent the top of the dam, rather than the surface of the water.
When the reservoir is full, the surface of the water is 10 ft below the top of the dam, so s(x) = x − 10 (see the following
figure).

Figure 7.5.13 : We first choose a frame of reference.

To find the width function, we again turn to similar triangles as shown in the figure below.

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Figure 7.5.14 : We use similar triangles to determine a function for the width of the dam. (a) Assumed dimensions of the dam;
(b) highlighting the similar triangles.
From the figure, we see that w(x) = 750 + 2r. Using properties of similar triangles, we get r = 250 − (1/3)x . Thus,
2
w(x) = 1250 − x (step 2)
3

Using a weight-density of 62.4lb/ft3 (step 3) and applying Equation 7.5.4, we get

F =∫ ρw(x)s(x) dx
a

540
2
=∫ 62.4 (1250 − x) (x − 10) dx
10
3

540
2 2
= 62.4 ∫ − [x − 1885x + 18750] dx
10
3

3 2 540
2 x 1885x ∣
= −62.4 ( )[ − + 18750x] ∣ ≈ 8, 832, 245, 000 lb = 4, 416, 122.5 t.
3 3 2 ∣
10

Note the change from pounds to tons (2000lb = 1 ton) (step 4). This changes our depth function, s(x), and our limits of
integration. We have s(x) = x − 135 . The lower limit of integration is 135. The upper limit remains 540. Evaluating the
integral, we get
b

F =∫ ρw(x)s(x) dx
a

540
2
=∫ 62.4 (1250 − x) (x − 135) dx
135 3

540 540
2 2
2
= −62.4( )∫ (x − 1875)(x − 135) dx = −62.4 ( )∫ (x − 2010x + 253125) dx
3 135
3 135

3 540
2 x ∣
2
= −62.4 ( )[ − 1005 x + 253125x] ∣ ≈ 5, 015, 230, 000 lb = 2, 507, 615 t.
3 3 ∣
135

 Exercise 7.5.6
When the reservoir is at its average level, the surface of the water is about 50 ft below where it would be if the reservoir were
full. What is the force on the face of the dam under these circumstances?

Hint
Change the depth function, s(x), and the limits of integration.
Solution
Approximately 7,164,520,000 lb or 3,582,260 t

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Key Concepts
Several physical applications of the definite integral are common in engineering and physics.
Definite integrals can be used to determine the mass of an object if its density function is known.
Work can also be calculated from integrating a force function, or when counteracting the force of gravity, as in a pumping
problem.
Definite integrals can also be used to calculate the force exerted on an object submerged in a liquid.

Key Equations
Mass of a one-dimensional object
b

m =∫ ρ(x)dx
a

Mass of a circular object

m =∫ 2πxρ(x)dx
0

Work done on an object

W =∫ F (x)dx
a

Hydrostatic force on a plate

F =∫ ρw(x)s(x)dx
a

Glossary
density function
a density function describes how mass is distributed throughout an object; it can be a linear density, expressed in terms of mass
per unit length; an area density, expressed in terms of mass per unit area; or a volume density, expressed in terms of mass per
unit volume; weight-density is also used to describe weight (rather than mass) per unit volume
Hooke’s law
this law states that the force required to compress (or elongate) a spring is proportional to the distance the spring has been
compressed (or stretched) from equilibrium; in other words, F = kx , where k is a constant
hydrostatic pressure
the pressure exerted by water on a submerged object
work
the amount of energy it takes to move an object; in physics, when a force is constant, work is expressed as the product of force
and distance

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7.5E: Exercises
Basic Work Problems
For exercises 1 - 6, find the work done.
1) Find the work done when a constant force F = 12 lb moves a chair from x = 0.9 to x = 1.1 ft.
2) How much work is done when a person lifts a 50 lb box of comics onto a truck that is 3 ft off the ground?

Answer
W = 150 ft-lb

3) What is the work done lifting a 20 kg child from the floor to a height of 2 m? (Note that 1 kg equates to 9.8 N)
4) Find the work done when you push a box along the floor 2 m, when you apply a constant force of F = 100 N.

Answer
W = 200 J

12
5) Compute the work done for a force F =
2
N from x = 1 to x = 2 m.
x

6) What is the work done moving a particle from x = 0 to x = 1 m if the force acting on it is F = 3x
2
N?

Answer
W =1 J

Density Problems
In exercises 7 - 11, find the mass of the one-dimensional object.
7) A wire that is 2 ft long (starting at x = 0 ) and has a density function of ρ(x) = x 2
+ 2x lb/ft
8) A car antenna that is 3 ft long (starting at x = 0) and has a density function of ρ(x) = 3x + 2 lb/ft

Answer
39

9) A metal rod that is 8 in. long (starting at x = 0 ) and has a density function of ρ(x) = e 1/2x
lb/in.
5
10) A pencil that is 4 in. long (starting at x = 2 ) and has a density function of ρ(x) = oz/in.
x

Answer
ln(243)

11) A ruler that is 12 in. long (starting at x = 5 ) and has a density function of ρ(x) = ln(x) + (1/2)x oz/in. 2

In exercises 12 - 16, find the mass of the two-dimensional object that is centered at the origin.
12) An oversized hockey puck of radius 2 in. with density function ρ(x) = x 3
− 2x + 5

Answer
332π

13) A frisbee of radius 6 in. with density function ρ(x) = e −x

14) A plate of radius 10 in. with density function ρ(x) = 1 + cos(πx)

Answer
100π

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15) A jar lid of radius 3 in. with density function ρ(x) = ln(x + 1)
−−
16) A disk of radius 5 cm with density function ρ(x) = √3x

Answer
−−
20π √15

Spring Work Problems

17) A 12-in. spring is stretched to 15 in. by a force of 75 lb. What is the spring constant?
18) A spring has a natural length of 10 cm. It takes 2 J to stretch the spring to 15 cm. How much work would it take to stretch the
spring from 15 cm to 20 cm?

Answer
W =6 J

19) A 1-m spring requires 10 J to stretch the spring to 1.1 m. How much work would it take to stretch the spring from 1 m to 1.2

m?
20) A spring requires 5 J to stretch the spring from 8 cm to 12 cm, and an additional 4 J to stretch the spring from 12 cm to 14 cm.
What is the natural length of the spring?

Answer
The natural length is5 cm.

21) A shock absorber is compressed 1 in. by a weight of 1 ton. What is the spring constant?
22) A force of F = (20x − x )
3
N stretches a nonlinear spring by x meters. What work is required to stretch the spring from x = 0
to x = 2 m?

Answer
W = 36 J

Cable and Chain Work Problems

23) Find the work done by winding up a hanging cable of length 100 ft and weight-density 5 lb/ft.
24) For the cable in the preceding exercise, how much work is done to lift the cable 50 ft?

Answer
W = 18, 750 ft-lb

25) For the cable in the preceding exercise, how much additional work is done by hanging a 200 lb weight at the end of the cable?

Pyramid & Satellite/Rocket Work Problems

26) [T] A pyramid of height 500 ft has a square base 800 ft by 800 ft. Find the area A at height h . If the rock used to build the
pyramid weighs approximately w = 100 lb/ft , how much work did it take to lift all the rock?
3

Answer
W =
32

3
× 10
9
ft-lb

27) [T] For the pyramid in the preceding exercise, assume there were 1000 workers each working 10 hours a day, 5 days a week,
50 weeks a year. If each of the workers, on average, lifted ten 100-lb rocks 2 ft/hr, how long did it take to build the pyramid?

28) [T] The force of gravity on a mass m is F = −((GM m)/x ) newtons. For a rocket of mass m = 1000 kg, compute the work
2

to lift the rocket from x = 6400 to x = 6500 km. (Note: G = 6 × 10 N m / kg and M = 6 × 10 kg.)
−17 2 2 24

Answer
W = 8.65 × 10
5
J

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29) [T] For the rocket in the preceding exercise, find the work to lift the rocket from x = 6400 to x = ∞ .

Hydrostatic Force and Pressure

30) [T] A rectangular dam is 40 ft high and 60 ft wide. Compute the total force F on the dam when
a. the surface of the water is at the top of the dam and
b. the surface of the water is halfway down the dam.

Answer
a. 3, 000, 000lb,
b. 749, 000lb

Pumping Work Problems

31) [T] Find the work required to pump all the water out of a cylinder that has a circular base of radius 5ft and height 200 ft. Use
the fact that the density of water is 62 lb/ft3.
32) [T] Find the work required to pump all the water out of the cylinder in the preceding exercise if the cylinder is only half full.

Answer
W = 23.25π million ft-lb

33) [T] How much work is required to pump out a swimming pool if the area of the base is 800 ft , the water is 4 ft deep, and the
2

top is 1 ft above the water level? Assume that the density of water is 62 lb/ft3.
34) A cylinder of depth H and cross-sectional area A stands full of water at density ρ. Compute the work to pump all the water to
the top.

Answer
2
AρH
W =
2

35) For the cylinder in the preceding exercise, compute the work to pump all the water to the top if the cylinder is only half full.
2 2
πr h
36) A cone-shaped tank has a cross-sectional area that increases with its depth: A = . Show that the work to empty it is half
H3
the work for a cylinder with the same height and base.

Answer
Answers may vary.

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7.6: Moments and Centers of Mass
 Learning Objectives
Find the center of mass of objects distributed along a line.
Locate the center of mass of a thin plate.
Use symmetry to help locate the centroid of a thin plate.
Apply the theorem of Pappus for volume.

In this section, we consider centers of mass (also called centroids, under certain conditions) and moments. The basic idea of the
center of mass is the notion of a balancing point. Many of us have seen performers who spin plates on the ends of sticks. The
performers try to keep several of them spinning without allowing any of them to drop. If we look at a single plate (without spinning
it), there is a sweet spot on the plate where it balances perfectly on the stick. If we put the stick anywhere other than that sweet
spot, the plate does not balance and it falls to the ground. (That is why performers spin the plates; the spin helps keep the plates
from falling even if the stick is not exactly in the right place.) Mathematically, that sweet spot is called the center of mass of the
plate.
In this section, we first examine these concepts in a one-dimensional context, then expand our development to consider centers of
mass of two-dimensional regions and symmetry. Last, we use centroids to find the volume of certain solids by applying the theorem
of Pappus.

Center of Mass and Moments

Let’s begin by looking at the center of mass in a one-dimensional context. Consider a long, thin wire or rod of negligible mass
resting on a fulcrum, as shown in Figure 7.6.1a. Now suppose we place objects having masses m and m at distances d and d
1 2 1 2

from the fulcrum, respectively, as shown in Figure 7.6.1b.

Figure 7.6.1 : (a) A thin rod rests on a fulcrum. (b) Masses are placed on the rod.
The most common real-life example of a system like this is a playground seesaw, or teeter-totter, with children of different weights
sitting at different distances from the center. On a seesaw, if one child sits at each end, the heavier child sinks down and the lighter
child is lifted into the air. If the heavier child slides in toward the center, though, the seesaw balances. Applying this concept to the
masses on the rod, we note that the masses balance each other if and only if

m 1 d1 = m2 d2 .

Figure 7.6.2 : The center of mass x̄ is the balance point of the system.
In the seesaw example, we balanced the system by moving the masses (children) with respect to the fulcrum. However, we are
really interested in systems in which the masses are not allowed to move, and instead we balance the system by moving the

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fulcrum. Suppose we have two point masses, m and m , located on a number line at points x and x , respectively (Figure 7.6.2).
1 2 1 2

The center of mass, x̄, is the point where the fulcrum should be placed to make the system balance.
Thus, we have

m1 | x1 − x̄| = m2 | x2 − x̄|

m1 (x̄ − x1 ) = m2 (x2 − x̄)

m1 x̄ − m1 x1 = m2 x2 − m2 x̄

x̄(m1 + m2 ) = m1 x1 + m2 x2

or
m1 x1 + m2 x2
x̄ = (7.6.1)
m1 + m 2

The expression in the numerator of Equation 7.6.1, m x + m x , is called the first moment of the system with respect to the
1 1 2 2

origin. If the context is clear, we often drop the word first and just refer to this expression as the moment of the system. The
expression in the denominator, m + m , is the total mass of the system. Thus, the center of mass of the system is the point at
1 2

which the total mass of the system could be concentrated without changing the moment.
This idea is not limited just to two point masses. In general, if n masses, m , m 1 2, … , mn , are placed on a number line at points
x , x , … , x , respectively, then the center of mass of the system is given by
1 2 n

∑ mi xi

i=1
x̄ =
n

∑ mi

i=1

 Center of Mass of Objects on a Line

Let m 1 , m 2 , … , mn be point masses placed on a number line at points x1 , x2 , … , xn , respectively, and let m = ∑ mi

i=1

denote the total mass of the system. Then, the moment of the system with respect to the origin is given by
n

M = ∑ mi xi (7.6.2)

i=1

and the center of mass of the system is given by

M
x̄ = . (7.6.3)
m

We apply this theorem in the following example.

 Example 7.6.1: Finding the Center of Mass of Objects along a Line

Suppose four point masses are placed on a number line as follows:

m1 = 30 kg, placed at x = −2m
1

m2 = 5 kg, placed at x = 3m
2

m3 = 10 kg, placed at x = 6m
3

m4 = 15 kg, placed at x = −3m.

Solution
Find the moment of the system with respect to the origin and find the center of mass of the system.
First, we need to calculate the moment of the system (Equation 7.6.2):

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M = ∑ mi xi

i=1

= −60 + 15 + 60 − 45

= −30.

Now, to find the center of mass, we need the total mass of the system:
4

m = ∑ mi

i=1

= 30 + 5 + 10 + 15

= 60 kg

Then we have (from Equation 7.6.3)

M 30 1
x̄– = =− =− .
m 60 2

The center of mass is located 1/2 m to the left of the origin.

 Exercise 7.6.1
Suppose four point masses are placed on a number line as follows:
m1 = 12 kg placed at x
1 = −4m

m2 = 12 kg placed at x
2 = 4m

m3 = 30 kg placed at x
3 = 2m

m4 = 6 kg, placed at x
4 = −6m.

Find the moment of the system with respect to the origin and find the center of mass of the system.

Hint
Use the process from the previous example.

Answer
2
M = 24, x̄ = m
5

We can generalize this concept to find the center of mass of a system of point masses in a plane. Let m be a point mass located at 1

point (x , y ) in the plane. Then the moment M of the mass with respect to the x-axis is given by M = m y . Similarly, the
1 1 x x 1 1

moment M with respect to the y -axis is given by

My = m1 x1 .

Notice that the x-coordinate of the point is used to calculate the moment with respect to the y -axis, and vice versa. The reason is
that the x-coordinate gives the distance from the point mass to the y -axis, and the y -coordinate gives the distance to the x-axis (see
the following figure).

Figure 7.6.3 : Point mass m is located at point (x

1 1, y1 ) in the plane.
If we have several point masses in the xy-plane, we can use the moments with respect to the x- and y -axes to calculate the x- and
y -coordinates of the center of mass of the system.

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 Center of Mass of Objects in a Plane

Let m1 , m2 , …, mn be point masses located in the xy -plane at points (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), … , (xn , yn ), respectively, and let
n

m = ∑ mi denote the total mass of the system. Then the moments M and M of the system with respect to the x- and y -
x y

i=1

axes, respectively, are given by

Mx = ∑ mi yi (7.6.4)

i=1

and
n

My = ∑ mi xi . (7.6.5)

i=1

Also, the coordinates of the center of mass (x̄, ȳ ) of the system are
My
x̄ = (7.6.6)
m

and
Mx
ȳ = . (7.6.7)
m

The next example demonstrates how to the center of mass formulas (Equations 7.6.4 - 7.6.7) may be applied.

 Example 7.6.2: Finding the Center of Mass of Objects in a Plane

Suppose three point masses are placed in the xy-plane as follows (assume coordinates are given in meters):
m1 = 2 kg placed at (−1, 3),
m2 = 6 kg placed at (1, 1),
m3 = 4 kg placed at (2, −2).
Find the center of mass of the system.
Solution
First we calculate the total mass of the system:
3

m = ∑ mi = 2 + 6 + 4 = 12 kg.

i=1

Next we find the moments with respect to the x- and y -axes:

My = ∑ mi xi = −2 + 6 + 8 = 12,

i=1

Mx = ∑ mi yi = 6 + 6 − 8 = 4.

i=1

Then we have
My 12
x̄ = = =1
m 12

and
Mx 4 1
ȳ = = = .
m 12 3

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The center of mass of the system is (1, 1/3), in meters.

 Exercise 7.6.2

Suppose three point masses are placed on a number line as follows (assume coordinates are given in meters):
m1 = 5 kg, placed at (−2, −3),
m2 = 3 kg, placed at (2, 3),
m3 = 2 kg, placed at (−3, −2).
Find the center of mass of the system.

Hint
Use the process from the previous example.

Answer
(−1, −1) m

Center of Mass of Thin Plates

So far we have looked at systems of point masses on a line and in a plane. Now, instead of having the mass of a system
concentrated at discrete points, we want to look at systems in which the mass of the system is distributed continuously across a thin
sheet of material. For our purposes, we assume the sheet is thin enough that it can be treated as if it is two-dimensional. Such a
sheet is called a lamina. Next we develop techniques to find the center of mass of a lamina. In this section, we also assume the
density of the lamina is constant.
Laminas are often represented by a two-dimensional region in a plane. The geometric center of such a region is called its centroid.
Since we have assumed the density of the lamina is constant, the center of mass of the lamina depends only on the shape of the
corresponding region in the plane; it does not depend on the density. In this case, the center of mass of the lamina corresponds to
the centroid of the delineated region in the plane. As with systems of point masses, we need to find the total mass of the lamina, as
well as the moments of the lamina with respect to the x- and y -axes.
We first consider a lamina in the shape of a rectangle. Recall that the center of mass of a lamina is the point where the lamina
balances. For a rectangle, that point is both the horizontal and vertical center of the rectangle. Based on this understanding, it is
clear that the center of mass of a rectangular lamina is the point where the diagonals intersect, which is a result of the symmetry
principle, and it is stated here without proof.

 The Symmetry Principle

If a region R is symmetric about a line l, then the centroid of R lies on l.

Let’s turn to more general laminas. Suppose we have a lamina bounded above by the graph of a continuous function f (x) , below
by the x-axis, and on the left and right by the lines x = a and x = b , respectively, as shown in the following figure.

Figure 7.6.4 : A region in the plane representing a lamina.

As with systems of point masses, to find the center of mass of the lamina, we need to find the total mass of the lamina, as well as
the moments of the lamina with respect to the x- and y -axes. As we have done many times before, we approximate these quantities
by partitioning the interval [a, b] and constructing rectangles.

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For i = 0, 1, 2, … , n, let P = x be a regular partition of [a, b]. Recall that we can choose any point within the interval [x , x ]
i i−1 i

as our x . In this case, we want x to be the x-coordinate of the centroid of our rectangles. Thus, for i = 1, 2, … , n, we select
∗
i
∗
i

, x ] such that x is the midpoint of the interval. That is, x = (x + x )/2 . Now, for i = 1, 2, … , n, construct a
∗ ∗ ∗
x ∈ [x i−1 i i−1 i
i i i

rectangle of height f (x ) on [x , x ]. The center of mass of this rectangle is (x , (f (x ))/2), as shown in the following figure.
∗
i i−1 i
∗
i
∗
i

Figure 7.6.5 : A representative rectangle of the lamina.

Next, we need to find the total mass of the rectangle. Let ρ represent the density of the lamina (note that ρ is a constant). In this
case, ρ is expressed in terms of mass per unit area. Thus, to find the total mass of the rectangle, we multiply the area of the
rectangle by ρ. Then, the mass of the rectangle is given by ρf (x )Δx. ∗
i

To get the approximate mass of the lamina, we add the masses of all the rectangles to get
n

∗
m ≈ ∑ ρf (x )Δx. (7.6.8)
i

i=1

Equation 7.6.8 is a Riemann sum. Taking the limit as n → ∞ gives the exact mass of the lamina:
n

∗
m = lim ∑ ρf (x )Δx
i
n→∞
i=1

=ρ∫ f (x)dx.
a

Next, we calculate the moment of the lamina with respect to the x-axis. Returning to the representative rectangle, recall its center of
mass is (x , (f (x ))/2). Recall also that treating the rectangle as if it is a point mass located at the center of mass does not change
∗
i
∗
i

the moment. Thus, the moment of the rectangle with respect to the x-axis is given by the mass of the rectangle, ρf (x )Δx, ∗
i

multiplied by the distance from the center of mass to the x-axis: (f (x ))/2. Therefore, the moment with respect to the x-axis of the
∗
i

rectangle is ρ([f (x )] /2)Δx. Adding the moments of the rectangles and taking the limit of the resulting Riemann sum, we see
∗
i
2

that the moment of the lamina with respect to the x-axis is

n ∗ 2
[f (x )]
i
Mx = lim ∑ ρ Δx
n→∞ 2
i=1

b 2
[f (x)]
=ρ∫ dx.
a
2

We derive the moment with respect to the y-axis similarly, noting that the distance from the center of mass of the rectangle to the y-
axis is x . Then the moment of the lamina with respect to the y-axis is given by
∗
i

∗ ∗
My = lim ∑ ρx f (x )i)Δx
i
n→∞
i=1

=ρ∫ xf (x)dx.
a

We find the coordinates of the center of mass by dividing the moments by the total mass to give x̄ = M /m and ȳ = M /m . If y x

we look closely at the expressions for M , M , and m, we notice that the constant ρ cancels out when x̄ and ȳ are calculated.
x y

We summarize these findings in the following theorem.

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 Center of Mass of a Thin Plate in the xy-Plane
Let R denote a region bounded above by the graph of a continuous function f (x), below by the x-axis, and on the left and right
by the lines x = a and x = b , respectively. Let ρ denote the density of the associated lamina. Then we can make the following
statements:
i. The mass of the lamina is
b

m =ρ∫ f (x)dx. (7.6.9)

ii. The moments M and M of the lamina with respect to the x- and y-axes, respectively, are
x y

b 2
[f (x)]
Mx = ρ ∫ dx (7.6.10)
a
2

and
b

My = ρ ∫ xf (x)dx. (7.6.11)
a

iii. The coordinates of the center of mass (x̄, ȳ ) are

My
x̄ = (7.6.12)
m

and
Mx
ȳ = . (7.6.13)
m

In the next example, we use this theorem to find the center of mass of a lamina.

 Example 7.6.3: Finding the Center of Mass of a Lamina

−
Let R be the region bounded above by the graph of the function f (x) = √x and below by the x-axis over the interval .
[0, 4]

Find the centroid of the region.

Solution
The region is depicted in the following figure.

Figure 7.6.6 : Finding the center of mass of a lamina.

Since we are only asked for the centroid of the region, rather than the mass or moments of the associated lamina, we know the
density constant ρ cancels out of the calculations eventually. Therefore, for the sake of convenience, let’s assume ρ = 1 .
First, we need to calculate the total mass (Equation 7.6.9):

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m =ρ∫ f (x)dx
a

4
−
=∫ √x dx
0

4
2 ∣
3/2
= x ∣
3 ∣
0

2
= [8 − 0]
3

16
= .
3

Next, we compute the moments (Equation 7.6.12):

b 2
[f (x)]
Mx = ρ ∫ dx
a 2

4
x
=∫ dx
0
2

4
1 2∣
= x ∣
4 ∣0

and (Equation 7.6.11):

My = ρ ∫ xf (x)dx
a

4
−
=∫ x √x dx
0

4
3/2
=∫ x dx
0

4
2 ∣
5/2
= x ∣
5 ∣
0

2
= [32 − 0]
5

64
= .
5

Thus, we have (Equation 7.6.12):

My
x̄ =
m

64/5
=
16/3

64 3
= ⋅
5 16

12
=
5

and (Equation 7.6.13):

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Mx
ȳ =
y

4
=
16/3

3
=4⋅
16

3
= .
4

The centroid of the region is (12/5, 3/4).

 Exercise 7.6.3

Let R be the region bounded above by the graph of the function 2

f (x) = x and below by the x-axis over the interval [0, 2].

Find the centroid of the region.

Hint
Use the process from the previous example.

Answer
The centroid of the region is (3/2, 6/5).

We can adapt this approach to find centroids of more complex regions as well. Suppose our region is bounded above by the graph
of a continuous function f (x), as before, but now, instead of having the lower bound for the region be the x-axis, suppose the
region is bounded below by the graph of a second continuous function, g(x), as shown in Figure 7.6.7.

Figure 7.6.7 : A region between two functions.

Again, we partition the interval [a, b] and construct rectangles. A representative rectangle is shown in Figure 7.6.8.

Figure 7.6.8 : A representative rectangle of the region between two functions.

Note that the centroid of this rectangle is (x , (f (x ) + g(x ))/2) . We won’t go through all the details of the Riemann sum
∗
i
∗
i
∗
i

development, but let’s look at some of the key steps. In the development of the formulas for the mass of the lamina and the moment
with respect to the y-axis, the height of each rectangle is given by f (x ) − g(x ) , which leads to the expression f (x) − g(x) in the
∗
i
∗
i

integrands.
In the development of the formula for the moment with respect to the x-axis, the moment of each rectangle is found by multiplying
the area of the rectangle, ρ[f (x ) − g(x )]Δx, by the distance of the centroid from the x-axis, (f (x ) + g(x ))/2 , which gives
∗
i
∗
i
∗
i
∗
i

ρ(1/2)[f (x )] − [g(x )] Δx . Summarizing these findings, we arrive at the following theorem.

∗ 2 ∗ 2
i i

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 Center of Mass of a Lamina Bounded by Two Functions
Let R denote a region bounded above by the graph of a continuous function f (x), below by the graph of the continuous
function g(x), and on the left and right by the lines x = a and x = b , respectively. Let ρ denote the density of the associated
lamina. Then we can make the following statements:
i. The mass of the lamina is
b

m =ρ∫ [f (x) − g(x)]dx.

ii. The moments M and M of the lamina with respect to the x- and y-axes, respectively, are
x y

b
2 2
Mx = ρ ∫ 12([f (x)] − [g(x)] )dx
a

and
b

My = ρ ∫ x[f (x) − g(x)]dx.

iii. The coordinates of the center of mass x̄, ȳ ) are

My
x̄ =
m

and
Mx
ȳ =
m

We illustrate this theorem in the following example.

 Example 7.6.4: Finding the Centroid of a Region Bounded by Two Functions

Let R be the region bounded above by the graph of the function f (x) = 1 − x
2
and below by the graph of the function
g(x) = x − 1. Find the centroid of the region.

Solution
The region is depicted in the following figure.

Figure 7.6.9 : Finding the centroid of a region between two curves.

The graphs of the functions intersect at (−2, −3) and (1, 0) , so we integrate from −2 to 1. Once again, for the sake of
convenience, assume ρ = 1 .
First, we need to calculate the total mass:

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m =ρ∫ [f (x) − g(x)]dx

1
2
=∫ [1 − x − (x − 1)]dx
−2

1
2
=∫ (2 − x − x)dx
−2

1
1 1 ∣
3 2
= [2x − x − x ]∣
3 2 ∣
−2

1 1 8
= [2 − − ] − [−4 + − 2]
3 2 3

9
= .
2

Next, we compute the moments:

b
1
2 2
Mx = ρ ∫ ([f (x)] − [g(x)] )dx
a 2

1
1
2 2 2
= ∫ ((1 − x ) − (x − 1 ) )dx
2 −2

1
1
4 2
= ∫ (x − 3x + 2x)dx
2 −2

5 1
1 x ∣
3 2
= [ −x + x ]∣
2 5 ∣
−2

27
=−
10

and
b

My = ρ ∫ x[f (x) − g(x)]dx

1
2
=∫ x[(1 − x ) − (x − 1)]dx
−2

1
2
=∫ x[2 − x − x]dx
−2

1
4 2
=∫ (2x − x − x )dx
−2

5 3 1
x x ∣
2
= [x − − ]∣
5 3 ∣
−2

9
=− .
4

Therefore, we have

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My
x̄ =
m

9 2
=− ⋅
4 9

1
=−
2

and
Mx
ȳ =
y

27 2
=− ⋅
10 9

3
=− .
5

The centroid of the region is (−(1/2), −(3/5)).

 Exercise 7.6.4

Let be the region bounded above by the graph of the function

R f (x) = 6 − x
2
and below by the graph of the function
g(x) = 3 − 2x. Find the centroid of the region.

Hint
Use the process from the previous example.

Answer
The centroid of the region is (1, 13/5).

The Symmetry Principle

We stated the symmetry principle earlier, when we were looking at the centroid of a rectangle. The symmetry principle can be a
great help when finding centroids of regions that are symmetric. Consider the following example.

 Example 7.6.5: Finding the Centroid of a Symmetric Region

Let R be the region bounded above by the graph of the function f (x) = 4 − x and below by the x-axis. Find the centroid of
2

the region.
Solution
The region is depicted in the following figure

Figure 7.6.10 : We can use the symmetry principle to help find the centroid of a symmetric region.
The region is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. Therefore, the x-coordinate of the centroid is zero. We need only calculate
ȳ . Once again, for the sake of convenience, assume ρ = 1 .

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First, we calculate the total mass:
b

m =ρ∫ f (x)dx
a

2
2
=∫ (4 − x )dx
−2

2
3
x ∣
= [4x − ]∣
3 ∣−2

32
= .
3

Next, we calculate the moments. We only need M : x

b 2
[f (x)]
Mx = ρ ∫ dx
a
2

2 2
1 2 1
2 2 4
= ∫ [4 − x ] dx = ∫ (16 − 8 x + x )dx
2 −2
2 −2

5 3
1 x 8x 256
2
= [ − + 16x] ∣ =
−2
2 5 3 15

Then we have
Mx 256 3 8
ȳ = = ⋅ = .
y 15 32 5

The centroid of the region is (0, 8/5).

 Exercise 7.6.5
Let R be the region bounded above by the graph of the function f (x) = 1 − x and below by x-axis. Find the centroid of the 2

region.

Hint
Use the process from the previous example.

Answer
The centroid of the region is (0, 2/5).

 The Grand Canyon Skywalk

The Grand Canyon Skywalk opened to the public on March 28, 2007. This engineering marvel is a horseshoe-shaped
observation platform suspended 4000 ft above the Colorado River on the West Rim of the Grand Canyon. Its crystal-clear glass
floor allows stunning views of the canyon below (see the following figure).

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Figure 7.6.11 : The Grand Canyon Skywalk offers magnificent views of the canyon. (credit: 10da_ralta, Wikimedia Commons)
The Skywalk is a cantilever design, meaning that the observation platform extends over the rim of the canyon, with no visible
means of support below it. Despite the lack of visible support posts or struts, cantilever structures are engineered to be very
stable and the Skywalk is no exception. The observation platform is attached firmly to support posts that extend 46 ft down
into bedrock. The structure was built to withstand 100-mph winds and an 8.0-magnitude earthquake within 50 mi, and is
capable of supporting more than 70,000,000 lb.
One factor affecting the stability of the Skywalk is the center of gravity of the structure. We are going to calculate the center of
gravity of the Skywalk, and examine how the center of gravity changes when tourists walk out onto the observation platform.
The observation platform is U-shaped. The legs of the U are 10 ft wide and begin on land, under the visitors’ center, 48 ft from
the edge of the canyon. The platform extends 70 ft over the edge of the canyon.
To calculate the center of mass of the structure, we treat it as a lamina and use a two-dimensional region in the xy-plane to
represent the platform. We begin by dividing the region into three subregions so we can consider each subregion separately.
The first region, denoted R , consists of the curved part of the U. We model R as a semicircular annulus, with inner radius 25
1 1

ft and outer radius 35 ft, centered at the origin (Figure 7.6.12).

Figure 7.6.12 : We model the Skywalk with three sub-regions.

The legs of the platform, extending 35 ft between R and the canyon wall, comprise the second sub-region, R . Last, the ends
1 2

of the legs, which extend 48 ft under the visitor center, comprise the third sub-region, R . Assume the density of the lamina is
3

constant and assume the total weight of the platform is 1,200,000 lb (not including the weight of the visitor center; we will
consider that later). Use g = 32 f t/sec .
2

1. Compute the area of each of the three sub-regions. Note that the areas of regions R and R should include the areas of the
2 3

legs only, not the open space between them. Round answers to the nearest square foot.

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2. Determine the mass associated with each of the three sub-regions.
3. Calculate the center of mass of each of the three sub-regions.
4. Now, treat each of the three sub-regions as a point mass located at the center of mass of the corresponding sub-region.
Using this representation, calculate the center of mass of the entire platform.
5. Assume the visitor center weighs 2,200,000 lb, with a center of mass corresponding to the center of mass of R .Treating 3

the visitor center as a point mass, recalculate the center of mass of the system. How does the center of mass change?
6. Although the Skywalk was built to limit the number of people on the observation platform to 120, the platform is capable
of supporting up to 800 people weighing 200 lb each. If all 800 people were allowed on the platform, and all of them went
to the farthest end of the platform, how would the center of gravity of the system be affected? (Include the visitor center in
the calculations and represent the people by a point mass located at the farthest edge of the platform, 70 ft from the canyon
wall.)

Theorem of Pappus
This section ends with a discussion of the theorem of Pappus for volume, which allows us to find the volume of particular kinds of
solids by using the centroid. (There is also a theorem of Pappus for surface area, but it is much less useful than the theorem for
volume.)

 Theorem of Pappus for Volume

Let R be a region in the plane and let l be a line in the plane that does not intersect R . Then the volume of the solid of
revolution formed by revolving R around l is equal to the area of R multiplied by the distance d traveled by the centroid of R .

 Proof
We can prove the case when the region is bounded above by the graph of a function f (x) and below by the graph of a function
g(x) over an interval [a, b], and for which the axis of revolution is the y -axis. In this case, the area of the region is
b

A =∫ [f (x) − g(x)] dx . Since the axis of rotation is the y -axis, the distance traveled by the centroid of the region depends
a

only on the x-coordinate of the centroid, x̄, which is

My
x = ,
m

where
b

m =ρ∫ [f (x) − g(x)]dx

and
b

My = ρ ∫ x[f (x) − g(x)]dx.

Then,
b

ρ∫ x[f (x) − g(x)]dx

a
d = 2π
b

ρ∫ [f (x) − g(x)]dx
a

and thus
b

d ⋅ A = 2π ∫ x[f (x) − g(x)]dx.

However, using the method of cylindrical shells, we have

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V = 2π ∫ x[f (x) − g(x)]dx.

So,

V =d⋅A

and the proof is complete.

□

 Example 7.6.6: Using the Theorem of Pappus for Volume

Let R be a circle of radius 2 centered at (4, 0). Use the theorem of Pappus for volume to find the volume of the torus generated
by revolving R around the y -axis.
Solution
The region and torus are depicted in the following figure.

Figure 7.6.13 : Determining the volume of a torus by using the theorem of Pappus. (a) A circular region R in the plane; (b) the
torus generated by revolving R about the y -axis.
The region R is a circle of radius 2, so the area of R is A = 4π units . By the symmetry principle, the centroid of R is the
2

center of the circle. The centroid travels around the y -axis in a circular path of radius 4, so the centroid travels d = 8π units.
Then, the volume of the torus is A ⋅ d = 32π units3. 2

 Exercise 7.6.6

Let R be a circle of radius 1 centered at (3, 0). Use the theorem of Pappus for volume to find the volume of the torus generated
by revolving R around the y -axis.

Hint
Use the process from the previous example.

Answer
6π
2
units3

Key Concepts
Mathematically, the center of mass of a system is the point at which the total mass of the system could be concentrated without
changing the moment. Loosely speaking, the center of mass can be thought of as the balancing point of the system.

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For point masses distributed along a number line, the moment of the system with respect to the origin is M = ∑ mi xi . For
i=1

point masses distributed in a plane, the moments of the system with respect to the x- and y -axes, respectively, are
n n

Mx = ∑ mi yi and M y = ∑ mi xi , respectively.
i=1 i=

For a lamina bounded above by a function f (x), the moments of the system with respect to the x- and y -axes, respectively, are
b 2 b
[f (x)]
Mx = ρ ∫ dx and M y =ρ∫ xf (x) dx.
a
2 a

The x- and y -coordinates of the center of mass can be found by dividing the moments around the y -axis and around the x-axis,
respectively, by the total mass. The symmetry principle says that if a region is symmetric with respect to a line, then the
centroid of the region lies on the line.
The theorem of Pappus for volume says that if a region is revolved around an external axis, the volume of the resulting solid is
equal to the area of the region multiplied by the distance traveled by the centroid of the region.

Key Equations
Mass of a lamina
b

m =ρ∫ f (x)dx
a

Moments of a lamina
b 2 b
[f (x)]
Mx = ρ ∫ dx and My = ρ ∫ xf (x) dx
a
2 a

Center of mass of a lamina

My Mx
x̄ = and ȳ =
m m

Glossary
center of mass
the point at which the total mass of the system could be concentrated without changing the moment

centroid
the centroid of a region is the geometric center of the region; laminas are often represented by regions in the plane; if the lamina
has a constant density, the center of mass of the lamina depends only on the shape of the corresponding planar region; in this
case, the center of mass of the lamina corresponds to the centroid of the representative region

lamina
a thin sheet of material; laminas are thin enough that, for mathematical purposes, they can be treated as if they are two-
dimensional

moment
n

if n masses are arranged on a number line, the moment of the system with respect to the origin is given by M = ∑ mi xi ; if,
i=1

instead, we consider a region in the plane, bounded above by a function f (x) over an interval [a, b], then the moments of the
b 2 b
[f (x)]
region with respect to the x - and y-axes are given by M x =ρ∫ dx and M
y =ρ∫ xf (x) dx , respectively
a
2 a

symmetry principle
the symmetry principle states that if a region R is symmetric about a line I , then the centroid of R lies on I

theorem of Pappus for volume

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this theorem states that the volume of a solid of revolution formed by revolving a region around an external axis is equal to the
area of the region multiplied by the distance traveled by the centroid of the region

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detailed edit history is available upon request.
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7.6E: Exercises
In exercises 1 - 6, calculate the center of mass for the collection of masses given.
1) m 1 =2 at x 1 =1 and m 2 =4 at x 2 =2

2) m 1 =1 at x 1 = −1 and m 2 =3 at x 2 =2

Answer
5
x =
4

3) m = 3 at x = 0, 1, 2, 6
4) Unit masses at (x, y) = (1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1)

Answer
2 2
( , )
3 3

5) m 1 =1 at (1, 0) and m 2 =4 at (0, 1)

6) m 1 =1 at (1, 0) and m 2 =3 at (2, 2)

Answer
7 3
( , )
4 2

In exercises 7 - 16, compute the center of mass x̄.

7) ρ = 1 for x ∈ (−1, 3)
8) ρ = x for x ∈ (0, L)
2

Answer
3L

9) ρ = 1 for x ∈ (0, 1) and ρ = 2 for x ∈ (1, 2)

10) ρ = sin x for x ∈ (0, π)

Answer
π

11) ρ = cos x for x ∈ (0, π

2
)

12) ρ = e for x ∈ (0, 2)

Answer
2
e +1

2
e −1

13) ρ = x 3
+ xe
−x
for x ∈ (0, 1)
14) ρ = x sin x for x ∈ (0, π)

Answer
2
π −4

15) ρ = √−
x for x ∈ (1, 4)

16) ρ = ln x for x ∈ (1, e)

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Answer
1 2
(1 + e )
4

In exercises 17 - 19, compute the center of mass (x̄, ȳ ). Use symmetry to help locate the center of mass whenever possible.
17) ρ = 7 in the square 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤y ≤1

18) ρ = 3 in the triangle with vertices (0, 0), (a, 0) , and (0, b)

Answer
a b
( , )
3 3

19) ρ = 2 for the region bounded by y = cos(x), y = − cos(x), x = −

2
, and x = π

In exercises 20 - 26, use a calculator to draw the region, then compute the center of mass (x̄, ȳ ). Use symmetry to help
locate the center of mass whenever possible.
20) [T] The region bounded by y = cos(2x), x =−
π

4
, and x = π

Answer
π
(0, )
8

21) [T] The region between y = 2x 2

, y = 0, x = 0, and x = 1
22) [T] The region between y = 5

4
x
2
and y = 5

Answer
(0, 3)

23) [T] Region between y = √−

x, y = ln x, x = 1, and x = 4
2 2
x y
24) [T] The region bounded by y = 0 and + =1
4 9

Answer
4
(0, )
π

2 2
x y
25) [T] The region bounded by y = 0, x = 0, and + =1
4 9

26) [T] The region bounded by y = x and y = x in the first quadrant

2 4

Answer
5 1
( , )
8 3

In exercises 27 - 31, use the theorem of Pappus to determine the volume of the shape.
27) Rotating y = mx around the x-axis between x = 0 and x = 1
28) Rotating y = mx around the y -axis between x = 0 and x = 1

Answer
V =
mπ

3
units³

29) A general cone created by rotating a triangle with vertices (0, 0), (a, 0), and (0, b) around the y -axis. Does your answer agree
with the volume of a cone?
30) A general cylinder created by rotating a rectangle with vertices (0, 0), (a, 0), (0, b), and (a, b) around the y -axis. Does your
answer agree with the volume of a cylinder?

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Answer
V = πa b
2
units³

31) A sphere created by rotating a semicircle with radius a around the y -axis. Does your answer agree with the volume of a sphere?
In exercises 32 - 36, use a calculator to draw the region enclosed by the curve. Find the area M and the centroid (x̄, ȳ ) for
the given shapes. Use symmetry to help locate the center of mass whenever possible.
−−−−−
32) [T] Quarter-circle: y = √1 − x 2
, y =0 , and x = 0

Answer
4 4
( , )
3π 3π

33) [T] Triangle: y = x, y = 2 −x , and y = 0

34) [T] Lens: y = x and y = x 2

Answer
1 2
( , )
2 5

35) [T] Ring: y 2

+x
2
=1 and y 2
+x
2
=4

36) [T] Half-ring: y 2

+x
2
= 1, y
2
+x
2
= 4, and y = 0

Answer
28
(0, )
9π

37) Find the generalized center of mass in the sliver between y = x and y = x with a > b . Then, use the Pappus theorem to find
a b

the volume of the solid generated when revolving around the y -axis.
38) Find the generalized center of mass between y = a − x 2 2
, x =0 , and y = 0 . Then, use the Pappus theorem to find the volume
of the solid generated when revolving around the y -axis.

Answer
2

Center of mass: ( a

6
,
4a

5
),

4
2πa
Volume: units³
9

π
39) Find the generalized center of mass between y = b sin(ax), x = 0, and x = . Then, use the Pappus theorem to find the
a
volume of the solid generated when revolving around the y -axis.
40) Use the theorem of Pappus to find the volume of a torus (pictured here). Assume that a disk of radius a is positioned with the
left end of the circle at x = b, b > 0, and is rotated around the y -axis.

Answer
Volume: V 2
= 2 π a (b + a)
2

−−−− −
41) Find the center of mass (x̄, ȳ ) for a thin wire along the semicircle y = √1 − x
2
with unit mass. (Hint: Use the theorem of
Pappus.)

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7.7: CHAPTER 7 REVIEW EXERCISES
True or False? Justify your answer with a proof or a counterexample.
1) The amount of work to pump the water out of a half-full cylinder is half the amount of work to pump the water out of the full cylinder.

Answer
False

2) If the force is constant, the amount of work to move an object from x = a to x = b is F (b − a) .

3) The disk method can be used in any situation in which the washer method is successful at finding the volume of a solid of revolution.

Answer
False

ln 2
4) If the half-life of seaborgium − 266 is 360 ms, then k = .
360

For exercises 5 - 8, use the requested method to determine the volume of the solid.
2 2
x y
5) The volume that has a base of the ellipse + = 1 and cross-sections of an equilateral triangle perpendicular to the y -axis. Use the
4 9

method of slicing.

Answer
– 3
V = 32√3 units

6) y = x2
−x , from x = 1 to x = 4, rotated around the y -axis using the washer method
7) x = y and x = 3y rotated around the y -axis using the washer method
2

Answer
162π 3
V = units
5

8) x = 2y 2 3
−y , x = 0 ,and y = 0 rotated around the x-axis using cylindrical shells
For exercises 9 - 14, find
a. the area of the region,
b.the volume of the solid when rotated around the x-axis, and
c. the volume of the solid when rotated around the y -axis. Use whichever method seems most appropriate to you.
9) y = x3
, x = 0, y = 0 , and x = 2

Answer
a. A = 4 units2
b. V = units3 128π

c. V = units3 64π

10) y = x 2
−x and x = 0
11) [T] y = ln(x) + 2 and y = x

Answer
a. A ≈ 1.949 units2
b. V ≈ 21.952 units3
c. V =≈ 17.099 units3

12) y = x and y = √−
2
x

13) y = 5 + x, y = x 2
,x = 0 , and x = 1

Answer

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a. A = 31

6
units2
b. V =
452π

15
units3
c. V =
31π

6
units3

14) Below x 2
+y
2
= 1 and above y = 1 − x
15) Find the mass of ρ = e −x
on a disk centered at the origin with radius 4.

Answer
m ≈ 245.282

16) Find the center of mass for ρ = tan 2

x on x ∈ (− π

4
,
π

4
) .
17) Find the mass and the center of mass of ρ = 1 on the region bounded by y = x and y = √−
x.
5

Answer
Mass: 1

2
,

Center of mass: ( 18

35
,
9

11
)

For exercises 18 - 19, find the requested arc lengths.

18) The length of x for y = cosh(x) from x = 0 to x = 2.
19) The length of y for x = 3 − √y from y = 0 to y = 4

Answer
−− −−
s = [√17 +
1

8
ln(33 + 8√17 )] units

For exercises 20 - 21, find the surface area and volume when the given curves are revolved around the specified axis.
20) The shape created by revolving the region between y = 4 + x, y = 3 − x, x = 0, and x = 2 rotated around the y -axis.
1
21) The loudspeaker created by revolving y = from x = 1 to x = 4 around the x-axis.
x

Answer
Volume: V =
3π

4
units3
units2
– √257
Surface area: A = π (√2 − sinh −1
(1) + sinh
−1
(16) −
16
)

For exercise 22, consider the Karun-3 dam in Iran. Its shape can be approximated as an isosceles triangle with height 205 m and
width 388 m. Assume the current depth of the water is 180 m. The density of water is 1000 kg/m3.
22) Find the total force on the wall of the dam.
23) You are a crime scene investigator attempting to determine the time of death of a victim. It is noon and 45 °F outside and the
temperature of the body is 78 °F. You know the cooling constant is k = 0.00824 °F/min. When did the victim die, assuming that a human’s
temperature is 98 °F?

Answer
11:02 a.m.

For the following exercise, consider the stock market crash in 1929 in the United States. The table lists the Dow Jones industrial
average per year leading up to the crash.
Year after 1920 Value ($)
1 63.90
3 100
5 110
7 160
9 381.17

Source: http:/stockcharts.com/freecharts/hi...a19201940.html
24) [T] The best-fit exponential curve to these data is given by y = 40.71 + 1.224 . Why do you think the gains of the market were x

unsustainable? Use first and second derivatives to help justify your answer. What would this model predict the Dow Jones industrial average

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to be in 2014 ?
For exercises 25 - 26, consider the catenoid, the only solid of revolution that has a minimal surface, or zero mean curvature. A
catenoid in nature can be found when stretching soap between two rings.
25) Find the volume of the catenoid y = cosh(x) from x = −1 to x = 1 that is created by rotating this curve around the x-axis, as shown
here.

Answer
V = π(1 + sinh(1) cosh(1)) units3

26) Find surface area of the catenoid y = cosh(x) from x = −1 to x = 1 that is created by rotating this curve around the x-axis.

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6.10: Chapter 6 Review Exercises has no license indicated.

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW

8: Techniques of Integration
We saw in the previous chapter how important integration can be for all kinds of different topics—from calculations of volumes to
flow rates, and from using a velocity function to determine a position to locating centers of mass. It is no surprise, then, that
techniques for finding antiderivatives (or indefinite integrals) are important to know for everyone who uses them. We have already
discussed some basic integration formulas and the method of integration by substitution. In this chapter, we study some additional
techniques, including some ways of approximating definite integrals when normal techniques do not work.
8.0: Prelude to Techniques of Integration
8.1: Integration by Parts
8.1E: Exercises
8.2: Trigonometric Integrals
8.2E: Exercises
8.3: Trigonometric Substitution
8.3E: Exercises
8.4: Partial Fractions
8.4E: Exercises
8.5: Other Strategies for Integration
8.5E: Exercises
8.6: Numerical Integration
8.6E: Exercises
8.7: Improper Integrals
8.7E: Exercises
8.8: Chapter 8 Review Exercises

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1
8.0: Prelude to Techniques of Integration
In a large city, accidents occurred at an average rate of one every three months at a particularly busy intersection. After residents
complained, changes were made to the traffic lights at the intersection. It has now been eight months since the changes were made
and there have been no accidents. Were the changes effective or is the eight-month interval without an accident a result of chance?
We explore this question later in this chapter and see that integration is an essential part of determining the answer.

Figure 8.0.1 : Careful planning of traffic signals can prevent or reduce the number of accidents at busy intersections. (credit:
modification of work by David McKelvey, Flickr)
We saw in the previous chapter how important integration can be for all kinds of different topics—from calculations of volumes to
flow rates, and from using a velocity function to determine a position to locating centers of mass. It is no surprise, then, that
techniques for finding antiderivatives (or indefinite integrals) are important to know for everyone who uses them. We have already
discussed some basic integration formulas and the method of integration by substitution. In this chapter, we study some additional
techniques, including some ways of approximating definite integrals when normal techniques do not work.

This page titled 8.0: Prelude to Techniques of Integration is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated
by Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a
detailed edit history is available upon request.
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8.1: Integration by Parts
 Learning Objectives
Recognize when to use integration by parts.
Use the integration-by-parts formula to solve integration problems.
Use the integration-by-parts formula for definite integrals.

By now we have a fairly thorough procedure for how to evaluate many basic integrals. However, although we can integrate
∫ x sin(x ) dx by using the substitution, u = x , something as simple looking as ∫ x sin x dx defies us. Many students want to
2 2

know whether there is a product rule for integration. There is not, but there is a technique based on the product rule for
differentiation that allows us to exchange one integral for another. We call this technique integration by parts.

The Integration-by-Parts Formula

If, h(x) = f (x)g(x), then by using the product rule, we obtain

h'(x) = f '(x)g(x) + g'(x)f (x). (8.1.1)

Although at first it may seem counterproductive, let’s now integrate both sides of Equation 8.1.1:

∫ h'(x) dx = ∫ (g(x)f '(x) + f (x)g'(x)) dx.

This gives us

h(x) = f (x)g(x) = ∫ g(x)f '(x) dx + ∫ f (x)g'(x) dx.

Now we solve for ∫ f (x)g'(x) dx :

∫ f (x)g'(x) dx = f (x)g(x) − ∫ g(x)f '(x) dx.

By making the substitutions u = f (x) and v = g(x) , which in turn make du = f '(x) dx and dv = g'(x) dx , we have the more
compact form

∫ u dv = uv − ∫ v du.

 Integration by Parts

Let u = f (x) and v = g(x) be functions with continuous derivatives. Then, the integration-by-parts formula for the integral
involving these two functions is:

∫ u dv = uv − ∫ v du. (8.1.2)

The advantage of using the integration-by-parts formula is that we can use it to exchange one integral for another, possibly easier,
integral. The following example illustrates its use.

 Example 8.1.1: Using Integration by Parts

Use integration by parts with u = x and dv = sin x dx to evaluate

∫ x sin x dx.

Solution
By choosing u = x , we have du = 1 dx . Since dv = sin x dx , we get

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v=∫ sin x dx = − cos x.

It is handy to keep track of these values as follows:

u =x

dv = sin x dx

du = 1 dx

v = ∫ sin x dx = − cos x.

Applying the integration-by-parts formula (Equation 8.1.2) results in

∫ x sin x dx = (x)(− cos x) − ∫ (− cos x)(1 dx) (Substitute)

= −x cos x + ∫ cos x dx (Simplify)

Then use

∫ cos x dx = sin x + C .

to obtain

∫ x sin x dx = −x cos x + sin x + C .

Analysis
At this point, there are probably a few items that need clarification. First of all, you may be curious about what would have
1
happened if we had chosen u = sin x and dv = x . If we had done so, then we would have du = cos x and v=
2
x . Thus,
2
after applying integration by parts (Equation 8.1.2), we have
1 1
2 2
∫ x sin x dx = x sin x − ∫ x cos x dx.
2 2

Unfortunately, with the new integral, we are in no better position than before. It is important to keep in mind that when we
apply integration by parts, we may need to try several choices for u and dv before finding a choice that works.
Second, you may wonder why, when we find v = ∫ sin x dx = − cos x , we do not use v = − cos x + K. To see that it makes
no difference, we can rework the problem using v = − cos x + K :

∫ x sin x dx = (x)(− cos x + K) − ∫ (− cos x + K)(1 dx)

= −x cos x + Kx + ∫ cos x dx − ∫ K dx

= −x cos x + Kx + sin x − Kx + C

= −x cos x + sin x + C .

As you can see, it makes no difference in the final solution.

Last, we can check to make sure that our antiderivative is correct by differentiating −x cos x + sin x + C :

d
(−x cos x + sin x + C ) = (−1) cos x + (−x)(− sin x) + cos x
dx

= x sin x

Therefore, the antiderivative checks out.

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 Exercise 8.1.1

Evaluate ∫ x e 2x
dx using the integration-by-parts formula (Equation 8.1.2) with u = x and dv = e 2x
dx .

Hint
Find du and v , and use the previous example as a guide.

Answer
1 1
2x 2x 2x
∫ xe dx = xe − e +C
2 4

The natural question to ask at this point is: How do we know how to choose u and dv ? Sometimes it is a matter of trial and error;
however, the acronym LIATE can often help to take some of the guesswork out of our choices. This acronym stands for
Logarithmic Functions, Inverse Trigonometric Functions, Algebraic Functions, Trigonometric Functions, and Exponential
Functions. This mnemonic serves as an aid in determining an appropriate choice for u. The type of function in the integral that
appears first in the list should be our first choice of u.
For example, if an integral contains a logarithmic function and an algebraic function, we should choose u to be the logarithmic
function, because L comes before A in LIATE. The integral in Example 8.1.1 has a trigonometric function (sin x) and an algebraic
function (x). Because A comes before T in LIATE, we chose u to be the algebraic function. When we have chosen u, dv is selected
to be the remaining part of the function to be integrated, together with dx.
Why does this mnemonic work? Remember that whatever we pick to be dv must be something we can integrate. Since we do not
have integration formulas that allow us to integrate simple logarithmic functions and inverse trigonometric functions, it makes
sense that they should not be chosen as values for dv . Consequently, they should be at the head of the list as choices for u. Thus,
we put LI at the beginning of the mnemonic. (We could just as easily have started with IL, since these two types of functions won’t
appear together in an integration-by-parts problem.) The exponential and trigonometric functions are at the end of our list because
they are fairly easy to integrate and make good choices for dv . Thus, we have TE at the end of our mnemonic. (We could just as
easily have used ET at the end, since when these types of functions appear together it usually doesn’t really matter which one is u
and which one is dv .) Algebraic functions are generally easy both to integrate and to differentiate, and they come in the middle of
the mnemonic.

 Example 8.1.2: Using Integration by Parts

Evaluate
ln x
∫ dx.
3
x

Solution
Begin by rewriting the integral:
ln x
−3
∫ dx = ∫ x ln x dx.
3
x

Since this integral contains the algebraic function x and the logarithmic function
−3
ln x , choose u = ln x , since L comes
before A in LIATE. After we have chosen u = ln x , we must choose dv = x dx . −3

1 1
Next, since u = ln x, we have du = dx. Also, v = ∫ x −3
dx = − x
−2
. Summarizing,
x 2

u = ln x

1
du = dx
x
−3
dv = x dx

1
−3 −2
v=∫ x dx = − x .
2

Substituting into the integration-by-parts formula (Equation 8.1.2) gives

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ln x −3
1 −2
1 −2
1
∫ dx = ∫ x ln x dx = (ln x)(− x )−∫ (− x )( dx)
3
x 2 2 x

1 −2
1 −3
=− x ln x + ∫ x dx
2 2

1 −2
1 −2
=− x ln x − x +C
2 4

1 1
=− ln x − +C
2 2
2x 4x

 Exercise 8.1.2

Evaluate

∫ x ln x dx.

Hint
Use u = ln x and dv = x dx .

Answer
1 1
2 2
∫ x ln x dx = x ln x − x +C
2 4

In some cases, as in the next two examples, it may be necessary to apply integration by parts more than once.

 Example 8.1.3A: Applying Integration by Parts More Than Once

Evaluate

2 3x
∫ x e dx.

Solution
1
Using LIATE, choose u = x and dv = e 2 3x
dx . Thus, du = 2x dx and v = ∫ e 3x
dx = ( )e
3x
. Therefore,
3

2
u =x

du = 2x dx
3x
dv = e dx

1
3x 3x
v=∫ e dx = e .
3

Substituting into Equation 8.1.2 produces

1 2
2 3x 2 3x 3x
∫ x e dx = x e −∫ xe dx. (8.1.3)
3 3

2
We still cannot integrate ∫ xe
3x
dx directly, but the integral now has a lower power on x. We can evaluate this new integral
3
by using integration by parts again. To do this, choose

u =x

and
2
3x
dv = e dx.
3

Thus,

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du = dx

and
2 3x
2 3x
v=∫ ( )e dx = ( )e .
3 9

Now we have
u =x

du = dx

2
3x
dv = e dx
3
2 2
3x 3x
v=∫ e dx = e .
3 9

Substituting back into Equation 8.1.3 yields

1 2 2
2 3x 2 3x 3x 3x
∫ x e dx = x e −( xe −∫ e dx) .
3 9 9

After evaluating the last integral and simplifying, we obtain

1 2 2
2 3x 2 3x 3x 3x
∫ x e dx = x e − xe + e + C.
3 9 27

 Example 8.1.3B: Applying Integration by Parts When LIATE Does not Quite Work

Evaluate
2
3 t
∫ t e dt.

Solution
If we use a strict interpretation of the mnemonic LIATE to make our choice of u, we end up with u = t and dv = e .
2
3 t
dt

Unfortunately, this choice won’t work because we are unable to evaluate ∫ e dt . However, since we can evaluate ∫ te dx ,
2 2
t t

we can try choosing u = t and dv = te dt. With these choices we have

2 t

2
u =t

du = 2tdt
2
t
dv = te dt

2 1 2
t t
v = ∫ te dt = e .
2

Thus, we obtain
2 1 2 1 2
3 t 2 t t
∫ t e dt = t e −∫ e 2t dt
2 2

1 2 t
2 1 2
t
= t e − e + C.
2 2

 Example 8.1.3C : Applying Integration by Parts More Than Once

Evaluate

∫ sin(ln x) dx.

Solution

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This integral appears to have only one function—namely, sin(ln x)—however, we can always use the constant function 1 as
the other function. In this example, let’s choose u = sin(ln x) and dv = 1 dx . (The decision to use u = sin(ln x) is easy. We
can’t choose dv = sin(ln x) dx because if we could integrate it, we wouldn’t be using integration by parts in the first place!)
Consequently, du = (1/x) cos(ln x) dx and v = ∫ 1 dx = x. After applying integration by parts to the integral and
simplifying, we have

∫ sin(ln x) dx = x sin(ln x) − ∫ cos(ln x) dx.

Unfortunately, this process leaves us with a new integral that is very similar to the original. However, let’s see what happens
when we apply integration by parts again. This time let’s choose u = cos(ln x) and dv = 1 dx, making
du = −(1/x) sin(ln x) dx and v = ∫ 1 dx = x.

Substituting, we have

∫ sin(ln x) dx = x sin(ln x) − (x cos(ln x) − ∫ − sin(ln x) dx).

After simplifying, we obtain

∫ sin(ln x) dx = x sin(ln x) − x cos(ln x) − ∫ sin(ln x) dx.

The last integral is now the same as the original. It may seem that we have simply gone in a circle, but now we can actually
evaluate the integral. To see how to do this more clearly, substitute I = ∫ sin(ln x) dx. Thus, the equation becomes

I = x sin(ln x) − x cos(ln x) − I .

First, add I to both sides of the equation to obtain

2I = x sin(ln x) − x cos(ln x).

Next, divide by 2:
1 1
I = x sin(ln x) − x cos(ln x).
2 2

Substituting I = ∫ sin(ln x) dx again, we have

1 1
∫ sin(ln x) dx = x sin(ln x) − x cos(ln x).
2 2

From this we see that (1/2)x sin(ln x) − (1/2)x cos(ln x) is an antiderivative of sin(ln x) dx . For the most general
antiderivative, add +C :
1 1
∫ sin(ln x) dx = x sin(ln x) − x cos(ln x) + C .
2 2

Analysis
If this method feels a little strange at first, we can check the answer by differentiation:
d 1 1
( x sin(ln x) − x cos(ln x))
dx 2 2

1 1 1 1 1 1
= (sin(ln x)) + cos(ln x) ⋅ ⋅ x −( cos(ln x) − sin(ln x) ⋅ ⋅ x)
2 x 2 2 x 2

= sin(ln x).

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 Exercise 8.1.3
Evaluate

2
∫ x sin x dx.

Hint
This is similar to Examples 8.1.3A- 8.1.3C.

Answer

2 2
∫ x sin x dx = −x cos x + 2x sin x + 2 cos x + C

Integration by Parts for Definite Integrals

Now that we have used integration by parts successfully to evaluate indefinite integrals, we turn our attention to definite integrals.
The integration technique is really the same, only we add a step to evaluate the integral at the upper and lower limits of integration.

 Integration by Parts for Definite Integrals

Let u = f (x) and v = g(x) be functions with continuous derivatives on [a, b]. Then
b b
b
∣
∫ u dv = uv −∫ v du
∣
a
a a

 Example 8.1.4A: Finding the Area of a Region

Find the area of the region bounded above by the graph of y = tan −1
x and below by the x-axis over the interval [0, 1].
Solution
This region is shown in Figure 8.1.1. To find the area, we must evaluate
1
−1
∫ tan x dx.
0

Figure 8.1.1 : To find the area of the shaded region, we have to use integration by parts.
1
For this integral, let’s choose u = tan
−1
x and dv = dx , thereby making du =
2
dx and v=x . After applying the
x +1

integration-by-parts formula (Equation 8.1.2) we obtain

1
1 x
−1
Area = x tan x∣
∣ −∫ dx.
0 2
0 x +1

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Use u-substitution to obtain
1 1
x 1 ∣
2
∫ dx = ln(x + 1)∣ .
2 ∣
0 x +1 2 0

Thus,
1
1 1 ∣ π 1
−1 ∣ 2 2
Area = x tan x − ln(x + 1)∣ =( − ln 2) units .
∣0 ∣
2 0 4 2

At this point it might not be a bad idea to do a “reality check” on the reasonableness of our solution. Since
π 1
−
2
ln 2 ≈ 0.4388 units , and from Figure 8.1.1 we expect our area to be slightly less than 2
0.5 units , this solution
4 2
appears to be reasonable.

 Example 8.1.4B: Finding a Volume of Revolution

Find the volume of the solid obtained by revolving the region bounded by the graph of f (x) = e −x
, the x-axis, the y -axis, and
the line x = 1 about the y -axis.
Solution
The best option to solving this problem is to use the shell method. Begin by sketching the region to be revolved, along with a
typical rectangle (Figure 8.1.2).

Figure 8.1.2 : We can use the shell method to find a volume of revolution.
To find the volume using shells, we must evaluate
1
−x
2π ∫ xe dx. (8.1.4)
0

To do this, let u = x and dv = e

−x
. These choices lead to du = dx and v=∫ e
−x
dx = −e
−x
. Using the Shell Method
formula, we obtain
1
−x
Volume = 2π ∫ xe dx
0

1
1
−x ∣ −x
= 2π (−x e +∫ e dx) (Use integration by parts)
∣0
0

1
−1 −x ∣
= 2π (−e +0 −e )
∣
0

−1 −1
= 2π (−e −e + 1)

2
3
= 2π (1 − ) units . (Evaluate and simplify)
e

Analysis

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Again, it is a good idea to check the reasonableness of our solution. We observe that the solid has a volume slightly less than
1
that of a cylinder of radius 1 and height of 1/e added to the volume of a cone of base radius 1 and height of 1− .
e
Consequently, the solid should have a volume a bit less than

2
1 π 2
1 2π π 3
π(1 ) +( ) (1 ) (1 − ) = + ≈ 1.8177 units .
e 3 e 3e 3

4π
Since 2π − ≈ 1.6603, we see that our calculated volume is reasonable.
e

 Exercise 8.1.4

Evaluate
π/2

∫ x cos x dx.
0

Hint
Use Equation 8.1.2with u = x and dv = cos x dx.

Answer
π/2
π
∫ x cos x dx = −1
0
2

Key Concepts
The integration-by-parts formula (Equation 8.1.2) allows the exchange of one integral for another, possibly easier, integral.
Integration by parts applies to both definite and indefinite integrals.

Key Equations
Integration by parts formula

∫ u dv = uv − ∫ v du

Integration by parts for definite integrals

b b
b
∣
∫ u dv = uv −∫ v du
∣a
a a

Glossary
integration by parts

a technique of integration that allows the exchange of one integral for another using the formula ∫ u dv = uv − ∫ v du

This page titled 8.1: Integration by Parts is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert Strang
& Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history
is available upon request.
7.1: Integration by Parts by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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8.1E: EXERCISES
In using the technique of integration by parts, you must carefully choose which expression is u. For each of the following problems,
use the guidelines in this section to choose u. Do not evaluate the integrals.

1) ∫ x e
3 2x
dx

Answer
3
u = x

2) ∫ x
3
ln(x) dx

3) ∫ y
3
cos y dy

Answer
3
u = y

4) ∫ x
2
arctan x dx

5) ∫ e
3x
sin(2x) dx

Answer
u = sin(2x)

In exercises 6 - 37, find the integral by using the simplest method. Not all problems require integration by parts.

6) ∫ v sin v dv

7) ∫ ln x dx (Hint: ∫ ln x dx is equivalent to ∫ 1 ⋅ ln(x) dx. )

Answer
∫ ln x dx = −x + x ln x + C

8) ∫ x cos x dx

9) ∫ tan
−1
x dx

Answer
−1 −1 1 2
∫ tan x dx = x tan x− ln(1 + x ) + C
2

10) ∫ x e
2 x
dx

11) ∫ x sin(2x) dx

Answer
1 1
∫ x sin(2x) dx = − x cos(2x) + sin(2x) + C
2 4

12) ∫ xe
4x
dx

13) ∫ xe
−x
dx

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Answer
−x −x
∫ xe dx = e (−1 − x) + C

14) ∫ x cos 3x dx

15) ∫ x
2
cos x dx

Answer
2 2
∫ x cos x dx = 2x cos x + (−2 + x ) sin x + C

16) ∫ x ln x dx

17) ∫ ln(2x + 1) dx

Answer
1
∫ ln(2x + 1) dx = (1 + 2x)(−1 + ln(1 + 2x)) + C
2

18) ∫ x e
2 4x
dx

19) ∫ e
x
sin x dx

Answer
x 1 x
∫ e sin x dx = e (− cos x + sin x) + C
2

20) ∫
x
e cos x dx

21) ∫ xe
−x
dx

Answer
2
−x
−x
2 e
∫ xe dx = − +C
2

22) ∫ x e
2 −x
dx

23) ∫ sin(ln(2x)) dx

Answer
1 1
∫ sin(ln(2x)) dx = − x cos[ln(2x)] + x sin[ln(2x)] + C
2 2

24) ∫ cos(ln x) dx

25) ∫ (ln x)
2
dx

Answer
2 2
∫ (ln x) dx = 2x − 2x ln x + x(ln x) +C

26) ∫ ln(x ) dx
2

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27) ∫ x
2
ln x dx

Answer
3
x 1
2 3
∫ x ln x dx = − + x ln x + C
3
9

28) ∫ sin
−1
x dx

29) ∫ cos
−1
(2x) dx

Answer
1
−−−−− −
−1
∫ cos (2x) dx = − √1 − 4x2 + x cos−1 (2x) + C
2

30) ∫ x arctan x dx

31) ∫ x
2
sin x dx

Answer
2 2
∫ x sin x dx = −(−2 + x ) cos x + 2x sin x + C

32) ∫ x
3
cos x dx

33) ∫ x
3
sin x dx

Answer
3 2 2
∫ x sin x dx = −x(−6 + x ) cos x + 3(−2 + x ) sin x + C

34) ∫ x e
3 x
dx

35) ∫ x sec
−1
x dx

Answer
−−−−−−
1
1
−1 −1
∫ x sec x dx = x (− √1 − + x ⋅ sec x) + C
2
x2

36) ∫ x sec
2
x dx

37) ∫ x cosh x dx

Answer
∫ x cosh x dx = − cosh x + x sinh x + C

In exercises 38 - 46, compute the definite integrals. Use a graphing utility to confirm your answers.
1

38) ∫ ln x dx
1/e

39) ∫ xe
−2x
dx (Express the answer in exact form.)
0

Answer

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1
−2x
1 3
∫ xe dx = −
2
0 4 4e

1
−
40) ∫ e
√x
dx (let u = √x )
0

41) ∫ ln(x ) dx
2

Answer
e
2
∫ ln(x ) dx = 2
1

42) ∫ x cos x dx
0

43) ∫ x sin x dx (Express the answer in exact form.)

−π

Answer
π

∫ x sin x dx = 2π
−π

44) ∫ ln(x
2
+ 1) dx (Express the answer in exact form.)
0

π/2

45) ∫ x
2
sin x dx (Express the answer in exact form.)
0

Answer
π/2

2
∫ x sin x dx = −2 + π
0

46) ∫ x5
x
dx (Express the answer using five significant digits.)
0

47) Evaluate ∫ cos x ln(sin x) dx

Answer
∫ cos x ln(sin x) dx = − sin(x) + ln[sin(x)] sin x + C

In exercises 48 - 50, derive the following formulas using the technique of integration by parts. Assume that n is a positive integer.
These formulas are called reduction formulas because the exponent in the x term has been reduced by one in each case. The second
integral is simpler than the original integral.

48) ∫ x e
n x
dx = x e
n x
− n∫ x
n−1 x
e dx

49) ∫ x
n
cos x dx = x
n
sin x − n ∫ x
n−1
sin x dx

Answer
Answers vary

50) ∫ x
n
sin x dx = ______

−−−−−
51) Integrate ∫ 2x√2x − 3 dx using two methods:
−−−−−
a. Using parts, letting dv = √2x − 3 dx

b. Substitution, letting u = 2x − 3

Answer

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−−−−−
a. ∫ 2x√2x − 3 dx =
2

5
(1 + x)(−3 + 2x)
3/2
+C

−−−−−
b. ∫ 2x√2x − 3 dx =
2

5
(1 + x)(−3 + 2x)
3/2
+C

In exercises 52 - 57, state whether you would use integration by parts to evaluate the integral. If so, identify u and . If not,
dv

describe the technique used to perform the integration without actually doing the problem.

52) ∫ x ln x dx

2
ln x
53) ∫ dx
x

Answer
Do not use integration by parts. Choose u to be ln x , and the integral is of the form ∫ u
2
du.

54) ∫ xe
x
dx

55) ∫ xe
x −3
dx

Answer
Do not use integration by parts. Let u = x 2
−3 , and the integral can be put into the form ∫ e
u
du .

56) ∫ x
2
sin x dx

57) ∫ x
2
sin(3x
3
+ 2) dx

Answer
Do not use integration by parts. Choose u to be u = 3x 3
+2 and the integral can be put into the form ∫ sin(u) du.

In exercises 58-59, sketch the region bounded above by the curve, the x -axis, and x = 1 , and find the area of the region. Provide
the exact form or round answers to the number of places indicated.
58) y = 2xe −x
(Approximate answer to four decimal places.)
59) y = e −x
sin(πx) (Approximate answer to five decimal places.)

Answer
The area under graph is 0.39535 units 2
.

In exercises 60 - 61, find the volume generated by rotating the region bounded by the given curves about the specified line. Express
the answers in exact form or approximate to the number of decimal places indicated.
60) y = sin x, y = 0, x = 2π, x = 3π; about the y -axis (Express the answer in exact form.)
61) y = e −x
, y = 0, x = −1, x = 0; about x = 1 (Express the answer in exact form.)

Answer

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3
V = 2πe units

62) A particle moving along a straight line has a velocity of v(t) = t 2 −t

e after t sec. How far does it travel in the first 2 sec? (Assume the
units are in feet and express the answer in exact form.)
63) Find the area under the graph of y = sec3
x from x = 0 to x = 1. (Round the answer to two significant digits.)

Answer
2
A = 2.05 units

64) Find the area between y = (x − 2)e and the x-axis from x = 2 to x = 5. (Express the answer in exact form.)
x

65) Find the area of the region enclosed by the curve y = x cos x and the x-axis for 11π

2
≤ x ≤
13π

2
. (Express the answer in exact form.)

Answer
2
A = 12π units

66) Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by the curve y = ln x , the x-axis, and the vertical line x = e 2

about the x-axis. (Express the answer in exact form.)

67) Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by the curve y = 4 cos x and the x-axis, π

2
≤ x ≤
3π

2
, about
the x-axis. (Express the answer in exact form.)

Answer
2 3
V = 8π units

68) Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region in the first quadrant bounded by y = e and the x-axis, from x = 0 to
x

x = ln(7) , about the y -axis. (Express the answer in exact form.)

69) What is the volume of the Bundt cake that comes from rotating y = sin x around the y -axis from x = 0 to x = π?

8.1E.6 https://math.libretexts.org/@go/page/137759
Answer
V = 2π
2
units3

8.1E: Exercises is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
7.1E: Exercises for Section 7.1 has no license indicated.

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8.2: Trigonometric Integrals
 Learning Objectives
Solve integration problems involving products and powers of sin x and cos x.
Solve integration problems involving products and powers of tan x and sec x.
Use reduction formulas to solve trigonometric integrals.

In this section we look at how to integrate a variety of products of trigonometric functions. These integrals are called trigonometric integrals. They are
an important part of the integration technique called trigonometric substitution, which is featured in Trigonometric Substitution. This technique allows us
to convert algebraic expressions that we may not be able to integrate into expressions involving trigonometric functions, which we may be able to
integrate using the techniques described in this section. In addition, these types of integrals appear frequently when we study polar, cylindrical, and
spherical coordinate systems later. Let’s begin our study with products of sin x and cos x.

Integrating Products and Powers of sin x and cos x

A key idea behind the strategy used to integrate combinations of products and powers of sin x and cos x involves rewriting these expressions as sums and
differences of integrals of the form ∫ sin x cos x dx or ∫ cos x sin x dx. After rewriting these integrals, we evaluate them using u-substitution. Before
j j

describing the general process in detail, let’s take a look at the following examples.

 Example 8.2.1: Integrating ∫ j

cos x sin x dx

Evaluate ∫ cos
3
x sin x dx.

Solution
Use u-substitution and let u = cos x. In this case, du = − sin x dx.
Thus,
1 1
3 3 4 4
∫ cos x sin x dx = − ∫ u du = − u +C = − cos x + C.
4 4

 Exercise 8.2.1

Evaluate ∫ 4
sin x cos x dx.

Hint
Let u = sin x.

Answer
4
1 5
∫ sin x cos x dx = sin x +C
5

 Example 8.2.2: A Preliminary Example: Integrating ∫ cos j

x sin
k
x dx where k is Odd

Evaluate ∫ cos
2
x sin
3
x dx.

Solution

To convert this integral to integrals of the form ∫ j

cos x sin x dx, rewrite sin 3
x = sin
2
x sin x and make the substitution sin
2 2
x = 1 − cos x.

Thus,

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2 3 2 2
∫ cos x sin x dx = ∫ cos x(1 − cos x) sin x dx Let u = cos x; then du = − sin x dx.

2 2
= −∫ u (1 − u ) du

4 2
= ∫ (u − u ) du

1 1
5 3
= u − u +C
5 3

1 5
1 3
= cos x− cos x + C.
5 3

 Exercise 8.2.2

Evaluate ∫ cos
3
x sin
2
x dx.

Hint
Write cos 3
x = cos
2
x cos x = (1 − sin
2
x) cos x and let u = sin x .

Answer
3 2
1 3
1 5
∫ cos x sin x dx = sin x− sin x +C
3 5

In the next example, we see the strategy that must be applied when there are only even powers of sin x and cos x. For integrals of this type, the identities

1 1 1 − cos(2x)
2
sin x = − cos(2x) =
2 2 2

and

1 1 1 + cos(2x)
2
cos x = + cos(2x) =
2 2 2

are invaluable. These identities are sometimes known as power-reducing identities and they may be derived from the double-angle identity
cos(2x) = cos x − sin x and the Pythagorean identity cos x + sin x = 1.
2 2 2 2

 Example 8.2.3: Integrating an Even Power of sin x

Evaluate ∫ sin
2
x dx .

Solution
To evaluate this integral, let’s use the trigonometric identity sin 2
x =
1

2
−
1

2
cos(2x). Thus,
1 1 1 1
2
∫ sin x dx = ∫ ( − cos(2x)) dx = x− sin(2x) + C .
2 2 2 4

 Exercise 8.2.3

Evaluate ∫ cos
2
x dx.

Hint
2 1 1
cos x = + cos(2x)
2 2

Answer
1 1
2
∫ cos x dx = x+ sin(2x) + C
2 4

The general process for integrating products of powers of sin x and cos x is summarized in the following set of guidelines.

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 Problem-Solving Strategy: Integrating Products and Powers of sin x and cosx

To integrate ∫ cos x sin

j k
x dx use the following strategies:

1. If k is odd, rewrite sin x = sin x sin x and use the identity sin
k k−1 2
x = 1 − cos
2
x to rewrite sin k−1
x in terms of cos x. Integrate using the
substitution u = cos x. This substitution makes du = − sin x dx.
2. If j is odd, rewrite cos x = cos x cos x and use the identity cos x = 1 − sin x to rewrite cos x in terms of sin x. Integrate using the
j j−1 2 2 j−1

substitution u = sin x . This substitution makes du = cos x dx. (Note: If both j and k are odd, either strategy 1 or strategy 2 may be used.)
1 − cos(2x) 1 + cos(2x)
3. If both j and k are even, use sin
2
x = and 2
cos x = . After applying these formulas, simplify and reapply
2 2
strategies 1 through 3 as appropriate.

 Example 8.2.4: Integrating ∫ cos j

x sin
k
x dx where k is Odd

Evaluate ∫ cos
8
x sin
5
x dx.

Solution
Since the power on sin x is odd, use strategy 1. Thus,
8 5 8 4
∫ cos x sin x dx = ∫ cos x sin x sin x dx Break off sin x.

8 2 2 4 2 2
=∫ cos x(sin x) sin x dx Rewrite sin x = (sin x) .

8 2 2 2 2
=∫ cos x(1 − cos x) sin x dx Substitute sin x = 1 − cos x.

8 2 2
=∫ u (1 − u ) (−du) Let u = cos x and du = − sin x dx.

8 10 12
= ∫ (−u + 2u −u )du Expand.

1 9
2 11
1 13
=− u + u − u +C Evaluate the integral.
9 11 13

1 9
2 11
1 13
=− cos x+ cos x− cos x +C Substitute u = cos x.
9 11 13

 Example 8.2.5: Integrating ∫ cos j

x sin
k
x dx where k and j are Even

Evaluate ∫ sin
4
x dx.

Solution: Since the power on sin x is even (k = 4) and the power on cos x is even (j = 0), we must use strategy 3. Thus,
2 2
4 2 4 2
∫ sin x dx = ∫ (sin x) dx Rewrite sin x = (sin x) .

2
1 1 1 1
2
=∫ ( − cos(2x)) dx Substitute sin x = − cos(2x).
2 2 2 2

2
1 1 1 2
1 1
=∫ ( − cos(2x) + cos (2x)) dx Expand ( − cos(2x)) .
4 2 4 2 2

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2
=∫ ( − cos(2x) + ( + cos(4x))) dx Since cos (2x) has an even power, substitute cos (2x) = + cos(4x).
4 2 4 2 2 2 2

3 1 1
=∫ ( − cos(2x) + cos(4x)) dx Simplify.
8 2 8

3 1 1
= x− sin(2x) + sin(4x) + C Evaluate the integral.
8 4 32

 Exercise 8.2.4

Evaluate ∫ cos
3
x dx.

Hint

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Use strategy 2. Write cos 3
x = cos
2
x cos x and substitute cos 2
x = 1 − sin
2
x.

Answer
3
1 3
∫ cos x dx = sin x − sin x +C
3

 Exercise 8.2.5

Evaluate ∫ 2
cos (3x) dx.

Hint
Use strategy 3. Substitute cos 2
(3x) =
1

2
+
1

2
cos(6x)

Answer
1 1
2
∫ cos (3x) dx = x+ sin(6x) + C
2 12

In some areas of physics, such as quantum mechanics, signal processing, and the computation of Fourier series, it is often necessary to integrate products
that include sin(ax), sin(bx), cos(ax), and cos(bx). These integrals are evaluated by applying trigonometric identities, as outlined in the following rule.

 Rule: Integrating Products of Sines and Cosines of Different Angles

To integrate products involving sin(ax), sin(bx), cos(ax), and cos(bx), use the substitutions
1 1
sin(ax) sin(bx) = cos((a − b)x) − cos((a + b)x)
2 2

1 1
sin(ax) cos(bx) = sin((a − b)x) + sin((a + b)x)
2 2

1 1
cos(ax) cos(bx) = cos((a − b)x) + cos((a + b)x)
2 2

These formulas may be derived from the sum-of-angle formulas for sine and cosine.

 Example 8.2.6: Evaluating ∫ sin(ax) cos(bx) dx

Evaluate ∫ sin(5x) cos(3x) dx.

Solution: Apply the identity sin(5x) cos(3x) = 1

2
sin(2x) +
1

2
sin(8x). Thus,
1 1 1 1
∫ sin(5x) cos(3x) dx = ∫ sin(2x) + sin(8x) dx = − cos(2x) − cos(8x) + C .
2 2 4 16

 Exercise 8.2.6

Evaluate ∫ cos(6x) cos(5x) dx.

Hint
Substitute cos(6x) cos(5x) = 1

2
cos x +
1

2
cos(11x).

Answer
1 1
∫ cos(6x) cos(5x) dx = sin x + sin(11x) + C
2 22

Integrating Products and Powers of tan x and sec x

Before discussing the integration of products and powers of tan x and sec x, it is useful to recall the integrals involving tan x and sec x we have already
learned:

1. ∫ sec
2
x dx = tan x + C

2. ∫ sec x tan x dx = sec x + C

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3. ∫ tan x dx = ln | sec x| + C

4. ∫ sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x| + C .

For most integrals of products and powers of tan x and sec x, we rewrite the expression we wish to integrate as the sum or difference of integrals of the
form ∫ tan
j
x sec
2
x dx or ∫ sec
j
x tan x dx . As we see in the following example, we can evaluate these new integrals by using u-substitution.

 Example 8.2.7: Evaluating ∫ sec j

x tan x dx

Evaluate ∫ sec
5
x tan x dx.

Solution: Start by rewriting sec 5

x tan x as sec 4
x sec x tan x.

5 4
∫ sec x tan x dx = ∫ sec x sec x tan x dx

4
=∫ u du Let u = sec x; then, du = sec x tan x dx.

1 5
= u +C Evaluate the integral.
5

1 5
= sec x +C Substitute sec x = u.
5

You can read some interesting information at this website to learn about a common integral involving the secant.

 Exercise 8.2.7

Evaluate ∫ tan
5
x sec
2
x dx.

Hint
Let u = tan x and du = sec 2
x.

Answer
5 2 1 6
∫ tan x sec x dx = tan x +C
6

We now take a look at the various strategies for integrating products and powers of sec x and tan x.

 Problem-Solving Strategy: Integrating ∫ tan

k
x sec
j
x dx

To integrate ∫ tan
k
x sec
j
x dx, use the following strategies:

1. If j is even and j ≥ 2, rewrite sec j

x = sec
j−2
x sec
2
x and use sec
2
x = tan
2
x +1 to rewrite sec
j−2
x in terms of tan x . Let u = tan x

and du = sec x. 2

2. If k is odd and j ≥ 1 , rewrite tan x sec x = tan x sec x sec x tan x and use tan x = sec x − 1 to rewrite tan
k j k−1 j−1 2 2 k−1
x in terms of
sec x. Let u = sec x and du = sec x tan x dx. (Note: If j is even and k is odd, then either strategy 1 or strategy 2 may be used.)

3. If k is odd where k ≥ 3 and j = 0 , rewrite tan x = tan k k−2

x tan
2
x = tan
k−2
x(sec
2
x − 1) = tan
k−2
x sec
2
x − tan
k−2
x. It may be
necessary to repeat this process on the tan x term.
k−2

4. If k is even and j is odd, then use tan 2

x = sec
2
x −1 to express tan k
x in terms of sec x. Use integration by parts to integrate odd powers
of sec x.

 Example 8.2.8: Integrating ∫ tan k

x sec
j
x dx when j is Even

Evaluate ∫ tan
6
x sec
4
x dx.

Solution
Since the power on sec x is even, rewrite sec 4
x = sec
2
x sec
2
x and use sec 2
x = tan
2
x +1 to rewrite the first sec 2
x in terms of tan x. Thus,

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6 4 6 2 2
∫ tan x sec x dx = ∫ tan x(tan x + 1) sec x dx

6 2 2
=∫ u (u + 1) du Let u = tan x and du = sec x.

8 6
= ∫ (u + u ) du Expand.

1 1
9 7
= u + u +C Evaluate the integral.
9 7

1 9
1 7
= tan x+ tan x + C. Substitute tan x = u.
9 7

 Example 8.2.9: Integrating ∫ tan k

x sec
j
x dx when k is Odd

Evaluate ∫ tan
5
x sec
3
x dx.

Solution
Since the power on tan x is odd, begin by rewriting tan 5
x sec
3
x = tan
4
x sec
2
x sec x tan x. Thus,
5 3 4 2
∫ tan x sec x dx = tan x sec x sec x tan x.

2 2 2 4 2 2
= ∫ (tan x) sec x sec x tan x dx Write tan x = (tan x) .

2 2 2 2 2
= ∫ (sec x − 1) sec x sec x tan x dx Use tan x = sec x − 1.

2 2 2
= ∫ (u − 1 ) u du Let u = sec x and du = sec x tan x dx

6 4 2
= ∫ (u − 2u + u )du Expand.

1 2 1
7 5 3
= u − u + u +C Integrate.
7 5 3

1 7
2 5
1 3
= sec x− sec x+ sec x +C Substitute sec x = u.
7 5 3

 Example 8.2.10: Integrating ∫ tan k

x dx where k is Odd and k ≥ 3

Evaluate ∫ tan
3
x dx.

Solution
Begin by rewriting tan 3
x = tan x tan
2
x = tan x(sec
2
x − 1) = tan x sec
2
x − tan x. Thus,
3 2
∫ tan x dx = ∫ (tan x sec x − tan x) dx

2
=∫ tan x sec x dx − ∫ tan x dx

1 2
= tan x − ln | sec x| + C .
2

For the first integral, use the substitution u = tan x. For the second integral, use the formula.

 Example 8.2.11: Integrating ∫ sec

3
x dx

Integrate ∫ sec
3
x dx.

Solution
This integral requires integration by parts. To begin, let u = sec x and dv = sec 2
x . These choices make du = sec x tan x and v = tan x . Thus,

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3
∫ sec x dx = sec x tan x − ∫ tan x sec x tan x dx

2
= sec x tan x − ∫ tan x sec x dx Simplify.

2 2 2
= sec x tan x − ∫ (sec x − 1) sec x dx Substitute tan x = sec x − 1.

3
= sec x tan x + ∫ sec x dx − ∫ sec x dx Rewrite.

3
= sec x tan x + ln | sec x + tan x| − ∫ sec x dx. Evaluate ∫ sec x dx.

We now have

3 3
∫ sec x dx = sec x tan x + ln | sec x + tan x| − ∫ sec x dx.

Since the integral ∫ sec

3
x dx has reappeared on the right-hand side, we can solve for ∫ sec
3
x dx by adding it to both sides. In doing so, we obtain

3
2∫ sec x dx = sec x tan x + ln | sec x + tan x|.

Dividing by 2, we arrive at

3
1 1
∫ sec x dx = sec x tan x + ln | sec x + tan x| + C
2 2

 Exercise 8.2.8

Evaluate ∫ tan
3
x sec
7
x dx.

Hint
Use Example 8.2.9as a guide.

Answer
3 7
1 9
1 7
∫ tan x sec x dx = sec x− sec x +C
9 7

Reduction Formulas
Evaluating ∫ sec
n
x dx for values of n where n is odd requires integration by parts. In addition, we must also know the value of ∫ sec
n−2
x dx to

evaluate ∫ sec
n
x dx . The evaluation of ∫ tan
n
x dx also requires being able to integrate ∫ tan
n−2
x dx . To make the process easier, we can derive and
apply the following power reduction formulas. These rules allow us to replace the integral of a power of sec x or tan x with the integral of a lower power
of sec x or tan x.

 Rule: Reduction Formulas for ∫ sec n

x dx and ∫ tan n
x dx

n
1 n−2
n−2 n−2
∫ sec x dx = sec x tan x + ∫ sec x dx
n−1 n−1

n
1 n−1 n−2
∫ tan x dx = tan x −∫ tan x dx
n−1

The first power reduction rule may be verified by applying integration by parts. The second may be verified by following the strategy outlined for
integrating odd powers of tan x.

 Example 8.2.12: Revisiting ∫ sec 3

x dx

Apply a reduction formula to evaluate ∫ sec

3
x dx.

Solution: By applying the first reduction formula, we obtain

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3
1 1
∫ sec x dx = sec x tan x + ∫ sec x dx
2 2

1 1
= sec x tan x + ln | sec x + tan x| + C .
2 2

 Example 8.2.13: Using a Reduction Formula

Evaluate ∫ tan
4
x dx.

Solution: Applying the reduction formula for ∫ tan 4

x dx we have
1
4 3 2
∫ tan x dx = tan x −∫ tan x dx
3

1 3 0 2
= tan x − (tan x − ∫ tan x dx) Apply the reduction formula to ∫ tan x dx.
3

1 3
= tan x − tan x + ∫ 1 dx Simplify.
3

1 3
= tan x − tan x + x + C Evaluate ∫ 1 dx
3

 Exercise 8.2.9

Apply the reduction formula to ∫ sec

5
x dx.

Hint
Use reduction formula 1 and let n = 5.

Answer
1 3
5 3 3
∫ sec x dx = sec x tan x + ∫ sec x
4 4

Key Concepts
Integrals of trigonometric functions can be evaluated by the use of various strategies. These strategies include
1. Applying trigonometric identities to rewrite the integral so that it may be evaluated by u-substitution
2. Using integration by parts
3. Applying trigonometric identities to rewrite products of sines and cosines with different arguments as the sum of individual sine and cosine functions
4. Applying reduction formulas

Key Equations
To integrate products involving sin(ax), sin(bx), cos(ax), and cos(bx), use the substitutions.
Sine Products
1 1
sin(ax) sin(bx) = cos((a − b)x) − cos((a + b)x)
2 2

Sine and Cosine Products

1 1
sin(ax) cos(bx) = sin((a − b)x) + sin((a + b)x)
2 2

Cosine Products
1 1
cos(ax) cos(bx) = cos((a − b)x) + cos((a + b)x)
2 2

Power Reduction Formula

n
1 n−2
n−2 n−2
∫ sec x dx = sec x tan x + ∫ sec x dx
n−1 n−1

Power Reduction Formula

1
n n−1 n−2
∫ tan x dx = tan x −∫ tan x dx
n−1

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Glossary
power reduction formula
a rule that allows an integral of a power of a trigonometric function to be exchanged for an integral involving a lower power

trigonometric integral
an integral involving powers and products of trigonometric functions

This page titled 8.2: Trigonometric Integrals is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed”
Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request.
7.2: Trigonometric Integrals by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source: https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-
volume-1.

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8.2E: Exercises
Fill in the blank to make a true statement.
1) sin 2
x+ _______= 1

Answer
2
cos x

2) sec 2
x −1 = _______

Answer
2
tan x

Use an identity to reduce the power of the trigonometric function to a trigonometric function raised to the first power.
3) sin 2
x = _______

Answer
1 − cos(2x)

4) cos 2
x = _______

Answer
1 + cos(2x)

Evaluate each of the following integrals by u-substitution.

5) ∫ sin
3
x cos x dx

Answer
4
3
sin x
∫ sin x cos x dx = +C
4

−−−−
6) ∫ √cos x sin x dx

7) ∫ 5
tan (2x) sec (2x) dx
2

Answer
5 2 1 6
∫ tan (2x) sec (2x) dx = tan (2x) + C
12

8) ∫ 7
sin (2x) cos(2x) dx

x x
9) ∫ tan( ) sec (
2
) dx
2 2

Answer
x x x
2 2
∫ tan( ) sec ( ) dx = tan ( )+C
2 2 2

10) ∫ tan
2
x sec
2
x dx

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Compute the following integrals using the guidelines for integrating powers of trigonometric functions. Use a CAS to check
the solutions. (Note: Some of the problems may be done using techniques of integration learned previously.)

11) ∫ sin
3
x dx

Answer
3
3 cos x cos x
3 1
∫ sin x dx = − + cos(3x) + C = − cos x + +C
12
4 3

12) ∫ cos
3
x dx

13) ∫ sin x cos x dx

Answer
1 2
∫ sin x cos x dx = − cos x +C
2

14) ∫ cos
5
x dx

15) ∫ sin
5
x cos
2
x dx

Answer
5 2
5 cos x 1 3 1
∫ sin x cos x dx = − − cos(3x) + cos(5x) − cos(7x) + C
192 320 448
64

16) ∫ sin
3
x cos
3
x dx

−−−−
17) ∫ √sin x cos x dx

Answer
−−−− 2 3/2
∫ √sin x cos x dx = (sin x ) +C
3

−−−−
18) ∫ 3
√sin x cos x dx

19) ∫ sec x tan x dx

Answer

∫ sec x tan x dx = sec x + C

20) ∫ tan(5x) dx

21) ∫ tan
2
x sec x dx

Answer
2 1 1
∫ tan x sec x dx = sec x tan x − ln(sec x + tan x) + C
2 2

22) ∫ tan x sec

3
x dx

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23) ∫ sec
4
x dx

Answer
3
2 tan x 1
tan x
4 2
∫ sec x dx = + sec x tan x = tan x + +C
3
3 3

24) ∫ cot x dx

25) ∫ csc x dx

Answer

∫ csc x dx = − ln | cot x + csc x| + C

3
tan x
26) ∫ −−−− dx
√sec x

For exercises 27 - 28, find a general formula for the integrals.

27) ∫ sin
2
ax cos ax dx

Answer
3
sin (ax)
2
∫ sin ax cos ax dx = +C
3a

28) ∫ sin ax cos ax dx.

Use the double-angle formulas to evaluate the integrals in exercises 29 - 34.

29) ∫ sin
2
x dx
0

Answer
π
π
2
∫ sin x dx =
0
2

30) ∫ sin
4
x dx
0

31) ∫ cos
2
3x dx

Answer
2
x 1
∫ cos 3x dx = + sin(6x) + C
12
2

32) ∫ sin
2
x cos
2
x dx

33) ∫ sin
2
x dx + ∫ cos
2
x dx

Answer
2 2
∫ sin x dx + ∫ cos x dx = x +C

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34) ∫ sin
2 2
x cos (2x) dx

For exercises 35 - 43, evaluate the definite integrals. Express answers in exact form whenever possible.
2π

35) ∫ cos x sin 2x dx

Answer
2π

∫ cos x sin 2x dx = 0
0

36) ∫ sin 3x sin 5x dx

37) ∫ cos(99x) sin(101x) dx

Answer
π

∫ cos(99x) sin(101x) dx = 0
0

38) ∫ 2
cos (3x) dx
−π

2π

39) ∫ sin x sin(2x) sin(3x) dx

Answer
2π

∫ sin x sin(2x) sin(3x) dx = 0

4π

40) ∫ cos(x/2) sin(x/2) dx

π/3 3
cos x
41) ∫ −−−−
dx (Round this answer to three decimal places.)
π/6 √sin x

Answer
π/3 3
cos x
∫ dx ≈ 0.239
−−−−
π/6 √sin x

π/3
−−−− −−−−
42) ∫ √sec2 x − 1 dx

−π/3

π/2
−−−−−−−−−
43) ∫ √1 − cos(2x) dx
0

Answer
π/2
−−−−−−−−−
–
∫ √1 − cos(2x) dx = √2
0

44) Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of the equations y = sin x, y = sin
3
x, x = 0, and x = π

2
.

45) Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of the equations y = cos 2
x, y = sin
2
x, x = −
π

4
, and x = π

4
.

Answer
2
A = 1 unit

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46) A particle moves in a straight line with the velocity function 2
v(t) = sin(ωt) cos (ωt). Find its position function x = f (t) if
f (0) = 0.

47) Find the average value of the function f (x) = sin 2

x cos
3
x over the interval [−π, π].

Answer
0

For exercises 48 - 49, solve the differential equations.

dy
48) = sin
2
x. The curve passes through point (0, 0).
dx

dy
49) = sin (πθ)
4

dθ

Answer
3θ 1 1
f (x) = − sin(2πθ) + sin(4πθ) + C
4π 32π
8

50) Find the length of the curve y = ln(csc x), for

4
≤x ≤
π

2
.

51) Find the length of the curve y = ln(sin x), for

3
≤x ≤
π

2
.

Answer
–
s = ln(√3)

52) Find the volume generated by revolving the curve y = cos(3x) about the x-axis, for 0 ≤ x ≤ π

36
.

For exercises 53 - 54, use this information: The inner product of two functions f and g over [a, b] is defined by
b

f (x) ⋅ g(x) = ⟨f , g⟩ = ∫ f ⋅ g dx. Two distinct functions f and g are said to be orthogonal if ⟨f , g⟩ = 0.
a

53) Show that sin(2x), cos(3x) are orthogonal over the interval [−π, π] .

Answer
π

∫ sin(2x) cos(3x) dx = 0
−π

54) Evaluate ∫ sin(mx) cos(nx) dx.

−π

−−−−
55) Integrate y' = √tan x sec 4
x.

Answer
−−−− 4 2 3/2 2 7/2 2 3/2 2
y =∫ √tan x sec x dx = (tan x) + (tan x) +C = (tan x) [7 + 3 tan x] + C
3 7 21

For each pair of integrals in exercises 56 - 57, determine which one is more difficult to evaluate. Explain your reasoning.

56) ∫ sin
456
x cos x dx or ∫ sin
2
x cos
2
x dx

57) ∫ tan
350
x sec
2
x dx or ∫ tan
350
x sec x dx

Answer
The second integral is more difficult because the first integral is simply a u -substitution type.

This page titled 8.2E: Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert Strang &
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7.2E: Exercises for Section 7.2 by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
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8.3: Trigonometric Substitution
 Learning Objectives
Solve integration problems involving the square root of a sum or difference of two squares.

−−−−−− −−−−−− −−−−−−

In this section, we explore integrals containing expressions of the form √a − x , √a + x , and √x − a , where the values of
2 2 2 2 2 2

a are positive. We have already encountered and evaluated integrals containing some expressions of this type, but many still remain

inaccessible. The technique of trigonometric substitution comes in very handy when evaluating these integrals. This technique uses
substitution to rewrite these integrals as trigonometric integrals.
−−−−−−−
Integrals Involving √a 2
−x
2

−− −−−− −−−− −
Before developing a general strategy for integrals containing √a 2
−x
2
, consider the integral ∫ √9 − x2 dx. This integral cannot
be evaluated using any of the techniques we have discussed so far. However, if we make the substitution x = 3 sin θ , we have
dx = 3 cos θ dθ. After substituting into the integral, we have

− −−− − − −−−−−−−− −
2 2
∫ √ 9 − x dx = ∫ √ 9 − (3 sin θ) ⋅ 3 cos θ dθ.

After simplifying, we have

− −−− − −−−−−−−−
2 2
∫ √ 9 − x dx = ∫ 9 √ 1 − sin θ ⋅ cos θ dθ.

Letting 1 − sin 2 2
θ = cos θ, we now have
− −−− − −−−−−
∫ √ 9 − x2 dx = ∫ 2
9 √cos θ cos θ dθ.

Assuming that cos θ ≥ 0 , we have

− −−− −
∫ √ 9 − x2 dx = ∫ 9 cos2 θ dθ.

At this point, we can evaluate the integral using the techniques developed for integrating powers and products of trigonometric
functions. Before completing this example, let’s take a look at the general theory behind this idea.
−−−−−−
To evaluate integrals involving √a − x , we make the substitution x = a sin θ and dx = a cos θ . To see that this actually makes
2 2

−−−−− −
sense, consider the following argument: The domain of √a − x is [−a, a]. Thus,
2 2

−a ≤ x ≤ a.

Consequently,
x
−1 ≤ ≤ 1.
a

Since the range of sin x over [−(π/2), π/2]is [−1, 1], there is a unique angle θ satisfying −(π/2) ≤ θ ≤ π/2 so that sin θ = x/a ,
−−−−−−
or equivalently, so that x = a sin θ . If we substitute x = a sin θ into √a − x , we get
2 2

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−−−−−− − −−−−−−−−− −
2 2 2 2
π π
√a − x = √ a − (a sin θ) Let x = a sin θ where − ≤θ ≤ .
2 2

Simplify.

−−−−−−−−− −
2 2 2 2
= √ a − a sin θ Factor out a .

−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2 2 2
= √ a (1 − sin θ) Substitute 1 − sin x = cos x.

− −−−−−−
2 2
= √ a cos θ Take the square root.

= |a cos θ|

= a cos θ

π π
Since cos x ≥ 0 on − ≤θ ≤ and a > 0, |a cos θ| = a cos θ. We can see, from this discussion, that by making the substitution
2 2
x = a sin θ , we are able to convert an integral involving a radical into an integral involving trigonometric functions. After we
evaluate the integral, we can convert the solution back to an expression involving x. To see how to do this, let’s begin by assuming
π x
that 0 <x <a . In this case, 0 <θ < . Since sin θ = , we can draw the reference triangle in Figure 8.3.1 to assist in
2 a
expressing the values of cos θ, tan θ, and the remaining trigonometric functions in terms of x. It can be shown that this triangle
π π
actually produces the correct values of the trigonometric functions evaluated at θ for all θ satisfying − ≤θ ≤ . It is useful to
2 2
−−−− −−
observe that the expression √a2 − x2 actually appears as the length of one side of the triangle. Last, should θ appear by itself, we
x
use θ = sin −1
( ).
a

Figure 8.3.1 : A reference triangle can help express the trigonometric functions evaluated at θ in terms of x .
The essential part of this discussion is summarized in the following problem-solving strategy.
−− −−−−
 Problem-Solving Strategy: Integrating Expressions Involving √a 2
− x
2

1. It is a good idea to make sure the integral cannot be evaluated easily in another way. For example, although this method can
1 x −−−−−−
be applied to integrals of the form ∫ −− − −−− dx ,∫ −− − −−− dx, and ∫ x √a
2
−x
2
dx, they can each be integrated
√a − x2
2 √a − x2
2

directly either by formula or by a simple u-substitution.

−−− −−−
2. Make the substitution x = a sin θ and dx = a cos θ dθ. Note: This substitution yields √a − x = a cos θ. 2 2

3. Simplify the expression.

4. Evaluate the integral using techniques from the section on trigonometric integrals.
5. Use the reference triangle from Figure 1 to rewrite the result in terms of x. You may also need to use some trigonometric
x
identities and the relationship θ = sin −1
( ).
a

The following example demonstrates the application of this problem-solving strategy.

−− −−−−
 Example 8.3.1: Integrating an Expression Involving √a 2
− x
2

Evaluate
− −−− −
2
∫ √ 9 − x dx.

Solution

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x
Begin by making the substitutions x = 3 sin θ and dx = 3 cos θ dθ. Since sin θ = , we can construct the reference triangle
3
shown in Figure 2.

Figure 8.3.2 : A reference triangle can be constructed for Example 8.3.1 .

Thus,
− −−− − −−−−−−−−−−
2 2
∫ √ 9 − x dx = ∫ √ 9 − (3 sin θ) 3 cos θ dθ

Substitute x = 3 sin θ and dx = 3 cos θ dθ .

−−−−−−−−−−
= ∫ √9(1 − sin
2
θ) ⋅ 3 cos θ dθ Simplify.
−−− −−−
= ∫ √9 cos2 θ ⋅ 3 cos θ dθ Substitute cos 2
θ = 1 − sin
2
θ .
= ∫ 3| cos θ|3 cos θ dθ Take the square root.
π π
= ∫ 9 cos
2
θ dθ Simplify. Since − ≤θ ≤ , cos θ ≥ 0 and | cos θ| = cos θ.
2 2

1 1
=∫ 9( + cos(2θ)) dθ Use the strategy for integrating an even power of cos θ.
2 2

9 9
= θ+ sin(2θ) + C Evaluate the integral.
2 4

9 9
= θ+ (2 sin θ cos θ) + C
2 4

Substitute sin(2θ) = 2 sin θ cos θ .

−−−− −
9 x 9 x √9 − x2 x
=
−1
sin ( )+ ⋅ ⋅ +C Substitute sin −1
( ) =θ and sin θ = x

3
. Use the reference triangle to
2 3 2 3 3 3
−−−− −
2
√9 − x
see that cos θ = and make this substitution. Simplify.
3
−−−− −
2
9 x x √9 − x
=
−1
sin ( )+ + C. Simplify.
2 3 2

−− −−−−
 Example 8.3.2: Integrating an Expression Involving √a 2
− x
2

Evaluate
− −−− −
√ 4 − x2
∫ dx.
x

Solution
x
First make the substitutions x = 2 sin θ and dx = 2 cos θ dθ . Since sin θ = , we can construct the reference triangle shown
2
in Figure 8.3.3.

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Figure 8.3.3 : A reference triangle can be constructed for Example 8.3.2 .
Thus,
−−−− − −−−−−−−−− −
2
√4 − x2 √4 − (2 sin θ)
∫ dx = ∫ 2 cos θ dθ Substitute x = 2 sin θ and dx = 2 cos θ dθ.
x 2 sin θ

2
2 cos θ
=∫ dθ Substitute cos 2
θ = 1 − sin
2
θ and simplify.
sin θ

2
2(1 − sin θ)
=∫ dθ Substitute cos 2
θ = 1 − sin
2
θ .
sin θ

1
= ∫ (2 csc θ − 2 sin θ) dθ Separate the numerator, simplify, and use csc θ = .
sin θ

= 2 ln | csc θ − cot θ| + 2 cos θ + C Evaluate the integral.

−−−− −
∣ 2 √4 − x2 ∣ −−−− −
= 2 ln∣ −
2
∣ + √4 − x + C . Use the reference triangle to rewrite the expression in terms of x and simplify.
∣ x x ∣

In the next example, we see that we sometimes have a choice of methods.

−− −−−−
 Example 8.3.3: Integrating an Expression Involving √a 2
− x
2
Two Ways
−−−− −
Evaluate 3 2
∫ x √1 − x dx two ways: first by using the substitution u = 1 − x and then by using a trigonometric substitution.
2

Method 1
Let u = 1 − x and hence x
2 2
= 1 −u . Thus, du = −2x dx. In this case, the integral becomes
−−−− − 1 −−−− −
3 2
∫ x √1 − x dx = −
2 2
∫ x √1 − x (−2x dx) Make the substitution.
2

1 −
=− ∫ (1 − u)√u du Expand the expression.
2

1
=− ∫ (u
1/2
−u
3/2
) du Evaluate the integral.
2

1 2 2
=− ( u
3/2
− u
5/2
)+C Rewrite in terms of x.
2 3 5

1 1
2 3/2 2 5/2
=− (1 − x ) + (1 − x ) + C.
3 5

Method 2
Let x = sin θ . In this case, dx = cos θ dθ. Using this substitution, we have
−−−− − 3
3 2 2
∫ x √1 − x dx = ∫ sin θ cos θ dθ

= ∫ (1 − cos
2
θ) cos
2
θ sin θ dθ Let u = cos θ .Thus,du = − sin θ dθ.
4 2
= ∫ (u − u ) du

1 1
= u
5
− u
3
+C Substitute cos θ = u.
5 3

1 1 −−−−−
= cos
5
θ− cos
3
θ+C Use a reference triangle to see that cos θ = √1 − x 2
.
5 3

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1 1
2 5/2 2 3/2
= (1 − x ) − (1 − x ) + C.
5 3

 Exercise 8.3.1
3
x
Rewrite the integral ∫ −−−−− − dx using the appropriate trigonometric substitution (do not evaluate the integral).
√25 − x2

Hint
Substitute x = 5 sin θ and dx = 5 cos θ dθ.

Answer
3
∫ 125 sin θ dθ

−−−−−−−
Integrating Expressions Involving √a 2
+x
2

−−−−−− −−−−−−
For integrals containing √a + x ,let’s first consider the domain of this expression. Since √a + x is defined for all real values
2 2 2 2

of x, we restrict our choice to those trigonometric functions that have a range of all real numbers. Thus, our choice is restricted to
selecting either x = a tan θ or x = a cot θ . Either of these substitutions would actually work, but the standard substitution is
x = a tan θ or, equivalently, tan θ = x/a . With this substitution, we make the assumption that −(π/2) < θ < π/2 , so that we

also have θ = tan (x/a). The procedure for using this substitution is outlined in the following problem-solving strategy.
−1

−− −−−−
 Problem-Solving Strategy: Integrating Expressions Involving √a 2
+ x
2

1. Check to see whether the integral can be evaluated easily by using another method. In some cases, it is more convenient to
use an alternative method.
2. Substitute x = a tan θ and dx = a sec θ dθ. This substitution yields
2

−−−−−−−−−− − π π
−−−− −− −−−−−−−−−− − −−−−− −
√a2 + x2 = √a2 + (a tan θ)2 = √a2 (1 + tan2 θ) = √a2 sec2 θ = |a sec θ| = a sec θ. (Since − <θ < and
2 2
sec θ > 0 over this interval, |a sec θ| = a sec θ .)

3. Simplify the expression.

4. Evaluate the integral using techniques from the section on trigonometric integrals.
5. Use the reference triangle from Figure 8.3.4 to rewrite the result in terms of x. You may also need to use some
x
trigonometric identities and the relationship θ = tan −1
( ) . (Note: The reference triangle is based on the assumption that
a
x >0 ; however, the trigonometric ratios produced from the reference triangle are the same as the ratios for which x ≤ 0 .)

Figure 8.3.4 : A reference triangle can be constructed to express the trigonometric functions evaluated at θ in terms of x .
−− −−−−
 Example 8.3.4: Integrating an Expression Involving √a 2
+ x2

dx
Evaluate ∫ −−−− − and check the solution by differentiating.
√1 + x2

Solution
Begin with the substitution x = tan θ and dx = sec 2
θ dθ . Since tan θ = x , draw the reference triangle in Figure 8.3.5.

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Figure 8.3.5 : The reference triangle for Example 8.3.4 .
Thus,
2
dx sec θ 2
∫ −−−− − =∫ dθ Substitute x = tan θ and dx = sec θ dθ.
√1 + x2 sec θ

−−−− −
2
This substitution makes √1 + x = sec θ. Simplify.

=∫ sec θ dθ Evaluate the integral.

= ln | sec θ + tan θ| + C Use the reference triangle to express the result in terms of x.

−−−− −
2
= ln | √1 + x + x| + C

To check the solution, differentiate:

−−−− −
2
d −−−− − 1 x 1 x + √1 + x 1
2
( ln | √1 + x + x|) = −−−− − ⋅( −−−− − + 1) = −−−− − ⋅ −−−− − = −−−− −.
dx √1 + x2 + x √1 + x2 √1 + x2 + x √1 + x2 √1 + x2

−−−−− −−−−− −−−− −

Since √1 + x 2
+x > 0 for all values of x, we could rewrite ln |√1 + x 2 2
+ x| + C = ln(√1 + x + x) + C , if desired.

dx
 Example 8.3.5: Evaluating ∫ −−−−−
Using a Different Substitution
√1 + x2

dx
Use the substitution x = sinh θ to evaluate ∫ −−−− −.
√1 + x2

Solution
Because sinh θ has a range of all real numbers, and 1 + sinh θ = cosh 2 2
θ , we may also use the substitution x = sinh θ to
evaluate this integral. In this case, dx = cosh θ dθ. Consequently,
dx cosh θ
∫ =∫ dθ Substitute x = sinh θ and dx = cosh θ dθ.
−−−− − −−−− −−−− −
2
√1 + x2 √1 + sinh θ

2 2
Substitute 1 + sinh θ = cosh θ.

cosh θ −−−−−−
2
=∫ −−−− −− dθ Since √cosh θ = | cosh θ|
√cosh2 θ

cosh θ
=∫ dθ | cosh θ| = cosh θ since cosh θ > 0 for all θ.
| cosh θ|

cosh θ
=∫ dθ Simplify.
cosh θ

=∫ 1 dθ Evaluate the integral.

−1
= θ+C Since x = sinh θ, we know θ = sinh x.

−1
= sinh x + C.

Analysis
This answer looks quite different from the answer obtained using the substitution x = tan θ. To see that the solutions are the
same, set y = sinh x . Thus, sinh y = x. From this equation we obtain:
−1

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y −y
e −e
= x.
2

After multiplying both sides by 2e and rewriting, this equation becomes:

2y y
e − 2x e − 1 = 0.

Use the quadratic equation to solve for e : y

− −−−− −
2x ± √ 4 x2 + 4
y
e = .
2

Simplifying, we have:
−−−−−
y 2
e = x ± √x +1.

−−−−− −−−−−
Since x − √x 2
+1 < 0 , it must be the case that e y 2
= x + √x + 1 . Thus,
−−−−−
2
y = ln(x + √ x + 1 ).

Last, we obtain
−−−−−
−1 2
sinh x = ln(x + √ x + 1 ).

−−−−−
After we make the final observation that, since 2
x + √x + 1 > 0,

−−−−− − −−− −
2 2
ln(x + √ x + 1 ) = ln ∣ √ 1 + x + x ∣,

we see that the two different methods produced equivalent solutions.

 Example 8.3.6: Finding an Arc Length

1
Find the length of the curve y = x over the interval [0,
2
.
]
2

Solution
dy
Because = 2x , the arc length is given by
dx

1/2 −−−−−−−− 1/2

− −−−− −
2
∫ √ 1 + (2x) dx = ∫ √ 1 + 4x2 dx.

0 0

1
To evaluate this integral, use the substitution x = tan θ and dx =
1

2
sec
2
θ dθ . We also need to change the limits of
2
1 π
integration. If x = 0 , then θ = 0 and if x = , then θ = . Thus,
2 4

1/2 −−−−− − π/4 −−−− −−−− −−−−−−

∫
0
√1 + 4x2 dx = ∫
0
√1 + tan2 θ ⋅ 1

2
sec
2
θ dθ After substitution,√1 + 4x 2
= sec θ . (Substitute 1 + tan
2
θ = sec
2
θ

and simplify.)
π/4
=
1

2
∫
0
sec
3
θ dθ We derived this integral in the previous section.
π/4
1 1 ∣
=
1

2
( sec θ tan θ + ln | sec θ + tan θ|)∣ Evaluate and simplify.
2 2 ∣
0

1 – –
= (√2 + ln(√2 + 1)).
4

 Exercise 8.3.2
−−−−−
Rewrite ∫ 3 2
x √x + 4 dx by using a substitution involving tan θ .

Hint

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Use x = 2 tan θ and dx = 2 sec 2
θ dθ.

Answer

3 3
∫ 32 tan θ sec θ dθ

−−−−−−−
Integrating Expressions Involving √x 2
−a
2

−−−−− − x x
The domain of the expression √x2 − a2 is (−∞, −a] ∪ [a, +∞) . Thus, either x ≤ −a or x ≥ a. Hence, ≤ −1 or ≥1 .
a a
π π x
Since these intervals correspond to the range of sec θ on the set [0, )∪( , π] , it makes sense to use the substitution sec θ =
2 2 a
π π
or, equivalently, x = a sec θ , where 0 ≤θ < or <θ ≤π . The corresponding substitution for dx is dx = a sec θ tan θ dθ .
2 2
The procedure for using this substitution is outlined in the following problem-solving strategy.
−− −−−−
 Problem-Solving Strategy: Integrals Involving √x 2
− a
2

1. Check to see whether the integral cannot be evaluated using another method. If so, we may wish to consider applying an
alternative technique.
2. Substitute x = a sec θ and dx = a sec θ tan θ dθ . This substitution yields
−−−−−− − −−−−−−−−− − − −−−− −−−−− − − − −−−−−
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
√x − a = √ (a sec θ) − a = √ a (sec θ − 1) = √ a tan θ = |a tan θ|.

For x ≥ a, |a tan θ| = a tan θ and for x ≤ −a, |a tan θ| = −a tan θ.

3. Simplify the expression.
4. Evaluate the integral using techniques from the section on trigonometric integrals.
5. Use the reference triangles from Figure 8.3.6 to rewrite the result in terms of x.
x
6. You may also need to use some trigonometric identities and the relationship θ = sec −1
( ) . (Note: We need both
a
reference triangles, since the values of some of the trigonometric ratios are different depending on whether x > a or
x < −a .)

Figure 8.3.6 : Use the appropriate reference triangle to express the trigonometric functions evaluated at θ in terms of x .

 Example 8.3.7: Finding the Area of a Region

−−−−−
Find the area of the region between the graph of f (x) = √x 2
−9 and the x-axis over the interval [3, 5].
Solution
First, sketch a rough graph of the region described in the problem, as shown in the following figure.

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Figure 8.3.7 : Calculating the area of the shaded region requires evaluating an integral with a trigonometric substitution.
5 −−−−−
We can see that the area is A = ∫ √x − 9 dx . To evaluate this definite integral, substitute x = 3 sec θ and
3
2

dx = 3 sec θ tan θ dθ . We must also change the limits of integration. If x = 3 , then 3 = 3 sec θ and hence θ = 0 . If x = 5 ,

5
then θ = sec −1
( ) . After making these substitutions and simplifying, we have
3

5 −−−−−
Area= ∫ 3
√x2 − 9 dx

−1
sec (5/3)
=∫
0
9 tan
2
θ sec θ dθ Use tan 2
θ = sec
2
θ − 1.

−1
sec (5/3)
=∫
0
9(sec
2
θ − 1) sec θ dθ Expand.
−1
sec (5/3)
=∫
0
9(sec
3
θ − sec θ) dθ Evaluate the integral.
−1
sec (5/3)
9 9 ∣
=( ln | sec θ + tan θ| + sec θ tan θ) − 9 ln | sec θ + tan θ| ∣ Simplify.
2 2 ∣
0

−1
sec (5/3)
9 9 ∣ 5 5 5 4
= sec θ tan θ − ln | sec θ + tan θ| ∣ Evaluate. Use sec(sec −1
) = and tan(sec −1
) = .
2 2 ∣ 3 3 3 3
0

9 5 4 9 5 4 9 9
= ⋅ ⋅ − ln ∣ + ∣ −( ⋅1⋅0− ln |1 + 0|)
2 3 3 2 3 3 2 2

9
= 10 − ln 3
2

 Exercise 8.3.3

Evaluate
dx
∫ − −−−−.
√ x2 − 4

Assume that x > 2.

Hint
Substitute x = 2 sec θ and dx = 2 sec θ tan θ dθ.

Answer
− −−−−
x √ x2 − 4
ln | + | +C
2 2

Key Concepts
−−−−−−
For integrals involving √a − x , use the substitution x = a sin θ and dx = a cos θ dθ.
2 2

−−−−−−
For integrals involving √a + x , use the substitution x = a tan θ and dx = a sec θ dθ .
2 2 2

−−−−−−
For integrals involving √x − a , substitute x = a sec θ and dx = a sec θ tan θ dθ .
2 2

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Glossary
trigonometric substitution
−− −−−− −− −−−−
an integration technique that converts an algebraic integral containing expressions of the form √a 2
− x2 , √a2
+ x2 , or
− −− −−−
2
√x − a 2
into a trigonometric integral

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Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a
detailed edit history is available upon request.
7.3: Trigonometric Substitution by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
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8.3E: Exercises
Simplify the expressions in exercises 1 - 5 by writing each one using a single trigonometric function.
1) 4 − 4 sin 2
θ

2) 9 sec 2
θ−9

Answer
2 2
9 sec θ−9 = 9 tan θ

3) a2
+a
2
tan
2
θ

4) a2
+a
2
sinh
2
θ

Answer
2 2 2 2 2
a +a sinh θ = a cosh θ

5) 16 cosh 2
θ − 16

Use the technique of completing the square to express each trinomial in exercises 6 - 8 as the square of a binomial.
6) 4x 2
− 4x + 1

Answer
1 2
4(x − )
2

7) 2x 2
− 8x + 3

8) −x 2
− 2x + 4

Answer
2
−(x + 1 ) +5

In exercises 9 - 28, integrate using the method of trigonometric substitution. Express the final answer in terms of the
original variable.
dx
9) ∫ −−−− −
√4 − x2

dx
10) ∫ −−−−− −
√x2 − a2

Answer
dx −−−−−−−
2 2
∫ = ln ∣ x + √−a + x ∣ +C
−−−−− −
√x2 − a2

−−−− −
11) ∫ 2
√4 − x dx

dx
12) ∫ −−−−− −
√1 + 9x2

Answer
dx −−−−−−
1 2
∫ −−−−− − = ln ∣ √9 x + 1 + 3x ∣ +C
3
√1 + 9x2

2
x dx
13) ∫ −−−− −
√1 − x2

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dx
14) ∫ −−−−−
2√ 2
x 1 −x

Answer
−−−− −
dx √1 − x2
∫ −−−− − = − +C
2
x √1 − x
2 x

dx
15) ∫ 2 2
(1 + x )

−−−−−
16) ∫ 2
√x + 9 dx

Answer
−−−−− −−−−−
−−−−−
2
x √x + 9 ∣ √x2 + 9 ∣
2 1
x
∫ √x + 9 dx = 9[ + ln∣ + ∣] + C
2
18 3 3
∣ ∣

−−−−− −
√x2 − 25
17) ∫ dx
x

3
θ
18) ∫ −−−− − dθ
2
√9 − θ

Answer
3 −−−−−
θ dθ 1 2 2
∫ dθ = − √9 − θ (18 + θ ) + C
−−−− − 3
2
√9 − θ

dx
19) ∫ −−−−− −
√x6 − x2

−−−−− −
20) ∫ √x6 − x8 dx

Answer
−−−−−−
2 2 6 8
−−−−− − (−1 + x )(2 + 3 x )√x − x
∫ √x6 − x8 dx = +C
3
15x

dx
21) ∫
2 3/2
(1 + x )

dx
22) ∫
2 3/2
(x − 9)

Answer
dx x
∫ = − +C
2 3/2
−−−−−
(x − 9) 2
9 √x − 9

−−−− −
√1 + x2
23) ∫ dx
x

2
x
24) ∫ −−−−−
dx
√x2 − 1

Answer
2
x 1
−−−−− −−−−−
2 2
∫ dx = (ln ∣ x + √x − 1 ∣ +x √x − 1 ) + C
−−−−− 2
√x2 − 1

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2
x
25) ∫ 2
dx
x +4

dx
26) ∫ −−−−−
x2 √x2 + 1

Answer
−−−− −
dx √1 + x2
∫ = − +C
−−−−−
2 2 x
x √x + 1

2
x
27) ∫ −−−− − dx
√1 + x2

28) ∫ (1 − x )
2 3/2
dx
−1

Answer
1
−−−− −
2 3/2 1 2 2
∫ (1 − x ) dx = (x(5 − 2 x )√1 − x + 3 arcsin x) + C
8
−1

In exercises 29 - 34, use the substitutions x = sinh θ, cosh θ, or tanh θ. Express the final answers in terms of the variable
x.

dx
29) ∫ −−−−−
√x2 − 1

dx
30) ∫ −−−− −
2
x √1 − x

Answer
dx −−−−−
2
∫ −−−− − = ln x − ln ∣ 1 + √1 − x ∣ +C
2
x √1 − x

−−−−−
31) ∫ 2
√x − 1 dx

−−−−−
√x2 − 1
32) ∫ 2
dx
x

Answer
−−−−− −−−−−−−
√x2 − 1 √−1 + x2 −−−−−−−
2 ∣
∫ dx = − + ln∣
∣x +
√−1 + x
∣+C
2
x x

dx
33) ∫ 2
1 −x
−−−− −
√1 + x2
34) ∫ 2
dx
x

Answer
−−−− − −−−− −
√1 + x2 √1 + x2
∫ dx = − + arcsinh x + C
2
x x

Use the technique of completing the square to evaluate the integrals in exercises 35 - 39.
1
35) ∫ 2
dx
x − 6x

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1
36) ∫ 2
dx
x + 2x + 1

Answer
1 1
∫ dx = − +C
2
x + 2x + 1 1 +x

1
37) ∫ −−−− −−−−−−− dx
2
√−x + 2x + 8

1
38) ∫ −−−−−−−−−
dx
√−x2 + 10x

Answer
1 x −5
∫ dx = arcsin( ) +C
−−−−−−−−−
√−x2 + 10x 5

1
39) ∫ −−−−−−−−− − dx
√x2 + 4x − 12

3
−−−− −
40) Evaluate the integral without using calculus: ∫ 2
√9 − x dx.

−3

Answer
3
−−−− − 9π
∫
2
√9 − x dx = ; area of a semicircle with radius 3
−3
2

2 2
x y
41) Find the area enclosed by the ellipse + = 1.
4 9

dx
42) Evaluate the integral ∫ −−−− − using two different substitutions. First, let x = cos θ and evaluate using trigonometric
√1 − x2

substitution. Second, let x = sin θ and use trigonometric substitution. Are the answers the same?

Answer
dx
∫ −−−− − = arcsin(x) + C is the common answer.
√1 − x2

dx
43) Evaluate the integral ∫ −−−−− using the substitution x = sec θ . Next, evaluate the same integral using the substitution
2
x √x − 1
x = csc θ. Show that the results are equivalent.
x 1
44) Evaluate the integral ∫ 2
dx using the form ∫ du . Next, evaluate the same integral using x = tan θ. Are the results
x +1 u

the same?

Answer
x 1
∫
2
dx = ln(1 + x ) + C
2
is the result using either method.
x +1 2

−−−−−
45) State the method of integration you would use to evaluate the integral ∫ x √x
2
+ 1 dx. Why did you choose this method?

−−−−−
46) State the method of integration you would use to evaluate the integral ∫ 2 2
x √x − 1 dx. Why did you choose this method?

Answer
Use trigonometric substitution. Let x = sec(θ).

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1
x
47) Evaluate ∫ 2
dx
−1 x +1

48) Find the length of the arc of the curve over the specified interval: y = ln x, [1, 5]. Round the answer to three decimal places.

Answer
s = 4.367 units

49) Find the surface area of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by the graphs of 2
y = x , y = 0, x = 0 , and
–
x = √2 about the x-axis. (Round the answer to three decimal places).

1
50) The region bounded by the graph of f (x) =
2
and the x-axis between x =0 and x =1 is revolved about the x-axis.
1 +x

Find the volume of the solid that is generated.

Answer
2
π π 3
V =( + ) units
8 4

In exercises 51 - 52, solve the initial-value problem for y as a function of x.

dy
51) (x 2
+ 36) = 1, y(6) = 0
dx

dy
52) (64 − x 2
) = 1, y(0) = 3
dx

Answer
1 ∣ x +8 ∣
y = ln∣ ∣+3
16
∣ x −8 ∣

2
53) Find the area bounded by y = −−−−− −−
, x = 0, y = 0 , and x = 2 .
√64 − 4x2

54) An oil storage tank can be described as the volume generated by revolving the area bounded by
16
y =
−−−−− −
, x = 0, y = 0, x = 2 about the x-axis. Find the volume of the tank (in cubic meters).
√64 + x2

Answer
V = 24.6 m3

14
55) During each cycle, the velocity v (in feet per second) of a robotic welding device is given by v = 2t − , where t is time
4 + t2

in seconds. Find the expression for the displacement s (in feet) as a function of t if s = 0 when t = 0 .
−−−−−−
56) Find the length of the curve y = √16 − x between x = 0 and x = 2 . 2

Answer
s =
2π

3
units

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Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is
available upon request.
7.3E: Exercises for Section 7.3 by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
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8.4: Partial Fractions
 Learning Objectives
Integrate a rational function using the method of partial fractions.
Recognize simple linear factors in a rational function.
Recognize repeated linear factors in a rational function.
Recognize quadratic factors in a rational function.

We have seen some techniques that allow us to integrate specific rational functions. For example, we know that
du
∫ = ln |u| + C
u

and
du 1 −1
u
∫ = tan ( ) + C.
2 2
u +a a a

However, we do not yet have a technique that allows us to tackle arbitrary quotients of this type. Thus, it is not immediately
obvious how to go about evaluating
3x
∫ dx.
2
x −x −2

However, we know from material previously developed that

1 2
∫ ( + ) dx = ln |x + 1| + 2 ln |x − 2| + C .
x +1 x −2

In fact, by getting a common denominator, we see that

1 2 3x
+ = .
2
x +1 x −2 x −x −2

Consequently,
3x 1 2
∫ dx = ∫ ( + ) dx.
2
x −x −2 x +1 x −2

In this section, we examine the method of partial fraction decomposition, which allows us to decompose rational functions into
sums of simpler, more easily integrated rational functions. Using this method, we can rewrite an expression such as:
3x

2
x −x −2

as an expression such as
1 2
+ .
x +1 x −2

The key to the method of partial fraction decomposition is being able to anticipate the form that the decomposition of a rational
function will take. As we shall see, this form is both predictable and highly dependent on the factorization of the denominator of
the rational function. It is also extremely important to keep in mind that partial fraction decomposition can be applied to a rational
P (x)
function only if deg(P (x)) < deg(Q(x)) . In the case when deg(P (x)) ≥ deg(Q(x)) , we must first perform long division
Q(x)

P (x) R(x)
to rewrite the quotient in the form A(x) + , where deg(R(x)) < deg(Q(x)) . We then do a partial fraction
Q(x) Q(x)

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R(x)
decomposition on . The following example, although not requiring partial fraction decomposition, illustrates our approach to
Q(x)

P (x)
integrals of rational functions of the form ∫ dx , where deg(P (x)) ≥ deg(Q(x)).
Q(x)

P (x)
 Example 8.4.1: Integrating ∫ dx, where deg(P (x)) ≥ deg(Q(x))
Q(x)

Evaluate
2
x + 3x + 5
∫ dx.
x +1

Solution
Since deg(x 2
+ 3x + 5) ≥ deg(x + 1), we perform long division to obtain
2
x + 3x + 5 3
= x +2 + .
x +1 x +1

Thus,
2
x + 3x + 5 3 1 2
∫ dx = ∫ (x + 2 + ) dx = x + 2x + 3 ln |x + 1| + C .
x +1 x +1 2

Visit this website for a review of long division of polynomials.

 Exercise 8.4.1

Evaluate
x −3
∫ dx.
x +2

Hint
x −3 5
Use long division to obtain =1− .
x +2 x +2

Answer
x − 5 ln |x + 2| + C

P (x)
To integrate ∫ dx , where deg(P (x)) < deg(Q(x)) , we must begin by factoring Q(x).
Q(x)

Nonrepeated Linear Factors

If Q(x) can be factored as (a x + b 1 1 )(a2 x + b2 ) … (an x + bn ) , where each linear factor is distinct, then it is possible to find
constants A , A , … A satisfying
1 2 n

P (x) A1 A2 An
= + +⋯ + . (8.4.1)
Q(x) a1 x + b1 a2 x + b2 an x + bn

The proof that such constants exist is beyond the scope of this course.
In this next example, we see how to use partial fractions to integrate a rational function of this type.

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 Example 8.4.2: Partial Fractions with Nonrepeated Linear Factors
3x + 2
Evaluate ∫ 3 2
dx.
x −x − 2x

Solution
3x + 2
Since deg(3x + 2) < deg(x
3
−x
2
− 2x) , we begin by factoring the denominator of 3 2
. We can see that
x −x − 2x
x
3
−x
2
− 2x = x(x − 2)(x + 1) . Thus, there are constants A , B , and C satisfying Equation 8.4.1 such that
3x + 2 A B C
= + + .
x(x − 2)(x + 1) x x −2 x +1

We must now find these constants. To do so, we begin by getting a common denominator on the right. Thus,

3x + 2 A(x − 2)(x + 1) + Bx(x + 1) + C x(x − 2)

= .
x(x − 2)(x + 1) x(x − 2)(x + 1)

Now, we set the numerators equal to each other, obtaining

3x + 2 = A(x − 2)(x + 1) + Bx(x + 1) + C x(x − 2). (8.4.2)

There are two different strategies for finding the coefficients A , B , and C . We refer to these as the method of equating
coefficients and the method of strategic substitution.
Strategy one: Method of Equating Coefficients
Rewrite Equation 8.4.2 in the form
2
3x + 2 = (A + B + C )x + (−A + B − 2C )x + (−2A).

Equating coefficients produces the system of equations

A+B+C =0

−A + B − 2C =3

−2A = 2.

To solve this system, we first observe that −2A = 2 ⇒ A = −1. Substituting this value into the first two equations gives us
the system
B+C = 1

B − 2C = 2 .
Multiplying the second equation by −1 and adding the resulting equation to the first produces
−3C = 1,

1 4
which in turn implies that C =− . Substituting this value into the equation B+C = 1 yields B = . Thus, solving these
3 3
4 1
equations yields A = −1, B = , and C =− .
3 3

It is important to note that the system produced by this method is consistent if and only if we have set up the decomposition
correctly. If the system is inconsistent, there is an error in our decomposition.
Strategy two: Method of Strategic Substitution
The method of strategic substitution is based on the assumption that we have set up the decomposition correctly. If the
decomposition is set up correctly, then there must be values of A, B, and C that satisfy Equation 8.4.2 for all values of x. That
is, this equation must be true for any value of x we care to substitute into it. Therefore, by choosing values of x carefully and
substituting them into the equation, we may find A, B , and C easily. For example, if we substitute x = 0 , the equation reduces
to 2 = A(−2)(1) . Solving for A yields A = −1 . Next, by substituting x = 2 , the equation reduces to 8 = B(2)(3) , or

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equivalently B = 4/3 . Last, we substitute x = −1 into the equation and obtain −1 = C (−1)(−3). Solving, we have
1
C =− .
3

It is important to keep in mind that if we attempt to use this method with a decomposition that has not been set up correctly, we
are still able to find values for the constants, but these constants are meaningless. If we do opt to use the method of strategic
substitution, then it is a good idea to check the result by recombining the terms algebraically.
Now that we have the values of A, B, and C , we rewrite the original integral:
3x + 2 1 4 1 1 1
∫ dx = ∫ (− + ⋅ − ⋅ ) dx.
3 2
x −x − 2x x 3 x −2 3 x +1

Evaluating the integral gives us

3x + 2 4 1
∫ dx = − ln |x| + ln |x − 2| − ln |x + 1| + C .
3 2
x −x − 2x 3 3

In the next example, we integrate a rational function in which the degree of the numerator is not less than the degree of the
denominator.

 Example 8.4.3: Dividing before Applying Partial Fractions

2
x + 3x + 1
Evaluate ∫ 2
dx.
x −4

Solution
Since deg(x 2
+ 3x + 1) ≥ deg(x
2
− 4), we must perform long division of polynomials. This results in
2
x + 3x + 1 3x + 5
=1+
2 2
x −4 x −4

3x + 5 3x + 5
Next, we perform partial fraction decomposition on 2
= . We have
x −4 (x + 2)(x − 2)

3x + 5 A B
= + .
(x − 2)(x + 2) x −2 x +2

Thus,

3x + 5 = A(x + 2) + B(x − 2).

Solving for A and B using either method, we obtain A = 11/4 and B = 1/4.
Rewriting the original integral, we have
2
x + 3x + 1 11 1 1 1
∫ dx = ∫ (1 + ⋅ + ⋅ ) dx.
2
x −4 4 x −2 4 x +2

Evaluating the integral produces

2
x + 3x + 1 11 1
∫ dx = x + ln |x − 2| + ln |x + 2| + C .
2
x −4 4 4

As we see in the next example, it may be possible to apply the technique of partial fraction decomposition to a nonrational function.
The trick is to convert the nonrational function to a rational function through a substitution.

 Example 8.4.4: Applying Partial Fractions after a Substitution

cos x
Evaluate ∫ 2
dx.
sin x − sin x

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Solution
Let’s begin by letting u = sin x. Consequently, du = cos x dx. After making these substitutions, we have
cos x du du
∫ dx = ∫ =∫ .
2 2
sin x − sin x u −u u(u − 1)

1 1 1 1
Applying partial fraction decomposition to gives =− + .
u(u − 1) u(u − 1) u u −1

Thus,
cos x
∫ dx = − ln |u| + ln |u − 1| + C = − ln | sin x| + ln | sin x − 1| + C .
2
sin x − sin x

 Exercise 8.4.2
x +1
Evaluate ∫ dx.
(x + 3)(x − 2)

Hint
x +1 A B
= +
(x + 3)(x − 2) x +3 x −2

Answer
2 3
ln |x + 3| + ln |x − 2| + C
5 5

Repeated Linear Factors

For some applications, we need to integrate rational expressions that have denominators with repeated linear factors—that is,
rational functions with at least one factor of the form (ax + b) , where n is a positive integer greater than or equal to 2. If the
n

denominator contains the repeated linear factor (ax + b) , then the decomposition must contain
n

A1 A2 An
+ +⋯ + . (8.4.3)
2 n
ax + b (ax + b) (ax + b)

As we see in our next example, the basic technique used for solving for the coefficients is the same, but it requires more algebra to
determine the numerators of the partial fractions.

 Example 8.4.5: Partial Fractions with Repeated Linear Factors

x −2
Evaluate ∫ 2
dx.
(2x − 1 ) (x − 1)

Solution
We have deg(x − 2) < deg((2x − 1) 2
(x − 1)), so we can proceed with the decomposition. Since (2x − 1)
2
is a repeated
linear factor, include
A B
+
2
2x − 1 (2x − 1)

in the decomposition in Equation 8.4.3. Thus,

x −2 A B C
= + + .
2 2
(2x − 1 ) (x − 1) 2x − 1 (2x − 1) x −1

After getting a common denominator and equating the numerators, we have

2
x − 2 = A(2x − 1)(x − 1) + B(x − 1) + C (2x − 1 ) . (8.4.4)

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We then use the method of equating coefficients to find the values of A, B, and C .
2
x − 2 = (2A + 4C )x + (−3A + B − 4C )x + (A − B + C ).

Equating coefficients yields 2A + 4C = 0 , −3A + B − 4C = 1 , and A − B + C = −2 . Solving this system yields

A = 2, B = 3, and C = −1.

Alternatively, we can use the method of strategic substitution. In this case, substituting x = 1 and x = 1/2 into Equation 8.4.4
easily produces the values B = 3 and C = −1 . At this point, it may seem that we have run out of good choices for x,
however, since we already have values for B and C , we can substitute in these values and choose any value for x not
previously used. The value x = 0 is a good option. In this case, we obtain the equation
−2 = A(−1)(−1) + 3(−1) + (−1)(−1) or, equivalently, A = 2.
2

Now that we have the values for A, B, and C , we rewrite the original integral and evaluate it:
x −2 2 3 1
∫ dx = ∫ ( + − ) dx
2 2
(2x − 1 ) (x − 1) 2x − 1 (2x − 1) x −1

3
= ln |2x − 1| − − ln |x − 1| + C .
2(2x − 1)

 Exercise 8.4.3

Set up the partial fraction decomposition for

x +2
∫ dx.
(x + 3 )3 (x − 4 )2

(Do not solve for the coefficients or complete the integration.)

Hint
Use the problem-solving method of Example 8.4.5for guidance.

Answer
x +2 A B C D E
= + + + +
3 2 2 3 2
(x + 3 ) (x − 4 ) x +3 (x + 3) (x + 3) (x − 4) (x − 4)

The General Method

Now that we are beginning to get the idea of how the technique of partial fraction decomposition works, let’s outline the basic
method in the following problem-solving strategy.

 Problem-Solving Strategy: Partial Fraction Decomposition

To decompose the rational function P (x)/Q(x), use the following steps:

1. Make sure that deg(P (x)) < deg(Q(x)). If not, perform long division of polynomials.
2. Factor Q(x) into the product of linear and irreducible quadratic factors. An irreducible quadratic is a quadratic that has no
real zeros.
3. Assuming that deg(P (x)) < deg(Q(x) , the factors of Q(x) determine the form of the decomposition of P (x)/Q(x).
a. If Q(x) can be factored as (a x + b )(a x + b
1 1 2 2) … (an x + bn ) , where each linear factor is distinct, then it is possible
to find constants A , A , . . . A satisfying
1 2 n

P (x) A1 A2 An
= + +⋯ + .
Q(x) a1 x + b1 a2 x + b2 an x + bn

b. If Q(x) contains the repeated linear factor (ax + b) , then the decomposition must contain
n

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A1 A2 An
+ +⋯ + .
2 n
ax + b (ax + b) (ax + b)

c. For each irreducible quadratic factor ax 2

+ bx + c that Q(x) contains, the decomposition must include
Ax + B
.
2
ax + bx + c

d. For each repeated irreducible quadratic factor (ax 2

+ bx + c ) ,
n
the decomposition must include
A1 x + B1 A2 x + B2 An x + Bn
+ +⋯ + .
2 2 2 2 n
ax + bx + c (ax + bx + c ) (ax + bx + c )

e. After the appropriate decomposition is determined, solve for the constants.

f. Last, rewrite the integral in its decomposed form and evaluate it using previously developed techniques or integration
formulas.

Simple Quadratic Factors

Now let’s look at integrating a rational expression in which the denominator contains an irreducible quadratic factor. Recall that the
quadratic ax + bx + c is irreducible if ax + bx + c = 0 has no real zeros—that is, if b − 4ac < 0.
2 2 2

 Example 8.4.6: Rational Expressions with an Irreducible Quadratic Factor

Evaluate
2x − 3
∫ dx.
3
x +x

Solution
Since deg(2x − 3) < deg(x
3
+ x), factor the denominator and proceed with partial fraction decomposition. Since
Ax + B
x
3
+ x = x(x
2
+ 1) contains the irreducible quadratic factor x
2
+1 , include 2
as part of the decomposition, along
x +1
C
with for the linear term x. Thus, the decomposition has the form
x

2x − 3 Ax + B C
= + .
2 2
x(x + 1) x +1 x

After getting a common denominator and equating the numerators, we obtain the equation
2
2x − 3 = (Ax + B)x + C (x + 1).

Solving for A, B, and C , we get A = 3, B = 2, and C = −3.

Thus,
2x − 3 3x + 2 3
= − .
3 2
x +x x +1 x

Substituting back into the integral, we obtain

2x − 3 3x + 2 3
∫ dx = ∫ ( − ) dx
3 2
x +x x +1 x

x 1 1
=3∫ dx + 2 ∫ dx − 3 ∫ dx Split up the integral
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 x

3
2 −1
= ln ∣ x + 1 ∣ +2 tan x − 3 ln |x| + C . Evaluate each integral
2

Note: We may rewrite ln ∣ x 2

+ 1 ∣= ln(x
2
+ 1) , if we wish to do so, since x 2
+ 1 > 0.

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 Example 8.4.7: Partial Fractions with an Irreducible Quadratic Factor
dx
Evaluate ∫ 3
.
x −8

Solution: We can start by factoring x − 8 = (x − 2)(x + 2x + 4). We see that the quadratic factor x + 2x + 4 is
3 2 2

irreducible since 2 − 4(1)(4) = −12 < 0. Using the decomposition described in the problem-solving strategy, we get
2

1 A Bx + C
= + .
2 2
(x − 2)(x + 2x + 4) x −2 x + 2x + 4

After obtaining a common denominator and equating the numerators, this becomes
2
1 = A(x + 2x + 4) + (Bx + C )(x − 2).

1 1 1
Applying either method, we get A = ,B =− , and C =− .
12 12 3

dx
Rewriting ∫ 3
, we have
x −8

dx 1 1 1 x +4
∫ = ∫ dx − ∫ dx.
3 2
x −8 12 x −2 12 x + 2x + 4

We can see that

1
∫ dx = ln |x − 2| + C ,
x −2

but
x +4
∫ dx
2
x + 2x + 4

requires a bit more effort. Let’s begin by completing the square on x 2

+ 2x + 4 to obtain
2 2
x + 2x + 4 = (x + 1 ) + 3.

By letting u = x + 1 and consequently du = dx, we see that

x +4 x +4
∫ dx = ∫ dx Complete the square on the denominator
2 2
x + 2x + 4 (x + 1 ) +3

u +3
=∫ du Substitute u = x + 1, x = u − 1, and du = dx
2
u +3

u 3
=∫ du + ∫ du Split the numerator apart
2 2
u +3 u +3

1 2
3 −1
u
= ln ∣ u +3 ∣ + – tan – +C Evaluate each integral
2 √3 √3

1 – x +1
2 −1
= ln ∣ x + 2x + 4 ∣ +√3 tan ( ) +C Rewrite in terms of x and simplify
–
2 √3

Substituting back into the original integral and simplifying gives

–
dx 1 1 √3 x +1
2 −1
∫ = ln |x − 2| − ln | x + 2x + 4| − tan ( ) + C.
3 –
x −8 12 24 12 √3

Here again, we can drop the absolute value if we wish to do so, since x 2
+ 2x + 4 > 0 for all x.

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 Example 8.4.8: Finding a Volume
2
x
Find the volume of the solid of revolution obtained by revolving the region enclosed by the graph of f (x) =
2 2
and
(x + 1)

the x-axis over the interval [0, 1] about the y-axis.

Solution
Let’s begin by sketching the region to be revolved (see Figure 8.4.1). From the sketch, we see that the shell method is a good
choice for solving this problem.

Figure 8.4.1 : We can use the shell method to find the volume of revolution obtained by revolving the region shown about the
y -axis.

The volume is given by

1 2 1 3
x x
V = 2π ∫ x⋅ dx = 2π ∫ dx.
2 2 2 2
0 (x + 1) 0 (x + 1)

Since deg((x + 1) ) = 4 > 3 = deg(x ), we can proceed with partial fraction decomposition. Note that
2 2 3
(x
2
+ 1)
2
is a
repeated irreducible quadratic. Using the decomposition described in the problem-solving strategy, we get
3
x Ax + B Cx + D
= + .
(x2 + 1 )2 x2 + 1 (x2 + 1 )2

Finding a common denominator and equating the numerators gives

3 2
x = (Ax + B)(x + 1) + C x + D.

Solving, we obtain A = 1, B = 0, C = −1, and D = 0. Substituting back into the integral, we have
1 3 1
x x x 1 1 1 1
2 ∣
V = 2π ∫ dx = 2π ∫ ( − ) dx = 2π ( ln(x + 1) + ⋅ ) =
2 2 2 2 2 2 ∣
0 (x + 1) 0 x +1 (x + 1) 2 2 x +1 0

1
π (ln 2 − ).
2

 Exercise 8.4.4

Set up the partial fraction decomposition for

2
x + 3x + 1
∫ dx.
2 2 2
(x + 2)(x − 3 ) (x + 4)

Hint
Use the problem-solving strategy.

Answer

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2
x + 3x + 1 A B C Dx + E Fx +G
= + + + +
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(x + 2)(x − 3 ) (x + 4) x +2 x −3 (x − 3) x +4 (x + 4)

Key Concepts
Partial fraction decomposition is a technique used to break down a rational function into a sum of simple rational functions that
can be integrated using previously learned techniques.
When applying partial fraction decomposition, we must make sure that the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the
denominator. If not, we need to perform long division before attempting partial fraction decomposition.
The form the decomposition takes depends on the type of factors in the denominator. The types of factors include nonrepeated
linear factors, repeated linear factors, nonrepeated irreducible quadratic factors, and repeated irreducible quadratic factors.

Glossary
partial fraction decomposition
a technique used to break down a rational function into the sum of simple rational functions

This page titled 8.4: Partial Fractions is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert Strang &
Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is
available upon request.
7.4: Partial Fractions by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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8.4E: Exercises
Use partial fraction decomposition (or a simpler technique) to express the rational function as a sum or difference of two or more simpler rational
expressions.
1
1)
(x − 3)(x − 2)

2
x +1
2)
x(x + 1)(x + 2)

Answer
2
x +1 2 5 1
= − + +
x(x + 1)(x + 2) x +1 2(x + 2) 2x

1
3) 3
x −x

3x + 1
4) 2
x

Answer
3x + 1 1 3
= +
2 2
x x x

2
3x
5) 2
(Hint: Use long division first.)
x +1

4
2x
6) 2
x − 2x

Answer
4
2x 16
2
= 2x + 4x + 8 +
2
x − 2x x −2

1
7) 2
(x − 1)(x + 1)

1
8) 2
x (x − 1)

Answer
1 1 1 1
= − − +
2 2
x (x − 1) x x x −1

x
9) 2
x −4

1
10)
x(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)

Answer
1 1 1 1 1
= − + − +
x(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) 2(x − 2) 2(x − 1) 6x 6(x − 3)

1 1
11) 4
=
2
x −1 (x + 1)(x − 1)(x + 1)

2 2
3x 3x
12) 3
=
2
x −1 (x − 1)(x + x + 1)

Answer
2
3x 1 2x + 1
= +
3 2
x −1 x −1 x +x +1

2x
13) 2
(x + 2)

4 3 2
3x +x + 20 x + 3x + 31
14) 2
(x + 1)(x + 4 )2

Answer

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4 3 2
3x +x + 20 x + 3x + 31 2 x 1
= + −
2 2 2 2 2
(x + 1)(x + 4) x +1 x +4 (x + 4)

In exercises 15 - 25, use the method of partial fractions to evaluate each of the following integrals.
dx
15) ∫
(x − 3)(x − 2)

3x
16) ∫ dx
x2 + 2x − 8

Answer
3x 2
∫ dx = 2 ln |x + 4| + ln |x − 2| + C = ln∣ ∣
∣(x + 4 ) (x − 2)∣ + C
2
x + 2x − 8

dx
17) ∫ 3
x −x

x
18) ∫ 2
dx
x −4

Answer
Note that you don't need Partial Fractions here. We use a simple u -substitution.
x 1 2
∫ dx = ln |4 − x | + C
2 2
x −4

dx
19) ∫
x(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)

2
2x + 4x + 22
20) ∫ dx
x2 + 2x + 10

Answer
Note that since the degree of the numerator is equal to the degree of the denominator, we need to start with long division.
Then note that we will need to use completing the square to continue since we cannot factor the trinomial in the denominator.
2
2x + 4x + 22 1
1 +x
∫ dx = 2 (x + arctan( )) + C
2 3
x + 2x + 10 3

dx
21) ∫ 2
x − 5x + 6

2 −x
22) ∫ 2
dx
x +x

Answer
2
2 −x ∣ x ∣
∫ dx = 2 ln |x| − 3 ln |1 + x| + C = ln∣ ∣+C
2 3
x +x ∣ (1 + x) ∣

2
23) ∫ 2
dx
x −x −6

dx
24) ∫ 3 2
x − 2x − 4x + 8

Answer
dx 1
4 1
4 ∣ x +2 ∣
∫ = (− − ln | − 2 + x| + ln |2 + x|) + C = (− + ln∣ ∣) + C
3 2 16 16
x − 2x − 4x + 8 −2 + x −2 + x ∣ x −2 ∣

dx
25) ∫ 4 2
x − 10 x +9

In exercises 26 - 29, evaluate the integrals with irreducible quadratic factors in the denominators.
2
26) ∫ 2
dx
(x − 4)(x + 2x + 6)

Answer
2 1 – 1 +x 2
∫ dx = (−2 √5 arctan[ ] + 2 ln | − 4 + x| − ln |6 + 2x + x |) + C
2 30 –
(x − 4)(x + 2x + 6) √5

2
x
27) ∫ 3 2
dx
x −x + 4x − 4

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3 2
x + 6x + 3x + 6
28) ∫ 3 2
dx
x + 2x

Answer
Note that we need to use long division first, since the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator.
3 2
x + 6x + 3x + 6 3
∫ dx = − + 4 ln |x + 2| + x + C
3 2
x + 2x x

x
29) ∫ 2 2
dx
(x − 1)(x + 2x + 2 )

In exercises 30 - 32, use the method of partial fractions to evaluate the integrals.
3x + 4
30) ∫ 2
dx
(x + 4)(3 − x)

Answer
3x + 4
1 2
∫ dx = − ln |3 − x| + ln | x + 4| + C
2 2
(x + 4)(3 − x)

2
31) ∫ 2
dx
(x + 2 ) (2 − x)

3x + 4
32) ∫ 3
dx (Hint: Use the rational root theorem.)
x − 2x − 4

Answer
3x + 4 1 2
∫ dx = ln |x − 2| − ln | x + 2x + 2| + C
3 2
x − 2x − 4

In exercises 33 - 46, use substitution to convert the integrals to integrals of rational functions. Then use partial fractions to evaluate the integrals.
1 x
e
33) ∫ dx (Give the exact answer and the decimal equivalent. Round to five decimal places.)
0
36 − e2x

x
e dx
34) ∫ 2x x
dx
e −e

Answer
x
e dx
x
∫ dx = −x + ln |1 − e | + C
e2x − ex

sin x dx
35) ∫ 2
1 − cos x

sin x
36) ∫ 2
dx
cos x + cos x − 6

Answer
sin x 1 ∣ cos x + 3 ∣
∫ dx = ln∣ ∣+C
2 5
cos x + cos x − 6 ∣ cos x − 2 ∣

−
1 − √x
37) ∫ − dx
1 + √x

dt
38) ∫
(et − e−t )2

Answer
dt 1
∫ = +C
t −t 2 2t
(e − e ) 2 − 2e

x
1 +e
39) ∫ x
dx
1 −e

dx
40) ∫ −−−−−
1 + √x + 1

Answer
dx −−−−− −−−−−
∫ = 2 √1 + x − 2 ln |1 + √1 + x | + C
−−−−−
1 + √x + 1

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dx
41) ∫ − 4 −
√x + √x

cos x
42) ∫ dx
sin x(1 − sin x)

Answer
cos x ∣ sin x ∣
∫ dx = ln∣ ∣+C
sin x(1 − sin x) ∣ 1 − sin x ∣

x
e
43) ∫ dx
(e2x − 4 )2

2
1
44) ∫ −−−− −
dx
2 2
1 x √4 − x

Answer
2 –
1 √3
∫ dx =
−−−− −
2 2 4
1 x √4 − x

1
45) ∫ −x
dx
2 +e

1
46) ∫ x
dx
1 +e

Answer
1
x
∫ dx = x − ln(1 + e ) + C
1 + ex

In exercises 47 - 48, use the given substitution to convert the integral to an integral of a rational function, then evaluate.
1
47) ∫ 3
dt; t =x
3

t − √t

1
48) ∫ − 3 −
dx; x =u
6

√x + √x

Answer
1 1/6 1/3 − 1/6
∫ − dx = 6x − 3x + 2 √x − 6 ln(1 + x )+C
3 −
√x + √x

x
49) Graph the curve y = over the interval [0, 5]. Then, find the area of the region bounded by the curve, the x-axis, and the line x = 4 .
1 +x

1
50) Find the volume of the solid generated when the region bounded by y = −−−−−− −
, y = 0, x = 1, and x = 2 is revolved about the x-axis.
√x(3 − x)

Answer
4 1 1 3
V = πarctanh [ ] = π ln 4 units
3 3 3

2
88t
51) The velocity of a particle moving along a line is a function of time given by v(t) = 2
. Find the distance that the particle has traveled after t = 5 sec.
t +1

In exercises 52 - 54, solve the initial-value problem for x as a function of t .

dx
52) (t 2
− 7t + 12) = 1, t > 4, x(5) = 0
dt

Answer
∣ 2(t − 4) ∣
x = − ln |t − 3| + ln |t − 4| + ln 2 = ln∣ ∣
∣ t −3 ∣

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dx
53) (t + 5) =x
2
+ 1, t > −5, x(1) = tan 1
dt

dx
54) (2t 3
− 2t
2
+ t − 1) = 3, x(2) = 0
dt

Answer
– – 1 2 1 – – 1
x = ln |t − 1| − √2 arctan(√2t) − ln(t + ) + √2 arctan(2 √2) + ln 4.5
2 2 2

55) Find the x-coordinate of the centroid of the area bounded by y(x 2
− 9) = 1, y = 0, x = 4, and x = 5. (Round the answer to two decimal places.)
1
56) Find the volume generated by revolving the area bounded by y = 3 2
, x = 1, x = 7 , and y = 0 about the y -axis.
x + 7x + 6x

Answer
2 28 3
V = π ln units
5 13

x − 12
57) Find the area bounded by y = 2
, y = 0, x = 2, and x = 4 . (Round the answer to the nearest hundredth.)
x − 8x − 20

dx
58) Evaluate the integral ∫ 3
.
x +1

Answer
−1+2x
arctan[ ]
dx √3 1 1
2
∫ = + ln |1 + x| − ln ∣ 1 − x + x ∣ +C
–
x3 + 1 √3 3 6

2
2 2t 1−t
For problems 59 - 62, use the substitutions tan( x

2
) = t, dx =
2
dt, sin x =
2
, and cos x = 2
.
1+t 1+t 1+t

dx
59) ∫
3 − 5 sin x

1
60) Find the area under the curve y = between x = 0 and x = π. (Assume the dimensions are in inches.)
1 + sin x

Answer
2.0 in.2
2
2 2t 1 −t
61) Given tan( x

2
) = t, derive the formulas dx = 2
dt, sin x =
2
, and cos x = 2
.
1 +t 1 +t 1 +t

3 −−−−−
√x − 8
62) Evaluate ∫ dx.
x

Answer
3 −−−−− 1/3
√x − 8 – −1 + (−8 + x)
1/3 1/3 1/3 2/3
∫ dx = 3(−8 + x ) − 2 √3 arctan[ ] − 2 ln[2 + (−8 + x ) ] + ln[4 − 2(−8 + x ) + (−8 + x ) ]+C
–
x √3

This page titled 8.4E: Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax)
via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request.
7.4E: Exercises for Section 7.4 by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source: https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-
1.

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8.5: Other Strategies for Integration
 Learning Objectives
Use a table of integrals to solve integration problems.
Use a computer algebra system (CAS) to solve integration problems.

In addition to the techniques of integration we have already seen, several other tools are widely available to assist with the process
of integration. Among these tools are integration tables, which are readily available in many books, including the appendices to
this one. Also widely available are computer algebra systems (CAS), which are found on calculators and in many campus
computer labs, and are free online.

Tables of Integrals
Integration tables, if used in the right manner, can be a handy way either to evaluate or check an integral quickly. Keep in mind that
when using a table to check an answer, it is possible for two completely correct solutions to look very different. For example, in
Trigonometric Substitution, we found that, by using the substitution x = tan θ, we can arrive at
dx −−−−−
∣ 2
∫ √x + 1 ∣ + C .
−−−− − = ln∣x + ∣
√1 + x2

However, using x = sinh θ , we obtained a different solution—namely,

dx
−1
∫ = sinh x + C.
−−−− −
√1 + x2

−−−−−
We later showed algebraically that the two solutions are equivalent. That is, we showed that sinh −1
∣
2
x = ln∣x + √x + 1 ∣
∣
. In this
case, the two antiderivatives that we found were actually equal. This need not be the case. However, as long as the difference in the
two antiderivatives is a constant, they are equivalent.

 Example 8.5.1: Using a Formula from a Table to Evaluate an Integral

Use the table formula
−−−− −− −−−− −−
√a2 − u2 √a2 − u2 u
−1
∫ du = − − sin +C
2
u u a

−−−−− −−
√16 − e2x
to evaluate ∫ x
dx.
e

Solution
−−−−−−
If we look at integration tables, we see that several formulas contain expressions of the form √a − u . This expression is 2 2

− −−−− −−
actually similar to √16 − e , where a = 4 and u = e . Keep in mind that we must also have du = e . Multiplying the
2x x x

numerator and the denominator of the given integral by e should help to put this integral in a useful form. Thus, we now have
x

−−−−− −− −−−−− −−
√16 − e2x √16 − e2x
x
∫ dx = ∫ e dx.
x 2x
e e
−−−− −−
√a2 − u2
Substituting u = e and du = e
x x
dx produces ∫ du. From the integration table (#88 in Appendix A),
u2
−−−− −− −−−− −−
√a2 − u2 √a2 − u2 u
−1
∫ du = − − sin + C.
2
u u a

Thus,
−−−−− −− −−−−− −−
√16 − e2x √16 − e2x
∫
x
dx = ∫
2x
x
e dx Substitute u = e and du = e x x
dx.
e e
−−−− −−
√42 − u2
=∫
2
du Apply the formula using a = 4 .
u

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−−−− −−
√42 − u2 u
=− − sin
−1
+C Substitute u = e . x

u 4
−−−−− −−
x
√16 − e2x e
−1
=− − sin ( )+C
x
e 4

Computer Algebra Systems

If available, a CAS is a faster alternative to a table for solving an integration problem. Many such systems are widely available and
are, in general, quite easy to use.

 Example 8.5.2: Using a Computer Algebra System to Evaluate an Integral

−−−−−
dx ∣ √x2 − 4 x∣
Use a computer algebra system to evaluate ∫ −−−−−
. Compare this result with ln∣ + ∣ + C, a result we might
√x2 − 4 ∣ 2 2 ∣

have obtained if we had used trigonometric substitution.

Solution
Using Wolfram Alpha, we obtain
dx −−−−−
∫ ∣√x2 − 4 + x ∣ + C .
−−−−− = ln∣ ∣
2
√x − 4

Notice that
−−−−− −−−− −
∣ √x2 − 4 x∣ ∣ √x2 − 4 + x ∣ −−−−−
2
ln∣ + ∣ + C = ln∣ ∣ + C = ln∣
∣
√x − 4 + x ∣ − ln 2 + C .
∣
∣ 2 2 ∣ ∣ 2 ∣

Since these two antiderivatives differ by only a constant, the solutions are equivalent. We could have also demonstrated that
each of these antiderivatives is correct by differentiating them.

You can access an integral calculator for more examples.

 Example 8.5.3: Using a CAS to Evaluate an Integral

1
Evaluate ∫ sin
3
x dx using a CAS. Compare the result to 3
cos x − cos x + C , the result we might have obtained using the
3

technique for integrating odd powers of sin x discussed earlier in this chapter.
Solution
Using Wolfram Alpha, we obtain
1
3
∫ sin x dx = (cos(3x) − 9 cos x) + C .
12

1
This looks quite different from cos
3
x − cos x + C . To see that these antiderivatives are equivalent, we can make use of a
3
few trigonometric identities:
1 1
(cos(3x) − 9 cos x) = (cos(x + 2x) − 9 cos x)
12 12

1
= (cos(x) cos(2x) − sin(x) sin(2x) − 9 cos x)
12

1
2
= (cos x(2 cos x − 1) − sin x(2 sin x cos x) − 9 cos x)
12

1
3 2
= (2 cos x − cos x − 2 cos x(1 − cos x) − 9 cos x)
12

1
3
= (4 cos x − 12 cos x)
12

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1 3
= cos x − cos x.
3

Thus, the two antiderivatives are identical.

We may also use a CAS to compare the graphs of the two functions, as shown in the following figure.

1 1
Figure 8.5.1 : The graphs of y = cos
3
x − cos x and y = (cos(3x) − 9 cos x) are identical.
3 12

 Exercise 8.5.1
dx
Use a CAS to evaluate ∫ −−−−− .
√x2 + 4

Hint
Answers may vary.

Answer
x −−−−−
Possible solutions include sinh −1
( )+C and ln∣∣√x 2
+ 4 + x∣ + C .
∣
2

Key Concepts
An integration table may be used to evaluate indefinite integrals.
A CAS (or computer algebra system) may be used to evaluate indefinite integrals.
It may require some effort to reconcile equivalent solutions obtained using different methods.

Glossary
computer algebra system (CAS)
technology used to perform many mathematical tasks, including integration

integration table
a table that lists integration formulas

This page titled 8.5: Other Strategies for Integration is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a
detailed edit history is available upon request.
7.5: Other Strategies for Integration by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
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8.5E: Exercises
Use a table of integrals to evaluate the following integrals.
4
x
1) ∫ −−−− − dx
0 √1 + 2x

x +3
2) ∫ 2
dx
x + 2x + 2

Answer
x +3 1 2
∫ dx = ln | x + 2x + 2| + 2 arctan(x + 1) + C
2 2
x + 2x + 2

−−−−− −
3) ∫ 3 2
x √1 + 2x dx

1
4) ∫ −−−−− −
dx
√x2 + 6x

Answer
1 x +3
−1
∫ dx = cosh ( ) +C
−−−−− −
√x2 + 6x 3

x
5) ∫ dx
x +1

6) ∫
2
x
x⋅2 dx

Answer
2
x −1
x
2 2
∫ x⋅2 dx = +C
ln 2

1
7) ∫ 2
dx
4x + 25

dy
8) ∫ −−−− −
2
√4 − y

Answer
dy y
∫ −−−− − = arcsin( )+C
√4 − y 2 2

9) ∫ 3
sin (2x) cos(2x) dx

10) ∫ csc(2w) cot(2w) dw

Answer
1
∫ csc(2w) cot(2w) dw = − csc(2w) + C
2

11) ∫ 2
y
dy

1
3x
12) ∫ −−−−− dx
0 √x2 + 8

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Answer
1
3x –
∫ dx = 9 − 6 √2
−−−−−
0 √x2 + 8

1/4

13) ∫ 2
sec (πx) tan(πx) dx
−1/4

π/2
x
14) ∫ tan (
2
) dx
0
2

Answer
π/2
2
x π
∫ tan ( ) dx = 2 −
0
2 2

15) ∫ cos
3
x dx

16) ∫ 5
tan (3x) dx

Answer
5 1 4 1 2 1
∫ tan (3x) dx = tan (3x) − tan (3x) + ln | sec 3x| + C
12 6 3

17) ∫ sin
2
y cos
3
y dy

Use a CAS to evaluate the following integrals. Tables can also be used to verify the answers.
dw
18) [T] ∫ w
1 + sec( )
2

Answer
dw w w
∫ = 2 cot( ) − 2 csc( )+w +C
w 2 2
1 + sec( )
2

dw
19) [T] ∫
1 − cos(7w)

t
dt
20) [T] ∫
0
4 cos t + 3 sin t

Answer
t
dt 2(5 + 4 sin t − 3 cos t)
1 ∣ ∣
∫ = ln
5 ∣ ∣
0
4 cos t + 3 sin t 4 cos t + 3 sin t

−−−−−
√x2 − 9
21) [T] ∫ dx
3x

dx
22) [T] ∫
1/2 1/3
x +x

Answer
dx 1/6 1/3 − 1/6
∫ = 6x − 3x + 2 √x − 6 ln[1 + x ] +C
1/2 1/3
x +x

dx
23) [T] ∫ −−−−−
x √x − 1

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24) [T] ∫ x
3
sin x dx

Answer
3 3 2
∫ x sin x dx = −x cos x + 3 x sin x + 6x cos x − 6 sin x + C

−−−−−
25) [T] ∫ x
√ 4
x − 9 dx

x
26) [T] ∫ dx
−x2
1 +e

Answer
x 1 2 −x
2

∫ dx = (x + ln |1 + e |) + C
−x2 2
1 +e

−−−− −
√3 − 5x
27) [T] ∫ dx
2x

dx
28) [T] ∫ −−−−−
x √x − 1

Answer
dx −−−−−
∫ = 2 arctan (√x − 1 ) + C
−−−−−
x √x − 1

29) [T] ∫ e
x
cos
−1 x
(e ) dx

Use a calculator or CAS to evaluate the following integrals.

π/4

30) [T] ∫ cos 2x dx

Answer
π/4
1
∫ cos 2x dx = 0.5 =
0
2

1
2

31) [T] ∫ x⋅e

−x
dx
0

8
2x
32) [T] ∫ −−−−−− dx
2
√x + 36
0

Answer
8
2x
∫ dx = 8.0
−−−−− −
0 √x2 + 36

2/ √3
1
33) [T] ∫ 2
dx
0 4 + 9x

dx
34) [T] ∫ 2
x + 4x + 13

Answer
dx 1 1
∫ = arctan( (x + 2)) + C
2 3 3
x + 4x + 13

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dx
35) [T] ∫
1 + sin x

Use tables to evaluate the integrals. You may need to complete the square or change variables to put the integral into a form
given in the table.
dx
36) ∫ 2
x + 2x + 10

Answer
dx 1
x +1
∫ = arctan( ) +C
2 3
x + 2x + 10 3

dx
37) ∫ −−−−− −
√x2 − 6x

x
e
38) ∫ −−− −−− dx
√e2x − 4

Answer
x
e −−−−−−
x 2x
∫ −−− −−− dx = ln(e + √4 + e )+C
√e2x − 4

cos x
39) ∫ 2
dx
sin x + 2 sin x

3
arctan(x )
40) ∫ 4
dx
x

Answer
3 3
arctan(x ) arctan(x )
1 6
∫ dx = ln x − ln(x + 1) − +C
4 6 3
x 3x

ln |x| arcsin(ln |x|)

41) ∫ dx
x

Use tables to perform the integration.

dx
42) ∫ −−−−− −
√x2 + 16

Answer
dx −−−−−−
2
∫ = ln |x| + √16 + x ∣ +C
−−−−− −
√x2 + 16

3x
43) ∫ dx
2x + 7

dx
44) ∫
1 − cos 4x

Answer
dx 1
∫ =− cot 2x + C
1 − cos 4x 4

dx
45) ∫ −−−−−
√4x + 1

46) Find the area bounded by y(4 + 25x 2

) = 5, x = 0, y = 0, and x = 4. Use a table of integrals or a CAS.

Answer

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2
arctan 10 units²

1
47) The region bounded between the curve y = −−−−−− − , 0.3 ≤ x ≤ 1.1, and the x -axis is revolved about the x -axis to
√1 + cos x

generate a solid. Use a table of integrals to find the volume of the solid generated. (Round the answer to two decimal places.)
48) Use substitution and a table of integrals to find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve x
y = e , 0 ≤ x ≤ 3,

about the x-axis. (Round the answer to two decimal places.)

Answer
1276.14 units²
2
x
49) [T] Use an integral table and a calculator to find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve y = , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1,
2
about the x-axis. (Round the answer to two decimal places.)
50) [T] Use a CAS or tables to find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve y = cos x, 0 ≤ x ≤
π

2
, about the x-
axis. (Round the answer to two decimal places.)

Answer
7.21 units²
2
x
51) Find the length of the curve y = over [0, 8].
4

52) Find the length of the curve y = e over [0, x

ln(2)].

Answer
– – 2+2 √2
(√5 − √2 + ln
∣
∣ 1+√5
∣
∣
) units

53) Find the area of the surface formed by revolving the graph of y = 2√−
x over the interval [0, 9] about the x-axis.

1
54) Find the average value of the function f (x) = 2
over the interval [−3, 3].
x +1

Answer
1
arctan(3) ≈ 0.416
3

55) Approximate the arc length of the curve y = tan πx over the interval [0, 1

4
. (Round the answer to three decimal places.)
]

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available upon request.
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8.6: Numerical Integration
 Learning Objectives
Approximate the value of a definite integral by using the midpoint and trapezoidal rules.
Determine the absolute and relative error in using a numerical integration technique.
Estimate the absolute and relative error using an error-bound formula.
Recognize when the midpoint and trapezoidal rules over- or underestimate the true value of an integral.
Use Simpson’s rule to approximate the value of a definite integral to a given accuracy.

The antiderivatives of many functions either cannot be expressed or cannot be expressed easily in closed form (that is, in terms of known functions). Consequently, rather than evaluate
definite integrals of these functions directly, we resort to various techniques of numerical integration to approximate their values. In this section, we explore several of these
techniques. In addition, we examine the process of estimating the error in using these techniques.

The Midpoint Rule

Earlier in this text we defined the definite integral of a function over an interval as the limit of Riemann sums. In general, any Riemann sum of a function f (x) over an interval [a, b]
b

may be viewed as an estimate of ∫ f (x) dx . Recall that a Riemann sum of a function f (x) over an interval [a, b] is obtained by selecting a partition
a

P = { x0 , x1 , x2 , … , xn }

where a = x0 < x1 < x2 < ⋯ < xn = b

and a set
∗ ∗ ∗
S = { x , x , … , xn }
1 2

where x i−1 ≤x
∗
i
≤ xi for all i.

The Riemann sum corresponding to the partition P and the set S is given by ∑ f (x ∗
i
)Δxi , where Δx i = xi − xi−1 , the length of the i
th
subinterval.
i=1

The midpoint rule for estimating a definite integral uses a Riemann sum with subintervals of equal width and the midpoints, m , of each subinterval in place of x . Formally, we state a i
∗
i

theorem regarding the convergence of the midpoint rule as follows.

 The Midpoint Rule

b −a
Assume that f (x) is continuous on [a, b]. Let n be a positive integer and Δx = . If [a, b] is divided into n subintervals, each of length Δx, and m is the midpoint of the i
i
th

n
subinterval, set
n

Mn = ∑ f (mi )Δx.

i=1

Then lim Mn = ∫ f (x) dx.

n→∞
a

As we can see in Figure 8.6.1, if f (x) ≥ 0 over [a, b], then ∑ f (m i )Δx corresponds to the sum of the areas of rectangles approximating the area between the graph of f (x) and the
i=1

x -axis over [a, b]. The graph shows the rectangles corresponding to M for a nonnegative function over a closed interval [a, b].
4

Figure 8.6.1 : The midpoint rule approximates the area between the graph of f (x) and the x -axis by summing the areas of rectangles with midpoints that are points on f (x).

 Example 8.6.1: Using the Midpoint Rule with M 4

Use the midpoint rule to estimate ∫ 2

x dx using four subintervals. Compare the result with the actual value of this integral.
0

1 −0 1
Solution: Each subinterval has length Δx = = . Therefore, the subintervals consist of
4 4

1 1 1 1 3 3
[0, ], [ , ], [ , ] , and [ , 1] .
4 4 2 2 4 4

The midpoints of these subintervals are { 1

8
,
3

8
,
5

8
,
7

8
}. Thus,

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1 1 1 3 1 5 1 7
M4 = ⋅f ( )+ ⋅f ( )+ ⋅f ( )+ ⋅f ( )
4 8 4 8 4 8 4 8

1 1 1 9 1 25 1 49
= ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅
4 64 4 64 4 64 4 64

21
= = 0.328125.
64

Since
1
1
2
∫ x dx = ,
0
3

the absolute error in this approximation is:

∣1 21 ∣ 1
∣ − ∣ = ≈ 0.0052,
∣3 64 ∣ 192

and we see that the midpoint rule produces an estimate that is somewhat close to the actual value of the definite integral.

 Example 8.6.2: Using the Midpoint Rule with M 6

Use M to estimate the length of the curve y =

6
1

2
x
2
on [1, 4].
Solution: The length of y = 1

2
2
x on [1, 4] is
−−−−−−−−−
4 2
dy
s =∫ √1 + ( ) dx.
1
dx

4
dy −−−− −
Since =x , this integral becomes ∫ 2
√1 + x dx.
dx 1

4 −1 1
If [1, 4] is divided into six subintervals, then each subinterval has length Δx = = and the midpoints of the subintervals are {
5

4
,
7

4
,
9

4
,
11

4
,
13

4
,
15

4
} . If we set
6 2
−−−− −
f (x) = √1 + x
2
,

1
5 1
7 1 9 1 11 1 13 1 15
M6 = ⋅f ( )+ ⋅f ( )+ ⋅f ( )+ ⋅f ( )+ ⋅f ( )+ ⋅f ( )
2 2
4 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4

1
≈ (1.6008 + 2.0156 + 2.4622 + 2.9262 + 3.4004 + 3.8810) = 8.1431 units.
2

 Exercise 8.6.1
2
1
Use the midpoint rule with n = 2 to estimate ∫ dx.
1
x

Hint
1 5 7
Δx = , m1 = , and m2 = .
2 4 4

Answer
24
≈ 0.685714
35

The Trapezoidal Rule

We can also approximate the value of a definite integral by using trapezoids rather than rectangles. In Figure 8.6.2, the area beneath the curve is approximated by trapezoids rather than
by rectangles.

Figure 8.6.2 : Trapezoids may be used to approximate the area under a curve, hence approximating the definite integral.
The trapezoidal rule for estimating definite integrals uses trapezoids rather than rectangles to approximate the area under a curve. To gain insight into the final form of the rule,
consider the trapezoids shown in Figure 8.6.2. We assume that the length of each subinterval is given by Δx. First, recall that the area of a trapezoid with a height of h and bases of
length b and b is given by Area = h(b + b ) . We see that the first trapezoid has a height Δx and parallel bases of length f (x ) and f (x ). Thus, the area of the first trapezoid in
1 2
1

2
1 2 0 1

Figure 8.6.2 is
1
Δx(f (x0 ) + f (x1 )).
2

The areas of the remaining three trapezoids are

1 1 1
Δx(f (x1 ) + f (x2 )), Δx(f (x2 ) + f (x3 )), and Δx(f (x3 ) + f (x4 )).
2 2 2

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Consequently,
b
1 1 1 1
∫ f (x) dx ≈ Δx(f (x0 ) + f (x1 )) + Δx(f (x1 ) + f (x2 )) + Δx(f (x2 ) + f (x3 )) + Δx(f (x3 ) + f (x4 )).
a
2 2 2 2

After taking out a common factor of 1

2
Δx and combining like terms, we have
b
Δx
∫ f (x) dx ≈ [f (x0 ) + 2 f (x1 ) + 2 f (x2 ) + 2 f (x3 ) + f (x4 )].
a 2

Generalizing, we formally state the following rule.

 The Trapezoidal Rule

b −a
Assume that f (x) is continuous over [a, b] . Let n be a positive integer and Δx = . Let [a, b] be divided into n subintervals, each of length , with endpoints at
Δx
n
P = { x0 , x1 , x2 … , xn }.

Set
Δx
Tn = [f (x0 ) + 2 f (x1 ) + 2 f (x2 ) + ⋯ + 2 f (xn−1 ) + f (xn )].
2

Then, lim Tn = ∫ f (x) dx.

n→+∞
a

Before continuing, let’s make a few observations about the trapezoidal rule. First of all, it is useful to note that
n n
1
Tn = (Ln + Rn ) where L n = ∑ f (xi−1 )Δx and R n = ∑ f (xi )Δx.
2
i=1 i=1

That is, L and R approximate the integral using the left-hand and right-hand endpoints of each subinterval, respectively. In addition, a careful examination of Figure 8.6.3 leads us
n n

to make the following observations about using the trapezoidal rules and midpoint rules to estimate the definite integral of a nonnegative function. The trapezoidal rule tends to
overestimate the value of a definite integral systematically over intervals where the function is concave up and to underestimate the value of a definite integral systematically over
intervals where the function is concave down. On the other hand, the midpoint rule tends to average out these errors somewhat by partially overestimating and partially underestimating
the value of the definite integral over these same types of intervals. This leads us to hypothesize that, in general, the midpoint rule tends to be more accurate than the trapezoidal rule.

Figure 8.6.3 :The trapezoidal rule tends to be less accurate than the midpoint rule.

 Example 8.6.3: Using the Trapezoidal Rule

Use the trapezoidal rule to estimate ∫ x

2
dx using four subintervals.
0

Solution
1−0
The endpoints of the subintervals consist of elements of the set P = {0,
1

4
,
1

2
,
3

4
, 1} and Δx = 4
=
1

4
. Thus,
1
2
1 1 1 1 3
∫ x dx ≈ ⋅ [f (0) + 2 f ( )+2 f ( )+2 f ( ) + f (1)]
4 2 4
0
2 4

1 1 1 9
= (0 + 2 ⋅ +2 ⋅ +2 ⋅ + 1)
8 16 4 16

11
= = 0.34375
32

 Exercise 8.6.2
2
1
Use the trapezoidal rule with n = 2 to estimate ∫ dx.
1
x

Hint
1
Set Δx = . The endpoints of the subintervals are the elements of the set P = {1,
3

2
, 2} .
2

Answer
17
≈ 0.708333
24

Absolute and Relative Error

An important aspect of using these numerical approximation rules consists of calculating the error in using them for estimating the value of a definite integral. We first need to define
absolute error and relative error.

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 Definition: absolute and relative error
If B is our estimate of some quantity having an actual value of A , then the absolute error is given by |A − B| .
The relative error is the error as a percentage of the actual value and is given by
∣ A−B ∣
∣ ∣ ⋅ 100%.
∣ A ∣

 Example 8.6.4: Calculating Error in the Midpoint Rule

Calculate the absolute and relative error in the estimate of ∫ 2

x dx using the midpoint rule, found in Example 8.6.1.
0

1
1
Solution: The calculated value is ∫ 2
x dx = and our estimate from the example is M 4 =
21

64
. Thus, the absolute error is given by ∣∣ 1

3
−
21

64
∣ =
∣ 192
1
≈ 0.0052.
0
3

The relative error is

1/192 1
= ≈ 0.015625 ≈ 1.6%.
1/3 64

 Example 8.6.5: Calculating Error in the Trapezoidal Rule

Calculate the absolute and relative error in the estimate of ∫ 2

x dx using the trapezoidal rule, found in Example 8.6.3.
0

1
1
Solution: The calculated value is ∫ 2
x dx = and our estimate from the example is T 4 =
11

32
. Thus, the absolute error is given by ∣∣ 1

3
−
11

32
∣ =
∣
1

96
≈ 0.0104.
0 3

The relative error is given by

1/96
= 0.03125 ≈ 3.1%.
1/3

 Exercise 8.6.3
2
1
In an earlier checkpoint, we estimated ∫ dx to be 24

35
using M . The actual value of this integral is ln 2. Using
2
24

35
≈ 0.6857 and ln 2 ≈ 0.6931, calculate the absolute error
1
x

and the relative error.

Hint
Use the previous examples as a guide.

Answer
absolute error ≈ 0.0074, and relative error ≈ 1.1%

Error Bounds on the Midpoint and Trapezoidal Rules

In the two previous examples, we were able to compare our estimate of an integral with the actual value of the integral; however, we do not typically have this luxury. In general, if we
are approximating an integral, we are doing so because we cannot compute the exact value of the integral itself easily. Therefore, it is often helpful to be able to determine an upper
bound for the error in an approximation of an integral. The following theorem provides error bounds for the midpoint and trapezoidal rules. The theorem is stated without proof.

 Error Bounds for the Midpoint and Trapezoidal Rules

Let f (x) be a continuous function over [a, b], having a second derivative f ′′
(x) over this interval. If M is the maximum value of |f ′′
(x)| over [a, b], then the upper bounds for the
b

error in using M and T to estimate ∫

n n f (x) dx are
a

3
M (b − a)
Error in Mn ≤ (8.6.1)
24n2

and
3
M (b − a)
Error in Tn ≤
2
12n

We can use these bounds to determine the value of n necessary to guarantee that the error in an estimate is less than a specified value.

 Example 8.6.6: Determining the Number of Intervals to Use

1
2

What value of n should be used to guarantee that an estimate of ∫ e

x
dx is accurate to within 0.01 if we use the midpoint rule?
0

Solution
We begin by determining the value of M , the maximum value of |f over [0, 1] for f (x) = e . Since f '(x) = 2x e we have
2 2
′′ x x
(x)| ,

2 2
′′ x 2 x
f (x) = 2 e + 4x e .

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Thus,
2
′′ x 2
|f (x)| = 2 e (1 + 2 x ) ≤ 2 ⋅ e ⋅ 3 = 6e.

From the error-bound Equation 8.6.1, we have

3 3
M (b − a) 6e(1 − 0) 6e
Error in Mn ≤ ≤ = .
2 2 2
24n 24n 24n

Now we solve the following inequality for n :

6e
≤ 0.01.
24n2

−
−−−
Thus, n ≥ √ 600e

24
≈ 8.24. Since n must be an integer satisfying this inequality, a choice of n = 9 would guarantee that
1
∣ 2
∣
x
∣∫ e dx − Mn ∣ < 0.01.
∣ 0 ∣

Analysis
We might have been tempted to round 8.24 down and choose n = 8 , but this would be incorrect because we must have an integer greater than or equal to 8.24. We need to keep in
mind that the error estimates provide an upper bound only for the error. The actual estimate may, in fact, be a much better approximation than is indicated by the error bound.

 Exercise 8.6.4
1

Use Equation 8.6.1 to find an upper bound for the error in using M to estimate ∫ 4 x
2
dx.
0

Hint
f
′′
(x) = 2, so M = 2.

Answer
1

192

Simpson’s Rule
With the midpoint rule, we estimated areas of regions under curves by using rectangles. In a sense, we approximated the curve with piecewise constant functions. With the trapezoidal
rule, we approximated the curve by using piecewise linear functions. What if we were, instead, to approximate a curve using piecewise quadratic functions? With Simpson’s rule, we
x2 x2

do just this. We partition the interval into an even number of subintervals, each of equal width. Over the first pair of subintervals we approximate ∫ f (x) dx with ∫ ,
p(x) dx
x0 x0

where p(x) = Ax 2
+ Bx + C is the quadratic function passing through (x 0, f (x0 )), (x1 , f (x1 )), and (x 2, f (x2 )) (Figure 8.6.4). Over the next pair of subintervals we approximate
x4

∫ f (x) dx with the integral of another quadratic function passing through (x2 , f (x2 )), (x3 , f (x3 )), and (x4 , f (x4 )). This process is continued with each successive pair of
x2

subintervals.

Figure 8.6.4 : With Simpson’s rule, we approximate a definite integral by integrating a piecewise quadratic function.
To understand the formula that we obtain for Simpson’s rule, we begin by deriving a formula for this approximation over the first two subintervals. As we go through the derivation, we
need to keep in mind the following relationships:
2
f (x0 ) = p(x0 ) = Ax + Bx0 + C
0

2
f (x1 ) = p(x1 ) = Ax + Bx1 + C
1

2
f (x2 ) = p(x2 ) = Ax + Bx2 + C
2

x2 − x0 = 2Δx , where Δx is the length of a subinterval.

(x2 + x0 )
x2 + x0 = 2 x1 , since x 1 = .
2

Thus,

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x2 x2

∫ f (x) dx ≈ ∫ p(x) dx
x0 x0

x2
2
=∫ (Ax + Bx + C ) dx
x0

x2
A 3
B 2 ∣
=( x + x + C x) ∣ Find the antiderivative.
3 2 ∣
x0

A B
3 3 2 2
= (x −x )+ (x − x ) + C (x2 − x0 ) Evaluate the antiderivative.
2 0 2 0
3 2

A B
2 2
= (x2 − x0 )(x + x2 x0 + x ) + (x2 − x0 )(x2 + x0 ) + C (x2 − x0 )
2 0
3 2

x2 − x0 x2 − x0
2 2
= (2A(x + x2 x0 + x ) + 3B(x2 + x0 ) + 6C ) Factor out .
2 0
6 6

Δx x2 − x0
2 2 2 2
= ((Ax + Bx2 + C ) + (Ax + Bx0 + C ) + A(x + 2 x2 x0 + x ) + 2B(x2 + x0 ) + 4C ) Rearrange the terms. Note: Δx =
2 0 2 0
3 2

Δx
2
= (f (x2 ) + f (x0 ) + A(x2 + x0 ) + 2B(x2 + x0 ) + 4C ) Factor and substitute:
3

2 2
f (x2 ) = Ax + Bx2 + C and f (x0 ) = Ax + Bx0 + C .
2 0

Δx
2
= (f (x2 ) + f (x0 ) + A(2 x1 ) + 2B(2 x1 ) + 4C ) Substitute x2 + x0 = 2 x1 .
3

x2 + x0
Note: x1 = is the midpoint.
2

Δx
2
= (f (x2 ) + 4f (x1 ) + f (x0 )). Expand and substitute f (x1 ) = Ax + Bx1 + C .
1
3

If we approximate ∫ f (x) dx using the same method, we see that we have

x4
Δx
∫ f (x) dx ≈ (f (x4 ) + 4 f (x3 ) + f (x2 )).
x2
3

Combining these two approximations, we get

x4
Δx
∫ f (x) dx ≈ (f (x0 ) + 4 f (x1 ) + 2 f (x2 ) + 4 f (x3 ) + f (x4 )).
x0
3

The pattern continues as we add pairs of subintervals to our approximation. The general rule may be stated as follows.

 Simpson’s Rule
b −a
Assume that f (x) is continuous over [a, b] . Let n be a positive even integer and Δx = . Let [a, b] be divided into n subintervals, each of length Δx , with endpoints at
n
P = { x0 , x1 , x2 , … , xn }. Set
Δx
Sn = [f (x0 ) + 4 f (x1 ) + 2 f (x2 ) + 4 f (x3 ) + 2 f (x4 ) + ⋯ + 2 f (xn−2 ) + 4 f (xn−1 ) + f (xn )].
3

Then,
b

lim Sn = ∫ f (x) dx.

n→+∞
a

Just as the trapezoidal rule is the average of the left-hand and right-hand rules for estimating definite integrals, Simpson’s rule may be obtained from the midpoint and trapezoidal rules
by using a weighted average. It can be shown that S = ( ) M + ( ) T . 2n
2

3
n
1

3
n

It is also possible to put a bound on the error when using Simpson’s rule to approximate a definite integral. The bound in the error is given by the following rule:

 Rule: Error Bound for Simpson’s Rule

Let f (x) be a continuous function over [a, b] having a fourth derivative, f (4)
, over this interval. If M is the maximum value of ∣∣f
(x)
(4)
(x)∣
∣ over [a, b], then the upper bound for
b

the error in using S to estimate ∫

n f (x) dx is given by
a

5
M (b − a)
Error in Sn ≤ .
4
180n

 Example 8.6.7: Applying Simpson’s Rule 1

Use S to approximate ∫
2 x
3
dx . Estimate a bound for the error in S . 2

Solution
1−0
Since [0, 1] is divided into two intervals, each subinterval has length Δx = 2
=
1

2
. The endpoints of these subintervals are {0, 1

2
. If we set f (x) = x
, 1}
3
, then
1 1 1 1 1 1
S2 = ⋅ (f (0) + 4 f ( ) + f (1)) = (0 + 4 ⋅ + 1) = .
3 2 2 6 8 4

Since f (4)
(x) = 0 and consequently M = 0, we see that

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5
0(1)
Error in S 2 ≤ 4
= 0.
180⋅2

1
1
This bound indicates that the value obtained through Simpson’s rule is exact. A quick check will verify that, in fact, ∫ 3
x dx = .
0
4

 Example 8.6.8: Applying Simpson’s Rule 2

Use S to estimate the length of the curve y =

6
1

2
x
2
over [1, 4].
Solution
4
−−−− −
The length of y =
1

2
x
2
over [1, 4] is ∫
2
√1 + x dx . If we divide [1, 4] into six subintervals, then each subinterval has length Δx =
4−1

6
=
1

2
, and the endpoints of the
1
−−−− −
subintervals are {1, 3

2
, 2,
5

2
, 3,
7

2
, 4} . Setting f (x) = √1 + x
2
,
1 1 3 5 7
S6 = ⋅ (f (1) + 4f ( ) + 2f (2) + 4f ( ) + 2f (3) + 4f ( ) + f (4)).
3 2 2 2 2

After substituting, we have

1
S6 = (1.4142 + 4 ⋅ 1.80278 + 2 ⋅ 2.23607 + 4 ⋅ 2.69258 + 2 ⋅ 3.16228 + 4 ⋅ 3.64005 + 4.12311) ≈ 8.14594 units.
6

 Exercise 8.6.5
2
1
Use S to estimate ∫
2 dx.
1
x

Hint
1
S2 = Δx (f (x0 ) + 4f (x1 ) + f (x2 ))
3

Answer
25
≈ 0.694444
36

Key Concepts
We can use numerical integration to estimate the values of definite integrals when a closed form of the integral is difficult to find or when an approximate value only of the definite
integral is needed.
The most commonly used techniques for numerical integration are the midpoint rule, trapezoidal rule, and Simpson’s rule.
The midpoint rule approximates the definite integral using rectangular regions whereas the trapezoidal rule approximates the definite integral using trapezoidal approximations.
Simpson’s rule approximates the definite integral by first approximating the original function using piecewise quadratic functions.

Key Equations
Midpoint rule
n

Mn = ∑ f (mi )Δx

i=1

Trapezoidal rule
Δx
Tn = [f (x0 ) + 2 f (x1 ) + 2 f (x2 ) + ⋯ + 2 f (xn−1 ) + f (xn )]
2

Simpson’s rule
Δx
Sn = [f (x0 ) + 4 f (x1 ) + 2 f (x2 ) + 4 f (x3 ) + 2 f (x4 ) + 4 f (x5 ) + ⋯ + 2 f (xn−2 ) + 4 f (xn−1 ) + f (xn )]
3

Error bound for midpoint rule

3
M (b − a)
Error in M n ≤
2
, where M is the maximum value of |f ′′
(x)| over [a, b].
24n

Error bound for trapezoidal rule

3
M (b − a)
Error in T n ≤
2
, where M is the maximum value of |f ′′
(x)| over [a, b].
12n

Error bound for Simpson’s rule

5
M (b − a)
Error in S n ≤
4
, where M is the maximum value of ∣∣f (4)
(x)∣
∣ over [a, b].
180n

Glossary
absolute error
if B is an estimate of some quantity having an actual value of A, then the absolute error is given by |A − B|

midpoint rule
n b

a rule that uses a Riemann sum of the form M n = ∑ f (mi )Δx , where m is the midpoint of the i
i
th
subinterval to approximate ∫ f (x) dx
a
i=1

numerical integration

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the variety of numerical methods used to estimate the value of a definite integral, including the midpoint rule, trapezoidal rule, and Simpson’s rule

relative error
error as a percentage of the actual value, given by
∣ A−B ∣
relative error = ∣ ∣ ⋅ 100%
∣ A ∣

Simpson’s rule
b

a rule that approximates ∫ f (x) dx using the area under a piecewise quadratic function.
a
b

The approximation S to ∫
n f (x) dx is given by
a

Δx
Sn = (f (x0 ) + 4 f (x1 ) + 2 f (x2 ) + 4 f (x3 ) + 2 f (x4 ) + ⋯ + 2 f (xn−2 ) + 4 f (xn−1 ) + f (xn )).
3

trapezoidal rule
b

a rule that approximates ∫ f (x) dx using the area of trapezoids.

a
b

The approximation T to ∫
n f (x) dx is given by
a

Δx
Tn = (f (x0 ) + 2 f (x1 ) + 2 f (x2 ) + ⋯ + 2 f (xn−1 ) + f (xn )).
2

Contributors and Attributions

Gilbert Strang (MIT) and Edwin “Jed” Herman (Harvey Mudd) with many contributing authors. This content by OpenStax is licensed with a CC-BY-SA-NC 4.0 license. Download
for free at http://cnx.org.
Edited by Paul Seeburger (Monroe Community College). Notes added to development of area under a parabola and typos fixed in original text.

This page titled 8.6: Numerical Integration is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content
that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request.
7.6: Numerical Integration by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source: https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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8.6E: Exercises
In exercises 1 - 5, approximate the following integrals using either the midpoint rule, trapezoidal rule, or Simpson’s rule as
indicated. (Round answers to three decimal places.)
2
dx
1) ∫ ; trapezoidal rule; n = 5
1 x

Answer
0.696

3
−−−− −
2) ∫ √4 + x
3
dx; trapezoidal rule; n = 6
0

3
−−−− −
3) ∫ √4 + x3 dx; Simpson’s rule; n = 6
0

Answer
9.279

4) ∫ 2
x dx; midpoint rule; n = 6
0

5) ∫ 2
sin (πx) dx; midpoint rule; n = 3
0

Answer
0.500

6) Use the midpoint rule with eight subdivisions to estimate ∫ x

2
dx.
2

7) Use the trapezoidal rule with four subdivisions to estimate ∫ x

2
dx.
2

Answer
T4 = 18.75

8) Find the exact value of ∫

2
x dx. Find the error of approximation between the exact value and the value calculated using the
2

trapezoidal rule with four subdivisions. Draw a graph to illustrate.

Approximate the integral to four decimal places using the indicated rule.
1

9) ∫ 2
sin (πx) dx; trapezoidal rule; n = 6
0

Answer
0.5000

3
1
10) ∫ 3
dx; trapezoidal rule; n = 6
0 1 +x

3
1
11) ∫ 3
dx; Simpson’s rule; n = 6
0 1 +x

Answer
1.1614

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0.8

12) ∫ trapezoidal rule; n = 4

2
−x
e dx;
0

0.8
2

13) ∫ e
−x
dx; Simpson’s rule; n = 4
0

Answer
0.6577

0.4

14) ∫ sin(x ) dx;

2
trapezoidal rule; n = 4
0

0.4

15) ∫ sin(x ) dx;

2
Simpson’s rule; n = 4
0

Answer
0.0213

0.5
cos x
16) ∫ dx; trapezoidal rule; n = 4
0.1
x

0.5
cos x
17) ∫ dx; Simpson’s rule; n = 4
0.1
x

Answer
1.5629

1
dx
18) Evaluate ∫
2
exactly and show that the result is π/4 . Then, find the approximate value of the integral using the
0 1 +x

trapezoidal rule with n = 4 subdivisions. Use the result to approximate the value of π.
4
1
19) Approximate ∫ dx using the midpoint rule with four subdivisions to four decimal places.
2
ln x

Answer
1.9133

4
1
20) Approximate ∫ dx using the trapezoidal rule with eight subdivisions to four decimal places.
2
ln x

0.8

21) Use the trapezoidal rule with four subdivisions to estimate ∫ x

3
dx to four decimal places.
0

Answer
T (4) = 0.1088

0.8

22) Use the trapezoidal rule with four subdivisions to estimate ∫ x

3
dx. Compare this value with the exact value and find the
0

error estimate.
π/2

23) Using Simpson’s rule with four subdivisions, find ∫ cos(x) dx.
0

Answer
π/2

∫ cos(x) dx ≈ 1.0
0

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1
2
24) Show that the exact value of ∫ xe
−x
dx = 1 − . Find the absolute error if you approximate the integral using the midpoint
0 e

rule with 16 subdivisions.

1
2
25) Given ∫ xe
−x
dx = 1 − , use the trapezoidal rule with 16 subdivisions to approximate the integral and find the absolute
0
e

error.

Answer
Approximate error is 0.000325.
3

26) Find an upper bound for the error in estimating ∫ (5x + 4) dx using the trapezoidal rule with six steps.
0

5
1
27) Find an upper bound for the error in estimating ∫ 2
dx using the trapezoidal rule with seven subdivisions.
4 (x − 1)

Answer
1

7938

28) Find an upper bound for the error in estimating ∫ 2

(6 x − 1) dx using Simpson’s rule with n = 10 steps.
0

5
1
29) Find an upper bound for the error in estimating ∫ dx using Simpson’s rule with n = 10 steps.
2 x −1

Answer
81

25,000

30) Find an upper bound for the error in estimating ∫ 2x cos(x) dx using Simpson’s rule with four steps.
0

31) Estimate the minimum number of subintervals needed to approximate the integral ∫ 2
(5 x + 8) dx with an error magnitude of
1

less than 0.0001 using the trapezoidal rule.

Answer
475

1
−−−− −
32) Determine a value of n such that the trapezoidal rule will approximate ∫ √1 + x2 dx with an error of no more than 0.01.
0

33) Estimate the minimum number of subintervals needed to approximate the integral ∫ (2 x
3
+ 4x) dx with an error of
2

magnitude less than 0.0001 using the trapezoidal rule.

Answer
174

4
1
34) Estimate the minimum number of subintervals needed to approximate the integral ∫ 2
dx with an error magnitude of
3 (x − 1)

less than 0.0001 using the trapezoidal rule.

35) Use Simpson’s rule with four subdivisions to approximate the area under the probability density function y = from
2
1 −x /2
e
√2π

x =0 to x = 0.4.

Answer

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0.1544

36) Use Simpson’s rule with n = 14 to approximate (to three decimal places) the area of the region bounded by the graphs of
y = 0, x = 0, and x = π/2.

π/2 −−−−−−−−−−− −
37) The length of one arch of the curve y = 3 sin(2x) is given by L =∫
0
2
√1 + 36 cos (2x) dx. Estimate L using the
trapezoidal rule with n = 6 .

Answer
6.2807

π/2 −−−−−−−−−−−
38) The length of the ellipse x = a cos(t), y = b sin(t), 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π is given by L = 4a ∫ √1 − e cos (t) dt , where e is the
0
2 2

eccentricity of the ellipse. Use Simpson’s rule with n = 6 subdivisions to estimate the length of the ellipse when a = 2 and
e = 1/3.

39) Estimate the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve y = cos(2x), 0 ≤ x ≤ π

4
about the x-axis. Use the trapezoidal
rule with six subdivisions.

Answer
4.606

40) Estimate the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve 2
y = 2x , 0 ≤ x ≤ 3 about the x-axis. Use Simpson’s rule
with n = 6.
2
41) The growth rate of a certain tree (in feet) is given by y = where t is time in years. Estimate the growth of the
2
−t /2
+e ,
t +1

tree through the end of the second year by using Simpson’s rule, using two subintervals. (Round the answer to the nearest
hundredth.)

Answer
3.41 ft
1

42) [T] Use a calculator to approximate ∫ sin(πx) dx using the midpoint rule with 25 subdivisions. Compute the relative error of
0

approximation.
5

43) [T] Given ∫

2
(3 x − 2x) dx = 100, approximate the value of this integral using the midpoint rule with 16 subdivisions and
1

determine the absolute error.

Answer
T16 = 100.125; absolute error = 0.125

44) Given that we know the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, why would we want to develop numerical methods for definite
integrals?
45) The table represents the coordinates (x, y) that give the boundary of a lot. The units of measurement are meters. Use the
trapezoidal rule to estimate the number of square meters of land that is in this lot.

x y x y

0 125 600 95

100 125 700 88

200 120 800 75

300 112 900 35

400 90 1000 0

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500 90

Answer
about 89,250 m2

46) Choose the correct answer. When Simpson’s rule is used to approximate the definite integral, it is necessary that the number of
partitions be____
a. an even number
b. odd number
c. either an even or an odd number
d. a multiple of 4
47) The “Simpson” sum is based on the area under a ____.

Answer
parabola

48) The error formula for Simpson’s rule depends on___.

a. f (x)
b. f '(x)
c. f (4)
(x)

d. the number of steps

This page titled 8.6E: Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert Strang &
Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is
available upon request.
7.6E: Exercises for Section 7.6 by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
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8.7: Improper Integrals
 Learning Objectives
Evaluate an integral over an infinite interval.
Evaluate an integral over a closed interval with an infinite discontinuity within the interval.
Use the comparison theorem to determine whether a definite integral is convergent.

1
Is the area between the graph of f (x) = and the x-axis over the interval [1, +∞) finite or infinite? If this same region is revolved about the x-
x
axis, is the volume finite or infinite? Surprisingly, the area of the region described is infinite, but the volume of the solid obtained by revolving this
region about the x-axis is finite.
In this section, we define integrals over an infinite interval as well as integrals of functions containing a discontinuity on the interval. Integrals of
these types are called improper integrals. We examine several techniques for evaluating improper integrals, all of which involve taking limits.

Integrating over an Infinite Interval

+∞ t

How should we go about defining an integral of the type ∫ f (x) dx? We can integrate ∫ f (x) dx for any value of t , so it is reasonable to
a a
t

look at the behavior of this integral as we substitute larger values of t . Figure 8.7.1 shows that ∫ f (x) dx may be interpreted as area for various
a

values of t . In other words, we may define an improper integral as a limit, taken as one of the limits of integration increases or decreases without
bound.

Figure 8.7.1 : To integrate a function over an infinite interval, we consider the limit of the integral as the upper limit increases without bound.

 Definition: Improper Integral

1. Let f (x) be continuous over an interval of the form [a, +∞). Then
+∞ t

∫ f (x) dx = lim ∫ f (x) dx, (8.7.1)

t→+∞
a a

provided this limit exists.

2. Let f (x) be continuous over an interval of the form (−∞, b] . Then
b b

∫ f (x) dx = lim ∫ f (x) dx, (8.7.2)

t→−∞
−∞ t

provided this limit exists.

In each case, if the limit exists, then the improper integral is said to converge. If the limit does not exist, then the improper integral is said to
diverge.
3. Let f (x) be continuous over (−∞, +∞) . Then
+∞ 0 +∞

∫ f (x) dx = ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ f (x) dx, (8.7.3)

−∞ −∞ 0

0 +∞

provided that ∫ f (x) dx and ∫ f (x) dx both converge.

−∞ 0
+∞

If either of these two integrals diverge, then ∫ f (x) dx diverges.

−∞

+∞ a +∞

(It can be shown that, in fact, ∫ f (x) dx = ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ f (x) dx for any value of a.).
−∞ −∞ a

1
In our first example, we return to the question we posed at the start of this section: Is the area between the graph of f (x) = and the x-axis over
x
the interval [1, +∞) finite or infinite?

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 Example 8.7.1: Finding an Area
1
Determine whether the area between the graph of f (x) = and the x-axis over the interval [1, +∞) is finite or infinite.
x

Solution
We first do a quick sketch of the region in question, as shown in Figure 8.7.2.

Figure 8.7.2 : We can find the area between the curve f (x) = 1/x and the x -axis on an infinite interval.
We can see that the area of this region is given by
∞
1
A =∫ dx.
1
x

which can be evaluated using Equation 8.7.1:

∞
1
A =∫ dx
1 x

t
1
= lim ∫ dx Rewrite the improper integral as a limit
t→+∞
1
x

t
∣
= lim ln |x| ∣ Find the antiderivative
t→+∞ ∣
1

= lim (ln |t| − ln 1) Evaluate the antiderivative

t→+∞

= +∞. Evaluate the limit.

Since the improper integral diverges to +∞, the area of the region is infinite.

 Example 8.7.2: Finding a Volume

1
Find the volume of the solid obtained by revolving the region bounded by the graph of f (x) = and the x-axis over the interval [1, +∞)
x
about the x-axis.
Solution
The solid is shown in Figure 8.7.3. Using the disk method, we see that the volume V is
+∞
1
V =π∫ dx.
2
1 x

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Figure 8.7.3 : The solid of revolution can be generated by rotating an infinite area about the x -axis.
Then we have
+∞
1
V =π∫ dx
2
1 x

t
1
=π lim ∫ dx Rewrite as a limit.
t→+∞ 2
1 x

t
1 ∣
=π lim − ∣ Find the antiderivative.
t→+∞ x∣ 1

1
=π lim (− + 1) Evaluate the antiderivative.
t→+∞ t

0
⎛ 1 ⎞
=π lim − +1 Evaluate the antiderivative.
t→+∞ ⎝ t ⎠

=π

The improper integral converges to π. Therefore, the volume of the solid of revolution is π.
In conclusion, although the area of the region between the x-axis and the graph of f (x) = 1/x over the interval [1, +∞) is infinite, the
volume of the solid generated by revolving this region about the x-axis is finite. The solid generated is known as Gabriel’s Horn.
Note: Gabriel's horn (also called Torricelli's trumpet) is a geometric figure which has infinite surface area, but finite volume. The name refers
to the tradition identifying the Archangel Gabriel as the angel who blows the horn to announce Judgment Day, associating the divine, or
infinite, with the finite. The properties of this figure were first studied by Italian physicist and mathematician Evangelista Torricelli in the 17th
century.

 Example 8.7.3: Traffic Accidents in a City

Suppose that at a busy intersection, traffic accidents occur at an average rate of one every three months. After residents complained, changes
were made to the traffic lights at the intersection. It has now been eight months since the changes were made and there have been no
accidents. Were the changes effective or is the 8-month interval without an accident a result of chance?

Figure 8.7.4 : Modification of work by David McKelvey, Flickr.

Probability theory tells us that if the average time between events is k , the probability that X, the time between events, is between a and b is
given by
b

(P (a ≤ x ≤ b) = ∫ f (x) dx
a

where

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0, if x < 0
f (x) = { .
−kx
ke , if x ≥ 0

Thus, if accidents are occurring at a rate of one every 3 months, then the probability that X, the time between accidents, is between a and b is
given by
b

P (a ≤ x ≤ b) = ∫ f (x) dx
a

where

0, if x < 0
f (x) = { .
−3x
3e , if x ≥ 0

+∞

To answer the question, we must compute P (X ≥ 8) = ∫ 3e

−3x
dx and decide whether it is likely that 8 months could have passed
8

without an accident if there had been no improvement in the traffic situation.

Solution
We need to calculate the probability as an improper integral:
+∞
−3x
P (X ≥ 8) = ∫ 3e dx
8

t
−3x
= lim ∫ 3e dx
t→+∞
8

t
−3x ∣
= lim −e ∣
t→+∞ ∣
8

−3t −24
= lim (−e +e )
t→+∞

−11
≈ 3.8 × 10 .

The value 3.8 × 10 represents the probability of no accidents in 8 months under the initial conditions. Since this value is very, very small,
−11

it is reasonable to conclude the changes were effective.

 Example 8.7.4: Evaluating an Improper Integral over an Infinite Interval

0
1
Evaluate ∫ 2
dx. State whether the improper integral converges or diverges.
−∞ x +4

Solution
0
1
Begin by rewriting ∫ 2
dx as a limit using Equation 8.7.2 from the definition. Thus,
−∞ x +4

0 0
1 1
∫ dx = lim ∫ dx Rewrite as a limit.
2 t→−∞ 2
−∞ x +4 t x +4

0
1 −1
x∣
= lim tan ∣ Find the antiderivative.
t→−∞ 2 2 ∣t

1 1 t
−1 −1
= lim ( tan 0− tan ) Evaluate the antiderivative.
t→−∞ 2 2 2

π
= . Evaluate the limit and simplify.
4

π
The improper integral converges to .
4

 Example 8.7.5: Evaluating an Improper Integral on (−∞, +∞)

+∞

Evaluate ∫ xe
x
dx. State whether the improper integral converges or diverges.
−∞

Solution
Start by splitting up the integral:

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+∞ 0 +∞
x x x
∫ xe dx = ∫ xe dx + ∫ xe dx.
−∞ −∞ 0

0 +∞ +∞

If either ∫ xe
x
dx or ∫ xe
x
dx diverges, then ∫ xe
x
dx diverges.
−∞ 0 −∞

Compute each integral separately.

For the first integral,
0 0
x x
∫ xe dx = lim ∫ xe dx Rewrite as a limit.
t→−∞
−∞ t

0
x x ∣ x
= lim (x e − e )∣ Use integration by parts to find the antiderivative. (Here u = x and dv = e dx. )
t→−∞ ∣
t

t t
= lim (−1 − te + e ) Evaluate the antiderivative.
t→−∞

= −1.

t −1
Evaluate the limit. Note: lim te
t
is indeterminate of the form 0⋅∞ .Thus, lim te
t
= lim = lim = lim −e
t
=0 by
t→−∞ t→−∞ t→−∞ e−t t→−∞ e−t t→−∞

L’Hôpital’s Rule.
The first improper integral converges. For the second integral,
+∞ t
x x
∫ xe dx = lim ∫ xe dx Rewrite as a limit.
t→+∞
0 0

t
x x ∣
= lim (x e − e )∣ Find the antiderivative.
t→+∞ ∣
0

t t
= lim (te − e + 1) Evaluate the antiderivative.
t→+∞

t t t
= lim ((t − 1)e + 1) Rewrite. (te − e is indeterminate.)
t→+∞

= +∞. Evaluate the limit.

+∞ +∞

Thus, ∫ xe
x
dx diverges. Since this integral diverges, ∫ xe
x
dx diverges as well.
0 −∞

 Exercise 8.7.1
+∞

Evaluate ∫ e
−x
dx. State whether the improper integral converges or diverges.
−3

Hint
+∞ t
−x −x
∫ e dx = lim ∫ e dx
t→+∞
−3 −3

Answer
It converges to e 3
.

Integrating a Discontinuous Integrand

Now let’s examine integrals of functions containing an infinite discontinuity in the interval over which the integration occurs. Consider an integral
b

of the form ∫ f (x) dx, where f (x) is continuous over [a, b) and discontinuous at b . Since the function f (x) is continuous over [a, t] for all
a
t

values of t satisfying a ≤t <b , the integral ∫ f (x) dx is defined for all such values of t . Thus, it makes sense to consider the values of
a
t b t

∫ f (x) dx as t approaches b for a ≤t <b . That is, we define ∫ f (x) dx = lim ∫

−
f (x) dx , provided this limit exists. Figure 8.7.5
a a t→b a
t

illustrates ∫ f (x) dx as areas of regions for values of t approaching b .

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Figure 8.7.5 : As t approaches b from the left, the value of the area from a to t approaches the area from a to b.
b

We use a similar approach to define ∫ , where

f (x) dx f (x) is continuous over (a, b] and discontinuous at a . We now proceed with a formal
a

definition.

 Definition: Converging and Diverging Improper Integral

1. Let f (x) be continuous over [a, b). Then,
b t

∫ f (x) dx = lim ∫ f (x) dx. (8.7.4)

−
a t→b a

2. Let f (x) be continuous over (a, b]. Then,

b b

∫ f (x) dx = lim ∫ f (x) dx. (8.7.5)

+
a t→a t

In each case, if the limit exists, then the improper integral is said to converge. If the limit does not exist, then the improper integral is said
to diverge.
3. If f (x) is continuous over [a, b] except at a point c in (a, b), then
b c b

∫ f (x) dx = ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ f (x) dx, (8.7.6)

a a c

c b b

provided both ∫ f (x) dx and ∫ f (x) dx converge. If either of these integrals diverges, then ∫ f (x) dx diverges.
a c a

The following examples demonstrate the application of this definition.

 Example 8.7.6: Integrating a Discontinuous Integrand

4
1
Evaluate ∫ −−−−− dx, if possible. State whether the integral converges or diverges.
0 √4 − x

Solution
1
The function f (x) = −−−−− is continuous over [0, 4) and discontinuous at 4. Using Equation 8.7.4 from the definition, rewrite
√4 − x
4
1
∫
−−−−−
dx as a limit:
0 √4 − x

4 t
1 1
∫ dx = lim ∫ dx Rewrite as a limit.
−−−−− −
−−−−−
0 √4 − x t→4 0 √4 − x

t
−−−−− ∣
= lim (−2 √4 − x )∣ Find the antiderivative.
t→4
−
∣
0

−−−−
= lim (−2 √4 − t + 4) Evaluate the antiderivative.
−
t→4

= 4. Evaluate the limit.

The improper integral converges.

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 Example 8.7.7: Integrating a Discontinuous Integrand
2

Evaluate ∫ x ln x dx. State whether the integral converges or diverges.

Solution
Since f (x) = x ln x is continuous over (0, 2] and is discontinuous at zero, we can rewrite the integral in limit form using Equation 8.7.5:
2 2

∫ x ln x dx = lim ∫ x ln x dx Rewrite as a limit.

+
0 t→0 t

2
1 1 ∣
2 2
= lim ( x ln x − x )∣ Evaluate ∫ x ln x dx using integration by parts with u = ln x and dv = x.
t→0
+
2 4 ∣
t

1 2
1 2
= lim (2 ln 2 − 1 − t ln t + t ). Evaluate the antiderivative.
t→0
+
2 4

2
= 2 ln 2 − 1. Evaluate the limit. Note that lim t ln t is indeterminate.
+
t→0

To evaluate it, rewrite it as a quotient and apply L’H pital’s rule. ô

The improper integral converges.

 Example 8.7.8: Integrating a Discontinuous Integrand

1
1
Evaluate ∫ 3
dx. State whether the improper integral converges or diverges.
−1 x

Solution
Since f (x) = 1/x is discontinuous at zero, using Equation 8.7.6, we can write
3

1 0 1
1 1 1
∫ dx = ∫ dx + ∫ dx.
3 3
−1
x −1
x 0
x3

0
1
If either of the two integrals diverges, then the original integral diverges. Begin with ∫ 3
dx:
−1 x

0 t
1 1
∫ dx = lim ∫ dx Rewrite as a limit.
3 − 3
−1 x t→0 −1 x

t
1 ∣
= lim (− )∣ Find the antiderivative.
t→0
−
2x
2 ∣
−1

1 1
= lim (− + ) Evaluate the antiderivative.
2
t→0
−
2t 2

= +∞. Evaluate the limit.

0
1
Therefore, ∫ 3
dx diverges.
−1 x

0 1
1 1
Since ∫ 3
dx diverges, ∫ 3
dx also diverges.
−1 x −1 x

 Exercise 8.7.2
2
1
Evaluate ∫ dx. State whether the integral converges or diverges.
0
x

Hint
2
1
Write ∫ dx in limit form using Equation 8.7.5.
0
x

Answer
+∞ , It diverges.

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A Comparison Theorem
It is not always easy or even possible to evaluate an improper integral directly; however, by comparing it with another carefully chosen integral, it
may be possible to determine its convergence or divergence. To see this, consider two continuous functions f (x) and g(x) satisfying
0 ≤ f (x) ≤ g(x) for x ≥ a (Figure 8.7.6). In this case, we may view integrals of these functions over intervals of the form [a, t] as areas, so we

have the relationship

t t

0 ≤∫ f (x) dx ≤ ∫ g(x) dx
a a

for t ≥ a .

t t

Figure 8.7.6 : If 0 ≤ f (x) ≤ g(x) for x ≥ a , then for t ≥ a , ∫ f (x) dx ≤ ∫ g(x) dx.
a a

Thus, if
+∞ t

∫ f (x) dx = lim ∫ f (x) dx = +∞,

t→+∞
a a

then
+∞ t

∫ g(x) dx = lim ∫ g(x) dx = +∞

t→+∞
a a

as well. That is, if the area of the region between the graph of f (x) and the x-axis over [a, +∞) is infinite, then the area of the region between the
graph of g(x) and the x-axis over [a, +∞) is infinite too.
On the other hand, if
+∞ t

∫ g(x) dx = lim ∫ g(x) dx = L

t→+∞
a a

for some real number L, then

+∞ t

∫ f (x) dx = lim ∫ f (x) dx

t→+∞
a a

t t

must converge to some value less than or equal to L, since ∫ f (x) dx increases as t increases and ∫ f (x) dx ≤ L for all t ≥ a.
a a

If the area of the region between the graph of g(x) and the x-axis over [a, +∞) is finite, then the area of the region between the graph of f (x) and
the x-axis over [a, +∞) is also finite.
These conclusions are summarized in the following theorem.

 A Comparison Theorem
Let f (x) and g(x) be continuous over [a, +∞). Assume that 0 ≤ f (x) ≤ g(x) for x ≥ a.
i. If
+∞ t

∫ f (x) dx = lim ∫ f (x) dx = +∞,

t→+∞
a a

then
+∞ t

∫ g(x) dx = lim ∫ g(x) dx = +∞.

t→+∞
a a

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ii. If
+∞ t

∫ g(x) dx = lim ∫ g(x) dx = L,

t→+∞
a a

where L is a real number, then

+∞ t

∫ f (x) dx = lim ∫ f (x) dx = M

t→+∞
a a

for some real number M ≤ L.

 Example 8.7.9: Applying the Comparison Theorem

+∞
1
Use a comparison to show that ∫ x
dx.
1
xe

converges.
Solution
We can see that 0 ≤ 1

xe
x ≤
e
1
x =e
−x
,

+∞ +∞
1
so if ∫ e
−x
dx converges, then so does ∫ x
dx .
1 1
xe

+∞

To evaluate ∫ e
−x
dx, first rewrite it as a limit:
1

+∞ t
−x −x
∫ e dx = lim ∫ e dx
t→+∞
1 1

t
−x ∣
= lim (−e )∣
t→+∞ ∣
1

−t −1
= lim (−e +e )
t→+∞

−1
=e .

+∞ +∞
1
Since ∫ e
−x
dx converges, so does ∫ x
dx.
1 1
xe

 Example 8.7.10: Applying the Comparison Theorem

+∞
1
Use the comparison theorem to show that ∫ p
dx diverges for all p < 1 .
1
x

Solution
1 1
For p < 1, ≤
p
over [1, +∞).
x x

+∞
1
In Example 8.7.1, we showed that ∫ dx = +∞.
1
x

+∞
1
Therefore, ∫ p
dx diverges for all p < 1 .
1
x

 Exercise 8.7.3
+∞
ln x
Use a comparison to show that ∫ dx diverges.
e x

Hint
1 ln x
≤ on [e, +∞)
x x

Answer
+∞ +∞
1 ln x
Since ∫ dx = +∞, ∫ dx diverges.
e
x e
x

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 Laplace Transforms

In the last few chapters, we have looked at several ways to use integration for solving real-world problems. For this next project, we are going
to explore a more advanced application of integration: integral transforms. Specifically, we describe the Laplace transform and some of its
properties. The Laplace transform is used in engineering and physics to simplify the computations needed to solve some problems. It takes
functions expressed in terms of time and transforms them to functions expressed in terms of frequency. It turns out that, in many cases, the
computations needed to solve problems in the frequency domain are much simpler than those required in the time domain.
The Laplace transform is defined in terms of an integral as
∞
−st
L (f (t)) = F (s) = ∫ e f (t) dt.
0

Note that the input to a Laplace transform is a function of time, f (t), and the output is a function of frequency, F (s) . Although many real-
−
−−
world examples require the use of complex numbers (involving the imaginary number i = √−1), in this project we limit ourselves to
functions of real numbers.
Let’s start with a simple example. Here we calculate the Laplace transform of f (t) = t . We have
∞
−st
L (t) = ∫ te dt.
0

This is an improper integral, so we express it in terms of a limit, which gives

∞ z
−st −st
L (t) = ∫ te dt = lim ∫ te dt.
z→∞
0 0

Now we use integration by parts to evaluate the integral. Note that we are integrating with respect to t, so we treat the variable s as a constant.
We have
−st
u =t dv = e dt

1 −st
du = dt v=− e
s

Then we obtain
z z z
−st
t −st ∣ 1 −st
lim ∫ te dt = lim [ − e ∣ + ∫ e dt]
z→∞ z→∞ s ∣0 s
0 0

z
z −sz
0 −0s
1 −st
= lim [ [− e + e ]+ ∫ e dt]
z→∞ s s s 0

−st z
z −sz
1 e ∣
= lim [ [− e + 0] − [ ]∣ ]
z→∞ s s s ∣0

z −sz
1 −sz
= lim [ − e − [e − 1] ]
2
z→∞ s s

z 1 1
= lim [− ] − lim + lim
sz
z→∞ se z→∞ s2 esz z→∞ s2

1
= 0 −0 + ô
Note that the first limit requires L'H pital's rule. See work below.
2
s

1
= .
2
s

z ∞
As noted above, lim [−
sz
] is indeterminate of the form − and requires L'Hôpital's rule to evaluate. Using L'Hôpital's rule,
z→∞ se ∞

z 1
lim [− ] = lim [− ] = 0.
sz 2 sz
z→∞ se z→∞ s e

1. Calculate the Laplace transform of f (t) = 1.

2. Calculate the Laplace transform of f (t) = e . −3t

3. Calculate the Laplace transform of f (t) = t . (Note, you will have to integrate by parts twice.)
2

Laplace transforms are often used to solve differential equations. Differential equations are not covered in detail until later in this book; but,
for now, let’s look at the relationship between the Laplace transform of a function and the Laplace transform of its derivative.
Let’s start with the definition of the Laplace transform. We have

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∞ z
−st −st
L (f (t)) = ∫ e f (t) dt = lim ∫ e f (t) dt.
z→∞
0 0

Use integration by parts to evaluate lim ∫ e

−st
f (t) dt . (Let u = f (t) and dv = e −st
dt .)
z→∞
0

After integrating by parts and evaluating the limit, you should see that
f (0) 1
L (f (t)) = + [L (f '(t))].
s s

Then,

L (f '(t)) = sL (f (t)) − f (0).

Thus, differentiation in the time domain simplifies to multiplication by s in the frequency domain.
t

The final thing we look at in this project is how the Laplace transforms of f (t) and its antiderivative are related. Let g(t) = ∫ f (u) du.
0

Then,
∞ z
−st −st
L (g(t)) = ∫ e g(t) dt = lim ∫ e g(t) dt.
z→∞
0 0

Use integration by parts to evaluate lim ∫ e

−st
g(t) dt. (Let u = g(t) and dv = e
−st
dt . Note, by the way that we have defined
z→∞
0

g(t), du = f (t) dt. )

As you might expect, you should see that
1
L (g(t)) = ⋅ L (f (t)).
s

Integration in the time domain simplifies to division by s in the frequency domain.

Key Concepts
Integrals of functions over infinite intervals are defined in terms of limits.
Integrals of functions over an interval for which the function has a discontinuity at an endpoint may be defined in terms of limits.
The convergence or divergence of an improper integral may be determined by comparing it with the value of an improper integral for which
the convergence or divergence is known.

Key Equations
Improper integrals
+∞ t

∫ f (x) dx = lim ∫ f (x) dx

t→+∞
a a

b b

∫ f (x) dx = lim ∫ f (x) dx

t→−∞
−∞ t

+∞ 0 +∞

∫ f (x) dx = ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ f (x) dx

−∞ −∞ 0

Glossary
improper integral
an integral over an infinite interval or an integral of a function containing an infinite discontinuity on the interval; an improper integral is
defined in terms of a limit. The improper integral converges if this limit is a finite real number; otherwise, the improper integral diverges

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8.7E: Exercises
In exercises 1 - 8, evaluate the following integrals. If the integral is not convergent, answer “It diverges.”
4
dx
1) ∫
2 (x − 3)2

Answer
It diverges.
∞
1
2) ∫ dx
0 4 + x2

2
1
3) ∫ −−−− −
dx
0 √4 − x2

Answer
Converges to π

∞
1
4) ∫ dx
1
x ln x

5) ∫ xe
−x
dx
1

Answer
Converges to 2

∞
x
6) ∫ 2
dx
−∞ x +1

∞
1
7) Without integrating, determine whether the integral ∫ −−−−− dx converges or diverges by comparing the function
3
√x + 1
1

1 1
f (x) = −−−−− with g(x) = −− .
√x3 + 1 √x3

Answer
It converges.
∞
1
8) Without integrating, determine whether the integral ∫ −−−−− dx converges or diverges.
1 √x + 1

In exercises 9 - 25, determine whether the improper integrals converge or diverge. If possible, determine the value of the
integrals that converge.
∞

9) ∫ e
−x
cos x dx
0

Answer
Converges to 1

2
.
∞
ln x
10) ∫ dx
1
x

1
ln x
11) ∫ − dx
0 √x

Answer
Converges to −4 .

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12) ∫ ln x dx
0

∞
1
13) ∫ 2
dx
−∞ x +1

Answer
Converges to π .
5
dx
14) ∫ −−−−−
1 √x − 1

2
dx
15) ∫ 2
−2 (1 + x)

Answer
It diverges.
∞

16) ∫ e
−x
dx
0

17) ∫ sin x dx
0

Answer
It diverges.
∞ x
e
18) ∫ 2x
dx
−∞ 1 +e

1
dx
19) ∫ 3 −

0 √x

Answer
Converges to 1.5.
2
dx
20) ∫ 3
0 x

2
dx
21) ∫ 3
−1 x

Answer
It diverges.
1
dx
22) ∫ −−−− −
0 √1 − x2

3
1
23) ∫ dx
0
x −1

Answer
It diverges.
∞
5
24) ∫ dx
1
x3

5
5
25) ∫ 2
dx
3 (x − 4)

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Answer
It diverges.

In exercises 26 and 27, determine the convergence of each of the following integrals by comparison with the given integral.
If the integral converges, find the number to which it converges.
∞ ∞
dx dx
26) ∫ 2
; compare with ∫ 2
.
1 x + 4x 1 x

∞ ∞
dx dx
27) ∫ − ; compare with ∫ − .
1 √x + 1 1 2 √x

Answer
Both integrals diverge.

In exercises 28 - 38, evaluate the integrals. If the integral diverges, answer “It diverges.”
∞
dx
28) ∫ e
1 x

1
dx
29) ∫ π
0
x

Answer
It diverges.
1
dx
30) ∫ −−−−−
0 √1 − x

1
dx
31) ∫
0
1 −x

Answer
It diverges.
0
dx
32) ∫ 2
−∞ x +1

1
dx
33) ∫ −−−− −
−1 √1 − x2

Answer
Converges to π .
1
ln x
34) ∫ dx
0 x

35) ∫ ln(x) dx
0

Answer
Converges to 0.
∞

36) ∫ xe
−x
dx
0

∞
x
37) ∫ dx
−∞
(x2 + 1 )2

Answer

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Converges to 0.
∞

38) ∫ e
−x
dx
0

In exercises 39 - 44, evaluate the improper integrals. Each of these integrals has an infinite discontinuity either at an
endpoint or at an interior point of the interval.
9
dx
39) ∫ −−−−−
0 √9 − x

Answer
Converges to 6.
1
dx
40) ∫
2/3
−27 x

3
dx
41) ∫ −−−− −
0 √9 − x2

Answer
Converges to π

2
.

24
dt
42) ∫ −− −−−−
6 t√t2 − 36

43) ∫ x ln(4x) dx
0

Answer
Converges to 8 ln(16) − 4.
3
x
44) ∫ −−−− −
dx
0 √9 − x2

t
dx
45) Evaluate ∫ −−−− −. (Be careful!) (Express your answer using three decimal places.)
.5 √1 − x2

Answer
Converges to about 1.047.
4
dx
46) Evaluate ∫ −−−−−. (Express the answer in exact form.)
1 √x2 − 1

∞
dx
47) Evaluate ∫ 2 3/2
.
2 (x − 1)

Answer
Converges to −1 + 2
.
√3

48) Find the area of the region in the first quadrant between the curve y = e −6x
and the x-axis.
7
49) Find the area of the region bounded by the curve y = , the x-axis, and on the left by x = 1.
x2

Answer
A = 7.0 units.2

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1
50) Find the area under the curve y = 3/2
, bounded on the left by x = 3.
(x + 1)

5
51) Find the area under y = 2
in the first quadrant.
1 +x

Answer
5π
A = units.2
2

3
52) Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about the x-axis the region under the curve y = from x = 1 to x = ∞.
x

53) Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about the y -axis the region under the curve y = 6e −2x
in the first quadrant.

Answer
3
V = 3π units

54) Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about the x-axis the area under the curve y = 3e −x
in the first quadrant.
∞

The Laplace transform of a continuous function over the interval [0, ∞) is defined by F (s) = ∫ e
−sx
f (x) dx (see the Student
0

Project). This definition is used to solve some important initial-value problems in differential equations, as discussed later. The
domain of F is the set of all real numbers s such that the improper integral converges. Find the Laplace transform F of each of the
following functions and give the domain of F .
55) f (x) = 1

Answer
1
, s >0
s

56) f (x) = x
57) f (x) = cos(2x)

Answer
s
, s >0
2
s +4

58) f (x) = e ax

59) Use the formula for arc length to show that the circumference of the circle x 2
+y
2
=1 is 2π.

Answer
Answers will vary.
∞

A function is a probability density function if it satisfies the following definition: ∫ f (t) dt = 1 . The probability that a
−∞
b

random variable x lies between a and b is given by P (a ≤ x ≤ b) = ∫ f (t) dt.

0, if x < 0
60) Show that f (x) = { −7x
is a probability density function.
7e , if x ≥ 0

61) Find the probability that x is between 0 and 0.3. (Use the function defined in the preceding problem.) Use four-place decimal
accuracy.

Answer
0.8775

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8.8: Chapter 8 Review Exercises
In exercises 1 - 4, determine whether the statement is true or false. Justify your answer with a proof or a counterexample.

1) ∫ e
x
sin(x) dx cannot be integrated by parts.

1
2) ∫ 4
dx cannot be integrated using partial fractions.
x +1

Answer
False

3) In numerical integration, increasing the number of points decreases the error.

4) Integration by parts can always yield the integral.

Answer
False

In exercises 5 - 10, evaluate the integral using the specified method.

5) ∫ x
2
sin(4x) dx, using integration by parts

1
6) ∫ −−−−−− dx, using trigonometric substitution
2
2
x √x + 16

Answer
−−−−− −
1 √x2 + 16
∫ −−−−− − dx = − +C
x2 √x2 + 16 16x

7) ∫ −
√x ln x dx, using integration by parts

3x
8) ∫ 3 2
dx, using partial fractions
x + 2x − 5x − 6

Answer
3x 1
∫ dx = (4 ln |2 − x| + 5 ln |x + 1| − 9 ln |x + 3|) + C
3 2
x + 2x − 5x − 6 10

5
x
9) ∫ dx, using trigonometric substitution
2 5/2
(4 x + 4)

−−−−−−−−−
2
√4 − sin (x)

10) ∫ 2
cos(x) dx, using a table of integrals or a CAS
sin (x)

Answer
−−−−−−−−− −−−−−−−−−
2 2
√4 − sin (x) √4 − sin (x)
x
∫ cos(x) dx = − − +C
2 2
sin (x) sin(x)

In exercises 11 - 15, integrate using whatever method you choose.

11) ∫ sin
2
x cos
2
x dx

−−−−−
12) ∫ 3 2
x √x + 2 dx

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Answer
−−−−− 1
3 2 2 3/2 2
∫ x √x + 2 dx = (x + 2) (3 x − 4) + C
15

2
3x +1
13) ∫ 4 3 2
dx
x − 2x −x + 2x

1
14) ∫ 4
dx
x +4

Answer
2
1 1 x + 2x + 2 1 −1
1 −1
∫ dx = ln( )− tan (1 − x) + tan (x + 1) + C
4 2
x +4 16 x − 2x + 2 8 8

−−−− −−−
√3 + 16x4
15) ∫ 4
dx
x

In exercises 16 - 18, approximate the integrals using the midpoint rule, trapezoidal rule, and Simpson’s rule using four
subintervals, rounding to three decimals.
2
−−−−−
16) [T] ∫ 5
√x + 2 dx
1

Answer
M4 = 3.312,

T4 = 3.354,

S4 = 3.326

√π
2

17) [T] ∫ e
− sin( x )
dx
0

4
ln(1/x)
18) [T] ∫ dx
1
x

Answer
M4 = −0.982,

T4 = −0.917,

S4 = −0.952

In exercises 19 - 20, evaluate the integrals, if possible.

∞
1
19) ∫ n
dx, for what values of n does this integral converge or diverge?
1
x

∞ −x
e
20) ∫ dx
1
x

Answer
approximately 0.2194
∞

In exercises 21 - 22, consider the gamma function given by Γ(a) = ∫ e

−y
y
a−1
dy.
0

21) Show that Γ(a) = (a − 1)Γ(a − 1).

22) Extend to show that Γ(a) = (a − 1)!, assuming a is a positive integer.
The fastest car in the world, the Bugati Veyron, can reach a top speed of 408 km/h. The graph represents its velocity.

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23) [T] Use the graph to estimate the velocity every 20 sec and fit to a graph of the form v(t) = ae bx
sin(cx) + d. (Hint: Consider
the time units.)
24) [T] Using your function from the previous problem, find exactly how far the Bugati Veyron traveled in the 1 min 40 sec
included in the graph.

Answer
Answers may vary. Ex: 9.405 km

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW

9: Sequences and Series

The topic of infinite series may seem unrelated to differential and integral calculus. In fact, an infinite series whose terms involve
powers of a variable is a powerful tool that we can use to express functions as “infinite polynomials.” We can use infinite series to
evaluate complicated functions, approximate definite integrals, and create new functions. In addition, infinite series are used to
solve differential equations that model physical behavior, from tiny electronic circuits to Earth-orbiting satellites.
9.0: Prelude to Sequence and Series
9.1: Sequences
9.1E: Exercises
9.2: Infinite Series
9.2E: Exercises
9.3: The Divergence and Integral Tests
9.3E: Exercises
9.4: Comparison Tests
9.4E: Exercises
9.5: Alternating Series
9.5E: Exercises
9.6: Ratio and Root Tests
9.6E: Exercises
9.7: Chapter 9 Review Exercises

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1
9.0: Prelude to Sequence and Series
The Koch snowflake is constructed from an infinite number of nonoverlapping equilateral triangles. Consequently, we can express
its area as a sum of infinitely many terms. How do we add an infinite number of terms? Can a sum of an infinite number of terms
be finite? To answer these questions, we need to introduce the concept of an infinite series, a sum with infinitely many terms.
Having defined the necessary tools, we will be able to calculate the area of the Koch snowflake.

Figure 9.0.1 : The Koch snowflake is constructed by using an iterative process. Starting with an equilateral triangle, at each step of
the process the middle third of each line segment is removed and replaced with an equilateral triangle pointing outward.
The topic of infinite series may seem unrelated to differential and integral calculus. In fact, an infinite series whose terms involve
powers of a variable is a powerful tool that we can use to express functions as “infinite polynomials.” We can use infinite series to
evaluate complicated functions, approximate definite integrals, and create new functions. In addition, infinite series are used to
solve differential equations that model physical behavior, from tiny electronic circuits to Earth-orbiting satellites.

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Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a
detailed edit history is available upon request.
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9.1: Sequences
 Learning Objectives
Find the formula for the general term of a sequence.
Calculate the limit of a sequence if it exists.
Determine the convergence or divergence of a given sequence.

In this section, we introduce sequences and define what it means for a sequence to converge or diverge. We show how to find limits
of sequences that converge, often by using the properties of limits for functions discussed earlier. We close this section with the
Monotone Convergence Theorem, a tool we can use to prove that certain types of sequences converge.

Terminology of Sequences
To work with this new topic, we need some new terms and definitions. First, an infinite sequence is an ordered list of numbers of
the form

a1 , a2 , a3 , … , an , … .

Each of the numbers in the sequence is called a term. The symbol n is called the index variable for the sequence. We use the
notation
∞
{ an } ,
n=1

or simply {a }, to denote this sequence. A similar notation is used for sets, but a sequence is an ordered list, whereas a set is not
n

ordered. Because a particular number a exists for each positive integer n , we can also define a sequence as a function whose
n

domain is the set of positive integers.

Let’s consider the infinite, ordered list

2, 4, 8, 16, 32, … .

This is a sequence in which the first, second, and third terms are given by a 1 = 2, a2 = 4, and a
3 = 8. You can probably see that
the terms in this sequence have the following pattern:
1 2 3 4 5
a1 = 2 , a2 = 2 , a3 = 2 , a4 = 2 and a5 = 2 .

Assuming this pattern continues, we can write the n th

term in the sequence by the explicit formula an = 2 .
n
Using this notation,
we can write this sequence as
n ∞
{2 }
n=1

or
n
{ 2 }.

Alternatively, we can describe this sequence in a different way. Since each term is twice the previous term, this sequence can be
defined recursively by expressing the n term a in terms of the previous term a . In particular, we can define this sequence as
th
n n−1

the sequence {a } where a = 2 and for all n ≥ 2 , each term an is defined by the recurrence relation
n 1

an = 2 an−1 .

 Definition: infinite sequence

An infinite sequence {a n} is an ordered list of numbers of the form
a1 , a2 , … , an , … .

The subscript n is called the index variable of the sequence. Each number a is a term of the sequence. Sometimes sequences
n

are defined by explicit formulas, in which case a = f (n) for some function f (n) defined over the positive integers. In other
n

cases, sequences are defined by using a recurrence relation. In a recurrence relation, one term (or more) of the sequence is
given explicitly, and subsequent terms are defined in terms of earlier terms in the sequence.

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Note that the index does not have to start at n = 1 but could start with other integers. For example, a sequence given by the explicit
formula a = f (n) could start at n = 0 , in which case the sequence would be
n

a0 , a1 , a2 , … .

Similarly, for a sequence defined by a recurrence relation, the term a may be given explicitly, and the terms a for n ≥ 1 may be
0 n

defined in terms of a . Since a sequence {a } has exactly one value for each positive integer n , it can be described as a function
n−1 n

whose domain is the set of positive integers. As a result, it makes sense to discuss the graph of a sequence. The graph of a sequence
{ a } consists of all points (n, a ) for all positive integers n. Figure shows the graph of 2 .
n
n n

Figure 9.1.1 : The plotted points are a graph of the sequence {2 }. n

Two types of sequences occur often and are given special names: arithmetic sequences and geometric sequences. In an arithmetic
sequence, the difference between every pair of consecutive terms is the same. For example, consider the sequence

3, 7, 11, 15, 1 9, …

You can see that the difference between every consecutive pair of terms is 4. Assuming that this pattern continues, this sequence is
an arithmetic sequence. It can be described by using the recurrence relation

a1 = 3
{ .
an = an−1 + 4, for n ≥ 2

Note that

a2 = 3 + 4

a3 = 3 + 4 + 4 = 3 + 2 ⋅ 4

a4 = 3 + 4 + 4 + 4 = 3 + 3 ⋅ 4.

Thus the sequence can also be described using the explicit formula

an = 3 + 4(n − 1) = 4n − 1.

In general, an arithmetic sequence is any sequence of the form a n = cn + b.

In a geometric sequence, the ratio of every pair of consecutive terms is the same. For example, consider the sequence
2 2 2 2
2, − , , − , ,….
3 9 27 81

1
We see that the ratio of any term to the preceding term is − . Assuming this pattern continues, this sequence is a geometric
3
sequence. It can be defined recursively as

a1 = 2

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1
an = − ⋅ an−1 , for n ≥ 2.
3

Alternatively, since
1
a2 = − ⋅2
3

2
1 1 1
a3 = (− ) (− ) (2) = (− ) ⋅2
3 3 3

3
1 1 1 1
a4 = (− ) (− ) (− ) (2) = (− ) ⋅ 2,
3 3 3 3

we see that the sequence can be described by using the explicit formula
n−1
1
an = 2 (− ) .
3

The sequence {2 } that we discussed earlier is a geometric sequence, where the ratio of any term to the previous term is 2. In
n

general, a geometric sequence is any sequence of the form a = cr . n

 Example 9.1.1: Finding Explicit Formulas

For each of the following sequences, find an explicit formula for the n th
term of the sequence.
1 2 3 4 5
a. − , ,− , ,− ,…
2 3 4 5 6
3 9 27 81 243
b. , , , , ,… .
4 7 10 13 16

Solution
a. First, note that the sequence is alternating from negative to positive. The odd terms in the sequence are negative, and the
even terms are positive. Therefore, the n term includes a factor of (−1) . Next, consider the sequence of numerators
th n

1, 2, 3, … and the sequence of denominators 2, 3, 4, …. We can see that both of these sequences are arithmetic sequences. The

n
th
term in the sequence of numerators is n , and the n term in the sequence of denominators is n + 1 . Therefore, the
th

sequence can be described by the explicit formula

n
(−1 ) n
an = .
n+1

b. The sequence of numerators 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, … is a geometric sequence. The numerator of the n term is 3 The th n

sequence of denominators 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, … is an arithmetic sequence. The denominator of the n term is th

n
3
4 + 3(n − 1) = 3n + 1. Therefore, we can describe the sequence by the explicit formula a n =
3n + 1.

 Exercise 9.1.1
1 1 1 1
Find an explicit formula for the n th
term of the sequence { ,− , ,− , …} .
5 7 9 11

Hint
The denominators form an arithmetic sequence.

Answer
n+1
(−1)
an =
3 + 2n

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 Example 9.1.2: Defined by Recurrence Relations

For each of the following recursively defined sequences, find an explicit formula for the sequence.
a. a1 = 2, an = −3 an−1 for n ≥ 2
n
1 1
b. a 1 =( ) , an = an−1 + ( ) for n ≥ 2
2 2

Solution
a. Writing out the first few terms, we have

a1 = 2

a2 = −3 a1 = −3(2)

2
a3 = −3 a2 = (−3 ) 2

3
a4 = −3 a3 = (−3 ) 2.

In general,
n−1
an = 2(−3 ) .

b. Write out the first few terms:

1
a1 =
2

2
1 1 1 3
a2 = a1 + ( ) = + =
2 2 4 4

3
1 3 1 7
a3 = a2 + ( ) = + =
2 4 8 8

4
1 7 1 15
a4 = a3 + ( ) = + = .
2 8 16 16

From this pattern, we derive the explicit formula

n
2 −1 1
an =
n
=1−
n
.
2 2

 Exercise 9.1.2

Find an explicit formula for the sequence defined recursively such that a 1 = −4 and an = an−1 + 6 .

Hint
This is an arithmetic sequence.

Answer
an = 6n − 10

Limit of a Sequence
A fundamental question that arises regarding infinite sequences is the behavior of the terms as n gets larger. Since a sequence is a
function defined on the positive integers, it makes sense to discuss the limit of the terms as n → ∞ . For example, consider the
following four sequences and their different behaviors as n → ∞ (Figure 9.1.2):
a. {1 + 3n} = {4, 7, 10, 13, …}. The terms 1 + 3n become arbitrarily large as n → ∞ . In this case, we say that 1 + 3n → ∞
as n → ∞.
n n
1 1 3 7 15 1
b. {1 − ( ) } ={ , , , …} . The terms 1 − ( ) → 1 as n → ∞.
2 2 4 8 16 2

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c. n
{(−1 ) } = {−1, 1, −1, 1, …}. The terms alternate but do not approach one single value as n → ∞.
n n
(−1) 1 1 1 (−1)
d. { } = {−1, ,− , , …} . The terms alternate for this sequence as well, but → 0 as n → ∞.
n 2 3 4 n

Figure 9.1.2: (a) The terms in the sequence become arbitrarily large as n → ∞ . (b) The terms in the sequence approach 1 as
n → ∞ . (c) The terms in the sequence alternate between 1 and −1 as n → ∞ . (d) The terms in the sequence alternate between
positive and negative values but approach 0 as n → ∞ .
From these examples, we see several possibilities for the behavior of the terms of a sequence as n → ∞ . In two of the sequences,
the terms approach a finite number as n → ∞. In the other two sequences, the terms do not. If the terms of a sequence approach a
finite number L as n → ∞ , we say that the sequence is a convergent sequence and the real number L is the limit of the sequence.
We can give an informal definition here.

 Definition: convergent and divergent sequences

Given a sequence a , if the terms an become arbitrarily close to a finite number L as n becomes sufficiently large, we say
n

{ a } is a convergent sequence and L is the limit of the sequence. In this case, we write
n

lim an = L.
n→∞

If a sequence {a n} is not convergent, we say it is a divergent sequence.

n
1
From Figure, we see that the terms in the sequence {1 − ( ) } are becoming arbitrarily close to 1 as n becomes very large.
2
n
1
We conclude that {1 − ( ) } is a convergent sequence and its limit is 1. In contrast, from Figure, we see that the terms in the
2

sequence 1 + 3n are not approaching a finite number as n becomes larger. We say that {1 + 3n} is a divergent sequence.
In the informal definition for the limit of a sequence, we used the terms “arbitrarily close” and “sufficiently large.” Although these
phrases help illustrate the meaning of a converging sequence, they are somewhat vague. To be more precise, we now present the
more formal definition of limit for a sequence and show these ideas graphically in Figure.

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 Definition: Convergence

A sequence { an } converges to a real number L if for all ε > 0 , there exists an integer N such that for all n ≥N

| an − L| < ε . The number L is the limit of the sequence and we write

lim an = L or an → L.
n→∞

In this case, we say the sequence {a n} is a convergent sequence. If a sequence does not converge, it is a divergent sequence,
and we say the limit does not exist.

We remark that the convergence or divergence of a sequence {a } depends only on what happens to the terms
n an as n → ∞ .
Therefore, if a finite number of terms b , b , … , b are placed before a to create a new sequence
1 2 N 1

b1 , b2 , … , bN , a1 , a2 , … ,

this new sequence will converge if {a } converges and diverge if

n { an } diverges. Further, if the sequence { an } converges to L ,
this new sequence will also converge to L.

Figure 9.1.3 : As n increases, the terms a become closer to L. For values of n ≥ N , the distance between each point (n, a
n n) and
the line y = L is less than ε .
As defined above, if a sequence does not converge, it is said to be a divergent sequence. For example, the sequences {1 + 3n} and
{(−1 ) } shown in Figure diverge. However, different sequences can diverge in different ways. The sequence {(−1 ) } diverges
n n

because the terms alternate between 1 and −1, but do not approach one value as n → ∞ . On the other hand, the sequence
{1 + 3n} diverges because the terms 1 + 3n → ∞ as n → ∞ . We say the sequence {1 + 3n} diverges to infinity and write

lim (1 + 3n) = ∞ . It is important to recognize that this notation does not imply the limit of the sequence {1 + 3n} exists. The
n→∞

sequence is, in fact, divergent. Writing that the limit is infinity is intended only to provide more information about why the
sequence is divergent. A sequence can also diverge to negative infinity. For example, the sequence {−5n + 2} diverges to negative
infinity because −5n + 2 → −∞ as n → −∞ . We write this as lim (−5n + 2) =→ −∞.
n→∞

Because a sequence is a function whose domain is the set of positive integers, we can use properties of limits of functions to
determine whether a sequence converges. For example, consider a sequence {a } and a related function f defined on all positive
n

real numbers such that f (n) = a for all integers n ≥ 1 . Since the domain of the sequence is a subset of the domain of f , if
n

1
lim f (x) exists, then the sequence converges and has the same limit. For example, consider the sequence { } and the related
x→∞ n

1 1
function f (x) = . Since the function f defined on all real numbers x >0 satisfies f (x) = → 0 as x → ∞ , the sequence
x x
1 1
{ } must satisfy → 0 as n → ∞.
n n

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 Limit of a Sequence Defined by a Function
Consider a sequence {a n} such that a n = f (n) for all n ≥ 1 . If there exists a real number L such that

lim f (x) = L,
x→∞

then {a n} converges and

lim an = L.
n→∞

We can use this theorem to evaluate lim r

n
for 0 ≤r ≤1 . For example, consider the sequence {(1/2 ) }
n
and the related
n→∞

exponential function f (x) = (1/2) . Since x

lim (1/2 )
x
=0 , we conclude that the sequence {(1/2) n
} converges and its limit is 0.
x→∞

Similarly, for any real number r such that 0 ≤ r < 1 , lim r

x
=0 , and therefore the sequence {r n
} converges. On the other hand,
x→∞

if r =1 , then lim r
x
=1 , and therefore the limit of the sequence {1 }
n
is 1. If r >1 , lim r
x
=∞ , and therefore we cannot
x→∞ x→∞

apply this theorem. However, in this case, just as the function r grows without bound as n → ∞ , the terms x
r
n
in the sequence
become arbitrarily large as n → ∞ , and we conclude that the sequence {r } diverges to infinity if r > 1 . n

We summarize these results regarding the geometric sequence r : n

r
n
→ 0 if 0 < r < 1
n
r → 1 if r = 1
r
n
→ ∞ if r > 1 .
Later in this section we consider the case when r < 0 .
We now consider slightly more complicated sequences. For example, consider the sequence {(2/3) + (1/4) } . The terms in this n n

sequence are more complicated than other sequences we have discussed, but luckily the limit of this sequence is determined by the
limits of the two sequences {(2/3) } and {(1/4) }. As we describe in the following algebraic limit laws, since {(2/3) } and
n n n

{1/4 ) } both converge to 0 , the sequence {(2/3 ) + (1/4 ) } converges to 0 + 0 = 0 . Just as we were able to evaluate a limit
n n n

involving an algebraic combination of functions f and g by looking at the limits of f and g (see Introduction to Limits), we are
able to evaluate the limit of a sequence whose terms are algebraic combinations of a and b by evaluating the limits of {a } and n n n

{ b }.
n

 Algebraic Limit Laws

Given sequences { an } and { bn } and any real number c , if there exist constants A and B such that lim an = A and
n→∞

lim bn = B , then
n→∞

i. lim c = c
n→∞

ii. lim c an = c lim an = cA

n→∞ n→∞

iii. lim (an ± bn ) = lim an ± lim bn = A ± B

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

iv. lim (an ⋅ bn ) = ( lim an ) ⋅ ( lim bn ) = A ⋅ B

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

an limn→∞ an A
v. lim ( ) = = , provided B ≠ 0 and each b n ≠ 0.
n→∞ bn limn→∞ bn B

 Proof

We prove part iii.

Let ϵ > 0 . Since lim an = A , there exists a constant positive integer N such that for all n ≥ N . Since 1 1 lim bn = B , there
n→∞ n→∞

exists a constant N such that |b

2 n − B| < ε/2 for all n ≥ N . Let N be the largest of N and N . Therefore, for all n ≥ N ,
2 1 2

ε ε
|(an + bn ) − (A + B)| ≤ | an − A| + | bn − B| < + =ε .
2 2

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1
The algebraic limit laws allow us to evaluate limits for many sequences. For example, consider the sequence a n = . As shown
n2
1
earlier, lim =0 . Similarly, for any positive integer k , we can conclude that
n→∞ n

1
lim = 0.
n→∞ k
n

In the next example, we make use of this fact along with the limit laws to evaluate limits for other sequences.

 Example 9.1.3: Determining Convergence and Finding Limits

For each of the following sequences, determine whether or not the sequence converges. If it converges, find its limit.
3
a. {5 − }
n2
4 2
3n − 7n +5
b. { 4
}
6 − 4n
n
2
c. {
2
}
n
n
4
d. {(1 + ) }
n

Solution
1
a. We know that lim =0 . Using this fact, we conclude that
n→∞ n

1 1 1
lim = lim . lim = 0.
2
n→∞ n n→∞ n n→∞ n

Therefore,
3 1
lim (5 − ) = lim 5 − 3 lim = 5 − 3.0 = 5.
n→∞ 2 n→∞ n→∞ 2
n n

The sequence converges and its limit is 5.

b. By factoring n out of the numerator and denominator and using the limit laws above, we have
4

7 5
4 2
3− +
3n − 7n +5 2 4
n n
lim = lim
n→∞ 4 n→∞ 6
6 − 4n
−4
4
n

7 5
limn→∞ (3 − + )
2 4
n n
=
6
limn→∞ ( − 4)
4
n

7 5
limn→∞ (3) − limn→∞ + limn→∞
n2 n
4

=
6
limn→∞ − limn→∞ (4)
4
n

1 1
limn→∞ (3) − 7 ⋅ limn→∞ + 5 ⋅ limn→∞
2 4
n n
=
1
6 ⋅ limn→∞ − limn→∞ (4)
4
n

3 −7 ⋅ 0 +5 ⋅ 0 3
= =− .
6 ⋅ 0 −4 4

The sequence converges and its limit is −3/4.

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c. Consider the related function f (x) = 2 / x
x 2
defined on all real numbers x >0 . Since x
2 → ∞ and 2
x → ∞ as x → ∞ ,
apply L’Hôpital’s rule and write
x x
2 2 ln 2
lim = lim Take the derivatives of the numerator and denominator.
2
x→∞ x x→∞ 2x

x 2
2 (ln 2 )
= lim Take the derivatives again.
x→∞ 2

= ∞.

We conclude that the sequence diverges.

x
4
d. Consider the function f (x) = (1 + ) defined on all real numbers x > 0 . This function has the indeterminate form 1 ∞

as x → ∞. Let
x
4
y = lim (1 + ) .
x→∞ x

Now taking the natural logarithm of both sides of the equation, we obtain
x
4
ln(y) = ln[ lim (1 + ) ] .
x→∞ x

Since the function f (x) = ln(x) is continuous on its domain, we can interchange the limit and the natural logarithm.
Therefore,
x
4
ln(y) = lim [ln (1 + ) ] .
x→∞ x

Using properties of logarithms, we write

x
4 4
lim [ln (1 + ) ] = lim x ln(1 + ) .
x→∞ x x→∞ x

Since the right-hand side of this equation has the indeterminate form ∞⋅ 0 , rewrite it as a fraction to apply L’Hôpital’s rule.
Write
4 ln(1 + 4/x)
lim x ln(1 + ) = lim .
x→∞ x x→∞ 1/x

Since the right-hand side is now in the indeterminate form 0/0, we are able to apply L’Hôpital’s rule. We conclude that
ln(1 + 4/x) 4
lim = lim = 4.
x→∞ 1/x x→∞ 1 + 4/x

x n
4 4
Therefore, ln(y) = 4 and y = e . Therefore, since
4
lim (1 + ) =e
4
, we can conclude that the sequence {(1 + ) }
x→∞ x n

converges to e .
4

 Exercise 9.1.3
Consider the sequence {(5n 2
+ 1)/ e } .
n
Determine whether or not the sequence converges. If it converges, find its limit.

Hint
Use L’Hôpital’s rule.

Answer
The sequence converges, and its limit is 0

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Recall that if f is a continuous function at a value L, then f (x) → f (L) as x → L. This idea applies to sequences as well. Suppose
a sequence a → L , and a function f is continuous at L. Then f (a ) → f (L) . This property often enables us to find limits for
n n
−−−−−−
3 3
complicated sequences. For example, consider the sequence √5 −
2
. From Example a. we know the sequence 5−
2
→ 5 .
n n

Since √−
x is a continuous function at x = 5 ,

−−−−−− −−−−−−−−−− −
3 3 –
lim √ 5 − = √ lim (5 − ) = √5.
n→∞ 2 n→∞ 2
n n

 Continuous Functions Defined on Convergent Sequences

Consider a sequence {a } and suppose there exists a real number L such that the sequence {a } converges to L. Suppose f is
n n

a continuous function at L. Then there exists an integer N such that f is defined at all values an for n ≥ N , and the sequence
{f (a )} converges to f (L) (Figure 9.1.4).
n

Figure 9.1.4 : Because f is a continuous function as the inputs a1 , a2 , a3 , … approach L , the outputs
f ( a1 ), f ( a2 ), f ( a3 ), … approach f (L).

 Proof
Let ϵ > 0. Since f is continuous at L, there exists δ > 0 such that |f (x) − f (L)| < ε if |x − L| < δ . Since the sequence {a } n

converges to L, there exists N such that |a − L| < δ for all n ≥ N . Therefore, for all n ≥ N , |a − L| < δ , which implies
n n

|f (a ) − f (L)| < ε . We conclude that the sequence {f (a )} converges to f (L).

n n

 Example 9.1.4: Limits Involving Continuous Functions Defined on Convergent Sequences

Determine whether the sequence {cos(3/n 2

)} converges. If it converges, find its limit.
Solution:
Since the sequence {3/n 2
} converges to 0 and cos x is continuous at x = 0 , we can conclude that the sequence {cos(3/n 2
)}

converges and
3
lim cos( ) = cos 0 = 1.
n→∞ 2
n

 Exercise 9.1.4
−−−−−−
2n + 1
Determine if the sequence {√ } converges. If it converges, find its limit.
3n + 5

Hint
2n + 1
Consider the sequence { }.
3n + 5

Answer

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−−−
The sequence converges, and its limit is √2/3.

Another theorem involving limits of sequences is an extension of the Squeeze Theorem for limits discussed in Introduction to
Limits.

 Squeeze Theorem for Sequences

Consider sequences {a n }, { bn }, and {c . Suppose there exists an integer N such that

an ≤ bn ≤ cn for all n ≥ N .
If there exists a real number L such that

lim an = L = lim cn ,
n→∞ n→∞

then {b n} converges and lim bn = L (Figure 9.1.5).

n→∞

Figure 9.1.5 : Each term bn satisfies a ≤ b ≤ c and the sequences

n n n {an } and {cn } converge to the same limit, so the
sequence {b } must converge to the same limit as well.
n

 Proof

Let ε > 0. Since the sequence {a } converges to L, there exists an integer N such that |a − L| < ε for all n ≥ N .
n 1 n 1

Similarly, since {c } converges to L, there exists an integer N such that |c − L| < ε for all n ≥ N . By assumption, there
n 2 n 2

exists an integer N such that a ≤ b ≤ c for all n ≥ N . Let M be the largest of N , N , and N . We must show that
n n n 1 2

| b − L| < ε for all n ≥ M . For all n ≥ M ,

−ε < −| an − L| ≤ an − L ≤ bn − L ≤ cn − L ≤ | cn − L| < ε

Therefore, −ε < b n − L < ε, and we conclude that | bn − L| < ε for all n ≥M , and we conclude that the sequence bn

converges to L.
□

 Example 9.1.5: Using the Squeeze Theorem

Use the Squeeze Theorem to find the limit of each of the following sequences.
cos n
a. { }
n2
n
1
b. {(− ) }
2

Solution
a. Since −1 ≤ cos n ≤ 1 for all integers n , we have
1 cos n 1
− ≤ ≤ .
2 2 2
n n n

Since −1/n 2
→ 0 and 1/n 2
→ 0 , we conclude that cos n/n 2
→ 0 as well.

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b. Since
n
1 1 1
− ≤ (− ) ≤
n n
2 2 2

for all positive integers n, −1/ 2

n
→ 0 and 1/2 n
→ 0, we can conclude that (−1/2) n
→ 0.

 Exercise 9.1.5
2n − sin n
Find lim .
n→∞ n

Hint
Use the fact that −1 ≤ sin n ≤ 1.

Answer
2

Using the idea from Example 9.1.5 b we conclude that r → 0 for any real number r such that −1 < r < 0. If
n
r < −1 , the
sequence r diverges because the terms oscillate and become arbitrarily large in magnitude. If r = −1 , the sequence
n
r
n
= (−1 )
n

diverges, as discussed earlier. Here is a summary of the properties for geometric sequences.
n
r → 0 if |r| < 1

n
r → 1 if r = 1

n
r → ∞ if r > 1

n
{ r } diverges if r ≤ −1

Bounded Sequences
We now turn our attention to one of the most important theorems involving sequences: the Monotone Convergence Theorem.
Before stating the theorem, we need to introduce some terminology and motivation. We begin by defining what it means for a
sequence to be bounded.

 Definition: Bound Sequences

A sequence {a n} is bounded above if there exists a real number M such that

an ≤ M

for all positive integers n .

A sequence {a n} is bounded below if there exists a real number m such that
m ≤ an

for all positive integers n .

A sequence {a n} is a bounded sequence if it is bounded above and bounded below.
If a sequence is not bounded, it is an unbounded sequence.

For example, the sequence {1/n} is bounded above because 1/n ≤ 1 for all positive integers n . It is also bounded below because
1/n ≥ 0 for all positive integers n . Therefore, {1/n} is a bounded sequence. On the other hand, consider the sequence { 2 }.
n

Because 2 ≥ 2 for all n ≥ 1 , the sequence is bounded below. However, the sequence is not bounded above. Therefore, {2 } is an
n n

unbounded sequence.
We now discuss the relationship between boundedness and convergence. Suppose a sequence {a } is unbounded. Then it is not
n

bounded above, or not bounded below, or both. In either case, there are terms an that are arbitrarily large in magnitude as n gets

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larger. As a result, the sequence { an } cannot converge. Therefore, being bounded is a necessary condition for a sequence to
converge.

 Convergent Sequences Are Bounded

If a sequence {a n} converges, then it is bounded.

Note that a sequence being bounded is not a sufficient condition for a sequence to converge. For example, the sequence {(−1) } is n

bounded, but the sequence diverges because the sequence oscillates between 1 and −1 and never approaches a finite number. We
now discuss a sufficient (but not necessary) condition for a bounded sequence to converge.
Consider a bounded sequence {a }. Suppose the sequence {a } is increasing. That is, a ≤ a ≤ a … . Since the sequence is
n n 1 2 3

increasing, the terms are not oscillating. Therefore, there are two possibilities. The sequence could diverge to infinity, or it could
converge. However, since the sequence is bounded, it is bounded above and the sequence cannot diverge to infinity. We conclude
that {a } converges. For example, consider the sequence
n

1 2 3 4
{ , , , , …} .
2 3 4 5

Since this sequence is increasing and bounded above, it converges. Next, consider the sequence
1 1 1
{2, 0, 3, 0, 4, 0, 1, − , − , − , …} .
2 3 4

Even though the sequence is not increasing for all values of n , we see that −1/2 < −1/3 < −1/4 < ⋯ . Therefore, starting with
the eighth term, a = −1/2 , the sequence is increasing. In this case, we say the sequence is eventually increasing. Since the
8

sequence is bounded above, it converges. It is also true that if a sequence is decreasing (or eventually decreasing) and bounded
below, it also converges.

 Definition

A sequence {a n} is increasing for all n ≥ n if

an ≤ an+1 for all n ≥ n . 0

A sequence {a n} is decreasing for all n ≥ n if

an ≥ an+1 for all n ≥ n . 0

A sequence {a n} is a monotone sequence for all n ≥ n if it is increasing for all n ≥ n or decreasing for all n ≥ n .
0 0 0

We now have the necessary definitions to state the Monotone Convergence Theorem, which gives a sufficient condition for
convergence of a sequence.

 Definition: Monotone Convergence Theorem

If {a } is a bounded sequence and there exists a positive integer

n n0 such that { an } is monotone for all n ≥ n0 , then { an }

converges.

The proof of this theorem is beyond the scope of this text. Instead, we provide a graph to show intuitively why this theorem makes
sense (Figure 9.1.6).

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Figure 9.1.6 : Since the sequence {a n} is increasing and bounded above, it must converge.
In the following example, we show how the Monotone Convergence Theorem can be used to prove convergence of a sequence.

 Example 9.1.6: Using the Monotone Convergence Theorem

For each of the following sequences, use the Monotone Convergence Theorem to show the sequence converges and find its
limit.
n
4
a. { }
n!

b. {a n} defined recursively such that

an 1
a1 = 2 and a
n+1 = + for all n ≥ 2.
2 2an

Solution
a. Writing out the first few terms, we see that
n
4 32 32 128
{ } = {4, 8, , , , …} .
n! 3 3 15

At first, the terms increase. However, after the third term, the terms decrease. In fact, the terms decrease for all n ≥ 3 . We can
show this as follows.
n+1 n
4 4 4 4
an+1 = = ⋅ = ⋅ an ≤ an if n ≥ 3.
(n + 1)! n+1 n! n+1

Therefore, the sequence is decreasing for all n ≥ 3 . Further, the sequence is bounded below by 0 because 4n/n! ≥ 0 for all
positive integers n . Therefore, by the Monotone Convergence Theorem, the sequence converges.
To find the limit, we use the fact that the sequence converges and let L = lim an . Now note this important observation.
n→∞

Consider lim an+1 . Since

n→∞

{ an+1 } = { a2 , a3 , a4 , …},

the only difference between the sequences {a n+1 } and {a n} is that {a n+1 } omits the first term. Since a finite number of terms
does not affect the convergence of a sequence,
lim an+1 = lim an = L.
n→∞ n→∞

Combining this fact with the equation

4
an+1 = an
n+1

and taking the limit of both sides of the equation

4
lim an+1 = lim an ,
n→∞ n→∞ n+1

we can conclude that

L = 0 ⋅ L = 0.

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b. Writing out the first several terms,
5 41 3281
{2, , , , …} .
4 40 3280

we can conjecture that the sequence is decreasing and bounded below by 1. To show that the sequence is bounded below by 1,
we can show that
an 1
+ ≥ 1.
2 2an

To show this, first rewrite

2
an 1 an + 1
+ = .
2 2an 2an

Since a 1 >0 and a is defined as a sum of positive terms, a

2 2 > 0. Similarly, all terms a n >0 . Therefore,
2
a n+1
≥1
2an

if and only if
2
an + 1 ≥ 2 an .
Rewriting the inequality a 2
n + 1 ≥ 2 an as a
2
n − 2 an + 1 ≥ 0 , and using the fact that
2 2
an − 2 an + 1 = (an − 1 ) ≥0

because the square of any real number is nonnegative, we can conclude that
n
a 1
+ ≥ 1.
2 2an

To show that the sequence is decreasing, we must show that a n+1 ≤ an for all n ≥ 1 . Since 1 ≤ a , it follows that
2
n

2
an + 1 ≤ 2 an
2
.
Dividing both sides by 2a , we obtain
n

an 1
+ ≤ an .
2 2an

Using the definition of a n+1 , we conclude that

an 1
an+1 = + ≤ an .
2 2an

Since {a n} is bounded below and decreasing, by the Monotone Convergence Theorem, it converges.
To find the limit, let L = lim an . Then using the recurrence relation and the fact that lim an = lim an+1 , we have
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

an 1
lim an+1 = lim ( + ) ,
n→∞ n→∞ 2 2an

and therefore
L 1
L = + .
2 2L

Multiplying both sides of this equation by 2L, we arrive at the equation

2L
2
=L
2
+1 .
Solving this equation for L, we conclude that L 2
=1 , which implies L = ±1 . Since all the terms are positive, the limit L = 1 .

 Exercise 9.1.6

Consider the sequence {a } defined recursively such that a

n 1 =1 ,a n = an−1 /2 . Use the Monotone Convergence Theorem to
show that this sequence converges and find its limit.

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Hint
Show the sequence is decreasing and bounded below.

Answer
0 .

 Definition: Fibonacci Numbers

The Fibonacci numbers are defined recursively by the sequence {F n} where F 0 = 0, F1 = 1 and for n ≥ 2,
Fn = Fn−1 + Fn−2 .

Here we look at properties of the Fibonacci numbers.

1. Write out the first twenty Fibonacci numbers.
2. Find a closed formula for the Fibonacci sequence by using the following steps.
a. Consider the recursively defined sequence x where n x0 = c and xn+1 = axn . Show that this sequence can be
described by the closed formula x = ca for all n ≥ 0.
n
n

b. Using the result from part a. as motivation, look for a solution of the equation
Fn = Fn−1 + Fn−2

of the form F n = cλ
n
. Determine what two values for λ will allow F to satisfy this equation.
n

c. Consider the two solutions from part b.: λ and λ . Let F = c λ + c λ . Use the initial conditions
1 2 n 1
n
1 2
n
2
F0 and F1 to
determine the values for the constants c and c and write the closed formula F .
1 2 n

3. Use the answer in 2 c. to show that

–
Fn+1 1 + √5
lim = .
n→∞ Fn 2

–
The number ϕ = (1 + √5)/2 is known as the golden ratio (Figure and Figure).

Figure 9.1.7 : The seeds in a sunflower exhibit spiral patterns curving to the left and to the right. The number of spirals in each
direction is always a Fibonacci number—always. (credit: modification of work by Esdras Calderan, Wikimedia Commons)

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Figure 9.1.8 : The proportion of the golden ratio appears in many famous examples of art and architecture. The ancient Greek
temple known as the Parthenon was designed with these proportions, and the ratio appears again in many of the smaller details.
(credit: modification of work by TravelingOtter, Flickr).

Key Concepts
To determine the convergence of a sequence given by an explicit formula a = f (n) , we use the properties of limits for
n

functions.
If {a } and {b } are convergent sequences that converge to A and B, respectively, and c is any real number, then the sequence
n n

{c a }converges to c ⋅ A, the sequences { a ± b } converge to A ± B, the sequence { a ⋅ b } converges to A ⋅ B, and the

n n n n n

sequence {a /b } converges to A/B, provided B ≠ 0.

n n

If a sequence is bounded and monotone, then it converges, but not all convergent sequences are monotone.
If a sequence is unbounded, it diverges, but not all divergent sequences are unbounded.
The geometric sequence {r } converges if and only if |r| < 1 or r = 1 .
n

Glossary
arithmetic sequence
a sequence in which the difference between every pair of consecutive terms is the same is called an arithmetic sequence

bounded above
a sequence {a n} is bounded above if there exists a constant M such that a n ≤M for all positive integers n

bounded below
a sequence {a n} is bounded below if there exists a constant M such that M ≤ an for all positive integers n

bounded sequence
a sequence {a } is bounded if there exists a constant M such that |a
n n| ≤M for all positive integers n

convergent sequence
a convergent sequence is a sequence {a n} for which there exists a real number L such that a is arbitrarily close to L as long as
n

n is sufficiently large

divergent sequence
a sequence that is not convergent is divergent

explicit formula
a sequence may be defined by an explicit formula such that a n = f (n)

geometric sequence
a sequence {a } in which the ratio a
n n+1 / an is the same for all positive integers n is called a geometric sequence

index variable
the subscript used to define the terms in a sequence is called the index

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limit of a sequence
the real number L to which a sequence converges is called the limit of the sequence

monotone sequence
an increasing or decreasing sequence

recurrence relation
a recurrence relation is a relationship in which a term a in a sequence is defined in terms of earlier terms in the sequence
n

sequence
an ordered list of numbers of the form a 1, a2 , a3 , … is a sequence

term
the number a in the sequence {a
n n} is called the n th
term of the sequence

unbounded sequence
a sequence that is not bounded is called unbounded

This page titled 9.1: Sequences is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert Strang &
Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is
available upon request.
9.1: Sequences by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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9.1E: Exercises
In exercises 1 - 4, find the first six terms of each sequence, starting with n = 1 .
1) a n = 1 + (−1 )
n
for n ≥ 1

Answer
an = 0 if n is odd and a n =2 if n is even

2) a n =n
2
−1 for n ≥ 1
3) a 1 =1 and a n = an−1 + n for n ≥ 2

Answer
an = 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, …

4) a 1 = 1, a2 = 1 and a n + 2 = an + an+1 for n ≥ 1

5) Find an explicit formula for a where a n 1 =1 and a n = an−1 + n for n ≥ 2 .

Answer
n(n + 1)
an =
2

6) Find a formula a for the n n

th
term of the arithmetic sequence whose first term is a 1 =1 such that a n−1 − an = 17 for n ≥ 1 .
7) Find a formula a for the n n
th
term of the arithmetic sequence whose first term is a 1 = −3 such that a n−1 − an = 4 for n ≥ 1 .

Answer
an = 4n − 7

an+1
8) Find a formula a for the n n
th
term of the geometric sequence whose first term is a 1 =1 such that = 10 for n ≥ 1 .
an

an+1
9) Find a formula a for the n n
th
term of the geometric sequence whose first term is a 1 =3 such that = 1/10 for n ≥ 1 .
an

Answer
1−n −n
an = 3.10 = 30.10

10) Find an explicit formula for the n

th
term of the sequence whose first several terms are 0, 3, 8, 15, 24, 35, 48, 63, 80, 99, ….

(Hint: First add one to each term.)

11) Find an explicit formula for the n th
term of the sequence satisfying a 1 =0 and a
n = 2 an−1 + 1 for n ≥ 2 .

Answer
n
an = 2 −1

In exercises 12 and 13, find a formula for the general term a of each of the following sequences.
n

12) 1, 0, −1, 0, 1, 0, −1, 0, …(Hint: Find where sin x takes these values)
13) 1, −1/3, 1/5, −1/7, …

Answer
n−1
(−1)
an =
2n − 1

In exercises 14-18, find a function f (n) that identifies the n

th
term a of the following recursively defined sequences, as
n

an = f (n) .

14) a 1 =1 and a n+1 = −an for n ≥ 1

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15) a1 =2 and a n+1 = 2 an for n ≥ 1

Answer
n
f (n) = 2

16) a1 =1 and a n+1 = (n + 1)an for n ≥ 1

17) a1 =2 and a n+1 = (n + 1)an /2 for n ≥ 1

Answer
n!
f (n) =
n−2
2

18) a1 =1 and a n+1 = an / 2

n
for n ≥ 1
In exercises 19 - 22, plot the first N terms of the given sequence. State whether the graphical evidence suggests that the
sequence converges or diverges.
19) [T] a 1 = 1, a2 = 2 , and for n ≥ 2, a n =
1

2
(an−1 + an−2 ) ;N = 30

Answer
Terms oscillate above and below 5/3 and appear to converge to 5/3.

20) [T] a 1 = 1, a2 = 2, a3 = 3 and for n ≥ 4, a n =

3
(an−1 + an−2 + an−3 ), N = 30

21) [T] a 1 = 1, a2 = 2 , and for n ≥ 3, a n

−−−−−− −
= √an−1 an−2 ; N = 30

Answer
Terms oscillate above and below y ≈ 1.57.. and appear to converge to a limit.

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22) [T] a 1 = 1, a2 = 2, a3 = 3 , and for n ≥ 4, an
−−−− −−−− −−−
= √an−1 an−2 an−3 ; N = 30

In exercises 23 - 16, suppose that lim an = 1, lim bn = −1 , and 0 < −b n < an for all n.
n→∞ n→∞

Using this information, evaluate each of the following limits, state that the limit does not exist, or state that there is not
enough information to determine whether the limit exists.
23) lim 3 an − 4 bn
n→∞

Answer
lim 3 an − 4 bn = 7
n→∞

1 1
24) lim bn − an
n→∞ 2 2

an + bn
25) lim
n→∞ an − bn

Answer
an + bn
lim = 0
n→∞ an − bn

an − bn
26) lim
n→∞ an + bn

In exercises 27 - 30, find the limit of each of the following sequences, using L’Hôpital’s rule when appropriate.
2
n
27) n
2

Answer
2
n
lim = 0
n
n→∞ 2

2
(n − 1)
28) 2
(n + 1)

−
√n
29) −−−−−
√n + 1

Answer

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−
√n
lim = 1
−−−−−
n→∞
√n + 1

30) n 1/n
(Hint: n 1/n
=e n
ln n
)

In exercises 31 - 37, state whether each sequence is bounded and whether it is eventually monotone, increasing, or
decreasing.
31) n/2 n
,n ≥2

Answer
bounded, decreasing for n ≥ 1

1
32) ln(1 + )
n

33) sin n

Answer
bounded, not monotone

34) cos(n 2
)

35) n 1/n
, n ≥3

Answer
bounded, decreasing

36) n −1/n
, n ≥3

37) tan n

Answer
not monotone, not bounded

In exercises 38 - 39, determine whether the given sequence has a limit. If it does, find the limit.
−−−−− −
– −−−−
– −−−−
–
38) a 1 = √2, a2 = √2 √2. a3 = √2 √2 √2 etc.
−−−−−
39) a 1 = 3, an = √2an−1 , n = 2, 3, … .

Answer
−−
a is decreasing and bounded below by 2 . The limit a must satisfy a = √2a so a = 2 , independent of the initial value.
n

Use the Squeeze Theorem to find the limit of each sequence in exercises 40 - 43.
40) n sin(1/n)
cos(1/n) − 1
41)
1/n

Answer
0

n!
42) a n =
n
n

43) a n = sin n sin(1/n)

Answer

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1 1
0 since | sin x| ≤ |x| and | sin x| ≤ 1 so − ≤ an ≤ ) .
n n

For the sequences in exercises 44 and 45, plot the first 25 terms of the sequence and state whether the graphical evidence
suggests that the sequence converges or diverges.
44) [T] a n = sin n

45) [T] a n = cos n

Answer
Graph oscillates and suggests no limit.

In exercises 46 - 52, determine the limit of the sequence or show that the sequence diverges. If it converges, find its limit.
46) a n = tan
−1
(n )
2

47) a n = (2n)
1/n
−n
1/n

Answer
n
1/n
→ 1 and 2 1/n
→ 1, so a n → 0

2
ln(n )
48) a n =
ln(2n)

n
49) a n = (1 −
2

n
)

Answer
Since (1 + 1/n) n
→ e , one has (1 − 2/n) n
≈ (1 + k)
−2k
→ e
−2
as k → ∞.

n+2
50) a n = ln(
2
)
n −3

n n
2 +3
51) a n =
n
4

Answer
2
n
+3
n
≤2⋅3
n
and 3 n n
/4 → 0 as n → ∞ , so a n → 0 as n → ∞.
n
(1000)
52) a n =
n!

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2
(n!)
53) an =
(2n)!

Answer
an+1 1⋅2⋅3⋯n
= n!/(n + 1)(n + 2) ⋯ (2n) = < 1/ 2
n
. In particular, an+1 / an ≤ 1/2 , so a n → 0 as
an (n + 1)(n + 2) ⋯ (2n)

n → ∞ .

Newton’s method seeks to approximate a solution f (x) = 0 that starts with an initial approximation x0 and successively
f (xn )
defines a sequence xn+1 = xn − . For the given choice of f and x0 , write out the formula for xn+1 . If the
f '(xn )

sequence appears to converge, give an exact formula for the solution x, then identify the limit x accurate to four decimal
places and the smallest n such that x agrees with x up to four decimal places.
n

54) [T] f (x) = x 2

− 2, x0 = 1

55) [T] f (x) = (x − 1) 2

− 2, x0 = 2

Answer
2 –
xn+1 = xn − ((xn − 1 ) − 2)/2(xn − 1); x = 1 + √2, x ≈ 2.4142, n = 5

56) [T] f (x) = e x

− 2, x0 = 1

57) [T] f (x) = ln x − 1, x0 = 2

Answer
xn+1 = xn − xn (ln(xn ) − 1); x = e, x ≈ 2.7183, n = 5

58) [T] Suppose you start with one liter of vinegar and repeatedly remove 0.1 L, replace with water, mix, and repeat.
a. Find a formula for the concentration after n steps.
b. After how many steps does the mixture contain less than 10% vinegar?
59) [T] A lake initially contains 2000 fish. Suppose that in the absence of predators or other causes of removal, the fish population
increases by 6% each month. However, factoring in all causes, 150 fish are lost each month.
a. Explain why the fish population after n months is modeled by P n = 1.06 Pn−1 − 150 with P 0 = 2000 .
b. How many fish will be in the pond after one year?

Answer
a. Without losses, the population would obey P n = 1.06 Pn−1 . The subtraction of 150 accounts for fish losses.
b. After 12 months, we have P ≈ 1494. 12

60) [T] A bank account earns 5% interest compounded monthly. Suppose that $1000 is initially deposited into the account, but that
$10 is withdrawn each month.

a. Show that the amount in the account after n months is A n = (1 + .05/12)An−1 − 10; A0 = 1000.

b. How much money will be in the account after 1 year?

c. Is the amount increasing or decreasing?
d. Suppose that instead of $10, a fixed amount d dollars is withdrawn each month. Find a value of d such that the amount in
the account after each month remains $1000.
e. What happens if d is greater than this amount?
61) [T] A student takes out a college loan of $10, 000 at an annual percentage rate of 6%, compounded monthly.
a. If the student makes payments of $100 per month, how much does the student owe after 12 months?
b. After how many months will the loan be paid off?

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Answer
a. The student owes $9383after 12 months.
b. The loan will be paid in full after 139 months or eleven and a half years.

62) [T] Consider a series combining geometric growth and arithmetic decrease. Let a = 1 . Fix a > 1 and 0 < b < a . Set 1

an+1 = a. a − b. Find a formula for a

n in terms of a , a , and b and a relationship between a and b such that a converges.
n+1 n n

63) [T] The binary representation x = 0.b b b . . . of a number x between 0 and 1 can be defined as follows. Let b = 0 if
1 2 3 1

x < 1/2 and b = 1 if 1/2 ≤ x < 1. Let x = 2x − b . Let b = 0 if x < 1/2 and b = 1 if 1/2 ≤ x < 1 . Let x = 2 x − b
1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 2

and in general, x = 2x n−b and b 1 = 0 if x < 1/2 and b

n−1 n n− = 1 if 1/2 ≤ x < 1 . Find the binary expansion of 1/3.
n n−1 n

Answer
b1 = 0, x1 = 2/3, b2 = 1, x2 = 4/3 − 1 = 1/3, so the pattern repeats, and 1/3 = 0.010101 … .
−−−−
64) [T] To find an approximation for π, set a = √2 + 1 , a = √− −−−
2 +a
−
0, and, in general, 1 0
−−−− −
an+1 = √2 + an . Finally, set
−−−− −
n
n
p = 3.2 √2 − a . Find the first ten terms of p and compare the values to π.
n n

For the following two exercises, assume that you have access to a computer program or Internet source that can generate a list of
zeros and ones of any desired length. Pseudo-random number generators (PRNGs) play an important role in simulating random
noise in physical systems by creating sequences of zeros and ones that appear like the result of flipping a coin repeatedly. One of
the simplest types of PRNGs recursively defines a random-looking sequence of N integers a , a , … , a by fixing two special 1 2 N

integers (K and M and letting a be the remainder after dividing K. a into M , then creates a bit sequence of zeros and ones
n+1 n

whose n term b is equal to one if a is odd and equal to zero if a is even. If the bits b are pseudo-random, then the behavior
th
n n n n

of their average (b + b + ⋯ + b )/N should be similar to behavior of averages of truly randomly generated bits.
1 2 N

65) [T] Starting with K = 16, 807 and M = 2, 147, 483, 647, using ten different starting values of a , compute sequences of bits 1

bn up to n = 1000, and compare their averages to ten such sequences generated by a random bit generator.

Answer
For the starting values a 1 the corresponding bit averages calculated by the method indicated are
= 1, a2 = 2, … , a1 = 10,

and
0.5220, 0.5000, 0.4960, 0.4870, 0.4860, 0.4680, 0.5130, 0.5210, 0.5040,
0.4840 . Here is an example of ten corresponding
averages of strings of 1000bits generated by a random number generator:
There is no real pattern in either type of average.
0.4880, 0.4870, 0.5150, 0.5490, 0.5130, 0.5180, 0.4860, 0.5030, 0.5050, 0.4980.

The random-number-generated averages range between 0.4860and 0.5490, a range of 0.0630, whereas the calculated PRNG bit
averages range between 0.4680and 0.5220, a range of 0.0540.

66) [T] Find the first 1000 digits of π using either a computer program or Internet resource. Create a bit sequence b by letting n

b = 1 if the n digit of π is odd and b = 0 if the n digit of π is even. Compute the average value of b and the average value
th th
n n n

of d = |b
n − b |, n = 1, . . . , 999. Does the sequence b
n+1 n appear random? Do the differences between successive elements of b
n n

appear random?

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available upon request.

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9.2: Infinite Series
 Learning Objectives
Explain the meaning of the sum of an infinite series.
Calculate the sum of a geometric series.
Evaluate a telescoping series.

We have seen that a sequence is an ordered set of terms. If you add these terms together, you get a series. In this section we define
an infinite series and show how series are related to sequences. We also define what it means for a series to converge or diverge.
We introduce one of the most important types of series: the geometric series. We will use geometric series in the next chapter to
write certain functions as polynomials with an infinite number of terms. This process is important because it allows us to evaluate,
differentiate, and integrate complicated functions by using polynomials that are easier to handle. We also discuss the harmonic
series, arguably the most interesting divergent series because it just fails to converge.

Sums and Series

An infinite series is a sum of infinitely many terms and is written in the form
∞

∑ an = a1 + a2 + a3 + ⋯ .

n=1

But what does this mean? We cannot add an infinite number of terms in the same way we can add a finite number of terms. Instead,
the value of an infinite series is defined in terms of the limit of partial sums. A partial sum of an infinite series is a finite sum of the
form
k

∑ an = a1 + a2 + a3 + ⋯ + ak .

n=1

To see how we use partial sums to evaluate infinite series, consider the following example. Suppose oil is seeping into a lake such
that 1000 gallons enters the lake the first week. During the second week, an additional 500 gallons of oil enters the lake. The third
week, 250 more gallons enters the lake. Assume this pattern continues such that each week half as much oil enters the lake as did
the previous week. If this continues forever, what can we say about the amount of oil in the lake? Will the amount of oil continue to
get arbitrarily large, or is it possible that it approaches some finite amount? To answer this question, we look at the amount of oil in
the lake after k weeks. Letting S denote the amount of oil in the lake (measured in thousands of gallons) after k weeks, we see
k

that
S1 = 1

1
S2 = 1 + 0.5 = 1 +
2

1 1
S3 = 1 + 0.5 + 0.25 = 1 + +
2 4

1 1 1
S4 = 1 + 0.5 + 0.25 + 0.125 = 1 + + +
2 4 8

1 1 1 1
S5 = 1 + 0.5 + 0.25 + 0.125 + 0.0625 = 1 + + + + .
2 4 8 16

Looking at this pattern, we see that the amount of oil in the lake (in thousands of gallons) after k weeks is
k n−1
1 1 1 1 1 1
Sk = 1 + + + + +⋯ + = ∑( ) .
k−1
2 4 8 16 2 2
n=1

We are interested in what happens as k → ∞. Symbolically, the amount of oil in the lake as k → ∞ is given by the infinite series
∞ n−1
1 1 1 1 1
∑( ) =1+ + + + +⋯ .
2 2 4 8 16
n=1

At the same time, as k → ∞ , the amount of oil in the lake can be calculated by evaluating lim Sk . Therefore, the behavior of the
k→∞

infinite series can be determined by looking at the behavior of the sequence of partial sums S . If the sequence of partial sums S k k

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converges, we say that the infinite series converges, and its sum is given by lim Sk . If the sequence Sk diverges, we say the
k→∞

infinite series diverges. We now turn our attention to determining the limit of this sequence S . k

First, simplifying some of these partial sums, we see that

S1 = 1

1 3
S2 = 1 + =
2 2

1 1 7
S3 = 1 + + =
2 4 4

1 1 1 15
S4 = 1 + + + =
2 4 8 8

1 1 1 1 31
S5 = 1 + + + + = .
2 4 8 16 16

Plotting some of these values in Figure, it appears that the sequence S could be approaching 2. k

Figure 9.2.1 : The graph shows the sequence of partial sums S . It appears that the sequence is approaching the value 2.
k

Let’s look for more convincing evidence. In the following table, we list the values of S for several values of k . k

k 5 10 15 20

Sk 1.9375 1.998 1.999939 1.999998

These data supply more evidence suggesting that the sequence S converges to 2. Later we will provide an analytic argument that
k

can be used to prove that lim S = 2 . For now, we rely on the numerical and graphical data to convince ourselves that the
k
k→∞

sequence of partial sums does actually converge to 2. Since this sequence of partial sums converges to 2, we say the infinite series
converges to 2 and write
∞ n−1
1
∑( ) = 2.
2
n=1

Returning to the question about the oil in the lake, since this infinite series converges to 2, we conclude that the amount of oil in the
lake will get arbitrarily close to 2000 gallons as the amount of time gets sufficiently large.
This series is an example of a geometric series. We discuss geometric series in more detail later in this section. First, we summarize
what it means for an infinite series to converge.

 Definition

An infinite series is an expression of the form

∞

∑ an = a1 + a2 + a3 + ⋯ .

n=1

For each positive integer k , the sum

Sk = ∑ an = a1 + a2 + a3 + ⋯ + ak

n=1

is called the k partial sum of the infinite series. The partial sums form a sequence S . If the sequence of partial sums
th
k

converges to a real number S , the infinite series converges. If we can describe the convergence of a series to S , we call S the

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sum of the series, and we write
∞

∑ an = S.

n=1

If the sequence of partial sums diverges, we have the divergence of a series.

Note that the index for a series need not begin with n = 1 but can begin with any value. For example, the series
∞ n−1
1
∑( )
2
n=1

can also be written as

∞ n ∞ n−5
1 1
∑( ) or ∑ ( ) .
2 2
n=0 n=5

Often it is convenient for the index to begin at 1, so if for some reason it begins at a different value, we can re-index by making a
change of variables. For example, consider the series
∞
1
∑ .
n2
n=2

By introducing the variable m = n − 1 , so that n = m + 1, we can rewrite the series as

∞
1
∑ .
2
(m + 1)
m=1

 Example 9.2.1: Evaluating Limits of Sequences of Partial Sums

For each of the following series, use the sequence of partial sums to determine whether the series converges or diverges.
∞
n
a. ∑
n+1
n=1
∞

b. ∑(−1) n

n=1
∞
1
c. ∑
n(n + 1)
n=1

Solution
a. The sequence of partial sums S satisfies
k

1
S1 =
2

1 2
S2 = +
2 3

1 2 3
S3 = + +
2 3 4

1 2 3 4
S4 = + + + .
2 3 4 5

Notice that each term added is greater than 1/2. As a result, we see that
1
S1 =
2

1 2 1 1 1
S2 = + > + =2( )
2 3 2 2 2

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1 2 3 1 1 1 1
S3 = + + > + + =3( )
2 3 4 2 2 2 2

1 2 3 4 1 1 1 1 1
S4 = + + + > + + + =4( ).
2 3 4 5 2 2 2 2 2

From this pattern we can see that Sk > k (

2
) for every integer k . Therefore, Sk is unbounded and consequently, diverges.
∞
n
Therefore, the infinite series ∑ diverges.
n+1
n=1

b. The sequence of partial sums S satisfies

S1 = −1

S2 = −1 + 1 = 0

S3 = −1 + 1 − 1 = −1

S4 = −1 + 1 − 1 + 1 = 0.

From this pattern we can see the sequence of partial sums is

Sk = −1, 0, −1, 0, ….

Since this sequence diverges, the infinite series ∑(−1) diverges. n

n=1

c. The sequence of partial sums S satisfies

1 1
S1 = =
1⋅2 2

1 1 1 1 2
S2 = + = + =
1⋅2 2⋅3 2 6 3

1 1 1 1 1 1 3
S3 = + + = + + =
1⋅2 2⋅3 3⋅4 2 6 12 4

1 1 1 1 4
S4 = + + + =
1⋅2 2⋅3 3⋅4 4⋅5 5

1 1 1 1 1 5
S5 = + + + + = .
1⋅2 2⋅3 3⋅4 4⋅5 5⋅6 6

From this pattern, we can see that the k th

partial sum is given by the explicit formula
k
Sk =
k+1

.
Since k/(k + 1) → 1, we conclude that the sequence of partial sums converges, and therefore the infinite series converges to
1 . We have

∞
1
∑ = 1.
n(n + 1)
n=1

 Exercise 9.2.1
∞
n+1
Determine whether the series ∑ converges or diverges.
n
n=1

Hint
Look at the sequence of partial sums.

Answer

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The series diverges because the k th
partial sum S k >k .

The Harmonic Series

A useful series to know about is the harmonic series. The harmonic series is defined as
∞
1 1 1 1
∑ =1+ + + +⋯ .
n 2 3 4
n=1

This series is interesting because it diverges, but it diverges very slowly. By this we mean that the terms in the sequence of partial
sums S approach infinity, but do so very slowly. We will show that the series diverges, but first we illustrate the slow growth of
k

the terms in the sequence S in the following table.

k 10 100 1000 10,00 100,000 1,000,000

Sk 2.92897 5.18738 7.48547 9.78761 12.09015 14.39273

Even after 1, 000, 000terms, the partial sum is still relatively small. From this table, it is not clear that this series actually diverges.
However, we can show analytically that the sequence of partial sums diverges, and therefore the series diverges.
To show that the sequence of partial sums diverges, we show that the sequence of partial sums is unbounded. We begin by writing
the first several partial sums:
S1 = 1

1
S2 = 1 +
2

1 1
S3 = 1 + +
2 3

1 1 1
S4 = 1 + + + .
2 3 4

Notice that for the last two terms in S , 4

1 1 1 1
+ > +
3 4 4 4

Therefore, we conclude that

1 1 1 1 1 1
S4 > 1 + +( + ) =1+ + = 1 +2 ( ).
2 4 4 2 2 2

Using the same idea for S , we see that 8

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
S8 = 1 + + + + + + + >1+ +( + ) +( + + + ) =1+ + + =1 .
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2 4 4 8 8 8 8 2 2 2

1
+3 ( )
2

From this pattern, we see that S = 1, S = 1 + 1/2, S > 1 + 2(1/2), and S > 1 + 3(1/2) . More generally, it can be shown
1 2 4 8

that S > 1 + j(1/2) for all j > 1 . Since 1 + j(1/2) → ∞, we conclude that the sequence S is unbounded and therefore
2
j
k

diverges. In the previous section, we stated that convergent sequences are bounded. Consequently, since S is unbounded, it k

diverges. Thus, the harmonic series diverges.

Algebraic Properties of Convergent Series

Since the sum of a convergent infinite series is defined as a limit of a sequence, the algebraic properties for series listed below
follow directly from the algebraic properties for sequences.

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 Note 9.2.1: Algebraic Properties of Convergent Series
∞ ∞

Let ∑ a and ∑ b be convergent series. Then the following algebraic properties hold.
n n

n=1 n=1

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

i. The series ∑(a n + bn ) converges, and ∑(a n + bn ) = ∑ an + ∑ bn . (Sum Rule)

n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

ii. The series ∑(a n − bn ) converges, and ∑(a n − bn ) = ∑ an − ∑ bn . (Difference Rule)

n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1

∞ ∞ ∞

iii. For any real number c , the series ∑ ca converges, and ∑ ca n n = c ∑ an . (Constant Multiple Rule)
n=1 n=1 n=1

 Example 9.2.2: Using Algebraic Properties of Convergent Series

∞ n−2
3 1
Evaluate ∑ [ +( ) ].
n(n + 1) 2
n=1

Solution
We showed earlier that
∞
1
∑ =1
n(n + 1)
n=1

and
∞ n−1
1
∑( ) = 2.
2
n=1

Since both of those series converge, we can apply the properties of Note 9.2.1 to evaluate
∞ n−2
3 1
∑[ +( ) ].
n(n + 1) 2
n=1

Using the sum rule, write

∞ n−2 ∞ ∞ n−2
3 1 3 1
∑[ +( ) ] =∑ +∑( ) .
n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1) 2
n=1 n=1 n=1

Then, using the constant multiple rule and the sums above, we can conclude that
∞ ∞ n−2 ∞ −1 ∞ n−1 −1
3 1 1 1 1 1
∑ +∑( ) =3∑ +( ) ∑( ) = 3(1) + ( ) (2) = 3 + 2(2) = 7.
n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1) 2 2 2
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1

 Exercise 9.2.2
∞
5
Evaluate ∑ n−1
.
2
n=1

Hint
∞ n−1
1
Rewrite as ∑ 5( ) .
2
n=1

Answer
10

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Geometric Series
A geometric series is any series that we can write in the form
∞

2 3 n−1
a + ar + ar + ar + ⋯ = ∑ ar .

n=1

Because the ratio of each term in this series to the previous term is r, the number r is called the ratio. We refer to a as the initial
term because it is the first term in the series. For example, the series
∞ n−1
1 1 1 1
∑( ) =1+ + + +⋯
2 2 4 8
n=1

is a geometric series with initial term a = 1 and ratio r = 1/2 .

In general, when does a geometric series converge? Consider the geometric series
∞

n−1
∑ ar

n=1

when a > 0 . Its sequence of partial sums S is given by

n−1 2 k−1
Sk = ∑ ar = a + ar + ar + ⋯ + ar .

n=1

Consider the case when r = 1. In that case,

2 k−1
Sk = a + a(1) + a(1 ) + ⋯ + a(1 ) = ak.

Since a > 0 , we know ak → ∞ as k → ∞ . Therefore, the sequence of partial sums is unbounded and thus diverges.
Consequently, the infinite series diverges for r = 1 . For r ≠ 1 , to find the limit of S , multiply Equation by 1 − r . Doing so, wek

see that
2 3 k−1 2 3 k−1 2 3 k
(1 − r)Sk = a(1 − r)(1 + r + r +r +⋯ +r ) = a[(1 + r + r +r +⋯ +r ) − (r + r +r + ⋯ + r )]

k
= a(1 − r ).

All the other terms cancel out.

Therefore,
k
a(1 − r )
Sk = for r ≠ 1 .
1 −r

From our discussion in the previous section, we know that the geometric sequence r k
→ 0 if |r| < 1 and that r diverges if |r| > 1
k

a
or r = ±1 . Therefore, for |r| < 1, Sk → and we have
1 −r

n−1
a
∑ ar = if |r| < 1.
1 −r
n=1

If |r| ≥ 1, S diverges, and therefore

∞
n−1
∑ ar diverges if |r| ≥ 1.

n=1

 Definitions: Diverging and Converging Series

A geometric series is a series of the form
∞

n−1 2 3
∑ ar = a + ar + ar + ar +⋯ .

n=1

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If |r| < 1 , the series converges, and
∞
a
n−1
∑ ar = for |r| < 1.
1 −r
n=1

If |r| ≥ 1 , the series diverges.

Geometric series sometimes appear in slightly different forms. For example, sometimes the index begins at a value other than
n = 1 or the exponent involves a linear expression for n other than n − 1 . As long as we can rewrite the series in the form given

by Equation, it is a geometric series. For example, consider the series

∞ n+2
2
∑( ) .
3
n=0

To see that this is a geometric series, we write out the first several terms:
∞ n+2 2 3 4 2
2 2 2 2 4 4 2 4 2
∑( ) =( ) +( ) +( ) +⋯ = + ⋅( )+ ⋅( ) +⋯ .
3 3 3 3 9 9 3 9 3
n=0

We see that the initial term is a = 4/9 and the ratio is r = 2/3. Therefore, the series can be written as
∞ n−1
4 2
∑ ⋅( ) .
9 3
n=1

Since r = 2/3 < 1 , this series converges, and its sum is given by
∞ n−1
4 2 4/9 4
∑ ⋅( ) = = .
9 3 1 − 2/3 3
n=1

 Example 9.2.3: Determining Convergence or Divergence of a Geometric Series

Determine whether each of the following geometric series converges or diverges, and if it converges, find its sum.
∞ n+1
(−3)
a. ∑
n−1
n=1
4
∞

b. ∑ e 2n

n=1

Solution
a. Writing out the first several terms in the series, we have
∞ n+1 2 3 4
(−3) (−3) (−3) (−3)
∑ = + + +⋯
n−1 0 2
4 4 4 4
n=1

2 2
−3 2
−3
= (−3 ) + (−3 ) ⋅( ) + (−3 ) ⋅( ) +⋯
4 4

2
−3 −3
= 9 +9 ⋅ ( ) +9 ⋅ ( ) +⋯ .
4 4

The initial term a = −3 and the ratio r = −3/4 . Since |r| = 3/4 < 1 , the series converges to
9 9 36
= = .
1 − (−3/4) 7/4 7

b. Writing this series as

∞

2 2 n−1
e ∑(e )

n=1

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we can see that this is a geometric series where r = e 2
> 1. Therefore, the series diverges.

 Exercise 9.2.3
∞ n−1
−2
Determine whether the series ∑ ( ) converges or diverges. If it converges, find its sum.
5
n=1

Hint
r = −2/5

Answer
5/7

We now turn our attention to a nice application of geometric series. We show how they can be used to write repeating decimals as
fractions of integers.

 Example 9.2.4: Writing Repeating Decimals as Fractions of Integers

Use a geometric series to write 3.26

¯ as a fraction of integers.

Solution
Since 3.26
¯ — = 3.262626 … ,first we write

26 26 26
3.262626 … =3+ + + +⋯
100 1000 100, 000

26 26 26
=3+ + + +⋯ .
2 4 6
10 10 10

Ignoring the term 3, the rest of this expression is a geometric series with initial term a = 26/10
2
and ratio 2
r = 1/ 10 .

Therefore, the sum of this series is

2 2
26/10 26/10 26
= = .
2 2
1 − (1/ 10 ) 99/10 99

Thus,
3.262626 … = 3 +
26

99
=
323

99
.

 Exercise 9.2.4

Write 5.27̄ as a fraction of integers.

Hint
By expressing this number as a series, find a geometric series with initial term a = 7/100 and ratio r = 1/10.

Answer
475/90

 Example 9.2.5: Finding the Area of the Koch Snowflake

Define a sequence of figures {F } recursively as follows (Figure 9.2.2). Let F be an equilateral triangle with sides of length
n 0

1 . For n ≥ 1 , let F n be the curve created by removing the middle third of each side of F and replacing it with an
n−1

equilateral triangle pointing outward. The limiting figure as n → ∞ is known as Koch’s snowflake.

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Figure 9.2.2 : The first four figures, F 0, F1 , F2 , and F , in the construction of the Koch snowflake.
3

a. Find the length L of the perimeter of F . Evaluate

n n lim Ln to find the length of the perimeter of Koch’s snowflake.
n→∞

b. Find the area A of figure F . Evaluate

n n lim An to find the area of Koch’s snowflake.
n→∞

Solution
a. Let N denote the number of sides of figure F . Since F is a triangle, N = 3 . Let ln denote the length of each side of F .
n n 0 0 n

Since F is an equilateral triangle with sides of length l = 1 , we now need to determine N and l . Since F is created by
0 0 1 1 1

removing the middle third of each side and replacing that line segment with two line segments, for each side of F , we get four 0

sides in F . Therefore, the number of sides for F is

1 1

N1 = 4 ⋅ 3 .
Since the length of each of these new line segments is 1/3 the length of the line segments in F , the length of the line segments 0

for F is given by
1

l1 =
1

3
⋅1 =
1

3
.
Similarly, for F , since the middle third of each side of
2 F1 is removed and replaced with two line segments, the number of
sides in F is given by
2

2
N2 = 4 N1 = 4(4 ⋅ 3) = 4 ⋅ 3.

Since the length of each of these sides is 1/3 the length of the sides of F , the length of each side of figure F is given by
1 2

2
l2 =
1

3
⋅ l1 =
1

3
⋅
1

3
=(
1

3
) .
More generally, since Fn is created by removing the middle third of each side of Fn−1 and replacing that line segment with
ln−1
two line segments of length 1

3
ln−1 in the shape of an equilateral triangle, we know that Nn = 4 Nn−1 and ln = .
3
Therefore, the number of sides of figure F is n

n
Nn = 4 ⋅3

and the length of each side is

n
1
ln = ( ) .
3

Therefore, to calculate the perimeter of Fn , we multiply the number of sides N and the length of each side n ln . We conclude
that the perimeter of F is given by
n

n
4
Ln = Nn ⋅ ln = 3 ⋅ ( )
3

Therefore, the length of the perimeter of Koch’s snowflake is

L = lim Ln = ∞.
n→∞

b. Let T denote the area of each new triangle created when forming F . For n = 0, T is the area of the original equilateral
n n 0
–
triangle. Therefore, T = A = √3/4 . For n ≥ 1 , since the lengths of the sides of the new triangle are 1/3 the length of the
0 0

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sides of F n−1 , we have
2
1 1
Tn = ( ) ⋅ Tn−1 = ⋅ Tn−1 .
3 9

n √3
Therefore, T n =(
1

9
) ⋅
4
. Since a new triangle is formed on each side of F n−1 ,
n – n –
1 √3 3 4 √3
An = An−1 + Nn−1 ⋅ Tn = An−1 + (3 ⋅ 4n−1 ) ⋅ ( ) ⋅ = An−1 + ⋅( ) ⋅ .
9 4 4 9 4

Writing out the first few terms A 0, A1 , A2 , we see that

√3
A0 =
4

3 4 √3 √3 3 4 √3 √3 3 4
A1 = A0 + ⋅( )⋅ = + ⋅( )⋅ = [1 + ⋅( )]
4 9 4 4 4 9 4 4 4 9

√3 √3 2 √3 √3 2
A2 = A1 +
3

4
⋅(
4

9
2
) ⋅
4
=
4
[1 +
3

4
⋅(
4

9
)] +
3

4
⋅(
4

9
) ⋅
4
=
4
[1 +
3

4
⋅(
4

9
)+
3

4
⋅(
4

9
) ] .
More generally,
√3 2 n
An =
4
[1 +
3

4
(
4

9
+(
4

9
) +⋯ +(
4

9
) )] .

Factoring 4/9 out of each term inside the inner parentheses, we rewrite our expression as
√3 2 n−1
An =
4
[1 +
1

3
(1 +
4

9
+(
4

9
) +⋯ +(
4

9
) )] .
2 n−1
The expression 1 + ( 4

9
)+(
4

9
) +⋯ +(
4

9
) is a geometric sum. As shown earlier, this sum satisfies
n
2 n−1 1 − (4/9)
4 4 4
1+ +( ) +⋯ +( ) = .
9 9 9
1 − (4/9)

Substituting this expression into the expression above and simplifying, we conclude that
– n – n
√3 1 1 − (4/9) √3 8 3 4
An = [1 + ( )] = [ − ( ) ].
4 3 1 − (4/9) 4 5 5 9

Therefore, the area of Koch’s snowflake is

–
2 √3
A = lim An = .
n→∞ 5

Analysis
The Koch snowflake is interesting because it has finite area, yet infinite perimeter. Although at first this may seem impossible,
recall that you have seen similar examples earlier in the text. For example, consider the region bounded by the curve y = 1/x 2

and the x-axis on the interval [1, ∞). Since the improper integral
∞
1
∫ dx
2
1 x

converges, the area of this region is finite, even though the perimeter is infinite.

Telescoping Series
∞
1
Consider the series ∑ . We discussed this series in Example, showing that the series converges by writing out the first
n(n + 1)
n=1

k
several partial sums S1 , S2 , … , S6 and noticing that they are all of the form Sk = . Here we use a different technique to
k+1

show that this series converges. By using partial fractions, we can write
1 1 1
= − .
n(n + 1) n n+1

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Therefore, the series can be written as
∞
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
∑[ − ] = (1 + ) +( − ) +( − ) +⋯ .
n n+1 2 2 3 3 4
n=1

Writing out the first several terms in the sequence of partial sums S , we see that k

1
S1 = 1 −
2

1 1 1 1
S2 = (1 − )+( − ) =1−
2 2 3 3

S3 = (1 −
1

2
)+(
1

2
−
1

3
)+(
1

3
−
1

4
) =1−
1

4
.
In general,
1
Sk = (1 −
1

2
)+(
1

2
−
1

3
)+(
1

3
−
1

4
)+⋯ +(
1

k
−
1

k+1
) =1− .
k+1

We notice that the middle terms cancel each other out, leaving only the first and last terms. In a sense, the series collapses like a
spyglass with tubes that disappear into each other to shorten the telescope. For this reason, we call a series that has this property a
telescoping series. For this series, since S = 1 − 1/(k + 1) and 1/(k + 1) → 0 as k → ∞ , the sequence of partial sums
k

converges to 1, and therefore the series converges to 1.

 Definition

A telescoping series is a series in which most of the terms cancel in each of the partial sums, leaving only some of the first
terms and some of the last terms.

For example, any series of the form

∞

∑[ bn − bn+1 ] = (b1 − b2 ) + (b2 − b3 ) + (b3 − b4 ) + ⋯

n=1

is a telescoping series. We can see this by writing out some of the partial sums. In particular, we see that
S1 = b1 − b2

S2 = (b1 − b2 ) + (b2 − b3 ) = b1 − b3

S3 = (b1 − b2 ) + (b2 − b3 ) + (b3 − b4 ) = b1 − b4 .

In general, the kth partial sum of this series is

Sk = b1 − bk+1 .
Since the kth partial sum can be simplified to the difference of these two terms, the sequence of partial sums S will converge if k

and only if the sequence b converges. Moreover, if the sequence b

k+1 converges to some finite number B, then the sequence of
k+1

partial sums converges to b − B , and therefore

∑[ bn − bn+1 ] = b1 − B.

n=1

In the next example, we show how to use these ideas to analyze a telescoping series of this form.

 Example 9.2.6: Evaluating a Telescoping Series

Determine whether the telescoping series

∞
1 1
∑ [cos( ) − cos( )]
n n+1
n=1

converges or diverges. If it converges, find its sum.

Solution
By writing out terms in the sequence of partial sums, we can see that

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1
S1 = cos(1) − cos( )
2

1 1 1 1
S2 = (cos(1) − cos( )) + (cos( ) − cos( )) = cos(1) − cos( )
2 2 3 3

1 1 1 1 1
S3 = (cos(1) − cos( )) + (cos( ) − cos( )) + (cos( ) − cos( ))
2 2 3 3 4

= cos(1) − cos(
1

4
) .
In general,

Sk = cos(1) − cos(
k+1
1
) .

Since 1/(k + 1) → 0 as k → ∞ and cos x is a continuous function, cos(1/(k + 1)) → cos(0) = 1 . Therefore, we conclude
that S → cos(1) − 1 . The telescoping series converges and the sum is given by
k

∞
1 1
∑ [cos( ) − cos( )] = cos(1) − 1.
n n+1
n=1

 Exercise 9.2.5
∞

Determine whether ∑[e 1/n

−e
1/(n+1)
] converges or diverges. If it converges, find its sum.
n=1

Hint
Write out the sequence of partial sums to see which terms cancel.

Answer
e−1

 Euler’s Constant
∞
1
We have shown that the harmonic series ∑ diverges. Here we investigate the behavior of the partial sums S as k → ∞. k
n
n=1

In particular, we show that they behave like the natural logarithm function by showing that there exists a constant γ such that
k
1
∑( − ln k) → γ as k → ∞.
n
n=1

This constant γ is known as Euler’s constant.

k
1
1. Let Tk = ∑( − ln k) . Evaluate T for various values of k .
k
n
n=1

2. For T as defined in part 1. show that the sequence T converges by using the following steps.
k k

a. Show that the sequence T is monotone decreasing. (Hint: Show that ln(1 + 1/k > 1/(k + 1))
k

b. Show that the sequence T is bounded below by zero. (Hint: Express ln k as a definite integral.)
k

c. Use the Monotone Convergence Theorem to conclude that the sequence Tk converges. The limit γ is Euler’s
constant.
3. Now estimate how far Tk is from γ for a given integer k . Prove that for k ≥ 1, 0 < Tk − γ ≤ 1/k by using the
following steps.
a. Show that ln(k + 1) − ln k < 1/k.
b. Use the result from part a. to show that for any integer k ,
1 1
Tk − Tk+1 < − .
k k+1

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c. For any integers k and j such that j > k , express T k − Tj as a telescoping sum by writing

Tk − Tj = (Tk − Tk+1 ) + (Tk+1 − Tk+2 ) + (Tk+2 − Tk+3 ) + ⋯ + (Tj−1 − Tj ).

Use the result from part b. combined with this telescoping sum to conclude that
1 1
Tk − Tj < − .
k j

a. Apply the limit to both sides of the inequality in part c. to conclude that
1
Tk − γ ≤ .
k

e. Estimate γ to an accuracy of within 0.001.

Key Concepts
Given the infinite series
∞

∑ an = a1 + a2 + a3 + ⋯

n=1

and the corresponding sequence of partial sums S where k

Sk = ∑ an = a1 + a2 + a3 + ⋯ + ak ,
n=1

the series converges if and only if the sequence S converges. k

The geometric series ∑ ar n−1

converges if |r| < 1 and diverges if |r| ≥ 1. For |r| < 1,
n=1

∞
a
∑ ar
n−1
= .
1 −r
n=1

The harmonic series

∞
1 1 1
∑ =1+ + +⋯
n 2 3
n=1

diverges.
∞

A series of the form ∑[b n − bn+1 ] = [ b1 − b2 ] + [ b2 − b3 ] + [ b3 − b4 ] + ⋯ + [ bn − bn+1 ] + ⋯ is a telescoping series. The

n=1

k
th
partial sum of this series is given by S k = b1 − bk+1 . The series will converge if and only if lim bk+1 exists. In that case,
k→∞

∑[ bn − bn+1 ] = b1 − lim (bk+1 ) .

k→∞
n=1

Key Equations
Harmonic series
∞
1 1 1 1
∑ =1+ + + +⋯
n 2 3 4
n=1

Sum of a geometric series

∞
a
∑ ar
n−1
= for |r| < 1
1 −r
n=1

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Glossary
convergence of a series
a series converges if the sequence of partial sums for that series converges

divergence of a series
a series diverges if the sequence of partial sums for that series diverges

geometric series
a geometric series is a series that can be written in the form
∞

n−1 2 3
∑ ar = a + ar + ar + ar +⋯

n=1

harmonic series
the harmonic series takes the form
∞
1 1 1
∑ =1+ + +⋯
n 2 3
n=1

infinite series
an infinite series is an expression of the form
∞

a1 + a2 + a3 + ⋯ = ∑ an

n=1

partial sum
∞

the kth partial sum of the infinite series ∑ a is the finite sum
n

n=1

Sk = ∑ an = a1 + a2 + a3 + ⋯ + ak

n=1

telescoping series
a telescoping series is one in which most of the terms cancel in each of the partial sums

This page titled 9.2: Infinite Series is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert Strang &
Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is
available upon request.
9.2: Infinite Series by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
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9.2E: Exercises
In exercises 1 - 4, use sigma notation to write each expressions as an infinite series.
1) 1 + 1

2
+
1

3
+
1

4
+⋯

Answer
∞
1
∑
n
n=1

2) 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ⋯
3) 1 − 1

2
+
1

3
−
1

4
+. . .

Answer
∞ n−1
(−1)
∑
n
n=1

4) sin 1 + sin 1

2
+ sin
1

3
+ sin
1

4
+⋯

In exercises 5 - 8, compute the first four partial sums S 1, … , S4 for the series having n th
term a starting with n = 1 as follows.
n

5) an =n

Answer
1, 3, 6, 10

6) an = 1/n

7) an = sin
nπ

Answer
1, 1, 0, 0

8) an = (−1 )
n

In exercises 9 - 12, compute the general term a of the series with the given partial sum S . If the sequence of partial sums converges, find
n n

its limit S .
9) S n =1−
1

n
, n ≥2

Answer
1 1 1
an = Sn − Sn−1 = − . Since S = lim Sn = lim (1 − ) = 1, the series converges to S = 1.
n−1 n n→∞ n→∞ n

n(n + 1)
10) S n = , n ≥1
2
−
11) S n = √n , n ≥2

Answer
− −−−−− 1
an = Sn − Sn−1 = √n − √n − 1 = .
−−−−− −
√n − 1 + √n

The series diverges because the partial sums are unbounded.

That is, lim S = lim √− n = ∞. n
n→∞ n→∞

n+2
12) S n =2−
n
, n ≥1
2

For each series in exercises 13 - 16, use the sequence of partial sums to determine whether the series converges or diverges.
∞
n
13) ∑
n+2
n=1

Answer
S1 = 1/3,

S2 = 1/3 + 2/4 > 1/3 + 1/3 = 2/3,

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S3 = 1/3 + 2/4 + 3/5 > 3 ⋅ (1/3) = 1.

In general S > k/3, so the series diverges.

Note that the n Term Test for Divergence could also be used to prove that this series diverges.
th

14) ∑(1 − (−1) n

))

n=1

∞ ∞
1 1
15) ∑ ( Hint: Use a partial fraction decomposition like that for ∑ .)
(n + 1)(n + 2) n(n + 1)
n=1 n=1

Answer
S1 = 1/(2 ⋅ 3) = 1/6 = 2/3 − 1/2,

S2 = 1/(2 ⋅ 3) + 1/(3 ⋅ 4) = 2/12 + 1/12 = 1/4 = 3/4 − 1/2,

S3 = 1/(2 ⋅ 3) + 1/(3 ⋅ 4) + 1/(4 ⋅ 5) = 10/60 + 5/60 + 3/60 = 3/10 = 4/5 − 1/2,

S4 = 1/(2 ⋅ 3) + 1/(3 ⋅ 4) + 1/(4 ⋅ 5) + 1/(5 ⋅ 6) = 10/60 + 5/60 + 3/60 + 2/60 = 1/3 = 5/6 − 1/2.

k+1 1
The pattern is S k = − .
k+2 2
k+1 1 1
Then lim Sn = lim ( − ) = , so the series converges to 1/2.
n→∞ n→∞ k+2 2 2

∞ ∞
1 1
16) ∑ (Hint: Follow the reasoning for ∑ .)
2n + 1 n
n=1 n=1

∞ ∞

Suppose that ∑ an = 1 , that ∑ bn = −1 , that a1 = 2 , and b1 = −3 . Use this information to find the sum of the indicated series in
n=1 n=1

exercises 17 - 20.
∞

17) ∑(a n + bn )

n=1

Answer
∞ ∞ ∞

∑(an + bn ) = ∑ an + ∑ bn = 1 + (−1) = 0

n=1 n=1 n=1

18) ∑(a n − 2 bn )

n=1

19) ∑(a n − bn )

n=2

Answer
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

∑(an − bn ) = ∑ an − ∑ bn = ( ∑ an − a1 ) − ( ∑ bn − b1 ) = (1 − 2) − (−1 − (−3)) = −1 − 2 = −3

n=2 n=2 n=2 n=1 n=1

20) ∑(3a n+1 − 4 bn+1 )

n=1

In exercises 21 - 26, state whether the given series converges or diverges and explain why.
∞
1
21) ∑ (Hint: Rewrite using a change of index.)
n + 1000
n=1

Answer
∞
1
The series diverges, ∑
n
n=1001

∞
1
22) ∑ 80
(Hint: Rewrite using a change of index.)
n=1
n + 10

23) 1 + 1

10
+
100
1
+
1000
1
+⋯

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Answer
This is a convergent geometric series, since r = 1

10
<1

2 3

24) 1 + e

π
+
e

π
2
+
e

π
3
+⋯

2 3 4

25) 1 + e
π
2
+
π

e
4
+
π

e
6
+
π

e
8
+⋯

Answer
This is a convergent geometric series, since r = π/e 2
<1

−
− −− −−
26) 1 − √
2 3
π π π
+√ −√ +⋯
3 9 27

For each a in exercises 27 - 30, write its sum as a geometric series of the form
n ∑ ar
n
. State whether the series converges and if it does,
n=1

find the exact value of its sum.

an
27) a 1 = −1 and = −5 for n ≥ 1.
an+1

Answer
∞

∑ 5 ⋅ (−1/5 )
n
, converges to −5/6
n=1

an
28) a 1 =2 and = 1/2 for n ≥ 1.
an+1

an
29) a 1 = 10 and = 10 for n ≥ 1 .
an+1

Answer
∞

∑ 100 ⋅ (1/10 ) ,
n
converges to 100

9
n=1

30) a 1 =
1

10
and a n / an+1 = −10 for n ≥ 1 .
∞
1
In exercises 31 - 34, use the identity = ∑ y
n
(which is true for |y| < 1 ) to express each function as a geometric series in the
1−y
n=0

indicated term.
x
31) in x
1 +x

Answer
∞ ∞
n n−1 n
x ∑(−x ) = ∑(−1 ) x

n=0 n=1

−
√x
32) in √−
x
3/2
1 −x

1
33) 2
in sin x
1 + sin x

Answer
∞

n 2n
∑(−1 ) sin (x)

n=0

34) sec 2
x in sin x
In exercises 35 - 38, evaluate the telescoping series or state whether the series diverges.
∞

35) ∑ 2 1/n
−2
1/(n+1)

n=1

Answer
Sk = 2 − 2
1/(k+1)
→ 1 as k → ∞.

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∞
1 1
36) ∑ 13
−
13
n (n + 1)
n=1

∞
−−−−−
37) ∑(√−
n − √n + 1 )

n=1

Answer
−−−−
Sk = 1 − √k + 1 diverges
∞

38) ∑(sin n − sin(n + 1))

n=1

Express each series in exercises 39 - 42 as a telescoping sum and evaluate its n th

partial sum.
∞
n
39) ∑ ln( )
n+1
n=1

Answer
∞

∑[ln n − ln(n + 1)],

n=1

Sk = − ln(k + 1)

∞
2n + 1
40) ∑ 2 2
(Hint: Factor denominator and use partial fractions.)
(n + n)
n=1

∞ 1
ln(1 + )
41) ∑ n

(ln n) ln(n + 1)
n=2

Answer
an =
ln n
1
−
1

ln(n+1)
and S k =
1

ln(2)
−
1

ln(k+1)
→
1

ln(2)

∞
(n + 2)
42) ∑ n+1
(Hint: Look at 1/(n2 ). n

n=1
n(n + 1)2

A general telescoping series is one in which all but the first few terms cancel out after summing a given number of successive terms.
∞

43) Let a n = f (n) − 2f (n + 1) + f (n + 2), in which f (n) → 0 as n → ∞. Find ∑ a . n

n=1

Answer
∞

∑ an = f (1) − f (2)

n=1

44) an = f (n) − f (n + 1) − f (n + 2) + f (n + 3), in which f (n) → 0 as n → ∞ . Find ∑ a . n

n=1

45) Suppose that a = c f (n) + c f (n + 1) + c f (n + 2) + c f (n + 3) + c

n 0 1 2 3 4 f (n + 4), where f (n) → 0 as n → ∞ . Find a condition on the
coefficients c , … , c that make this a general telescoping series.
0 4

Answer
c0 + c1 + c2 + c3 + c4 = 0

∞
1 1 1 1 1
46) Evaluate ∑ (Hint: = − + )
n(n + 1)(n + 2) n(n + 1)(n + 2) 2n n+1 2(n + 2)
n=1

∞
2
47) Evaluate ∑ .
n3 − n
n=2

Answer
2 1 2 1
= − + ,
3
n −1 n−1 n n+1

Sn = (1 − 1 + 1/3) + (1/2 − 2/3 + 1/4) + (1/3 − 2/4 + 1/5) + (1/4 − 2/5 + 1/6) + ⋯ = 1/2

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∞
1
48) Find a formula for ∑ where N is a positive integer.
n(n + N )
n=1

k−1

49) [T] Define a sequence t k = ∑(1/k) − ln k . Use the graph of 1/x to verify that t is increasing. Plot t for k = 1 … 100 and state whether it
k k

n=1

appears that the sequence converges.

Answer
tk converges to 0.57721 … t is a sum of rectangles of height 1/k over the interval [k, k + 1] which lie above the graph of 1/x.
k

50) [T] Suppose that N equal uniform rectangular blocks are stacked one on top of the other, allowing for some overhang. Archimedes’ law of the
lever implies that the stack of N blocks is stable as long as the center of mass of the top (N − 1) blocks lies at the edge of the bottom block. Let x
denote the position of the edge of the bottom block, and think of its position as relative to the center of the next-to-bottom block. This implies that
− x) or x = 1/(2N ). Use this expression to compute the maximum overhang (the position of the edge of the top block over the
1
(N − 1)x = (
2

edge of the bottom block.) See the following figure.

Each of the following infinite series converges to the given multiple of π or 1/π.
In each case, find the minimum value of N such that the N th partial sum of the series accurately approximates the left-hand side to the
given number of decimal places, and give the desired approximate value. Up to 15 decimals place, π = 3.141592653589793....
∞ n 2
n2 n!
51) [T] π = −3 + ∑ , error < 0.0001
(2n)!
n=1

Answer
N = 22,

SN = 6.1415

∞ ∞ k 2
π k! 2 k!
52) [T] =∑ =∑ , error < 10 −4

2 (2k + 1)!! (2k + 1)!

k=0 k=0

∞
9801 4 (4k)!(1103 + 26390k)
53) [T] = ∑
4k
, error < 10−12

2π 9801 4
k=0
(k!) 396

Answer
N = 3,

SN = 1.559877597243667...

∞ k
1 (−1 ) (6k)!(13591409 + 545140134k)
54) [T] =∑ , error < 10
−15

12π 3k+3/2
k=0
(3k)!(k!)3 640320

55) [T] A fair coin is one that has probability 1/2 of coming up heads when flipped.

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a. What is the probability that a fair coin will come up tails n times in a row?
b. Find the probability that a coin comes up heads for the first time after an even number of coin flips.

Answer
a. The probability of any given ordered sequence of outcomes for n coin flips is 1/2 . n

b. The probability of coming up heads for the first time on the n th flip is the probability of the sequence T T … T H which is 1/2 . The n

probability of coming up heads for the first time on an even flip is ∑ 1/2 2n
or 1/3.
n=1

56) [T] Find the probability that a fair coin is flipped a multiple of three times before coming up heads.
57) [T] Find the probability that a fair coin will come up heads for the second time after an even number of flips.

Answer
5/9

58) [T] Find a series that expresses the probability that a fair coin will come up heads for the second time on a multiple of three flips.
59) [T] The expected number of times that a fair coin will come up heads is defined as the sum over n = 1, 2, … of n times the probability that the
n
coin will come up heads exactly n times in a row, or n+1
. Compute the expected number of consecutive times that a fair coin will come up heads.
2

Answer
∞
n
E =∑ = 1, as can be shown using summation by parts
n+1
n=1
2

60) [T] A person deposits $10 at the beginning of each quarter into a bank account that earns 4 annual interest compounded quarterly (four times a
year).
n+1
1.01 −1
a. Show that the interest accumulated after n quarters is $10( 0.01
− n).

b. Find the first eight terms of the sequence.

c. How much interest has accumulated after 2 years?
61) [T] Suppose that the amount of a drug in a patient’s system diminishes by a multiplicative factor r < 1 each hour. Suppose that a new dose is
administered every N hours. Find an expression that gives the amount A(n) in the patient’s system after n hours for each n in terms of the dosage d
and the ratio r. (Hint: Write n = mN + k , where 0 ≤ k < N , and sum over values from the different doses administered.)

Answer
The part of the first dose after n hours is dr , the part of the second dose is dr
n n−N
, and, in general, the part remaining of the m th
dose is
m m m m (m+1)N
1 −r
dr
n−mN
, so A(n) = ∑ dr n−lN
= ∑ dr
k+(m−l)N
= ∑ dr
k+qN
= dr
k
∑r
Nq
= dr
k

N
, where n = k + mN .
1 −r
l=0 l=0 q=0 q=0

62) [T] A certain drug is effective for an average patient only if there is at least 1 mg per kg in the patient’s system, while it is safe only if there is at
most 2 mg per kg in an average patient’s system. Suppose that the amount in a patient’s system diminishes by a multiplicative factor of 0.9 each
hour after a dose is administered. Find the maximum interval N of hours between doses, and corresponding dose range d (in mg/kg) for this N that
will enable use of the drug to be both safe and effective in the long term.
63) Suppose that a n ≥0 is a sequence of numbers. Explain why the sequence of partial sums of a is increasing. n

Answer
SN +1 = aN +1 + SN ≥ SN

64) [T] Suppose that an is a sequence of positive numbers and the sequence Sn of partial sums of an is bounded above. Explain why ∑ an

n=1

converges. Does the conclusion remain true if we remove the hypothesis a n ≥0 ?

65) [T] Suppose that a = S = 1 and that, for given numbers S > 1 and 0 < k < 1 , one defines
1 1 an+1 = k(S − Sn ) and Sn+1 = an+1 + Sn .
Does S converge? If so, to what? (Hint: First argue that S < S for all n and S is increasing.)
n n n

Answer
Since S > 1, a > 0, and since k < 1, S
2 2 = 1 + a2 < 1 + (S − 1) = S . If S > S for some n , then there is a smallest n . For this
n

n, S > S , so S = S
n−1 + k(S − S
n n−1 n−1 ) = kS + (1 − k)Sn−1 < S , a contradiction. Thus S < S and a n > 0 for all n , so S
n+1 is n

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increasing and bounded by S . Let S = lim S . If S < S , then δ = k(S − S ) > 0 , but we can find n such that S
∗ n ∗ ∗ ∗ − Sn < δ/2 , which
implies that S = S + k(S − S ) > S + δ/2
n+1 n n, contradicting that Sn is increasing to S . Thus S → S.
∗ ∗ n

66) [T] A version of von Bertalanffy growth can be used to estimate the age of an individual in a homogeneous species from its length if the annual
increase in year n + 1 satisfies a = k(S − S ) , with S
n+1 as the length at year n, S as a limiting length, and k as a relative growth constant. If
n n

S = 3, S = 9, and k = 1/2, numerically estimate the smallest value of n such that S ≥ 8 . Note that S
1 n = S +a . Find the corresponding
n+1 n n+1

n when k = 1/4.

∞ ∞

67) [T] Suppose that ∑ a is a convergent series of positive terms. Explain why
n lim ∑ an = 0.
N →∞
n=1 n=N +1

Answer
k ∞

Let Sk = ∑ an and S k → L . Then S eventually becomes arbitrarily close to L, which means that L − S
k N = ∑ an becomes
n=1 n=N +1

arbitrarily small as N → ∞.

68) [T] Find the length of the dashed zig-zag path in the following figure.

69) [T] Find the total length of the dashed path in the following figure.

Answer
∞
1 1 3
L = (1 + )∑
n
= .
2 2 2
n=1

70) [T] The Sierpinski triangle is obtained from a triangle by deleting the middle fourth as indicated in the first step, by deleting the middle fourths
of the remaining three congruent triangles in the second step, and in general deleting the middle fourths of the remaining triangles in each successive
step. Assuming that the original triangle is shown in the figure, find the areas of the remaining parts of the original triangle after N steps and find the
total length of all of the boundary triangles after N steps.

71) [T] The Sierpinski gasket is obtained by dividing the unit square into nine equal sub-squares, removing the middle square, then doing the same at
each stage to the remaining sub-squares. The figure shows the remaining set after four iterations. Compute the total area removed after N stages,
and compute the length the total perimeter of the remaining set after N stages.

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Answer
At stage one a square of area 1/9 is removed, at stage 2 one removes 8 squares of area 1/9 , at stage three one removes 8 squares of area
2 2

N −1 N N
8 1 1 − (8/9)
1/9
3
, and so on. The total removed area after N stages is ∑ = ⋅ → 1 as N → ∞. The total perimeter is
N +1 8
9 1 − 8/9
n=0
∞ N
8
4 +4 ∑ → ∞.
N +1
n=0 3

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(OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request.

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9.3: The Divergence and Integral Tests
 Learning Objectives
Use the divergence test to determine whether a series converges or diverges.
Use the integral test to determine the convergence of a series.
Estimate the value of a series by finding bounds on its remainder term.

In the previous section, we determined the convergence or divergence of several series by explicitly calculating the limit of the
sequence of partial sums S . In practice, explicitly calculating this limit can be difficult or impossible. Luckily, several tests exist
k

that allow us to determine convergence or divergence for many types of series. In this section, we discuss two of these tests: the
divergence test and the integral test. We will examine several other tests in the rest of this chapter and then summarize how and
when to use them.

Divergence Test
∞

For a series ∑ a to converge, the n term a must satisfy a

n
th
n n → 0 as n → ∞. Therefore, from the algebraic limit properties of
n=1

sequences,

lim ak = lim (Sk − Sk−1 )

k→∞ k→∞

= lim Sk − lim Sk−1

k→∞ k→∞

= S − S = 0.

Therefore, if ∑ a converges, the n term a

n
th
n → 0 as n → ∞. An important consequence of this fact is the following statement:
n=1

If a n ↛ 0 as n → ∞, ∑ a diverges. n

n=1

This test is known as the divergence test because it provides a way of proving that a series diverges.

 Definition: The Divergence Test

∞

If lim an = c ≠ 0 or lim an does not exist, then the series ∑ a diverges.n

n→∞ n→∞
n=1

It is important to note that the converse of this theorem is not true. That is, if lim an = 0 , we cannot make any conclusion about
n→∞
∞

the convergence of ∑ a . n

n=1

∞
1
For example, lim
n
1
=0 , but the harmonic series ∑ diverges. In this section and the remaining sections of this chapter, we
n→0 n
n=1

show many more examples of such series. Consequently, although we can use the divergence test to show that a series diverges, we
cannot use it to prove that a series converges. Specifically, if a → 0 , the divergence test is inconclusive.
n

 Example 9.3.1: Using the divergence test

For each of the following series, apply the divergence test. If the divergence test proves that the series diverges, state so.
Otherwise, indicate that the divergence test is inconclusive.
∞
n
a. ∑
3n − 1
n=1

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∞
1
b. ∑ 3
n
n=1
∞
2

c. ∑e
1/n

n=1

Solution
∞
n 1 n
a. Since lim = ≠0 , by the divergence test, we can conclude that ∑ diverges.
n→∞ 3n − 1 3 3n − 1
n=1

1
b. Since lim
3
=0 , the divergence test is inconclusive.
n→∞ n
∞
2 2

c. Since lim e
1/n
=1 ≠0 , by the divergence test, the series ∑ e 1/n
diverges.
n→∞
n=1

 Exercise 9.3.1
∞

What does the divergence test tell us about the series ∑ cos(1/n )? 2

n=1

Hint
Look at lim cos(1/ n )
2
.
n→∞

Answer
The series diverges.

Integral Test
In the previous section, we proved that the harmonic series diverges by looking at the sequence of partial sums S and showing that k

S k > 1 + k/2 for all positive integers k . In this section we use a different technique to prove the divergence of the harmonic
2

series. This technique is important because it is used to prove the divergence or convergence of many other series. This test, called
the integral test, compares an infinite sum to an improper integral. It is important to note that this test can only be applied when we
are considering a series whose terms are all positive.

Figure 9.3.1 : The sum of the areas of the rectangles is greater than the area between the curve f (x) = 1/x and the x -axis for
x ≥ 1 . Since the area bounded by the curve is infinite (as calculated by an improper integral), the sum of the areas of the

rectangles is also infinite.

To illustrate how the integral test works, use the harmonic series as an example. In Figure 9.3.1, we depict the harmonic series by
sketching a sequence of rectangles with areas 1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, …along with the function f (x) = 1/x. From the graph, we see
that
k k+1
1 1 1 1 1
∑ =1+ + +⋯ + >∫ dx.
n 2 3 k 1
x
n=1

Therefore, for each k , the k th

partial sum S satisfies
k

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k k+1
1 1 k+1
Sk = ∑ >∫ dx = ln x ∣
∣
1
n 1
x
n=1

= ln(k + 1) − ln(1)

= ln(k + 1).

Since lim ln(k + 1) = ∞, we see that the sequence of partial sums S is unbounded. Therefore, k Sk diverges, and, consequently,
k→∞
∞
1
the series ∑ also diverges.
n
n=1

Figure 9.3.2 : The sum of the areas of the rectangles is less than the sum of the area of the first rectangle and the area between the
curve f (x) = 1/x and the x -axis for x ≥ 1 . Since the area bounded by the curve is finite, the sum of the areas of the rectangles is
2

also finite.
∞
1
Now consider the series ∑
2
. We show how an integral can be used to prove that this series converges. In Figure 9.3.2 , we
n
n=1

sketch a sequence of rectangles with areas 1, 1/2 2 2

, 1/ 3 , … along with the function f (x) = x
1
2
. From the graph we see that
k k
1 1 1 1 1
∑ =1+ + +⋯ + < 1 +∫ dx.
2 2 2 2 2
n 2 3 k 1 x
n=1

Therefore, for each k , the k th

partial sum S satisfies
k

k k k
1 1 1 ∣
Sk = ∑ < 1 +∫ dx = 1 − ∣
2 2
n 1 x x∣ 1
n=1

1
=1− +1
k

1
=2− < 2.
k

We conclude that the sequence of partial sums S is bounded. We also see that S is an increasing sequence:
k k

1
Sk = Sk−1 +
2
k

for k ≥ 2 .
∞
1
Since Sk is increasing and bounded, by the Monotone Convergence Theorem, it converges. Therefore, the series ∑
2
n
n=1

converges.

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Figure 9.3.3 : (a) If we can inscribe rectangles inside a region bounded by a curve y = f (x) and the x -axis, and the area bounded
by those curves for x ≥ 1 is finite, then the sum of the areas of the rectangles is also finite. (b) If a set of rectangles circumscribes
the region bounded by y = f (x) and the x axis for x ≥ 1 and the region has infinite area, then the sum of the areas of the
rectangles is also infinite.
∞

We can extend this idea to prove convergence or divergence for many different series. Suppose ∑ an is a series with positive
n=1

terms a such that there exists a continuous, positive, decreasing function f where f (n) = a for all positive integers. Then, as in
n n

Figure 9.3.3a, for any integer k , the k partial sum S satisfies

th
k

k ∞

Sk = a1 + a2 + a3 + ⋯ + ak < a1 + ∫ f (x) dx < 1 + ∫ f (x) dx.

1 1

Therefore, if ∫ f (x) dx converges, then the sequence of partial sums S is bounded. Since S is an increasing sequence, if it is
k k

1
∞

also a bounded sequence, then by the Monotone Convergence Theorem, it converges. We conclude that if ∫ f (x) dx converges,
1
∞

then the series ∑ a also converges. On the other hand, from Figure 9.3.3b, for any integer k , the k
n
th
partial sum S satisfies
k

n=1

k+1

Sk = a1 + a2 + a3 + ⋯ + ak > ∫ f (x) dx.

If
k+1

lim ∫ f (x) dx = ∞,
k→∞
1

then Sk is an unbounded sequence and therefore diverges. As a result, the series ∑ an also diverges. Since f is a positive
n=1
∞

function, if ∫ f (x) dx diverges, then

k+1

lim ∫ f (x) dx = ∞.
k→∞
1

∞ ∞

We conclude that if ∫ f (x) dx diverges, then ∑ a diverges.

1
n=1

 Definition: The Integral Test

∞

Suppose ∑ an is a series with positive terms an . Suppose there exists a function f and a positive integer N such that the
n=1

following three conditions are satisfied:

i. f is continuous,
ii. f is decreasing, and

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iii. f (n) = an for all integers n ≥ N .
Then
∞

∑ an

n=1

and
∞

∫ f (x) dx
N

both converge or both diverge (Figure 9.3.3).

∞ ∞

Although convergence of ∫ f (x) dx implies convergence of the related series ∑ an , it does not imply that the value of the
N
n=1

integral and the series are the same. They may be different, and often are. For example,
∞ n 2 3
1 1 1 1
∑( ) = +( ) +( ) +⋯
e e e e
n=1

is a geometric series with initial term a = 1/e and ratio r = 1/e, which converges to
1/e 1/e 1
= = .
1 − (1/e) (e − 1)/e e−1

However, the related integral ∫ (1/e)

x
dx satisfies
1

∞ x ∞ b
1 b 1
−x −x −x −b −1
∫ ( ) dx = ∫ e dx = lim ∫ e dx = lim −e ∣
∣ = lim [−e +e ] = .
1
1
e 1
b→∞
1
b→∞ b→∞ e

 Example 9.3.2: Using the Integral Test

For each of the following series, use the integral test to determine whether the series converges or diverges.
∞
1
a. ∑
3
n
n=1
∞
1
b. ∑ −−−−−
√2n − 1
n=1

Solution
a. Compare
∞ ∞
1 1
∑
3
and ∫ 3
dx.
n 1 x
n=1

We have
∞ b b
1 1 1 ∣ 1 1 1
∫ dx = lim ∫ dx = lim [− ∣ ] = lim [− + ] = .
x3 b→∞ x3 b→∞ 2x2 ∣1 b→∞ 2b2 2 2
1 1

∞
1
Thus the integral ∫ 3
dx converges, and therefore so does the series
1 x

∞
1
∑
3
.
n
n=1

b. Compare

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∞ ∞
1 1
∑ −−−−− and ∫ −−−−− dx .
√2n − 1 1 √2x − 1
n=1

Since
∞ b b
1 1 −−−−−∣ −−−−−
∫ √2b − 1 − 1] = ∞,
−−−−− dx = lim ∫ −−−−− dx = lim √2x − 1 ∣ = lim [
√2x − 1 b→∞ √2x − 1 b→∞ ∣1 b→∞
1 1

∞
1
the integral ∫ −−−−−
dx diverges, and therefore
1 √2x − 1

∞
1
∑ −−−−−
√2n − 1
n=1

diverges.

 Exercise 9.3.2
∞
n
Use the integral test to determine whether the series ∑ 2
converges or diverges.
3n +1
n=1

Hint
∞
x
Compare to the integral ∫ 2
dx.
1 3x +1

Answer
The series diverges.

The p-Series
∞ ∞

The harmonic series ∑ 1/n and the series ∑ 1/n are both examples of a type of series called a p-series.
2

n=1 n=1

 Definition: p-series

For any real number p, the series

∞
1
∑
p
n
n=1

is called a p-series.

We know the p-series converges if p = 2 and diverges if p = 1 . What about other values of p? In general, it is difficult, if not
impossible, to compute the exact value of most p-series. However, we can use the tests presented thus far to prove whether a p-
series converges or diverges.
If p < 0, then 1/n p
→ ∞, and if p = 0 , then 1/n p
→ 1. Therefore, by the divergence test,
∞
1
∑
p
n
n=1

diverges if p ≤ 0 .
If p > 0, then f (x) = 1/x is a positive, continuous, decreasing function. Therefore, for p > 0, we use the integral test, comparing
p

∞
1
∑
p
n
n=1

and

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∞
1
∫ dx.
1
xp

We have already considered the case when p = 1. Here we consider the case when p > 0, p ≠ 1. For this case,
∞ b
1 1 1 1−p
1 1−p
b
∫ dx = lim ∫ dx = lim x ∣ = lim [b − 1].
p p 1
1
x b→∞
1
x b→∞ 1 −p b→∞ 1 −p

Because
b
1−p
→ 0 if p > 1 and b 1−p
→ ∞ if p < 1,
we conclude that

∞ ⎧ 1
1 , if p > 1
∫ dx = ⎨ p − 1
p ⎩
1
x
∞, if p < 1.

Therefore, ∑ 1/n converges if p > 1 and diverges if 0 < p < 1.

n=1

In summary,
∞
1 convergesif p > 1
∑ {
p
n divergesif p ≤ 1
n=1

 Example 9.3.3: Testing for Convergence of p-series

For each of the following series, determine whether it converges or diverges.

∞
1
a. ∑
4
n
n=1
∞
1
b. ∑
2/3
n
n=1

Solution
a. This is a p-series with p = 4 > 1 ,so the series converges.
b. Since p = 2/3 < 1, the series diverges.

 Exercise 9.3.3
∞
1
Does the series ∑ converge or diverge?
5/4
n
n=1

Hint
p = 5/4

Answer
The series converges.

Estimating the Value of a Series

∞

Suppose we know that a series ∑ a converges and we want to estimate the sum of that series. Certainly we can approximate that
n

n=1

N ∞

sum using any finite sum ∑ a where N is any positive integer. The question we address here is, for a convergent series ∑ a ,
n n

n=1 n=1

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how good is the approximation ∑ a ? n

n=1

More specifically, if we let

∞ N

RN = ∑ an − ∑ an

n=1 n=1

be the remainder when the sum of an infinite series is approximated by the N th

partial sum, how large is R ? For some types of
N

series, we are able to use the ideas from the integral test to estimate R . N

 Note 9.3.1: Remainder Estimate from the Integral Test

∞

Suppose ∑ an is a convergent series with positive terms. Suppose there exists a function f satisfying the following three
n=1

conditions:
i. f is continuous,
ii. f is decreasing, and
iii. f (n) = a for all integers n ≥ 1.
n

Let S be the N
N
th
partial sum of ∑ a . For all positive integers N ,
n

n=1

∞ ∞ ∞

SN + ∫ f (x) dx < ∑ an < SN + ∫ f (x) dx.

N +1 N
n=1

∞ ∞

In other words, the remainder R N = ∑ an − SN = ∑ an satisfies the following estimate:

n=1 n=N +1

∞ ∞

∫ f (x) dx < RN < ∫ f (x) dx.

N +1 N

This is known as the remainder estimate.

We illustrate Note 9.3.1 in Figure 9.3.4 . In particular, by representing the remainder RN = aN +1 + aN +2 + aN +3 + ⋯ as the
∞

sum of areas of rectangles, we see that the area of those rectangles is bounded above by ∫ f (x) dx and bounded below by
N
∞

∫ f (x) dx. In other words,

N +1

RN = aN +1 + aN +2 + aN +3 + ⋯ > ∫ f (x) dx
N +1

and
∞

RN = aN +1 + aN +2 + aN +3 + ⋯ < ∫ f (x) dx.

We conclude that
∞ ∞

∫ f (x) dx < RN < ∫ f (x) dx.

N +1 N

Since
∞

∑ an = SN + RN ,

n=1

where S is the N
N
th
partial sum, we conclude that

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∞ ∞ ∞

SN + ∫ f (x) dx < ∑ an < SN + ∫ f (x) dx.

N +1 N
n=1

Figure 9.3.4 : Given a continuous, positive, decreasing function f and a sequence of positive terms a such that n an = f (n) for all
∞

positive integers n , (a) the areas aN +1 + aN +2 + aN +3 + ⋯ < ∫ f (x) dx , or (b) the areas
N
∞

aN +1 + aN +2 + aN +3 + ⋯ > ∫ f (x) dx . Therefore, the integral is either an overestimate or an underestimate of the error.
N +1

 Example 9.3.4: Estimating the Value of a Series

∞
1
Consider the series ∑ 3
.
n
n=1

10
1
a. Calculate S 10 =∑
3
and estimate the error.
n
n=1
∞
1
b. Determine the least value of N necessary such that S will estimate ∑ N to within 0.001.
n3
n=1

Solution
a. Using a calculating utility, we have
1 1 1 1
S10 = 1 + + + +⋯ + ≈ 1.19753.
3 3 3 3
2 3 4 10

By the remainder estimate, we know

∞
1
RN < ∫ dx.
3
N x

We have
∞ b b
1 1 1 1 1 1
∫ dx = lim ∫ dx = lim [− ] = lim [− + ] = .
3 3 2 2 2 2
10 x b→∞
10 x b→∞ 2x b→∞ 2b 2N 2N
N

Therefore, the error is R 10 < 1/2(10 )

2
= 0.005.

b. Find N such that R < 0.001. In part a. we showed that R < 1/2N . Therefore, the remainder R < 0.001 as long as
N N
2
N

< 0.001. That is, we need 2 N > 1000. Solving this inequality for N , we see that we need N > 22.36 . To ensure
2 2
1/2 N

that the remainder is within the desired amount, we need to round up to the nearest integer. Therefore, the minimum necessary
value is N = 23 .

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 Exercise 9.3.4
∞
1
For ∑ 4
, calculate S and estimate the error R .
5 5
n
n=1

Hint
∞
1
Use the remainder estimate R N <∫ dx.
4
N x

Answer
S5 ≈ 1.09035, R5 < 0.00267

Key Concepts
∞

If lim an ≠ 0, then the series ∑ a diverges. n

n→∞
n=1
∞

If lim an = 0, the series ∑ a may converge or diverge.

n
n→∞
n=1
∞

If ∑ a is a series with positive terms a and f is a continuous, decreasing function such that f (n) = a for all positive
n n n

n=1

integers n , then
∞

∑ an

n=1

and
∞

∫ f (x) dx
1

either both converge or both diverge. Furthermore, if ∑ a converges, then the N n

th
partial sum approximation S is N

n=1
∞ ∞

accurate up to an error R where ∫ N f (x) dx < RN < ∫ f (x) dx .

N +1 N

∞
1
The p-series ∑ p
converges if p > 1 and diverges if p ≤ 1.
n
n=1

Key Equations
Divergence test
∞

If a n ↛ 0 as n → ∞, ∑ a diverges. n

n=1

p-series
∞
1 converges, if p > 1
∑ {
p
n diverges, if p ≤ 1
n=1

Remainder estimate from the integral test

∞ ∞

∫ f (x) dx < RN < ∫ f (x) dx

N +1 N

Glossary
divergence test

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∞

if lim an ≠ 0, then the series ∑ a diverges n

n→∞
n=1

integral test
∞

for a series ∑ a with positive terms a , if there exists a continuous, decreasing function f such that f (n) = a for all
n n n

n=1

positive integers n , then

∞

∑ an

n=1

and
∞

∫ f (x) dx
1

either both converge or both diverge

p-series
∞

a series of the form ∑ 1/n p

n=1

remainder estimate
∞

for a series ∑ 1a with positive terms a and a continuous, decreasing function f such that f (n) = a
n n n for all positive
n=

∞ N

integers n , the remainder R N = ∑ an − ∑ an satisfies the following estimate:

n=1 n=1

∞ ∞

∫ f (x) dx < RN < ∫ f (x) dx

N +1 N

This page titled 9.3: The Divergence and Integral Tests is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a
detailed edit history is available upon request.
9.3: The Divergence and Integral Tests by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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9.3E: Exercises
Divergence Test Problems
Consider the sequence for each series in exercises 1 - 14, if the divergence test applies, either state that lim an does not
n→∞

exist or find lim an . If the divergence test does not apply, state why.
n→∞

∞
n
1) ∑
n+2
n=1

∞
n
2) ∑ 2
5n −3
n=1

Answer
lim an = 0 . The Divergence Test does not apply.
n→∞

∞
n
3) ∑ −−−−−−−−− −
√3 n2 + 2n + 1
n=1

∞
(2n + 1)(n − 1)
4) ∑ 2
(n + 1)
n=1

Answer
lim an = 2 . So the series diverges by the n -Term Test for Divergence.
th

n→∞

∞ 2n
(2n + 1)
5) ∑ 2 n
(3 n + 1)
n=1

∞ n
2
6) ∑
n/2
n=1
3

Answer
lim an = ∞ (does not exist). So the series diverges by the n -Term Test for Divergence.
th

n→∞

∞ n n
2 +3
7) ∑
n/2
n=1 10

8) ∑ e −2/n

n=1

Answer
lim an = 1. So the series diverges by the n -Term Test for Divergence.
th

n→∞

9) ∑ cos n
n=1

10) ∑ tan n
n=1

Answer
lim an does not exist. So the series diverges by the n -Term Test for Divergence.
th

n→∞

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∞ 2
1 − cos (1/n)
11) ∑ 2
n=1
sin (2/n)

∞ 2n
1
12) ∑ (1 − )
n
n=1

Answer
lim an = 1/ e .
2
So the series diverges by the n -Term Test for Divergence.
th

n→∞

∞
ln n
13) ∑
n
n=1

∞ 2
(ln n)
14) ∑ −
√n
n=1

Answer
lim an = 0. The Divergence Test does not apply.
n→∞

p -Series Problems & Integral Test Problems

In exercises 15 - 20, state whether the given p -series converges.
∞
1
15) ∑ −
√n
n=1

∞
1
16) ∑ −
n√n
n=1

Answer
The series converges, since p = 3/2 > 1 .
∞
1
17) ∑ 3
−−
√n2
n=1

∞
1
18) ∑ 3 −−
√n4
n=1

Answer
The series converges, since p = 4/3 > 1.
∞ e
n
19) ∑ π
n
n=1

∞ π
n
20) ∑ 2e
n
n=1

Answer
The series converges, since p = 2e − π > 1.

In exercises 21 - 27, use the integral test to determine whether the following sums converge.
∞
1
21) ∑ −−−−−
√n + 5
n=1

∞
1
22) ∑ 3
−−−−−
√n + 5
n=1

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Answer
∞
dx
The series diverges by the Integral Test since ∫ can be shown to diverge.
1/3
1 (x + 5)

∞
1
23) ∑
n ln n
n=2

∞
n
24) ∑ 2
1 +n
n=1

Answer
∞
x
The series diverges by the Integral Test since ∫ 2
dx can be shown to diverge.
1 1 +x

∞ n
e
25) ∑ 2n
1 +e
n=1

∞
2n
26) ∑ 4
1 +n
n=1

Answer
∞
2x
The series converges by the Integral Test since ∫ 4
dx converges.
1 1 +x

∞
1
27) ∑ 2
n=2
n ln n

Express the sums in exercises 28 - 31 as p -series and determine whether each converges.
∞
1
28) ∑ 2 − ln n
( Hint: 2 − ln n
=
ln 2
.)
n
n=1

Answer
2
− ln n
= 1/ n
ln 2
. Since p = ln 2 < 1 , this series diverges by the p -series test.
∞
1
29) ∑ 3 − ln n
( Hint: 3 − ln n
= .)
ln 3
n
n=1

30) ∑ 2 −2 ln n

n=1

Answer
2
−2 ln n
= 1/ n
2 ln 2
. Since p = 2 ln 2 − 1 < 1 , this series diverges by the p -series test.
∞

31) ∑ n3 −2 ln n

n=1

∞ ∞ N

In exercises 32 - 35, use the estimate R N ≤ ∫ f (t) dt to find a bound for the remainder R N = ∑ an − ∑ an where
N
n=1 n=1

an = f (n).

1000
1
32) ∑ 2
n
n=1

Answer

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∞ b
dt 1∣ 1 1
R1000 ≤ ∫ = lim − ∣ = lim (− + ) = 0.001
2
t b→∞ ∣
t 1000 b→∞ b 1000
1000

1000
1
33) ∑
n3
n=1

1000
1
34) ∑ 2
1 +n
n=1

Answer
∞
dt −1 −1 −1
R1000 ≤ ∫ = lim (tan b − tan (1000)) = π/2 − tan (1000) ≈ 0.000999
2 b→∞
1000 1 +t

100
n
35) ∑ n
2
n=1

[T] In exercises 36 - 40, find the minimum value of N such that the remainder estimate
∞ ∞ N ∞

∫ f (x) dx < RN < ∫ f (x) dx guarantees that ∑ a estimates ∑ a

n n, accurate to within the given error.
N +1 N n=1 n=1

1
36) a n =
2
, error < 10 −4

Answer
∞
dx 4
RN < ∫ = 1/N , for N > 10
2
N x

1
37) a n =
1.1
, error < 10 −4

1
38) a n =
1.01
, error < 10 −4

Answer
∞
dx −0.01 600
RN < ∫ = 100 N , for N > 10
1.01
N x

1
39) a n =
2
, error < 10 −3

n ln n

1
40) a n =
2
, error < 10 −3

1 +n

Answer
∞
dx
−1 −3
RN < ∫ = π/2 − tan (N ), for N > tan(π/2 − 10 ) ≈ 1000
2
N 1 +x

In exercises 41 - 45, find a value of N such that RN is smaller than the desired error. Compute the corresponding sum
N

∑ an and compare it to the given estimate of the infinite series.

n=1

∞
1 1
41) a n =
11
, error < 10 −4
,∑
11
= 1.000494 …
n n
n=1

∞
1 1 1
42) a n =
n
, error < 10 −5
,∑
n
= = 0.581976 …
e e e−1
n=1

Answer

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∞ 12
dx
RN < ∫
x
=e
−N
, for N > 5 ln(10), okay if N = 12; ∑ e
−n
= 0.581973.... Estimate agrees with 1/(e − 1) to
N
e
n=1

five decimal places.

∞
1 1
43) a n =
2
, error < 10 −5
,∑
2
= 0.40488139857 …
n n
e n=1
e

∞ 4
1 1 π
44) a n = , error < 10 −4
,∑ = = 1.08232...
n4 n4 90
n=1

Answer
∞ 35
dx 1
RN < ∫
4
= 4/ N
3
, for N > (4.10 )
4 1/3
, okay if N = 35 ;∑ 4
= 1.08231 … . Estimate agrees with the sum
N x n
n=1

to four decimal places.

∞ 6
1 1 π
45) a n =
6
, error < 10 −6
,∑
6
= = 1.01734306...,
n n 945
n=1

2n
1 1 1 1
46) Find the limit as n → ∞ of + +⋯ + . (Hint: Compare to ∫ dt. )
n n+1 2n n t

Answer
ln(2)

1 1 1
47) Find the limit as n → ∞ of + +⋯ +
n n+1 3n

The next few exercises are intended to give a sense of applications in which partial sums of the harmonic series arise.
48) In certain applications of probability, such as the so-called Watterson estimator for predicting mutation rates in population
genetics, it is important to have an accurate estimate of the number H = (1 + + + ⋯ + ) . Recall that T = H − ln k is k
1

2
1

3
1

k
k k

decreasing. Compute T = lim T to four decimal places. k

k→∞

k+1
1 1
( Hint: <∫ dx. )
k+1 k
x

Answer
T = 0.5772...

49) [T] Complete sampling with replacement, sometimes called the coupon collector’s problem, is phrased as follows: Suppose
you have N unique items in a bin. At each step, an item is chosen at random, identified, and put back in the bin. The problem asks
what is the expected number of steps E(N ) that it takes to draw each unique item at least once. It turns out that
E(N ) = N . H = N (1 + + N +⋯ + ) . Find E(N ) for N = 10, 20, and 50.
1

2
1

3
1

50) [T] The simplest way to shuffle cards is to take the top card and insert it at a random place in the deck, called top random
insertion, and then repeat. We will consider a deck to be randomly shuffled once enough top random insertions have been made that
the card originally at the bottom has reached the top and then been randomly inserted. If the deck has n cards, then the probability
that the insertion will be below the card initially at the bottom (call this card B ) is 1/n. Thus the expected number of top random
insertions before B is no longer at the bottom is n . Once one card is below B , there are two places below B and the probability
that a randomly inserted card will fall below B is 2/n. The expected number of top random insertions before this happens is n/2.
The two cards below B are now in random order. Continuing this way, find a formula for the expected number of top random
insertions needed to consider the deck to be randomly shuffled.

Answer
The expected number of random insertions to get B to the top is n + n/2 + n/3 + ⋯ + n/(n − 1). Then one more
insertion puts B back in at random. Thus, the expected number of shuffles to randomize the deck is

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n(1 + 1/2 + ⋯ + 1/n).

51) Suppose a scooter can travel 100 km on a full tank of fuel. Assuming that fuel can be transferred from one scooter to another
but can only be carried in the tank, present a procedure that will enable one of the scooters to travel 100H km, where N

HN = 1 + 1/2 + ⋯ + 1/N .

52) Show that for the remainder estimate to apply on [N , ∞) it is sufficient that f (x) be decreasing on [N , ∞), but f need not be
decreasing on [1, ∞).

Answer
Set b n = an+N and g(t) = f (t + N ) such that f is decreasing on [t, ∞).
∞
n
53) [T] Use the remainder estimate and integration by parts to approximate ∑ n
within an error smaller than 0.0001.
e
n=1

∞
1
54) Does ∑ p
converge if p is large enough? If so, for which p?
n(ln n)
n=2

Answer
The series converges for p > 1 by integral test using change of variable.

N
1
55) [T] Suppose a computer can sum one million terms per second of the divergent series ∑ . Use the integral test to
n
n=1

approximate how many seconds it will take to add up enough terms for the partial sum to exceed 100.
N
1
56) [T] A fast computer can sum one million terms per second of the divergent series ∑ . Use the integral test to
n ln n
n=2

approximate how many seconds it will take to add up enough terms for the partial sum to exceed 100.

Answer
100 43

N =e
e
≈e
10
terms are needed.

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Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is
available upon request.

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9.4: Comparison Tests
 Learning Objectives
Use the comparison test to test a series for convergence.
Use the limit comparison test to determine convergence of a series.

We have seen that the integral test allows us to determine the convergence or divergence of a series by comparing it to a related
improper integral. In this section, we show how to use comparison tests to determine the convergence or divergence of a series by
comparing it to a series whose convergence or divergence is known. Typically these tests are used to determine convergence of
series that are similar to geometric series or p-series.

Comparison Test
In the preceding two sections, we discussed two large classes of series: geometric series and p-series. We know exactly when these
series converge and when they diverge. Here we show how to use the convergence or divergence of these series to prove
convergence or divergence for other series, using a method called the comparison test.
For example, consider the series
∞
1
∑ .
2
n +1
n=1

This series looks similar to the convergent series

∞
1
∑
2
n
n=1

Since the terms in each of the series are positive, the sequence of partial sums for each series is monotone increasing. Furthermore,
since
1 1
0 < <
2 2
n +1 n

∞
1
for all positive integers n , the k
th
partial sum S of ∑
k
2
satisfies
n +1
n=1

k k ∞
1 1 1
Sk = ∑ <∑ <∑ .
2 2 2
n +1 n n
n=1 n=1 n=1

(See Figure 9.4.1a and Table 9.4.1.) Since the series on the right converges, the sequence S is bounded above. We conclude that
k

Sk is a monotone increasing sequence that is bounded above. Therefore, by the Monotone Convergence Theorem, S converges, k

and thus
∞
1
∑
2
n +1
n=1

converges.
Similarly, consider the series
∞
1
∑ .
n − 1/2
n=1

This series looks similar to the divergent series

∞
1
∑ .
n
n=1

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The sequence of partial sums for each series is monotone increasing and
1 1
> >0
n − 1/2 n

for every positive integer n . Therefore, the k th

partial sum S of k

∞
1
∑
n − 1/2
n=1

satisfies
k k
1 1
Sk = ∑ >∑ .
n − 1/2 n
n=1 n=1

∞ k
1 1
(See Figure 9.4.1n and Table 9.4.1). Since the series ∑ diverges to infinity, the sequence of partial sums ∑ is unbounded.
n n
n=1 n=1

Consequently, S is an unbounded sequence, and therefore diverges. We conclude that

∞
1
∑
n − 1/2
n=1

diverges.

Figure : (a) Each of the partial sums for the given series is less than the corresponding partial sum for the converging
9.4.1

p − series. (b) Each of the partial sums for the given series is greater than the corresponding partial sum for the diverging
harmonic series.
Table 9.4.1 : Comparing a series with a p-series (p = 2 )
k 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
k
1
∑
2
0.5 0.7 0.8 0.8588 0.8973 0.9243 0.9443 0.9597
n +1
n=1

k
1
∑
2
1 1.25 1.3611 1.4236 1.4636 1.4914 1.5118 1.5274
n
n=1

Table 9.4.2 : Comparing a series with the harmonic series

k 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
k
1
∑ 2 2.6667 3.0667 3.3524 3.5746 3.7564 3.9103 4.0436
n − 1/2
n=1

k
1
∑ 1 1.5 1.8333 2.0933 2.2833 2.45 2.5929 2.7179
n
n=1

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 Comparison Test
∞ ∞

i. Suppose there exists an integer N such that 0 ≤ a n ≤ bn for all n ≥ N . If ∑ b converges, then ∑ a converges.
n n

n=1 n=1
∞ ∞

ii. Suppose there exists an integer N such that a n ≥ bn ≥ 0 for all n ≥ N . If ∑ b diverges, then ∑ a diverges.
n n

n=1 n=1

 Proof

We prove part i. The proof of part ii. is the contrapositive of part i. Let Sk be the sequence of partial sums associated with
∞ ∞

∑ an , and let L = ∑ b . Since the terms a

n n ≥ 0,

n=1 n=1

Sk = a1 + a2 + ⋯ + ak ≤ a1 + a2 + ⋯ + ak + ak+1 = Sk+1 .

Therefore, the sequence of partial sums is increasing. Further, since a n ≤ bn for all n ≥ N , then
k k ∞

∑ an ≤ ∑ bn ≤ ∑ bn = L.

n=N n=N n=1

Therefore, for all k ≥ 1 ,

Sk = (a1 + a2 + ⋯ + aN −1 ) + ∑ an ≤ (a1 + a2 + ⋯ + aN −1 ) + L.

n=N

Since a + a + ⋯ + a
1 2 is a finite number, we conclude that the sequence S is bounded above. Therefore, S is an
N −1 k k

increasing sequence that is bounded above. By the Monotone Convergence Theorem, we conclude that S converges, and k

therefore the series ∑ a converges. n

n=1

To use the comparison test to determine the convergence or divergence of a series ∑ an , it is necessary to find a suitable series
n=1

with which to compare it. Since we know the convergence properties of geometric series and p-series, these series are often used. If
there exists an integer N such that for all n ≥ N , each term an is less than each corresponding term of a known convergent series,
∞

then ∑ an converges. Similarly, if there exists an integer N such that for all n ≥N , each term an is greater than each
n=1
∞

corresponding term of a known divergent series, then ∑ a diverges. n

n=1

 Example 9.4.1: Using the Comparison Test

For each of the following series, use the comparison test to determine whether the series converges or diverges.
∞
1
a. ∑ =
n3 + 3n + 1
n=1
∞
1
b. ∑ = n
2 +1
n=1
∞
1
c. ∑ =
ln n
n=2

Solution

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∞ ∞
1 1
a. Compare to ∑ 3
. Since ∑ 3
is a p-series with p = 3 , it converges. Further,
n n
n=1 n=1

1 1
<
n3 + 3n + 1 n3

∞
1
for every positive integer n . Therefore, we can conclude that ∑ 3
converges.
n + 3n + 1
n=1

∞ n ∞ n
1 1 1 ∣1∣
b. Compare to ∑ ( ) . Since ∑ ( ) is a geometric series with r = and ∣ ∣ <1 , it converges. Also,
2 2 2 ∣2∣
n=1 n=1

1 1
n
< n
2 +1 2

∞
1
for every positive integer n . Therefore, we see that ∑ n
converges.
2 +1
n=1

∞
1
c. Compare to ∑ . Since
n
n=2

1 1
>
ln n n

∞ ∞
1 1
for every integer n ≥ 2 and ∑ diverges, we have that ∑ diverges.
n ln n
n=2 n=2

 Exercise 9.4.1
∞
n
Use the comparison test to determine if the series ∑ 3
converges or diverges.
n +n+1
n=1

Hint
n 1
Find a value p such that 3
≤
p
.
n +n+1 n

Answer
The series converges.

Limit Comparison Test

The comparison test works nicely if we can find a comparable series satisfying the hypothesis of the test. However, sometimes
finding an appropriate series can be difficult. Consider the series
∞
1
∑ .
2
n −1
n=2

It is natural to compare this series with the convergent series

∞
1
∑ .
2
n
n=2

However, this series does not satisfy the hypothesis necessary to use the comparison test because
1 1
>
2 2
n −1 n

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∞
1
for all integers n ≥ 2 . Although we could look for a different series with which to compare ∑ 2
, instead we show how we
n −1
n=2

can use the limit comparison test to compare

∞
1
∑
2
n −1
n=2

and
∞
1
∑ .
2
n
n=2

∞ ∞

Let us examine the idea behind the limit comparison test. Consider two series ∑ a and ∑ b . with positive terms a and b and
n n n n

n=1 n=1

evaluate
an
lim .
n→∞ bn

If
an
lim = L ≠ 0,
n→∞ bn

∞
1
then, for n sufficiently large, an ≈ Lbn . Therefore, either both series converge or both series diverge. For the series ∑
2
n −1
n=2
∞
1
and ∑ 2
, we see that
n
n=2

2 2
1/(n − 1) n
lim = lim = 1.
n→∞ 2 n→∞ 2
1/n n −1

∞
1
Since ∑ 2
converges, we conclude that
n
n=2

∞
1
∑
n2 − 1
n=2

converges.
The limit comparison test can be used in two other cases. Suppose
an
lim = 0.
n→∞ bn

In this case, an / bn is a bounded sequence. As a result, there exists a constant M such that an ≤ M bn . Therefore, if ∑ bn

n=1
∞

converges, then ∑ a converges. On the other hand, suppose

n=1

an
lim = ∞.
n→∞ bn

In this case, a n / bn is an unbounded sequence. Therefore, for every constant M there exists an integer N such that an ≥ M bn for
∞ ∞

all n ≥ N . Therefore, if ∑ b diverges, then ∑ a diverges as well.

n n

n=1 n=1

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 Limit Comparison Test

Let a n, bn ≥ 0 for all n ≥ 1.

∞ ∞
an
i. If lim = L ≠ 0, then ∑ a and ∑ b both converge or both diverge.
n n
n→∞ bn
n=1 n=1
∞ ∞
an
ii. If lim =0 and ∑ b converges, then ∑ a converges.
n n
n→∞ bn
n=1 n=1
∞ ∞
an
iii. If lim =∞ and ∑ b diverges, then ∑ a diverges.
n n
n→∞ bn
n=1 n=1

∞ ∞
an an
Note that if → 0 and ∑ bn diverges, the limit comparison test gives no information. Similarly, if → ∞ and ∑ bn
bn bn
n=1 n=1
∞ ∞
1 1
converges, the test also provides no information. For example, consider the two series ∑ − and ∑ . These series are both
√n n2
n=1 n=1
∞
1
p -series with p = 1

2
and p = 2 , respectively. Since p = 1

2
< 1, the series ∑ − diverges. On the other hand, since p =2 >1 ,
√n
n=1
∞
1
the series ∑ 2
converges. However, suppose we attempted to apply the limit comparison test, using the convergent p −series
n
n=1
∞
1
∑
3
as our comparison series. First, we see that
n
n=1

− 3
1/ √n n
5/2
= =n → ∞ as n → ∞.
3 −
1/n √n

Similarly, we see that

2
1/n
= n → ∞ as n → ∞.
1/n3

∞ ∞
an
Therefore, if → ∞ when ∑ b converges, we do not gain any information on the convergence or divergence of ∑ a .
n n
bn
n=1 n=1

 Example 9.4.2: Using the Limit Comparison Test

For each of the following series, use the limit comparison test to determine whether the series converges or diverges. If the test
does not apply, say so.
∞
1
a. ∑
−
√n + 1
n=1
∞ n
2 +1
b. ∑ n
3
n=1
∞
ln(n)
c. ∑
2
n
n=1

Solution
∞
1
a. Compare this series to ∑ −
. Calculate
√n
n=1

− − −
1/(√n + 1) √n 1/ √n
lim = lim = lim = 1.
− − −
n→∞ 1/ √n n→∞ n→∞
√n + 1 1 + 1/ √n

∞ ∞
1 1
By the limit comparison test, since ∑ − diverges, then ∑ − diverges.
√n √n + 1
n=1 n=1

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∞ n
2
b. Compare this series to ∑ ( ) . We see that
3
n=1

n n n n n
(2 + 1)/ 3 2 +1 3 2 +1 n
1
lim = lim ⋅ = lim = lim [1 + ( ) ] = 1.
n n n n n 2
n→∞ 2 /3 n→∞ 3 2 n→∞ 2 n→∞

Therefore,
n n
(2 + 1)/ 3
lim = 1.
n n
n→∞ 2 /3

∞ n ∞ n
2 2 +1
Since ∑ ( ) converges, we conclude that ∑ n
converges.
3 3
n=1 n=1

∞
1
c. Since ln n < n, compare with ∑ . We see that
n
n=1

2
ln n/n ln n n ln n
lim = lim ⋅ = lim .
2
n→∞ 1/n n→∞ n 1 n→∞ n

In order to evaluate lim ln n/n , evaluate the limit as x → ∞ of the real-valued function ln(x)/x. These two limits are equal,
n→∞

and making this change allows us to use L’Hôpital’s rule. We obtain

lnx 1
lim = lim = 0.
x→∞ x x→∞ x

ln n
Therefore, lim =0 , and, consequently,
n→∞ n

2
(ln n)/n
lim = 0.
n→∞ 1/n

∞
1
Since the limit is 0 but ∑ diverges, the limit comparison test does not provide any information.
n
n=1

∞
1
Compare with ∑ 2
instead. In this case,
n
n=1

2 2
(ln n)/n ln n n
lim = lim ⋅ = lim ln n = ∞.
2 2
n→∞ 1/n n→∞ n 1 n→∞

∞
1
Since the limit is ∞ but ∑ 2
converges, the test still does not provide any information.
n
n=1

∞
1
So now we try a series between the two we already tried. Choosing the series ∑ 3/2
, we see that
n
n=1

2 3/2
(ln n)/n ln n n ln n
lim = lim
2
⋅ = lim
−
.
n→∞ 3/2 n→∞ 1 n→∞
1/n n √n

ln n
As above, in order to evaluate lim
−
, evaluate the limit as x → ∞ of the real-valued function ln n
. Using L’Hôpital’s rule,
n→∞ √n
√n

−
ln x 2 √x 2
lim − = lim = lim − =0 .
x→∞ √x x→∞ x x→∞ √x

∞ ∞
1 ln n
Since the limit is 0 and ∑ converges, we can conclude that ∑ 2
converges.
n3/2 n
n=1 n=1

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 Exercise 9.4.2
∞ n
5
Use the limit comparison test to determine whether the series ∑ n
converges or diverges.
3 +2
n=1

Hint
Compare with a geometric series.

Answer
The series diverges.

Key Concepts
The comparison tests are used to determine convergence or divergence of series with positive terms.
∞

When using the comparison tests, a series ∑ a is often compared to a geometric or p-series.
n

n=1

Glossary
comparison test
∞ ∞ ∞

If 0 ≤ a n ≤ bn for all n ≥ N and ∑ b converges, then ∑ a converges; if a

n n n ≥ bn ≥ 0 for all n ≥ N and ∑ b n

n=1 n=1 n=1

∞

diverges, then ∑ a diverges.

n=1

limit comparison test

∞ ∞

Suppose a n , bn ≥ 0 for all n ≥ 1 . If lim an / bn → L ≠ 0 , then ∑ a and ∑ b both converge or both diverge; if
n n
n→∞
n=1 n=1
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

lim an / bn → 0 and ∑ b converges, then ∑ a converges. If

n n lim an / bn → ∞ , and ∑ b diverges, then ∑ a
n n
n→∞ n→∞
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1

diverges.

This page titled 9.4: Comparison Tests is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert Strang
& Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history
is available upon request.
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9.4E: Exercises
Use the Comparison Test to determine whether each series in exercises 1 - 13 converges or diverges.
∞
2
1) ∑ a where a
n n =
n(n + 1)
n=1

∞
1
2) ∑ a where a
n n =
n(n + 1/2)
n=1

Answer
1
Converges by comparison with .
2
n

∞
1
3) ∑
2(n + 1)
n=1

∞
1
4) ∑
2n − 1
n=1

Answer
Diverges by comparison with harmonic series, since 2n − 1 ≥ n.
∞
1
5) ∑ 2
(n ln n)
n=2

∞
n!
6) ∑
(n + 2)!
n=1

Answer
an = 1/(n + 1)(n + 2) < 1/ n .
2
Converges by comparison with p -series, p = 2 > 1 .
∞
1
7) ∑
n!
n=1

∞
sin(1/n)
8) ∑
n
n=1

Answer
sin(1/n) ≤ 1/n, so converges by comparison with p -series, p = 2 > 1 .
∞ 2
sin n
9) ∑ 2
n
n=1

∞
sin(1/n)
10) ∑ −
√n
n=1

Answer
sin(1/n) ≤ 1, so converges by comparison with p -series, p = 3/2 > 1.
∞ 1.2
n −1
11) ∑ 2.3
n +1
n=1

∞ −−−−− −
√n + 1 − √n
12) ∑
n
n=1

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Answer
−−−−− −−−−−
Since √n + 1 − √− − −
n = 1/(√n + 1 + √n ) ≤ 2/ √n , series converges by comparison with p -series for p = 1.5 > 1 .
∞ 4
−
√n
13) ∑ 3
−−−−−−
n=1
√n4 + n2

Use the Limit Comparison Test to determine whether each series in exercises 14 - 28 converges or diverges.
∞ 2
ln n
14) ∑ ( )
n
n=1

Answer
Converges by limit comparison with p -series for p > 1 .
∞ 2
ln n
15) ∑ ( )
n0.6
n=1

∞ 1
ln(1 + )
16) ∑ n

n
n=1

Answer
Converges by limit comparison with p -series, p = 2 > 1.
∞
1
17) ∑ ln(1 + 2
)
n
n=1

∞
1
18) ∑ n n
4 −3
n=1

Answer
Converges by limit comparison with 4 −n
.
∞
1
19) ∑ 2
n − n sin n
n=1

∞
1
20) ∑ n
(1.1)n
e −3
n=1

Answer
Converges by limit comparison with 1/e 1.1n
.
∞
1
21) ∑ n
(1.01)n
e −3
n=1

∞
1
22) ∑ 1+1/n
n
n=1

Answer
Diverges by limit comparison with harmonic series.
∞
1
23) ∑ 1+1/n
n
1+1/n

n=1 2

∞
1 1
24) ∑ ( − sin( ))
n n
n=1

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Answer
Converges by limit comparison with p -series, p = 3 > 1 .
∞
1
25) ∑ (1 − cos( ))
n
n=1

∞
1 π
26) ∑ (tan
−1
n− )
n 2
n=1

Answer
Converges by limit comparison with p -series, p = 3 > 1 .
∞ n.n n
1 1
27) ∑ (1 − ) (Hint:(1 − ) → 1/e. )
n n
n=1

28) ∑ (1 − e −1/n
) (Hint:1/e ≈ (1 − 1/n) n
, so 1 − e −1/n
≈ 1/n. )
n=1

Answer
Diverges by limit comparison with 1/n.
∞
1
29) Does ∑ p
converge if p is large enough? If so, for which p?
(ln n)
n=2

∞ p
ln n
30) Does ∑ ( ) converge if p is large enough? If so, for which p?
n
n=1

Answer
Converges for p > 1 by comparison with a p series for slightly smaller p .
∞

31) For which p does the series ∑ 2 pn

/3
n
converge?
n=1

∞ p
n
32) For which p > 0 does the series ∑ n
converge?
2
n=1

Answer
Converges for all p > 0 .
2
∞ n
r
33) For which r > 0 does the series ∑ n
converge?
2
n=1

∞ n
2
34) For which r > 0 does the series ∑ 2
converge?
n
n=1
r

Answer
Converges for all r > 1 . If r > 1 then r > 4 , say, once n > ln(2)/ ln(r) and then the series converges by limit
n

comparison with a geometric series with ratio 1/2.

∞ p
n
35) Find all values of p and q such that ∑ converges.
(n!)q
n=1

∞ 2
sin (nr/2)
36) Does ∑ converge or diverge? Explain.
n
n=1

Answer

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∞
1
The numerator is equal to 1 when n is odd and 0 when n is even, so the series can be rewritten ∑ , which
2n + 1
n=1

diverges by limit comparison with the harmonic series.

∞ ∞ ∞

38) Suppose that an ≥ 0 and bn ≥ 0 and that ∑ an

2
and ∑ bn
2
converge. Prove that ∑ an bn converges and
n=1 n=1 n=1

∞ ∞ ∞
1
∑ an bn ≤ ( ∑ an + ∑ bn )
2 2
.
2
n=1 n=1 n=1

Answer
(a − b )
2
= a − 2ab + b
2
or a + b ≥ 2ab , so convergence follows from comparison of 2a b with a
2 2 2
n n
2
n + bn .
2
Since
the partial sums on the left are bounded by those on the right, the inequality holds for the infinite series.
∞

39) Does ∑ 2 − ln ln n
converge? (Hint: Write 2 ln ln n
as a power of ln n.)
n=1

40) Does ∑(ln n) − ln n

converge? (Hint: Use t = e ln(t)
to compare to a p−series.)
n=1

Answer
(ln n)
− ln n
=e
− ln(n) ln ln(n)
. If n is sufficiently large, then ln ln n > 2, so (ln n) − ln n
< 1/ n
2
, and the series converges
by comparison to a p −series.
∞

41) Does ∑(ln n) − ln ln n

converge? (Hint: Compare a to 1/n.) n

n=2

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

42) Show that if a n ≥0 and ∑ a converges, then ∑ a converges. If ∑ a converges, does ∑ a necessarily converge?
n
2
n
2
n n

n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1

Answer
∞ ∞
1 1
an → 0, so a 2
n ≤ | an | for large n . Convergence follows from limit comparison. ∑ 2
converges, but ∑ does not,
n n
n=1 n=1
∞ ∞

so the fact that ∑ a converges does not imply that ∑ a converges.

2
n n

n=1 n=1

43) Suppose that an > 0 for all n and that ∑ an converges. Suppose that bn is an arbitrary sequence of zeros and ones. Does
n=1
∞

∑ an bn necessarily converge?
n=1

44) Suppose that an > 0 for all n and that ∑ an diverges. Suppose that bn is an arbitrary sequence of zeros and ones with
n=1
∞

infinitely many terms equal to one. Does ∑ a n bn necessarily diverge?

n=1

Answer
∞

No. ∑ 1/n diverges. Let b k =0 unless k = n for some n . Then ∑ b

2
k /k = ∑ 1/ k
2
converges.
n=1 k

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∞
1 1 1 1 1
45) Complete the details of the following argument: If ∑ converges to a finite sum s , then s = + + +⋯ and
n 2 2 4 6
n=1

1 1 1
s− s =1+ + +⋯ . Why does this lead to a contradiction?
2 3 5

∞ ∞

46) Show that if a n ≥0 and ∑ a converges, then ∑ sin

2
n
2
(an ) converges.
n=1 n=1

Answer
| sin t| ≤ |t|, so the result follows from the comparison test.

47) Suppose that an / bn → 0 in the comparison test, where an ≥ 0 and bn ≥ 0 . Prove that if ∑ bn converges, then ∑ an

converges.
∞

48) Let b be an infinite sequence of zeros and ones. What is the largest possible value of x = ∑ b
n n /2
n
?
n=1

Answer
∞ ∞

By the comparison test, x = ∑ b n /2

n
≤ ∑ 1/ 2
n
= 1.

n=1 n=1

49) Let dn be an infinite sequence of digits, meaning dn takes values in {0, 1, … , 9}. What is the largest possible value of
∞

x = ∑ dn / 10
n
that converges?
n=1

∞
bn
50) Explain why, if x > 1/2, then x cannot be written x = ∑ n
(bn = 0 or 1, b1 = 0).
2
n=2

Answer
∞

If b1 = 0, then, by comparison, x ≤ ∑ 1/2 n

= 1/2.

n=2

51) [T] Evelyn has a perfect balancing scale, an unlimited number of 1-kg weights, and one each of 1/2-kg, 1/4-kg, 1/8-kg, and
so on weights. She wishes to weigh a meteorite of unspecified origin to arbitrary precision. Assuming the scale is big enough, can
she do it? What does this have to do with infinite series?
52) [T] Robert wants to know his body mass to arbitrary precision. He has a big balancing scale that works perfectly, an unlimited
collection of 1-kg weights, and nine each of 0.1-kg, 0.01-kg, 0.001-kg, and so on weights. Assuming the scale is big enough, can
he do this? What does this have to do with infinite series?

Answer
Yes. Keep adding 1-kg weights until the balance tips to the side with the weights. If it balances perfectly, with Robert
standing on the other side, stop. Otherwise, remove one of the 1-kg weights, and add 0.1-kg weights one at a time. If it
balances after adding some of these, stop. Otherwise if it tips to the weights, remove the last 0.1-kg weight. Start adding
0.01-kg weights. If it balances, stop. If it tips to the side with the weights, remove the last 0.01-kg weight that was added.

Continue in this way for the 0.001-kg weights, and so on. After a finite number of steps, one has a finite series of the
N

form A + ∑ s n / 10
n
where A is the number of full kg weights and d is the number of 1/10 -kg weights that were
n
n

n=1

added. If at some state this series is Robert’s exact weight, the process will stop. Otherwise it represents the N th
partial
sum of an infinite series that gives Robert’s exact weight, and the error of this sum is at most 1/10 . N

∞
1
53) The series ∑ is half the harmonic series and hence diverges. It is obtained from the harmonic series by deleting all terms
2n
n=1

in which n is odd. Let m > 1 be fixed. Show, more generally, that deleting all terms 1/n where n = mk for some integer k also

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results in a divergent series.
54) In view of the previous exercise, it may be surprising that a subseries of the harmonic series in which about one in every five
∞
1
terms is deleted might converge. A depleted harmonic series is a series obtained from ∑ by removing any term 1/n if a given
n
n=1

digit, say 9, appears in the decimal expansion of n . Argue that this depleted harmonic series converges by answering the following
questions.
a. How many whole numbers n have d digits?
b. How many d -digit whole numbers h(d) . do not contain 9 as one or more of their digits?
c. What is the smallest d -digit number m(d)?
∞
h(d)
d. Explain why the deleted harmonic series is bounded by ∑ .
m(d)
d=1

∞
h(d)
e. Show that ∑ converges.
m(d)
d=1

Answer
a. 10 − 10
d d−1
< 10
d

b. h(d) < 9 d

c. m(d) = 10 +1
d−1

d. Group the terms in the deleted harmonic series together by number of digits. h(d) bounds the number of terms, and
each term is at most .
m(d)
1

∞ ∞

Then ∑ h(d)/m(d) ≤ ∑ 9 d
/(10 )
d−1
≤ 90 . One can actually use comparison to estimate the value to smaller than 80.
d=1 d=1

The actual value is smaller than 23.

1
55) Suppose that a sequence of numbers a n >0 has the property that a 1 =1 and a
n+1 = Sn , where Sn = a1 + ⋯ + an .
n+1
∞

Can you determine whether ∑ a converges? (Hint: S is monotone.)

n n

n=1

1
56) Suppose that a sequence of numbers an > 0 has the property that a1 = 1 and an+1 =
2
Sn , where
(n + 1)
∞

Sn = a1 + ⋯ + an . Can you determine whether ∑ an converges? (Hint:

n=1

1
S2 = a2 + a1 = a2 + S1 = a2 + 1 = 1 + 1/4 = (1 + 1/4)S1 , S3 =
2
S2 + S2 = (1 + 1/9)S2 , etc. Look at ln(S ), and use
n
3

= (1 + 1/9)(1 + 1/4)S1

ln(1 + t) ≤ t, t > 0. )

Answer
Continuing the hint gives S N = (1 + 1/ N
2
)(1 + 1/(N − 1 )
2
… (1 + 1/4)). Then
ln(SN ) = ln(1 + 1/ N
2 2
) + ln(1 + 1/(N − 1 ) ) + ⋯ + ln(1 + 1/4). Since ln(1 + t) is bounded by a constant times
N
1
t, when 0 < t < 1 one has ln(S N) ≤ C ∑
2
, which converges by comparison to the p -series for p = 2 .
n
n=1

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available upon request.

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9.5: Alternating Series
 Learning Objectives
Use the alternating series test to test an alternating series for convergence.
Estimate the sum of an alternating series.
Explain the meaning of absolute convergence and conditional convergence.

So far in this chapter, we have primarily discussed series with positive terms. In this section we introduce alternating series—those
series whose terms alternate in sign. We will show in a later chapter that these series often arise when studying power series. After
defining alternating series, we introduce the alternating series test to determine whether such a series converges.

The Alternating Series Test

A series whose terms alternate between positive and negative values is an alternating series. For example, the series
∞ n
1 1 1 1 1
∑ (− ) =− + − + −… (9.5.1)
2 2 4 8 16
n=1

and
∞ n+1
(−1) 1 1 1
∑ =1− + − +… (9.5.2)
n 2 3 4
n=1

are both alternating series.

 Definition: Alternating Series

Any series whose terms alternate between positive and negative values is called an alternating series. An alternating series can
be written in the form
∞

n+1
∑(−1 ) bn = b1 − b2 + b3 − b4 + … (9.5.3)

n=1

or
∞

n
∑(−1 ) bn = −b1 + b2 − b3 + b4 − … (9.5.4)

n−1

Where b n ≥0 for all positive integers n .

Series (1), shown in Equation 9.5.1, is a geometric series. Since |r| = | − 1/2| < 1, the series converges. Series (2), shown in
Equation 9.5.2, is called the alternating harmonic series. We will show that whereas the harmonic series diverges, the alternating
harmonic series converges. To prove this, we look at the sequence of partial sums {S } (Figure 1). k

 Proof

Consider the odd terms S 2k+1 for k ≥ 0 . Since 1/(2k + 1) < 1/2k,
1 1
S2k+1 = S2k−1 − + < S2k−1 .
2k 2k + 1

Therefore, {S 2k+1 } is a decreasing sequence. Also,

1 1 1 1 1 1
S2k+1 = (1 − ) +( − ) +… +( − )+ > 0.
2 3 4 2k − 1 2k 2k + 1

Therefore, {S } is bounded below. Since { S

2k+1 } is a decreasing sequence that is bounded below, by the Monotone
2k+1

Convergence Theorem, {S } converges. Similarly, the even terms { S

2k+1 } form an increasing sequence that is bounded
2k

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above because
1 1
S2k = S2k−2 + − > S2k−2
2k − 1 2k

and
1 1 1 1 1
S2k = 1 + (− + ) + … + (− + )− < 1.
2 3 2k − 2 2k − 1 2k

Therefore, by the Monotone Convergence Theorem, the sequence {S 2k } also converges. Since
1
S2k+1 = S2k + ,
2k + 1

we know that
1
lim S2k+1 = lim S2k + lim .
k→∞ k→∞ k→∞ 2k + 1

Letting S = lim S2k+1 and using the fact that 1/(2k + 1) → 0, we conclude that lim S2k = S . Since the odd terms and the
k→∞ k→∞

even terms in the sequence of partial sums converge to the same limit S , it can be shown that the sequence of partial sums
converges to S , and therefore the alternating harmonic series converges to S .
It can also be shown that S = ln 2, and we can write
∞ n+1
(−1) 1 1 1
∑ =1− + − + a … = ln(2).
n 2 3 4
n=1

Figure 9.5.1 : For the alternating harmonic series, the odd terms S 2k+1 in the sequence of partial sums are decreasing and
bounded below. The even terms S are increasing and bounded above.
2k

More generally, any alternating series of form (3) (Equation 9.5.3) or (4) (Equation 9.5.4) converges as long as
b ≥ b ≥ b ≥ ⋯ and b → 0 (Figure 2). The proof is similar to the proof for the alternating harmonic series.
1 2 3 n

Figure 9.5.2 : For an alternating series b − b + b − ⋯ in which b > b > b > ⋯ , the odd terms
1 2 3 1 2 3 S2k+1 in the sequence of
partial sums are decreasing and bounded below. The even terms S are increasing and bounded above.
2k

 Alternating Series Test

An alternating series of the form

∞

n+1
∑(−1 ) bn

n=1

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or
∞

n
∑(−1 ) bn

n=1

converges if
i. 0 ≤ b n+1 ≤ bn for all n ≥ 1 and
ii. lim b n = 0.
n→∞

This is known as the alternating series test.

We remark that this theorem is true more generally as long as there exists some integer N such that 0 ≤ b n+1 ≤ bn for all n ≥ N .

 Example 9.5.1: Convergence of Alternating Series

For each of the following alternating series, determine whether the series converges or diverges.
∞ n+1
(−1)
a. ∑
2
n
n=1
∞
n
b. ∑(−1) n+1

n+1
n=1

Solution
1 1 1
a. Since 2
<
2
and 2
→ 0, the series converges.
(n + 1) n n

b. Since n/(n + 1) ↛ 0 as n → ∞ , we cannot apply the alternating series test. Instead, we use the nth term test for
n
divergence. Since lim = 1 ≠ 0, the series diverges.
n→∞ n+1

 Exercise 9.5.1
∞
n
Determine whether the series ∑(−1) n+1

n
converges or diverges.
2
n=1

Hint
n
Is { n
n
2
} decreasing? What is lim
n
?
n→∞ 2

Answer
The series converges.

Remainder of an Alternating Series

It is difficult to explicitly calculate the sum of most alternating series, so typically the sum is approximated by using a partial sum.
When doing so, we are interested in the amount of error in our approximation. Consider an alternating series
∞
n+1
∑(−1 ) bn

n=1

satisfying the hypotheses of the alternating series test. Let S denote the sum of this series and S be the corresponding sequence of
k

partial sums. From Figure 9.5.2, we see that for any integer N ≥ 1 , the remainder R satisfies N

| RN | = |S − SN | ≤ | SN +1 − SN | = bn+1 .

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 Remainders in Alternating Series

Consider an alternating series of the form

∞
n+1
∑(−1 ) bn

n=1

or
∞
n
∑(−1 ) bn

n=1

that satisfies the hypotheses of the alternating series test. Let S denote the sum of the series and SN denote the N
th
partial
sum. For any integer N ≥ 1 , the remainder R = S − S satisfies
N N

| RN | ≤ bN +1 .

In other words, if the conditions of the alternating series test apply, then the error in approximating the infinite series by the N
th

partial sum S is in magnitude at most the size of the next term b

N . N +1

 Example 9.5.2: Estimating the Remainder of an Alternating Series

Consider the alternating series

∞ n+1
(−1)
∑ .
2
n
n=1

Use the remainder estimate to determine a bound on the error R 10 if we approximate the sum of the series by the partial sum
S .
10

Solution
From the theorem stated above,
1
| R10 | ≤ b11 = ≈ 0.008265.
2
11

 Exercise 9.5.2
∞ n+1
(−1)
Find a bound for R 20 when approximating ∑ by S . 20
n
n=1

Hint
| R20 | ≤ b21

Answer
0.04762

Absolute and Conditional Convergence

∞ ∞

Consider a series ∑ a and the related series ∑ |a |. Here we discuss possibilities for the relationship between the convergence
n n

n=1 n=1
∞ n+1
(−1)
of these two series. For example, consider the alternating harmonic series ∑ . The series whose terms are the absolute
n
n=1

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∞ n+1 ∞
∣ (−1) ∣ 1
value of these terms is the harmonic series, since ∑∣ ∣ =∑ . Since the alternating harmonic series converges, but
∣ n ∣ n
n=1 n=1

the harmonic series diverges, we say the alternating harmonic series exhibits conditional convergence.
∞ n+1
(−1)
By comparison, consider the series ∑ 2
. The series whose terms are the absolute values of the terms of this series is the
n
n=1
∞ ∞ n+1
1 (−1)
series ∑ 2
. Since both of these series converge, we say the series ∑ 2
exhibits absolute convergence.
n n
n=1 n=1

 Definition: Absolute Convergence

∞ ∞ ∞

A series ∑ an exhibits absolute convergence if ∑ | an | converges. A series ∑ an exhibits conditional convergence if

n=1 n=1 n=1
∞ ∞

∑ an converges but ∑ |a n| diverges.

n=1 n=1

∞ ∞

As shown by the alternating harmonic series, a series ∑ an may converge, but ∑ | an | may diverge. In the following theorem,
n=1 n=1
∞ ∞

however, we show that if ∑ |a n| converges, then ∑ a converges. n

n=1 n=1

 Absolute Convergence Implies Convergence

∞ ∞

If ∑ |a n| converges, then ∑ a converges. n

n=1 n=1

 Proof
∞

| an | + an = 2| an | or |a | + a = 0 . Therefore,
n n 0 ≤ | an | + an ≤ 2| an | . Consequently, by the comparison test, since
∞
2 ∑n=1 | an | converges, the series
∞

∑(| an | + an )

n=1

converges. By using the algebraic properties for convergent series, we conclude that
∞ ∞ ∞

∑ an = ∑(| an | + an ) − ∑ | an |

n=1 n=1 n=1

converges.
□

 Example 9.5.3: Absolute versus Conditional Convergence

For each of the following series, determine whether the series converges absolutely, converges conditionally, or diverges.
∞ n+1
(−1)
a. ∑
3n + 1
n=1
∞
cos(n)
b. ∑ 2
n
n=1

Solution

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a. We can see that
∞ n+1 ∞
∣ (−1) ∣ 1
∑∣ ∣ =∑

n=1
∣ 3n + 1 ∣ n=1
3n + 1

diverges by using the limit comparison test with the harmonic series. In fact,
1/(3n + 1) 1
lim = .
n→∞ 1/n 3

Therefore, the series does not converge absolutely. However, since

1 1 1
< and → 0 ,
3(n + 1) + 1 3n + 1 3n + 1

∞ n+1
(−1)
the series converges. We can conclude that ∑ converges conditionally.
3n + 1
n=1

b. Noting that | cos n| ≤ 1, to determine whether the series converges absolutely, compare
∞
∣ cos n ∣
∑
∣ n
2 ∣
n=1

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
1 1 ∣ cos n ∣ cos n
with the series ∑ . Since ∑ converges, by the comparison test, ∑ converges, and therefore ∑
2
n n
2 ∣ n
2 ∣ n
2
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1

converges absolutely.

 Exercise 9.5.3
∞
n
Determine whether the series ∑(−1) n+1

3
converges absolutely, converges conditionally, or diverges.
2n +1
n=1

Hint
Check for absolute convergence first.

Answer
The series converges absolutely.

To see the difference between absolute and conditional convergence, look at what happens when we rearrange the terms of the
∞
1
alternating harmonic series ∑(−1 )
n+1
. We show that we can rearrange the terms so that the new series diverges. Certainly if
n
n=1

we rearrange the terms of a finite sum, the sum does not change. When we work with an infinite sum, however, interesting things
can happen.
Begin by adding enough of the positive terms to produce a sum that is larger than some real number M = 10 For example, let
M = 10, and find an integer k such that

1 1 1
1+ + +⋯ + > 10
3 5 2k − 1

∞
1
(We can do this because the series ∑ diverges to infinity.) Then subtract 1/2. Then add more positive terms until the sum
2n − 1
n=1

reaches 100. That is, find another integer j > k such that
1 1 1 1 1
(1 + +⋯ + − + +… + > 100.
3 2k − 1 2 2k + 1 2j + 1

Then subtract 1/4. Continuing in this way, we have found a way of rearranging the terms in the alternating harmonic series so that
the sequence of partial sums for the rearranged series is unbounded and therefore diverges.

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The terms in the alternating harmonic series can also be rearranged so that the new series converges to a different value. In
Example, we show how to rearrange the terms to create a new series that converges to 3 ln(2)/2. We point out that the alternating
harmonic series can be rearranged to create a series that converges to any real number r; however, the proof of that fact is beyond
the scope of this text.
∞

In general, any series ∑ an that converges conditionally can be rearranged so that the new series diverges or converges to a
n=1
∞

different real number. A series that converges absolutely does not have this property. For any series ∑ an that converges
n=1
∞

absolutely, the value of ∑ an is the same for any rearrangement of the terms. This result is known as the Riemann
n=1

Rearrangement Theorem, which is beyond the scope of this book.

 Example 9.5.4: Rearranging Series

Use the fact that

1 1 1 1
1− + − + − ⋯ = ln 2
2 3 4 5

to rearrange the terms in the alternating harmonic series so the sum of the rearranged series is 3 ln(2)/2.
Solution
Let
∞
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
∑ an = 1 − + − + − + − +⋯ .
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
n=1

Since ∑ a n = ln(2) , by the algebraic properties of convergent series,

n=1

∞ ∞
1 1 1 1 1 1 ln 2
∑ an = − + − +⋯ = ∑ an = .
2 2 4 6 8 2 2
n=1 n=1

Now introduce the series ∑ b such that for all n ≥ 1, b

n 2n−1 =0 and b 2n = an /2. Then
n=1

∞
1 1 1 1 ln 2
∑ bn = 0 + +0 − +0 + +0 − +⋯ = .
2 4 6 8 2
n=1

∞ ∞ ∞

Then using the algebraic limit properties of convergent series, since ∑ an and ∑ bn converge, the series ∑(an + bn )

n=1 n=1 n=1

converges and
∞ ∞ ∞
ln 2 3 ln 2
∑(an + bn ) = ∑ an + ∑ bn = ln 2 + = .
2 2
n=1 n=1 n=1

Now adding the corresponding terms, a and b , we see that

n n

∞
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
∑(an + bn ) = (1 + 0) + (− + ) +( + 0) + (− − 14) + ( + 0) + (− + ) +( + 0)
2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
n=1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+( − ) +⋯ = 1 + − + + − +⋯ .
8 8 3 2 5 7 4

We notice that the series on the right side of the equal sign is a rearrangement of the alternating harmonic series. Since
∞

∑(an + bn ) = 3 ln(2)/2, we conclude that

n=1

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1 1 1 1 1 3 ln(2)
1+ − + + − +⋯ = .
3 2 5 7 4 2

Therefore, we have found a rearrangement of the alternating harmonic series having the desired property.

Key Concepts
∞

For an alternating series ∑(−1) n+1

bn , if b k+1 ≤ bk for all k and b k → 0 as k → ∞, the alternating series converges.
n=1
∞ ∞

If ∑ |a n| converges, then ∑ a converges. n

n=1 n=1

Key Equations
Alternating series
∞

∑(−1 )
n+1
bn = b1 − b2 + b3 − b4 + ⋯ or
n=1

n
∑(−1 ) bn = −b1 + b2 − b3 + b4 − ⋯

n=1

Glossary
absolute convergence
∞ ∞

if the series ∑ |a n| converges, the series ∑ a is said to converge absolutely

n=1 n=1

alternating series
∞ ∞

a series of the form ∑(−1) n+1

bn or ∑(−1) n
bn , where b n ≥0 , is called an alternating series
n=1 n=1

alternating series test

for an alternating series of either form, if b n+1 ≤ bn for all integers n ≥ 1 and b n → 0 , then an alternating series converges

conditional convergence
∞ ∞ ∞

if the series ∑ a converges, but the series ∑ |a

n n| diverges, the series ∑ a is said to converge conditionally
n

n=1 n=1 n=1

This page titled 9.5: Alternating Series is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert Strang
& Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history
is available upon request.
9.5: Alternating Series by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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9.5E: Exercises
In exercises 1 - 30, state whether each of the following series converges absolutely, conditionally, or not at all.
∞
n
1) ∑(−1) n+1

n+3
n=1

∞ −
√n + 1
2) ∑(−1) n+1
−
√n + 3
n=1

Answer
This series diverges by the divergence test. Terms do not tend to zero.
∞
1
3) ∑(−1) n+1
−−−−−
√n + 3
n=1

∞ −−−−−
√n + 3
4) ∑(−1) n+1

n
n=1

Answer
−−−−−
Converges conditionally by alternating series test, since √n + 3 /n is decreasing and its limit is 0. Does not converge
absolutely by comparison with p -series, p = 1/2.
∞
1
5) ∑(−1) n+1

n!
n=1

∞ n
3
6) ∑(−1) n+1

n!
n=1

Answer
Converges absolutely by limit comparison to 3 n
/4 ,
n
for example.
∞ n
n−1
7) ∑(−1) n+1
( )
n
n=1

∞ n
n+1
8) ∑(−1) n+1
( )
n
n=1

Answer
Diverges by divergence test since lim | an | = e and not 0.
n→∞

9) ∑(−1) n+1
sin
2
n

n=1

10) ∑(−1) n+1

cos
2
n

n=1

Answer
Diverges by the divergence test, since its terms do not tend to zero. The limit of the sequence of its terms does not exist.
∞

11) ∑(−1) n+1 2

sin (1/n)

n=1

12) ∑(−1) n+1 2

cos (1/n)

n=1

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Answer
2
lim cos (1/n) = 1. Diverges by divergence test.
n→∞

13) ∑(−1) n+1

ln(1/n)

n=1

∞
1
14) ∑(−1) n+1
ln(1 + )
n
n=1

Answer
Converges by alternating series test.
∞ 2
n
15) ∑(−1) n+1

4
1 +n
n=1

∞ e
n
16) ∑(−1) n+1

π
1 +n
n=1

Answer
Converges conditionally by alternating series test. Does not converge absolutely by limit comparison with p -series,
p = π −e

Solution:
∞

17) ∑(−1) n+1

2
1/n

n=1

18) ∑(−1) n+1

n
1/n

n=1

Answer
Diverges; terms do not tend to zero.
∞

19) ∑(−1) n
(1 − n
1/n
) (Hint: n 1/n
≈ 1 + ln(n)/n for large n .)
n=1

∞
1
20) ∑(−1) n+1
n (1 − cos( )) (Hint: cos(1/n) ≈ 1 − 1/n for large n .)
2

n
n=1

Answer
Converges by alternating series test. Does not converge absolutely by limit comparison with harmonic series.
∞
−−−−− −
21) ∑(−1) n+1
(√n + 1 − √n ) (Hint: Rationalize the numerator.)
n=1

∞
1 1
22) ∑(−1) n+1
(
−
−
−−−−−
) (Hint: Cross-multiply then rationalize numerator.)
√n √n + 1
n=1

Answer
Converges absolutely by limit comparison with p -series, p = 3/2, after applying the hint.
∞

23) ∑(−1) n+1

(ln(n + 1) − ln n)

n=1

24) ∑(−1) n+1

n(tan
−1
(n + 1) − tan
−1
n) (Hint: Use Mean Value Theorem.)
n=1

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Answer
Converges by alternating series test since n(tan (n + 1) − tan n) is decreasing to zero for large n .Does not
−1 −1

converge absolutely by limit comparison with harmonic series after applying hint.
∞

25) ∑(−1) n+1

((n + 1 )
2
−n )
2

n=1

∞
1 1
26) ∑(−1) n+1
( − )
n n+1
n=1

Answer
1 1
Converges absolutely, since a n = − are terms of a telescoping series.
n n+1

∞
cos(nπ)
27) ∑
n
n=1

∞
cos(nπ)
28) ∑
1/n
n
n=1

Answer
Terms do not tend to zero. Series diverges by divergence test.
∞
1 nπ
29) ∑ sin( )
n 2
n=1

30) ∑ sin(nπ/2) sin(1/n)

n=1

Answer
Converges by alternating series test. Does not converge absolutely by limit comparison with harmonic series.

In exercises 31 - 36, use the estimate |R N | ≤ bN +1 to find a value of N that guarantees that the sum of the first N terms
∞

of the alternating series ∑ (−1 )

n+1
bn differs from the infinite sum by at most the given error. Calculate the partial sum
n=1

SN for this N .
31) [T] b n = 1/n, error < 10 −5

32) [T] b n = 1/ ln(n), n ≥ 2, error < 10 −1

Answer
10
ln(N + 1) > 10, N + 1 > e , N ≥ 22026; S22026 = 0.0257 …

−
33) [T] b n = 1/ √n , error < 10 −3

34) [T] b n = 1/ 2
n
, error < 10 −6

Answer
2
N +1
> 10
6
or N + 1 > 6 ln(10)/ ln(2) = 19.93. or N ≥ 19; S19 = 0.333333969 …

1
35) [T] b n = ln(1 + ), error < 10 −3

36) [T] b n = 1/ n ,
2
error < 10 −6

Answer
(N + 1 )
2
> 10
6
or N > 999; S1000 ≈ 0.822466.

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For exercises 37 - 45, indicate whether each of the following statements is true or false. If the statement is false, provide an
example in which it is false.
∞

37) If b n ≥0 is decreasing and lim bn = 0 , then ∑(b 2n−1 − b2n ) converges absolutely.
n→∞
n=1

38) If b n ≥0 is decreasing, then ∑(b 2n−1 − b2n ) converges absolutely.

n=1

Answer
True. b need not tend to zero since if c
n n = bn − lim bn , then c 2n−1 − c2n = b2n−1 − b2n .

∞
1
39) If b n ≥0 and lim bn = 0 then ∑( (b3n−2 + b3n−1 ) − b3n ) converges.
n→∞ 2
n=1

∞ ∞

40) If b n ≥0 is decreasing and ∑(b 3n−2 + b3n−1 − b3n ) converges then ∑ b 3n−2 converges.
n=1 n=1

Answer
True. b 3n−1 − b3n ≥ 0, so convergence of ∑ b 3n−2 follows from the comparison test.

41) If b n ≥0 is decreasing and ∑(−1) n−1

bn converges conditionally but not absolutely, then b does not tend to zero. n

n=1

42) Let +
an = an if an ≥ 0 and −
an = −an if an < 0 . (Also, +
an = 0 if an < 0 and −
an = 0 if an ≥ 0 .) If ∑ an converges
n=1
∞ ∞

conditionally but not absolutely, then neither ∑ a nor ∑ a converge. +

n
−
n

n=1 n=1

Answer
True. If one converges, then so must the other, implying absolute convergence.
∞

43) Suppose that a is a sequence of positive real numbers and that ∑ a converges.
n n

n=1

44) Suppose that b is an arbitrary sequence of ones and minus ones. Does ∑ a
n n bn necessarily converge?
n=1

∞ ∞

45) Suppose that an is a sequence such that ∑ an bn converges for every possible sequence bn of zeros and ones. Does ∑ an

n=1 n=1

converge absolutely?

Answer
∞

Yes. Take b n =1 if a
n ≥0 and b n =0 if a n <0 . Then ∑ a n bn = ∑ an converges. Similarly, one can show
n=1 n: an ≥0

∑ an converges. Since both series converge, the series must converge absolutely.
n: an <0

In exercises 46 - 49, the series do not satisfy the hypotheses of the alternating series test as stated. In each case, state which
hypothesis is not satisfied. State whether the series converges absolutely.
∞ 2
sin n
46) ∑(−1) n+1

n
n=1

∞ 2
cos n
47) ∑(−1) n+1

n
n=1

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Answer
Not decreasing. Does not converge absolutely.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
48) 1 + − − + + − − +⋯
2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
49) 1 + − + + − + + − +⋯
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Answer
∞
1 1 1
Not alternating. Can be expressed as ∑ ( + − ), which diverges by comparison with
3n − 2 3n − 1 3n
n=1
∞
1
∑ .
3n − 2
n=1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
50) Show that the alternating series 1− + − + − + − +⋯ does not converge. What hypothesis of the
2 2 4 3 6 4 8
alternating series test is not met?
51) Suppose that ∑ a converges absolutely. Show that the series consisting of the positive terms a also converges.
n n

Answer
Let a +
n = an if a n ≥0 and a +
n =0 if a n <0 . Then a +
n ≤ | an | for all n so the sequence of partial sums of a is +
n
∞

increasing and bounded above by the sequence of partial sums of |a |, which converges; hence, ∑ n
+
an converges.
n=1

2 3 4 5
52) Show that the alternating series − + − +⋯ does not converge. What hypothesis of the alternating series test is not
3 5 7 9
met?
2 4 6
θ θ θ
53) The formula cos θ = 1 − + − +⋯ will be derived in the next chapter. Use the remainder | RN | ≤ bN +1 to find a
2! 4! 6!

bound for the error in estimating cos θ by the fifth partial sum 1 − θ 2 4
/2! + θ /4! − θ /6! + θ /8!
6 8
for θ = 1, θ = π/6, and θ = π.

Answer
For N =5 one has ∣∣R N ∣ b6 = θ
10
/10!. When θ = 1, R ≤ 1/10! ≈ 2.75 × 10 5
−7
. When θ = π/6,
R5 ≤ (π/6 )
10
/10! ≈ 4.26 × 10
−10
. When θ = π, R ≤ π /10! = 0.0258. 5
10

3 5 7
θ θ θ
54) The formula sin θ = θ − + − +⋯ will be derived in the next chapter. Use the remainder | RN | ≤ bN +1 to find a
3! 5! 7!

bound for the error in estimating sin θ by the fifth partial sum θ − θ 3 5
/3! + θ /5! − θ /7! + θ /9!
7 9
for θ = 1, θ = π/6, and θ = π.
2 4 6
θ θ θ
55) How many terms in cos θ = 1 − + − +⋯ are needed to approximate cos 1 accurate to an error of at most 0.00001?
2! 4! 6!

Answer
Let b n = 1/(2n − 2)!. Then R N ≤ 1/(2N )! < 0.00001 when (2N )! > 10 or N 5
=5 and
1 1 1 1
1− + − + = 0.540325 … , whereas cos 1 = 0.5403023 …
2! 4! 6! 8!

3 5 7
θ θ θ
56) How many terms in sin θ = θ − + − +⋯ are needed to approximate sin 1 accurate to an error of at most 0.00001?
3! 5! 7!
∞ ∞

57) Sometimes the alternating series ∑(−1 )

n−1
bn converges to a certain fraction of an absolutely convergent series ∑ bn at a
n=1 n=1
∞ 2 ∞ ∞ n−1
1 π 1 1 1 1 (−1)
faster rate. Given that ∑
2
= , find S =1−
2
+
2
−
2
+⋯ . Which of the series 6∑
2
and S∑
2
n 6 2 3 4 n n
n=1 n=1 n=1

gives a better estimation of π using 1000 terms? 2

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Answer
1 1
Let T =∑
2
.T Then T − S =
S = T /2 , so .
n 2
−−−−−−−−− − −−−−−−−−−−−−−−− −
 
1000 1000
 1
6 × ∑ 1/ n 2
= 3.140638 … ;  × ∑(−1 )
n−1
/n
2
= 3.141591 … ; π = 3.141592 … . The alternating series is
⎷ ⎷2
n=1 n=1

more accurate for 1000terms.

The alternating series in exercises 58 & 59 converge to given multiples of π. Find the value of N predicted by the remainder
estimate such that the N partial sum of the series accurately approximates the left-hand side to within the given error.
th

Find the minimum N for which the error bound holds, and give the desired approximate value in each case. Up to 15
decimals places, π = 3.141592653589793 … .
∞ n
π (−1)
58) [T] =∑ , error < 0.0001
4 2n + 1
n=0

∞ −k
π (−3)
59) [T] −− =∑ , error < 0.0001
√12 2k + 1
k=0

Answer
N = 6, SN = 0.9068

∞ ∞
sin(x + πn) sin(x + πn)
60) [T] The series ∑ plays an important role in signal processing. Show that ∑ converges whenever
x + πn x + πn
n=0 n=0

0 <x <π . (Hint: Use the formula for the sine of a sum of angles.)
N
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
61) [T] If ∑(−1) n−1
→ ln2, what is 1 + + − − − + + + − − − + ⋯?
n 3 5 2 4 6 7 9 11 8 10 12
n=1

Answer
ln(2). The n th
partial sum is the same as that for the alternating harmonic series.

100 100
cos(2πnx) cos(2πnx)
62) [T] Plot the series ∑ for 0 ≤ x < 1 . Explain why ∑ diverges when x = 0, 1 . How does the series
n n
n=1 n=1

behave for other x?

100
sin(2πnx)
63) [T] Plot the series ∑ for 0 ≤ x < 1 and comment on its behavior
n
n=1

Answer
The series jumps rapidly near the endpoints. For x away from the endpoints, the graph looks like π(1/2 − x) .

100
cos(2πnx)
64) [T] Plot the series ∑ 2
for 0 ≤ x < 1 and describe its graph.
n
n=1

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65) [T] The alternating harmonic series converges because of cancelation among its terms. Its sum is known because the
∞
Sn
cancelation can be described explicitly. A random harmonic series is one of the form ∑ , where s is a randomly generated
n
n
n=1

sequence of ±1 s in which the values

′
±1 are equally likely to occur. Use a random number generator to produce 1000 random
N
sn
′
±1 s and plot the partial sums S N =∑ of your random harmonic sequence for N =1 to 1000. Compare to a plot of the first
n
n=1

1000 partial sums of the harmonic series.

Answer
Here is a typical result. The top curve consists of partial sums of the harmonic series. The bottom curve plots partial sums
of a random harmonic series.

∞ N N N
1 1 1 1
66) [T] Estimates of ∑
2
can be accelerated by writing its partial sums as ∑
2
=∑ +∑
2
and
n n n(n + 1) n (n + 1)
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1

N 1000
1 1 1
recalling that ∑ =1− converges to one as N → ∞. Compare the estimate of 2
π /6 using the sums ∑
2
n(n + 1) N +1 n
n=1 n=1

1000
1
with the estimate using 1 + ∑ 2
.
n (n + 1)
n=1

∞ ∞ n

67) [T] The Euler transform rewrites S = ∑(−1 ) bn

n
as S = ∑(−1 ) 2
n −n−1
∑ (m )bn−m
n
. For the alternating harmonic
n=0 n=0 m=0
∞ n−1 ∞ ∞
(−1) 1 1
series, it takes the form ln(2) = ∑ =∑
n
. Compute partial sums of ∑
n
until they approximate ln(2)
n n2 n2
n=1 n=1 n=1

accurate to within 0.0001. How many terms are needed? Compare this answer to the number of terms of the alternating harmonic
series are needed to estimate ln(2).

Answer
By the alternating series test, |S n − S| ≤ bn+1 , so one needs 10 terms of the alternating harmonic series to estimate
4

∞
1
ln(2) to within 0.0001. The first 10 partial sums of the series ∑ n
are (up to four decimals)
n2
n=1

0.5000, 0.6250, 0.6667, 0.6823, 0.6885, 0.6911, 0.6923, 0.6928, 0.6930, 0.6931 and the tenth partial sum is within 0.0001
of ln(2) = 0.6931 … .

68) [T] In the text it was stated that a conditionally convergent series can be rearranged to converge to any number. Here is a
∞

slightly simpler, but similar, fact. If a n ≥0 is such that a n → 0 as n → ∞ but ∑ a diverges, then, given any number A there is
n

n=1

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∞

a sequence s of ±1 s such that ∑ a

n
′
n sn → A. Show this for A > 0 as follows.
n=1

n−1

a. Recursively define s by s
n n =1 if S
n−1 = ∑ ak sk < A and s n = −1 otherwise.
k=1

b. Explain why eventually S n ≥ A, and for any m larger than this n , A − a m ≤ Sm ≤ A + am .

c. Explain why this implies that S n → A as n → ∞.

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Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is
available upon request.

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9.6: Ratio and Root Tests
 Learning Objectives
Use the ratio test to determine absolute convergence of a series.
Use the root test to determine absolute convergence of a series.
Describe a strategy for testing the convergence of a given series.

In this section, we prove the last two series convergence tests: the ratio test and the root test. These tests are particularly nice
because they do not require us to find a comparable series. The ratio test will be especially useful in the discussion of power series
in the next chapter. Throughout this chapter, we have seen that no single convergence test works for all series. Therefore, at the end
of this section we discuss a strategy for choosing which convergence test to use for a given series.

Ratio Test
∞

Consider a series ∑ a . From our earlier discussion and examples, we know that
n lim an = 0 is not a sufficient condition for the
n→∞
n=1
∞
1
series to converge. Not only do we need an → 0 , but we need an → 0 quickly enough. For example, consider the series ∑
n
n=1
∞ ∞ ∞
1 1 1
and the series ∑ 2
. We know that 1

n
→ 0 and 1

n
2
→ 0 . However, only the series ∑ 2
converges. The series ∑ diverges
n n n
n=1 n=1 n=1

because the terms in the sequence { } do not approach zero fast enough as
1

n
n → ∞ . Here we introduce the ratio test, which
provides a way of measuring how fast the terms of a series approach zero.

 Ratio Test
∞

Let ∑ a be a series with nonzero terms. Let

n=1

∣ an+1 ∣
ρ = lim ∣ ∣.
n→∞ ∣ an ∣

i. If 0 ≤ ρ < 1, then ∑ a converges absolutely.

n=1
∞

ii. If ρ > 1 or ρ = ∞ , then ∑ a diverges. n

n=1

iii. If ρ = 1, the test does not provide any information.

 Proof
∞

Let ∑ a be a series with nonzero terms.

n=1

an+1
We begin with the proof of part i. In this case, ρ = lim ∣ ∣< 1. Since 0 ≤ ρ < 1 , there exists R such that
n→∞
an

0 ≤ ρ < R < 1 . Let ε = R − ρ > 0 . By the definition of limit of a sequence, there exists some integer N such that

∣∣ an+1 ∣ ∣
∣∣ ∣ − ρ∣ < ε, for all n ≥ N .
∣∣ a ∣ ∣
n

Therefore,
∣ an+1 ∣
∣ ∣ < ρ + ε = R, for all n ≥ N
∣ an ∣

and, thus,

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| aN +1 | < R| aN |

2
∣
∣aN +2 ∣< R ∣ aN +1 ∣< R ∣ aN ∣
∣

2 3
∣
∣aN +3 ∣< R ∣ aN +2 ∣< R ∣ aN +1 ∣< R ∣ aN ∣
∣

2 3 4
∣
∣aN +4 ∣< R ∣ aN +3 ∣< R ∣ aN +2 ∣< R ∣ aN +1 ∣< R ∣ aN ∣
∣

⋮.

Since R < 1, the geometric series

2 3
R ∣ aN ∣ +R ∣ aN ∣ +R ∣ aN ∣ + ⋯

converges. Given the inequalities above, we can apply the comparison test and conclude that the series

| aN +1 | + | aN +2 | + | aN +3 | + | aN +4 | + ⋯

converges. Therefore, since

∞ N ∞

∑ | an | = ∑ | an | + ∑ | an |

n=1 n=1 n=N +1

N ∞ ∞

where ∑ |a n| is a finite sum and ∑ | an | converges, we conclude that ∑ |a n| converges.

n=1 n=N +1 n=1

For part ii.

∣ an+1 ∣
ρ = lim ∣ ∣ > 1.
n→∞ ∣ an ∣

Since ρ > 1, there exists R such that ρ > R > 1 . Let ε = ρ − R > 0 . By the definition of the limit of a sequence, there exists
an integer N such that
∣∣ an+1 ∣ ∣
∣∣ ∣ − ρ∣ < ε, for all n ≥ N .
∣∣ an ∣ ∣

Therefore,
∣ an+1 ∣
R = ρ−ε < ∣ ∣ , for all n ≥ N ,
∣ an ∣

and, thus,
| aN +1 | > R| aN |

2
∣
∣aN +2 ∣> R ∣ aN +1 ∣> R ∣ aN ∣
∣

2 3
∣
∣aN +3 ∣> R ∣ aN +2 ∣> R ∣ aN +1 ∣> R ∣ aN ∣
∣

2 3 4
∣
∣aN +4 ∣> R ∣ aN +3 ∣> R ∣ aN +2 ∣> R ∣ aN +1 ∣> R ∣ aN ∣.

Since R > 1, the geometric series

2 3
R ∣ aN ∣ +R ∣ aN ∣ +R ∣ aN ∣ + ⋯

diverges. Applying the comparison test, we conclude that the series

| aN +1 | + | aN +2 | + | aN +3 | + ⋯

diverges, and therefore the series ∑ |a n| diverges.

n=1

∞
1
For part iii. we show that the test does not provide any information if ρ =1 by considering the p − series ∑
p
. For any
n
n=1

real number p,

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p p
1/(n + 1) n
ρ = lim = lim = 1.
n→∞ p n→∞ p
1/n (n + 1)

∞ ∞
1 1
However, we know that if p ≤ 1, the p−series ∑ p
diverges, whereas ∑ p
converges if p > 1 .
n n
n=1 n=1

The ratio test is particularly useful for series whose terms contain factorials or exponential, where the ratio of terms simplifies the
expression. The ratio test is convenient because it does not require us to find a comparative series. The drawback is that the test
sometimes does not provide any information regarding convergence.

 Example 9.6.1: Using the Ratio Test

For each of the following series, use the ratio test to determine whether the series converges or diverges.
∞ n
2
a. ∑
n!
n=1
∞ n
n
b. ∑
n!
n=1
∞ n 2
(−1 ) (n! )
c. ∑
(2n)!
n=1

Solution
a. From the ratio test, we can see that
n+1 n+1
2 /(n + 1)! 2 n!
ρ = lim = lim ⋅ .
n n
n→∞ 2 /n! n→∞ (n + 1)! 2

Since (n + 1)! = (n + 1) ⋅ n!,

2
ρ = lim = 0.
n→∞ n+1

Since ρ < 1, the series converges.

b. We can see that
n+1 n+1
(n + 1 ) /(n + 1)! (n + 1) n! n+1 1
n n
ρ = lim = lim ⋅ = lim ( ) = lim (1 + ) = e.
n
n→∞ n /n! n→∞ (n + 1)! nn n→∞ n n→∞ n

Since ρ > 1, the series diverges.

c. Since
n+1 2
∣ (−1 ) ((n + 1)! ) /(2(n + 1))! (n + 1)!(n + 1)! (2n)! (n + 1)(n + 1)
∣ ∣= ⋅ =
n 2
∣ (−1 ) (n! ) /(2n)! (2n + 2)! n!n! (2n + 2)(2n + 1)

we see that
(n + 1)(n + 1) 1
ρ = lim = .
n→∞ (2n + 2)(2n + 1) 4

Since ρ < 1 , the series converges.

 Exercise 9.6.1
∞ 3
n
Use the ratio test to determine whether the series ∑ n
converges or diverges.
3
n=1

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Hint
3 n
(n + 1) 3
Evaluate lim ⋅ .
n→∞ n+1 3
3 n

Answer
The series converges.

Root Test
∞
−−−
The approach of the root test is similar to that of the ratio test. Consider a series ∑ an such that n
lim √| an | = ρ for some real
n→∞
n=1
∞

number ρ. Then for N sufficiently large, ∣a N ∣≈ ρN . Therefore, we can approximate ∑ | an | by writing

n=N

N N +1 N +2
∣a
∣ N ∣ + ∣ aN +1 ∣ + ∣ aN +2 ∣ + ⋯ ≈ ρ +ρ +ρ +⋯ .

The expression on the right-hand side is a geometric series. As in the ratio test, the series ∑ a converges absolutely if 0 ≤ ρ < 1 n

n=1
∞
1
and the series diverges if ρ ≥ 1 . If ρ = 1 , the test does not provide any information. For example, for any p-series, ∑ , we see
np
n=1

that
−−−−
∣ 1 ∣ 1
n
ρ = lim √∣ ∣ = lim
n→∞ ∣ np ∣ n→∞ np/n

.
To evaluate this limit, we use the natural logarithm function. Doing so, we see that
1 1 p 1 p ln(1/n)
p/n
ln ρ = ln(limn→∞ ) = limn→∞ ln( ) = limn→∞ ⋅ ln( ) = limn→∞ .
np/n n n n n

Using L’Hôpital’s rule, it follows that ln ρ = 0 , and therefore ρ = 1 for all p. However, we know that the p-series only converges if
p > 1 and diverges if p < 1 .

 Root Test
∞

Consider the series ∑ a . Let n

n=1

−−−
n
ρ = lim √| an |
n→∞

.
∞

i. If 0 ≤ ρ < 1, then ∑ a converges absolutely.

n=1
∞

ii. If ρ > 1 or ρ = ∞ , then ∑ a diverges. n

n=1

iii. If ρ = 1 , the test does not provide any information.

The root test is useful for series whose terms involve exponentials. In particular, for a series whose terms a satisfy |a n n|
n
= (bn ) ,
− −−
then √|a | = b and we need only evaluate lim b .
n

n n n
n→∞

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 Example 9.6.2: Using the Root Test

For each of the following series, use the root test to determine whether the series converges or diverges.
∞ 2 n
(n + 3n)
a. ∑
2 n
(4 n + 5)
n=1
∞ n
n
b. ∑ n
(ln(n))
n=1

Solution
a. To apply the root test, we compute
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− 2
n 2 n 2 n
n + 3n 1
ρ = lim √ (n + 3n) /(4 n + 5) = lim = .
2
n→∞ n→∞ 4n +5 4

Since ρ < 1, the series converges absolutely.

b. We have
−−−−−−−− n
n n
ρ = lim √n /(ln n)
n
= lim =∞ ô
by L’H pital’s rule.
n→∞ n→∞ ln n

Since ρ = ∞ , the series diverges.

 Exercise 9.6.2
∞

Use the root test to determine whether the series ∑ 1/n converges or diverges. n

n=1

Hint
−−
−
1
Evaluate lim √
n

n
.
n→∞ n

Answer
The series converges.

Choosing a Convergence Test

At this point, we have a long list of convergence tests. However, not all tests can be used for all series. When given a series, we
must determine which test is the best to use. Here is a strategy for finding the best test to apply.

 Problem-Solving Strategy: Choosing a Convergence Test for a Series

∞

Consider a series ∑ a n. In the steps below, we outline a strategy for determining whether the series converges.
n=1

1. Is ∑ a a familiar series? For example, is it the harmonic series (which diverges) or the alternating harmonic series
n

n=1

(which converges)? Is it a p−series or geometric series? If so, check the power p or the ratio r to determine if the series
converges.
2. Is it an alternating series? Are we interested in absolute convergence or just convergence? If we are just interested in
whether the series converges, apply the alternating series test. If we are interested in absolute convergence, proceed to step
∞

3 , considering the series of absolute values ∑ |a n |.

n=1

3. Is the series similar to a p−series or geometric series? If so, try the comparison test or limit comparison test.

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4. Do the terms in the series contain a factorial or power? If the terms are powers such that a n = (bn ) ,
n
try the root test first.
Otherwise, try the ratio test first.
5. Use the divergence test. If this test does not provide any information, try the integral test.

Visit this website for more information on testing series for convergence, plus general information on sequences and series.

 Example 9.6.3: Using Convergence Tests

For each of the following series, determine which convergence test is the best to use and explain why. Then determine if the
series converges or diverges. If the series is an alternating series, determine whether it converges absolutely, converges
conditionally, or diverges.
∞ 2
n + 2n
a. ∑
3
n + 3 n2 + 1
n=1
∞ n+1
(−1 ) (3n + 1)
b. ∑
n!
n=1
∞ n
e
c. ∑
3
n
n=1
∞ n
3
d. ∑ n
(n + 1)
n=1

Solution
a. Step 1. The series is not a p–series or geometric series.
Step 2. The series is not alternating.
Step 3. For large values of n , we approximate the series by the expression
2 2
n +2n n 1
≈ = .
n3 +3 n2 +1 n3 n

Therefore, it seems reasonable to apply the comparison test or limit comparison test using the series ∑ 1/n .
n=1

Using the limit comparison test, we see that

2 3 2 3 2
(n + 2n)/(n + 3n + 1) n + 2n
lim = lim = 1.
n→∞ n→∞ 3 2
1/n n + 3n +1

Since the series ∑ 1/n

n=1

diverges, this series diverges as well.

b. Step 1.The series is not a familiar series.
Step 2. The series is alternating. Since we are interested in absolute convergence, consider the series
∞
3n
∑ .
(n + 1)!
n=1

Step 3. The series is not similar to a p-series or geometric series.

Step 4. Since each term contains a factorial, apply the ratio test. We see that
(3(n + 1))/(n + 1)! 3n + 3 n! 3n + 3
lim = lim ⋅ = lim = 0.
n→∞ (3n + 1)/n! n→∞ (n + 1)! 3n + 1 n→∞ (n + 1)(3n + 1)

Therefore, this series converges, and we conclude that the original series converges absolutely, and thus converges.
c. Step 1. The series is not a familiar series.
Step 2. It is not an alternating series.

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Step 3. There is no obvious series with which to compare this series.
Step 4. There is no factorial. There is a power, but it is not an ideal situation for the root test.
Step 5. To apply the divergence test, we calculate that
n
e
lim = ∞.
n→∞ 3
n

Therefore, by the divergence test, the series diverges.

d. Step 1. This series is not a familiar series.
Step 2. It is not an alternating series.
Step 3. There is no obvious series with which to compare this series.
Step 4. Since each term is a power of n,we can apply the root test. Since
−−−−−−−
3 3
n n
lim √( ) = lim = 0,
n→∞ n+1 n→∞ n + 1

by the root test, we conclude that the series converges.

 Exercise 9.6.3
∞ n
2
For the series ∑ n
, determine which convergence test is the best to use and explain why.
3 +n
n=1

Hint
∞ n
2
The series is similar to the geometric series ∑ ( ) .
3
n=1

Answer
n n
2 2
The comparison test because n
<
n
for all positive integers n . The limit comparison test could also be used.
3 +n 3

In Table, we summarize the convergence tests and when each can be applied. Note that while the comparison test, limit comparison
∞ ∞

test, and integral test require the series ∑ a to have nonnegative terms, if ∑ a has negative terms, these tests can be applied to
n n

n=1 n=1
∞

∑ | an | to test for absolute convergence.

n=1

Summary of Convergence Tests

Series or Test Conclusions Comments

Divergence Test If lim an = 0 , the test is inconclusive.

n→∞
∞
This test cannot prove convergence of a series.
For any series ∑ a , evaluate
n lim an . If lim an ≠ 0 , the series diverges.
n→∞
n=1 n→∞

Geometric Series If |r| < 1 , the series converges to a/(1 − r). Any geometric series can be reindexed to be
∞
n−1 written in the form a + ar + ar + ⋯ , where
2

∑ ar

n=1
If |r| ≥ 1, the series diverges. a is the initial term and r is the ratio.

p-Series For p = 1, we have the harmonic series

∞
If p > 1, the series converges. ∞
1
∑
p If p ≤ 1, the series diverges. ∑ 1/n .
n
n=1 n=1

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Series or Test Conclusions ∞
Comments
If a n ≤ bn for all n ≥ N and ∑ b n

n=1

Comparison Test ∞

∞ converges, then ∑ a converges. n

Typically used for a series similar to a
For ∑ an with nonnegative terms, compare n=1

n=1
geometric or p-series. It can sometimes be
∞
∞

If a for all n ≥ N and ∑ b diverges, difficult to find an appropriate series.

with a known series ∑ b . n
n ≥ bn n

n=1
n=1
∞

then ∑ a diverges. n

n=1

If L is a real number and L ≠ 0, then ∑ a n

n=1
∞
Limit Comparison Test
∞
and ∑ b both converge or both diverge.
n

For ∑ a with positive terms, compare with a n=1

n
∞ ∞
Typically used for a series similar to a
n=1
∞
If L = 0 and ∑ b converges, then ∑ a
n n
geometric or p-series. Often easier to apply than
series ∑ b by evaluating
n n=1 n=1 the comparison test.
n=1
an
converges.
L = lim .
∞ ∞
n→∞ bn
If L = ∞ and ∑ b diverges, then ∑ a n n

n=1 n=1

diverges.

Integral Test
∞
If there exists a positive, continuous, ∞ Limited to those series for which the
∫ f (x)dx and ∑ a both converge or both
n
decreasing function f such that a = f (n) for n
N
n=1
corresponding function can be easily
∞
diverge. integrated.
all n ≥ N , evaluate ∫ f (x)dx.
N

Alternating Series
∞ ∞ If b ≤ b for all n ≥ 1 and b → 0 , then
n+1 n n
Only applies to alternating series.
∑(−1 )
n+1
bn or ∑(−1) n
bn the series converges.
n=1 n=1

Ratio Test If 0 ≤ ρ < 1 , the series converges absolutely.

∞

For any series ∑ an with nonzero terms, let Often used for series involving factorials or
If ρ > 1 or ρ = ∞ , the series diverges.
n=1 exponentials.
∣ an+1 ∣
ρ = lim ∣
n→∞ ∣ an ∣
∣
If ρ = 1, the test is inconclusive.

Root Test If 0 ≤ ρ < 1 , the series converges absolutely.

∞
−−−
If ρ > 1 or ρ = ∞ , the series diverges. Often used for series where |a n|
n
= (bn ) .
For any series ∑ a , let ρ = n
n
lim √|an | .
n→∞
n=1
If ρ = 1, the test is inconclusive.

 Series Converging to π and 1/π

Dozens of series exist that converge to π or an algebraic expression containing π. Here we look at several examples and
compare their rates of convergence. By rate of convergence, we mean the number of terms necessary for a partial sum to be
within a certain amount of the actual value. The series representations of π in the first two examples can be explained using
Maclaurin series, which are discussed in the next chapter. The third example relies on material beyond the scope of this text.
1. The series
∞ n+1
(−1) 4 4 4 4
π =4∑ =4− + − + −⋯
2n − 1 3 5 7 9
n=1

was discovered by Gregory and Leibniz in the late 1600s. This result follows from the Maclaurin series for
x . We will discuss this series in the next chapter.
−1
f (x) = tan

a. Prove that this series converges.

b. Evaluate the partial sums S for n = 10, 20, 50, 100. n

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c. Use the remainder estimate for alternating series to get a bound on the error R . n

d. What is the smallest value of N that guarantees |R N | < 0.01 ? Evaluate S . N

2. The series
∞ 3 5 7
(2n)! 1 1 1 1⋅3 1 1⋅3⋅5 1
π =6∑ =6( + ( ) + ⋅( ) + ( ) + ⋯)
4n+1 2
2 (n! ) (2n + 1) 2 2⋅3 2 2⋅4⋅5 2 2⋅4⋅6⋅7 2
n=0

has been attributed to Newton in the late 1600s. The proof of this result uses the Maclaurin series for f (x) = sin −1
x .
a. Prove that the series converges.
b. Evaluate the partial sums S for n = 5, 10, 20.
n

c. Compare S to π for n = 5, 10, 20 and discuss the number of correct decimal places.
n

3. The series
– ∞
1 √8 (4n)!(1103 + 26390n)
= ∑
4 4n
π 9801 (n!) 396
n=0

was discovered by Ramanujan in the early 1900s. William Gosper, Jr., used this series to calculate π to an accuracy of
more than 17 million digits in the mid − 1980s. At the time, that was a world record. Since that time, this series and
others by Ramanujan have led mathematicians to find many other series representations for π and 1/π.
a. Prove that this series converges.
b. Evaluate the first term in this series. Compare this number with the value of π from a calculating utility. To how
many decimal places do these two numbers agree? What if we add the first two terms in the series?
c. Investigate the life of Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887– 1920)and write a brief summary. Ramanujan is one of the
most fascinating stories in the history of mathematics. He was basically self-taught, with no formal training in
mathematics, yet he contributed in highly original ways to many advanced areas of mathematics.

Key Concepts
For the ratio test, we consider
an+1
ρ = lim ∣ ∣.
n→∞ an

If ρ < 1 , the series ∑ a converges absolutely. If ρ > 1 , the series diverges. If ρ = 1 , the test does not provide any
n

n=1

information. This test is useful for series whose terms involve factorials.
For the root test, we consider
−−−
n
ρ = lim √| an |.
n→∞

If ρ < 1 , the series ∑ a converges absolutely. If ρ > 1 , the series diverges. If ρ = 1 , the test does not provide any
n

n=1

information. The root test is useful for series whose terms involve powers.
For a series that is similar to a geometric series or p−series, consider one of the comparison tests.

Glossary
ratio test
∞

for a series ∑ a with nonzero terms, let ρ =

n lim | an+1 / an | ; if 0 ≤ ρ < 1 , the series converges absolutely; if ρ > 1 , the
n→∞
n=1

series diverges; if ρ = 1 , the test is inconclusive

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root test
∞
−−−
for a series ∑ a n, let ρ = n
lim √| an | ; if 0 ≤ ρ < 1 , the series converges absolutely; if ρ > 1 , the series diverges; if ρ = 1 ,
n→∞
n=1

the test is inconclusive

This page titled 9.6: Ratio and Root Tests is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert
Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit
history is available upon request.
9.6: Ratio and Root Tests by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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9.6E: Exercises
∞

In exercises 1 - 11, use the ratio test to determine whether each series ∑ an converges or diverges. State if the ratio test is
n=1

inconclusive.
∞
1
1) ∑
n!
n=1

Answer
an+1
lim = 0. Converges by the Ratio Test.
n→∞ an

∞ n
10
2) ∑
n!
n=1

∞ 2
n
3) ∑ n
2
n=1

Answer
2
an+1 1 n+1 1
lim = lim ( ) = < 1. Converges by the Ratio Test.
n→∞ an n→∞ 2 n 2

∞ 10
n
4) ∑ n
2
n=1

∞ 3
(n!)
5) ∑
(3n)!
n=1

Answer
an+1 1
lim = < 1. Converges by the Ratio Test.
n→∞ an 27

∞ 3n 3
2 (n! )
6) ∑
(3n)!
n=1

∞
(2n)!
7) ∑ 2n
n
n=1

Answer
an+1 4
lim = < 1. Converges by the Ratio Test.
n→∞ 2
an e

∞
(2n)!
8) ∑ n
(2n)
n=1

∞
n!
9) ∑ n
(n/e)
n=1

Answer
an+1
lim = 1. Ratio test is inconclusive.
n→∞ an

∞
(2n)!
10) ∑ 2n
(n/e)
n=1

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∞ n 2
(2 n! )
11) ∑ 2n
(2n)
n=1

Answer
an 1
lim =
2
< 1. Converges by the Ratio Test.
n→∞ an+1 e

In exercises 12 - 21, use the root test to determine whether ∑ a converges, where a is as follows. n n

n=1

k
k−1
12) a
k =( )
2k + 3

2 k
2k −1
13) a
k =(
2
)
k +3

Answer
lim (ak )
1/k
= 2 > 1. Diverges by the Root Test.
k→∞

2n
(ln n)
14) a
n =
n
n

15) a
n = n/ 2
n

Answer
lim (an )
1/n
= 1/2 < 1. Converges by the Root Test.
n→∞

16) a
n = n/ e
n

e
k
17) a
k =
k
e

Answer
lim (ak )
1/k
= 1/e < 1. Converges by the Root Test.
k→∞

k
π
18) a
k =
π
k
n
1 1
19) a
n =( + )
e n

Answer
1/n 1 1 1
lim an = lim + = < 1. Converges by the Root Test.
n→∞ n→∞ e n e

1
20) a
k =
k
(1 + ln k)

n
(ln(1 + ln n))
21) a
n =
(ln n)n

Answer
1/n
(ln(1 + ln n))
lim an = lim =0 by L’Hôpital’s rule. Converges by the Root Test.
n→∞ n→∞ (ln n)

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∞

In exercises 22 - 28, use either the ratio test or the root test as appropriate to determine whether the series ∑ ak with
k=1

given terms a converges, or state if the test is inconclusive.

k!
22) ak =
1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 ⋯ (2k − 1)

2 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 6 ⋯ 2k
23) ak =
(2k)!

Answer
ak+1 1
lim = lim = 0. Converges by the Ratio Test.
k→∞ ak k→∞ 2k + 1

1 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 7 ⋯ (3k − 2)
24) ak =
k
3 k!
2
n
1
25) an = (1 − )
n

Answer
lim (an )
1/n
= 1/e. Converges by the Root Test.
n→∞

k 2k
1 1 1 1/k dt
26) ak =( + +⋯ + ) ( Hint: Compare a k
to ∫ .)
k+1 k+2 2k k
t

k
1 1 1
27) ak =( + +⋯ + )
k+1 k+2 3k

Answer
1/k
lim a
k
= ln(3) > 1. Diverges by the Root Test.
k→∞

28) an = (n
1/n
− 1)

In exercises 29 - 30, use the ratio test to determine whether ∑ a converges, or state if the ratio test is inconclusive.
n

n=1

2
∞ n
3
29) ∑ 3
n
n=1
2

Answer
2n+1
∣ an+1 ∣ 3
lim ∣ ∣ = lim
2
= 0. Converges by the Ratio Test.
n→∞ ∣ an ∣ n→∞ 3 n +3n+1
2

2
∞ n
2
30) ∑ n
n n!
n=1

In exercises 31, use the root and limit comparison tests to determine whether ∑ a converges. n

n=1

∞
1 1
31) ∑ n
where x n+1 =
1

2
xn + , x1 = 1 (Hint: Find limit of x .)
n
xn xn
n=1

Answer
–
Converges by the Root Test and Limit Comparison Test since lim xn = √2 .
n→∞

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In exercises 32 - 43, use an appropriate test to determine whether the series converges.
∞
n+1
32) ∑ 3 2
n +n +n+1
n=1

∞ n+1
(−1 ) (n + 1)
33) ∑ 3 2
n + 3n + 3n + 1
n=1

Answer
Converges absolutely by limit comparison with p −series, p = 2.
∞ 2
(n + 1)
34) ∑ 3 n
n + (1.1 )
n=1

∞ n
(n − 1)
35) ∑ n
(n + 1)
n=1

Answer
lim an = 1/ e
2
≠0 . Series diverges by the Divergence Test.
n→∞

2
n n
1 1
36) a n = (1 + ) ( Hint: (1 + ) ≈ e. )
n2 n2

37) a k = 1/ 2
sin k

Answer
Terms do not tend to zero: a k ≥ 1/2, since sin 2
x ≤ 1.

38) a k =2
− sin(1/k)

39) a n = 1/ (n
n+2
) where ( n
k
) =
n!

k!(n−k)!

Answer
2
an = , which converges by comparison with p −series for p = 2 .
(n + 1)(n + 2)

40) a k = 1/ (
2k
k
)

41) a k
k
= 2 /(
3k
k
)

Answer
k
2 1⋅2⋯k
ak = ≤ (2/3 )
k
converges by comparison with geometric series.
(2k + 1)(2k + 2) ⋯ 3k

k −(k/ ln k) ln k
k ln k
42) a k =( ) ( Hint: a k = (1 + ) ≈e
− ln k
.)
k + ln k k

2
2k −(k/ ln k) ln k
k ln k
43) a k =( ) ( Hint: a k = (1 + ) .)
k + ln k k

Answer
Series converges by limit comparison with p −series, p = 2.
2
− ln k 2
ak ≈ e = 1/ k .

The series in exercises 44 - 47 converge by the ratio test. Use summation by parts,
n n

∑ ak (bk+1 − bk ) = [an+1 bn+1 − a1 b1 ] − ∑ bk+1 (ak+1 − ak ), to find the sum of the given series.
k=1 k=1

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∞
k
44) ∑ k
(Hint: Take a k =k and bk =2
1−k
.)
k=1
2

∞
k
45) ∑ , where c > 1 (Hint: Take a k =k and b k =c
1−k
/(c − 1) .)
ck
k=1

Answer
∞ ∞
k 1 c
If b k =c
1−k
/(c − 1) and a k =k , then b k+1 − bk = −c
−k
and ∑ = a1 b1 + ∑c
−k
=
2
.
ck c −1 (c − 1)
n=1 k=1

∞ 2
n
46) ∑ n
2
n=1

∞ 2
(n + 1)
47) ∑ n
2
n=1

Answer
6 + 4 + 1 = 11

The k term of each of the following series has a factor

th
x
k
. Find the range of x for which the ratio test implies that the
series converges.
∞ k
x
48) ∑ 2
k
k=1

∞ 2k
x
49) ∑ 2
k
k=1

Answer
|x| ≤ 1

∞ 2k
x
50) ∑ k
k=1
3

∞ k
x
51) ∑
k!
k=1

Answer
|x| < ∞

∞ n
2
52) Does there exist a number p such that ∑ converges?
np
n=1

53) Let 0 < r < 1. For which real numbers p does ∑ n p n

r converge?
n=1

Answer
All real numbers p by the Ratio Test.
∞
∣ an+1 ∣
54) Suppose that lim ∣ ∣ = p. For which values of p must ∑ 2 n
an converge?
n→∞ ∣ an ∣
n=1

∞
∣ an+1 ∣
55) Suppose that lim ∣ ∣ = p. For which values of r > 0 is ∑ r n
an guaranteed to converge?
n→∞ ∣ an ∣
n=1

Answer

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r < 1/p

∞
∣ an+1 ∣
56) Suppose that ∣ ∣ ≤ (n + 1 )
p
for all n = 1, 2, … where p is a fixed real number. For which values of p is ∑ n! an
∣ an ∣
n=1

guaranteed to converge?
2
∞ ∞ (k+1 ) −1

57) For which values of r > 0 , if any, does ∑ r √n

converge? ( Hint: su m ∞
n=1
an = ∑ ∑ an . )
2
n=1 k=1 n=k

Answer
0 < r < 1. Note that the ratio and root tests are inconclusive. Using the hint, there are 2k terms r √n
for
2
∞ ∞ (k+1 ) −1 ∞

k
2
≤ n < (k + 1 )
2
, and for r < 1 each term is at least r . Thus, ∑ r k √n
=∑ ∑ r
√n
≥ ∑ 2kr ,
k
which
2
n=1 k=1 n=k k=1

converges by the ratio test for r < 1 . For r ≥ 1 the series diverges by the divergence test.
∞
∣ an+2 ∣
58) Suppose that ∣ ∣ ≤r <1 for all n . Can you conclude that ∑ a converges? n
∣ an ∣
n=1

59) Let a n =2
−[n/2]
where [x] is the greatest integer less than or equal to x. Determine whether ∑ a converges and justify your n

n=1

answer.

Answer
One has a = 1, a = a = 1/2, … a = a
1 2 = 1/ 2
3 . The ratio test does not apply because a /a = 1 if n is
2n 2n+1
n
n+1 n

even. However, a /a = 1/2, so the series converges according to the previous exercise. Of course, the series is just a
n+2 n

duplicated geometric series.

The following advanced exercises use a generalized ratio test to determine convergence of some series that arise in
particular applications when tests in this chapter, including the ratio and root test, are not powerful enough to determine
a2n a2n+1
their convergence. The test states that if lim < 1/2 , then ∑ an converges, while if lim > 1/2 , then
n→∞ an n→∞ an

∑ an diverges.
∞
1 3 5 2n − 1 1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 ⋯ (2n − 1)
60) Let a n = ⋯ =
n
. Explain why the ratio test cannot determine convergence of ∑ a . Use n
4 6 8 2n + 2 2 (n + 1)!
n=1
a2n
the fact that 1 − 1/(4k) is increasing k to estimate lim .
n→∞ an

1 2 n 1 (n − 1)!
61) Let an = ⋯ = Show that a2n / an ≤ e
−x/2
/2 . For which x >0 does
1 +x 2 +x n+x n (1 + x)(2 + x) ⋯ (n + x).
∞

the generalized ratio test imply convergence of ∑ an ? (Hint: Write 2 a2n / an as a product of n factors each smaller than
n=1

1/(1 + x/(2n)). )

Answer
1 n+1 n+2 2n
a2n / an = ⋅ ⋯ . The inverse of the kth factor is
2 n+1 +x n+2 +x 2n + x

(n + k + x)/(n + k) > 1 + x/(2n) so the product is less than (1 + x/(2n)) −n

≈e
−x/2
. Thus for
a2n 1
x > 0, ≤ e
−x/2
. The series converges for x > 0 .
an 2

ln n
n a2n
62) Let a n =
n
. Show that → 0 as n → ∞.
(ln n) an

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Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is
available upon request.

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9.7: Chapter 9 Review Exercises
True or False? Justify your answer with a proof or a counterexample.
∞

1) If lim an = 0, then ∑ a converges.

n
n→∞
n=1

Answer
false
∞

2) If lim an ≠ 0, then ∑ a diverges.

n
n→∞
n=1

∞ ∞

3) If ∑ |a n| converges, then ∑ a converges.

n=1 n=1

Answer
true
∞ ∞

4) If ∑ 2 n
an converges, then ∑(−2) n
an converges.
n=1 n=1

Is the sequence bounded, monotone, and convergent or divergent? If it is convergent, find the limit.
2
3 +n
5) an =
1 −n

Answer
unbounded, not monotone, divergent

6) an = ln(
1

n
)

ln(n + 1)
7) an = −−−−−
√n + 1

Answer
bounded, monotone, convergent, 0
n+1
2
8) an =
n
5

ln(cos n)
9) an =
n

Answer
unbounded, not monotone, divergent

Is the series convergent or divergent?

∞
1
10) ∑ 2
n + 5n + 4
n=1

∞
n+1
11) ∑ ln( )
n
n=1

Answer
diverges

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∞ n
2
12) ∑
n4
n=1

∞ n
e
13) ∑
n!
n=1

Answer
converges
∞

14) ∑ n −(n+1/n)

n=1

Is the series convergent or divergent? If convergent, is it absolutely convergent?

∞ n
(−1)
15) ∑ −
√n
n=1

Answer
converges, but not absolutely
∞ n
(−1 ) n!
16) ∑ n
3
n=1

∞ n
(−1 ) n!
17) ∑ n
n
n=1

Answer
converges absolutely
∞
nπ
18) ∑ sin( )
2
n=1

19) ∑ cos(πn)e −n

n=1

Answer
converges absolutely

Evaluate.
∞ n+4
2
20) ∑ n
7
n=1

∞
1
21) ∑
(n + 1)(n + 2)
n=1

Answer
1

22) A legend from India tells that a mathematician invented chess for a king. The king enjoyed the game so much he allowed the
mathematician to demand any payment. The mathematician asked for one grain of rice for the first square on the chessboard, two
grains of rice for the second square on the chessboard, and so on. Find an exact expression for the total payment (in grains of rice)
requested by the mathematician. Assuming there are 30, 000 grains of rice in 1 pound, and 2000 pounds in 1 ton, how many tons
of rice did the mathematician attempt to receive?
The following problems consider a simple population model of the housefly, which can be exhibited by the recursive formula
xn+1 = b x , where x
n is the population of houseflies at generation n , and b is the average number of offspring per housefly who
n

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survive to the next generation. Assume a starting population x . 0

23) Find lim xn if b > 1, b <1 , and b = 1.

n→∞

Answer
∞, 0, x0

24) Find an expression for S n = ∑ xi in terms of b and x . What does it physically represent?
0

i=0

25) If b = 3

4
and x
0 = 100 , find S10 and lim Sn
n→∞

Answer
S10 ≈ 383, lim Sn = 400
n→∞

26) For what values of b will the series converge and diverge? What does the series converge to?

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Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a
detailed edit history is available upon request.
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CHAPTER OVERVIEW

10: Power Series

A power series (in one variable) is an infinite series. Any polynomial can be easily expressed as a power series around any center c,
although most of the coefficients will be zero since a power series has infinitely many terms by definition. One can view power
series as being like "polynomials of infinite degree," although power series are not polynomials. The content in this Textmap's
chapter is complemented by Guichard's Calculus Textmap.
10.0: Prelude to Power Series
10.1: Power Series and Functions
10.1E: Exercises
10.2: Properties of Power Series
10.2E: Exercises
10.3: Taylor and Maclaurin Series
10.3E: Exercises
10.4: Working with Taylor Series
10.4E: Exercises
10.5: Chapter 10 Review Exercises

This page titled 10: Power Series is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert Strang &
Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is
available upon request.

1
10.0: Prelude to Power Series
When winning a lottery, sometimes an individual has an option of receiving winnings in one lump-sum payment or receiving
smaller payments over fixed time intervals. For example, you might have the option of receiving 20 million dollars today or
receiving 1.5 million dollars each year for the next 20 years. Which is the better deal? Certainly 1.5 million dollars over 20 years is
equivalent to 30 million dollars. However, receiving the 20 million dollars today would allow you to invest the money.

Figure 10.0.1 : If you win a lottery, do you get more money by taking a lump-sum payment or by accepting fixed payments over
time? (credit: modification of work by Robert Huffstutter, Flickr)
Alternatively, what if you were guaranteed to receive 1 million dollars every year indefinitely (extending to your heirs) or receive
20 million dollars today. Which would be the better deal? To answer these questions, you need to know how to use infinite series to
calculate the value of periodic payments over time in terms of today’s dollars.
An infinite series of the form
∞

n
∑ cn x

n=0

is known as a power series. Since the terms contain the variable x, power series can be used to define functions. They can be used
to represent given functions, but they are also important because they allow us to write functions that cannot be expressed any other
way than as “infinite polynomials.” In addition, power series can be easily differentiated and integrated, thus being useful in
solving differential equations and integrating complicated functions. An infinite series can also be truncated, resulting in a finite
polynomial that we can use to approximate functional values. Power series have applications in a variety of fields, including
physics, chemistry, biology, and economics. As we will see in this chapter, representing functions using power series allows us to
solve mathematical problems that cannot be solved with other techniques.

Contributors and Attributions

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Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit
history is available upon request.
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10.1: Power Series and Functions
 Learning Objectives
Identify a power series and provide examples of them.
Determine the radius of convergence and interval of convergence of a power series.
Use a power series to represent a function.

A power series is a type of series with terms involving a variable. More specifically, if the variable is x, then all the terms of the
series involve powers of x. As a result, a power series can be thought of as an infinite polynomial. Power series are used to
represent common functions and also to define new functions. In this section we define power series and show how to determine
when a power series converges and when it diverges. We also show how to represent certain functions using power series.

Form of a Power Series

A series of the form
∞

n 2
∑ cn x = c0 + c1 x + c2 x +… ,

n=0

where x is a variable and the coefficients c are constants, is known as a power series. The series
n

∞
2 n
1 +x +x +… = ∑x

n=0

is an example of a power series. Since this series is a geometric series with ratio r = |x|, we know that it converges if |x| < 1 and
diverges if |x| ≥ 1.

 Definition 10.1.1: Power Series

A series of the form
∞

n 2
∑ cn x = c0 + c1 x + c2 x +…

n=0

is a power series centered at x = 0. A series of the form

∞
n 2
∑ cn (x − a) = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a) +…

n=0

is a power series centered at x = a .

To make this definition precise, we stipulate that x 0

=1 and (x − a) 0
=1 even when x = 0 and x = a , respectively.
The series
∞ n 2 3
x x x
∑ = 1 +x + + +…
n! 2! 3!
n=0

and
∞

n 2 3
∑ n! x = 1 + x + 2! x + 3! x +…

n=0

are both power series centered at x = 0. The series

∞ n 2 3
(x − 2) x −2 (x − 2) (x − 2)
∑ =1+ + + +…
n 2 3
(n + 1)3 2⋅3 3⋅3 4⋅3
n=0

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is a power series centered at x = 2 .

Convergence of a Power Series

Since the terms in a power series involve a variable x, the series may converge for certain values of x and diverge for other values
of x. For a power series centered at x = a , the value of the series at x = a is given by c . Therefore, a power series always 0

converges at its center. Some power series converge only at that value of x. Most power series, however, converge for more than
one value of x. In that case, the power series either converges for all real numbers x or converges for all x in a finite interval. For
∞

example, the geometric series ∑ x converges for all x in the interval (−1, 1), but diverges for all x outside that interval. We now
n

n=0

summarize these three possibilities for a general power series.

 Note 10.1.1: Convergence of a Power Series

∞

Consider the power series ∑ c n (x

n
− a) . The series satisfies exactly one of the following properties:
n=0

i. The series converges at x = a and diverges for all x ≠ a.

ii. The series converges for all real numbers x.
iii. There exists a real number R > 0 such that the series converges if |x − a| < R and diverges if |x − a| > R . At the values
x where |x−a|=R, the series may converge or diverge.

 Proof
Suppose that the power series is centered at a = 0 . (For a series centered at a value of a other than zero, the result follows by
letting y = x − a and considering the series
∞

n
∑ cn y .

n=1

We must first prove the following fact:

∞ ∞

If there exists a real number d ≠ 0 such that ∑ c nd

n
converges, then the series ∑ c n
nx converges absolutely for all x such
n=0 n=0

that |x| < |d|.

∞

Since ∑ c nd
n
converges, the nth term cn d
n
→ 0 as n → ∞ . Therefore, there exists an integer N such that | cn d
n
| ≤1 for
n=0

all n ≥ N . Writing
n
x
n n ∣ ∣
| cn x | = | cn d | ,
∣ ∣
d

we conclude that, for all n≥N,

n
n ∣x∣
| cn x | ≤ .
∣ ∣
d

The series
∞
n
∣x∣
∑
∣ d ∣
n=N

∞
x
is a geometric series that converges if | | < 1. Therefore, by the comparison test, we conclude that ∑ cn x
n
also converges
d
n=N
∞

for |x| < |d| . Since we can add a finite number of terms to a convergent series, we conclude that ∑ cn x
n
converges for
n=0

|x| < |d|.

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With this result, we can now prove the theorem. Consider the series
∞

n
∑ an x

n=0

and let S be the set of real numbers for which the series converges. Suppose that the set S = 0. Then the series falls under case
i.
Suppose that the set S is the set of all real numbers. Then the series falls under case ii. Suppose that S ≠ 0 and S is not the set
of real numbers. Then there exists a real number x∗ ≠ 0 such that the series does not converge. Thus, the series cannot
converge for any x such that |x| > |x ∗ | . Therefore, the set S must be a bounded set, which means that it must have a smallest
upper bound. (This fact follows from the Least Upper Bound Property for the real numbers, which is beyond the scope of
this text and is covered in real analysis courses.) Call that smallest upper bound R . Since S ≠ 0 , the number R > 0 . Therefore,
the series converges for all x such that |x| < R, and the series falls into case iii.
□

If a series ∑ cn (x − a)
n
falls into case iii. of Note, then the series converges for all x such that |x − a| < R for some R >0 ,
n=0

and diverges for all x such that |x − a| > R . The series may converge or diverge at the values x where |x − a| = R . The set of
∞

values x for which the series ∑ cn (x − a)

n
converges is known as the interval of convergence. Since the series diverges for all
n=0

values x where |x − a| > R , the length of the interval is 2R , and therefore, the radius of the interval is R . The value R is called
∞

the radius of convergence. For example, since the series ∑ x converges for all values x in the interval (−1, 1) and diverges for
n

n=0

all values x such that |x| ≥ 1, the interval of convergence of this series is (−1, 1). Since the length of the interval is 2, the radius of
convergence is 1.

 Definition: radius of convergence

∞

Consider the power series ∑ cn (x − a)

n
. The set of real numbers x where the series converges is the interval of
n=0

convergence. If there exists a real number R > 0 such that the series converges for |x − a| < R and diverges for |x − a| > R,
then R is the radius of convergence. If the series converges only at x = a , we say the radius of convergence is R = 0 . If the
series converges for all real numbers x, we say the radius of convergence is R = ∞ (Figure 10.1.1).

Figure 10.1.1 : For a series ∑ cn (x − a)

n
graph (a) shows a radius of convergence at R = 0 , graph (b) shows a radius of
n=0

convergence at R = ∞ , and graph (c) shows a radius of convergence at R . For graph (c) we note that the series may or may
not converge at the endpoints x = a + R and x = a − R .

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To determine the interval of convergence for a power series, we typically apply the ratio test. In Example 10.1.1, we show the three
different possibilities illustrated in Figure 10.1.1.

 Example 10.1.1: Finding the Interval and Radius of Convergence

For each of the following series, find the interval and radius of convergence.
∞ n
x
a. ∑
n!
n=0
∞

b. ∑ n!x n

n=0
∞ n
(x − 2)
c. ∑
n
(n + 1)3
n=0

Solution
a. To check for convergence, apply the ratio test. We have
n+1
∣ x ∣
∣ ∣
(n + 1)!
∣ ∣
ρ = lim
n→∞ ∣ xn ∣
∣ ∣
∣ n! ∣

n+1
∣ x n! ∣
= lim ∣ ⋅ ∣
n
n→∞ ∣ (n + 1)! x ∣

n+1
∣ x n! ∣
= lim ∣ ⋅ ∣
n
n→∞ ∣ (n + 1) ⋅ n! x ∣

∣ x ∣
= lim ∣ ∣
n→∞ ∣ n+1 ∣

1
= |x| lim
n→∞ n+1

=0 <1

for all values of x. Therefore, the series converges for all real numbers x. The interval of convergence is (−∞, ∞) and
the radius of convergence is R = ∞.
b. Apply the ratio test. For x ≠ 0 , we see that
∣ (n + 1)!xn+1 ∣
ρ = lim ∣ ∣
n→∞
∣ n!xn ∣

= lim |(n + 1)x|

n→∞

= |x| lim (n + 1)
n→∞

= ∞.

Therefore, the series diverges for all x ≠ 0 . Since the series is centered at x = 0 , it must converge there, so the series
converges only for x ≠ 0 . The interval of convergence is the single value x = 0 and the radius of convergence is R = 0 .
c. In order to apply the ratio test, consider

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n+1
∣ (x − 2) ∣
∣ ∣
n+1
∣ (n + 2)3 ∣
ρ = lim
n→∞ ∣ (x − 2)
n ∣
∣ ∣
n
∣ (n + 1)3 ∣

n+1 n
∣ (x − 2) (n + 1)3 ∣
= lim ∣ ⋅ ∣
n+1 n
n→∞
∣ (n + 2)3 (x − 2) ∣

∣ (x − 2)(n + 1) ∣
= lim ∣ ∣
n→∞ ∣ 3(n + 2) ∣

|x − 2|
= .
3

The ratio ρ <1 if |x − 2| < 3 . Since |x − 2| < 3 implies that −3 < x − 2 < 3, the series converges absolutely if
−1 < x < 5 . The ratio ρ > 1 if |x − 2| > 3 . Therefore, the series diverges if x < −1 or x > 5 . The ratio test is inconclusive
if ρ = 1 . The ratio ρ = 1 if and only if x = −1 or x = 5 . We need to test these values of x separately. For x = −1 , the series
is given by
∞ n
(−1) 1 1 1
∑ =1− + − +… .
n+1 2 3 4
n=0

Since this is the alternating harmonic series, it converges. Thus, the series converges at x = −1 . For x = 5 , the series is given
by
∞
1 1 1 1
∑ =1+ + + +… .
n+1 2 3 4
n=0

This is the harmonic series, which is divergent. Therefore, the power series diverges at x = 5 . We conclude that the interval of
convergence is [−1, 5) and the radius of convergence is R = 3 .

 Exercise 10.1.1

Find the interval and radius of convergence for the series

∞ n
x
∑ .
−
√n
n=1

Hint
Apply the ratio test to check for absolute convergence.

Answer
The interval of convergence is [−1, 1). The radius of convergence is R = 1.

Representing Functions as Power Series

Being able to represent a function by an “infinite polynomial” is a powerful tool. Polynomial functions are the easiest functions to
analyze, since they only involve the basic arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. If we can
represent a complicated function by an infinite polynomial, we can use the polynomial representation to differentiate or integrate it.
In addition, we can use a truncated version of the polynomial expression to approximate values of the function. So, the question is,
when can we represent a function by a power series?
Consider again the geometric series
∞

2 3 n
1 +x +x +x +… = ∑x .

n=0

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Recall that the geometric series
2 3
a + ar + ar + ar +…

a
converges if and only if |r| < 1. In that case, it converges to . Therefore, if |x| < 1, the series in Example 10.1.1 converges
1 −r
1
to and we write
1 −x

1
2 3
1 +x +x +x +… = f or|x| < 1.
1 −x

1
As a result, we are able to represent the function f (x) = by the power series
1 −x

2 3
1 +x +x +x + … when|x| < 1.

1
We now show graphically how this series provides a representation for the function f (x) = by comparing the graph of f
1 −x
with the graphs of several of the partial sums of this infinite series.

 Example 10.1.2: Graphing a Function and Partial Sums of its Power Series
N
1
Sketch a graph of f (x) = and the graphs of the corresponding partial sums SN (x) = ∑ x
n
for N = 2, 4, 6 on the
1 −x
n=0

interval (−1, 1). Comment on the approximation S as N increases.

Solution
1
From the graph in Figure you see that as N increases, SN becomes a better approximation for f (x) = for x in the
1 −x

interval (−1, 1).

Figure 10.1.2 : The graph shows a function and three approximations of it by partial sums of a power series.

 Exercise 10.1.2
N
1
Sketch a graph of f (x) = and the corresponding partial sums SN (x) = ∑ x
2n
for N = 2, 4, 6 on the interval
1 − x2
n=0

(−1, 1).

Hint
2(N +1)
1 −x
2 2N
SN (x) = 1 + x +… +x =
2
1 −x

Answer

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Next we consider functions involving an expression similar to the sum of a geometric series and show how to represent these
functions using power series.

 Example 10.1.3: Representing a Function with a Power Series

Use a power series to represent each of the following functions f . Find the interval of convergence.
1
a. f (x) =
3
1 +x
2
x
b. f (x) =
4 − x2

Solution
a. You should recognize this function f as the sum of a geometric series, because
1 1
= .
1 + x3 1 − (−x3 )

a
Using the fact that, for |r| < 1, is the sum of the geometric series
1 −r

n 2
∑ ar = a + ar + ar +… ,

n=0

we see that, for | − x3

| < 1,

1 1
=
1 + x3 1 − (−x3 )

∞
3 n
= ∑(−x )

n=0

3 6 9
= 1 −x +x −x +… .

Since this series converges if and only if | − x 3

| <1 , the interval of convergence is (−1, 1), and we have
1 3 6 9
= 1 −x +x −x + … f or|x| < 1.
3
1 +x

b. This function is not in the exact form of a sum of a geometric series. However, with a little algebraic manipulation, we can
relate f to a geometric series. By factoring 4 out of the two terms in the denominator, we obtain

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2 2
x x
=
2 2
4 −x 1 −x
4( )
4

2
x
= .
x
2
4(1 − ( ) )
2

Therefore, we have
2 2
x x
=
2 x
4 −x 2
4(1 − ( ) )
2

2
x

4
=
x
2
1 −( )
2

∞ 2
x x 2n
=∑ ( ) .
4 2
n=0

x x
The series converges as long as |( 2
) | <1 (note that when |( 2
) | =1 the series does not converge). Solving this inequality,
2 2
we conclude that the interval of convergence is (−2, 2) and
2 ∞ 2n+2
x x
=∑
2 n+1
4 −x 4
n=0

2 4 6
x x x
= + + +…
2 3
4 4 4

for |x| < 2.

 Exercise 10.1.3
3
x
Represent the function f (x) = using a power series and find the interval of convergence.
2 −x

Hint
g(x)
Rewrite f in the form f (x) = for some functions g and h .
1 − h(x)

Answer
∞ n+3
x
∑
n+1
with interval of convergence (−2, 2)
n=0
2

In the remaining sections of this chapter, we will show ways of deriving power series representations for many other functions, and
how we can make use of these representations to evaluate, differentiate, and integrate various functions.

Key Concepts
For a power series centered at x = a , one of the following three properties hold:
i. The power series converges only at x = a . In this case, we say that the radius of convergence is R = 0 .
ii. The power series converges for all real numbers x. In this case, we say that the radius of convergence is R = ∞ .
iii. There is a real number R such that the series converges for |x − a| < R and diverges for |x − a| > R . In this case, the
radius of convergence is R.
If a power series converges on a finite interval, the series may or may not converge at the endpoints.

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The ratio test may often be used to determine the radius of convergence.
∞
1
The geometric series ∑ x n
= for |x| < 1 allows us to represent certain functions using geometric series.
1 −x
n=0

Key Equations
Power series centered at x = 0
∞

n 2
∑ cn x = c0 + c1 x + c2 x +… n

n=0

Power series centered at x = a

∞

n 2
∑ cn (x − a) = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a) +…

n=0

Glossary
interval of convergence
the set of real numbers x for which a power series converges

power series
∞ ∞

a series of the form ∑ c nx

n
is a power series centered at x = 0 ; a series of the form ∑ c n (x
n
− a) is a power series
n=0 n=0

centered at x = a

radius of convergence
if there exists a real number R > 0 such that a power series centered at x = a converges for |x − a| < R and diverges for
|x − a| > R , then R is the radius of convergence; if the power series only converges at x = a , the radius of convergence is

R = 0 ; if the power series converges for all real numbers x , the radius of convergence is R = ∞

This page titled 10.1: Power Series and Functions is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a
detailed edit history is available upon request.
10.1: Power Series and Functions by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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10.1E: Exercises
In exercises 1 - 4, state whether each statement is true, or give an example to show that it is false.
∞

1) If ∑ a nx
n
converges, then a nx
n
→ 0 as n → ∞.
n=1

Answer
True. If a series converges then its terms tend to zero.
∞

2) ∑ a nx
n
converges at x = 0 for any real numbers a . n

n=1

3) Given any sequence a , there is always some R > 0 , possibly very small, such that ∑ a
n nx
n
converges on (−R, R) .
n=1

Answer
False. It would imply that a nx
n
→ 0 for |x| < R . If a n =n
n
, then a
nx
n
= (nx )
n
does not tend to zero for any x ≠ 0 .
∞ ∞

4) If ∑ a nx
n
has radius of convergence R > 0 and if |b n| ≤ | an | for all n , then the radius of convergence of ∑ b nx
n
is greater
n=1 n=1

than or equal to R .
∞

5) Suppose that ∑ a n (x − 3)
n
converges at x = 6 . At which of the following points must the series also converge? Use the fact
n=0

that if ∑ a n (x − c)
n
converges at x, then it converges at any point closer to c than x.
a. x = 1
b. x = 2
c. x = 3
d. x = 0
e. x = 5.99
f. x = 0.000001

Answer
It must converge on (0, 6] and hence at: a. x = 1 ; b. x = 2 ; c. x = 3 ; d. x = 0 ; e. x = 5.99; and f. x = 0.000001.
∞

6) Suppose that ∑ a n (x
n
+ 1) converges at x = −2 . At which of the following points must the series also converge? Use the fact
n=0

that if ∑ a n (x − c)
n
converges at x, then it converges at any point closer to c than x.
a. x = 2
b. x = −1
c. x = −3
d. x = 0
e. x = 0.99
f. x = 0.000001
∣ an+1 ∣
In the following exercises, suppose that ∣ ∣ → 1 as n → ∞. Find the radius of convergence for each series.
∣ an ∣

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∞

7) ∑ a n2
n
x
n

n=0

Answer
n+1 n+1
∣a ∣
n+1 2 x ∣ an+1 ∣
∣
n n
∣ = 2|x| ∣ ∣ → 2|x| so R = 1

2
∣ an 2 x ∣ ∣ an ∣

∞ n
an x
8) ∑ n
2
n=0

∞ n n
an π x
9) ∑ n
e
n=0

Answer
π
∣ n+1 n+1 ∣
an+1 ( ) x
∣ ∣ π|x| ∣ an+1 ∣ π|x|
e
∣
π
∣ = ∣ ∣ → so R = e

π
∣ n n ∣ e ∣ an ∣ e
an ( ) x
∣ e ∣

∞ n n
an (−1 ) x
10) ∑ n
10
n=0

11) ∑ a n (−1 )
n
x
2n

n=0

Answer
∣ an+1 (−1 )n+1 x2n+2 ∣
∣ an+1 ∣
∣
2
∣ = |x | ∣
2
∣ → |x | so R = 1
an (−1 ) x
n 2n ∣ a ∣
∣ ∣ n

12) ∑ a n
n (−4 ) x
2n

n=0

In exercises 13 - 22, find the radius of convergence R and interval of convergence for ∑ a nx
n
with the given coefficients
a .
n

∞ n
(2x)
13) ∑
n
n=1

Answer
n
2 an+1 x
an = so → 2x . so R = 1

2
. When x = 1

2
the series is harmonic and diverges. When x = − 1

2
the series is
n an

alternating harmonic and converges. The interval of convergence is I =[−

2
,
1

2
) .

∞ n
x
14) ∑(−1) n
−
√n
n=1

∞ n
nx
15) ∑ n
2
n=1

Answer
n an+1 x x
an =
n
so → so R = 2 . When x = ±2 the series diverges by the divergence test. The interval of
2 an 2

convergence is I = (−2, 2) .
∞ n
nx
16) ∑ n
e
n=1

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∞ 2 n
n x
17) ∑ n
2
n=1

Answer
2
n
an =
n
so R = 2 . When x = ±2 the series diverges by the divergence test. The interval of convergence is
2
I = (−2, 2).

∞ e k
k x
18) ∑ k
e
k=1

∞ k k
π x
19) ∑ π
k
k=1

Answer
k
π
ak =
π
so R = 1

π
. When x = ± 1

π
the series is an absolutely convergent p -series. The interval of convergence is
k
1 1
I = [− , ].
π π

∞ n
x
20) ∑
n!
n=1

∞ n n
10 x
21) ∑
n!
n=1

Answer
n
10 an+1 x 10x
an = , = → 0 <1 so the series converges for all x by the ratio test and I = (−∞, ∞) .
n! an n+1

∞ n
x
22) ∑(−1) n

ln(2n)
n=1

In exercises 23 - 28, find the radius of convergence of each series.

∞ 2 k
(k!) x
23) ∑
(2k)!
k=1

Answer
2 2
(k!) ak+1 (k + 1) 1
ak = so = → so R = 4
(2k)! ak (2k + 2)(2k + 1) 4

∞ n
(2n)!x
24) ∑
n2n
n=1

∞
k!
25) ∑ x
k

1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 ⋯ (2k − 1)
k=1

Answer
k! ak+1 k+1 1
ak = so = → so R = 2
1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 ⋯ (2k − 1) ak 2k + 1 2

∞
2 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 6 ⋯ 2k
26) ∑ x
k

(2k)!
k=1

∞ n
x n!
27) ∑ 2n
where ( n
k
) =
(n ) k!(n − k)!
n=1

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Answer
2
2
1 an+1 ((n + 1)!) 2n! (n + 1) 1
an = so = = → so R = 4
2n 2
(n ) an (2n + 2)! (n!) (2n + 2)(2n + 1) 4

28) ∑ sin 2
nx
n

n=1

In exercises 29 - 32, use the ratio test to determine the radius of convergence of each series.
∞ 3
(n!)
29) ∑ x
n

(3n)!
n=1

Answer
3
an+1 (n + 1) 1
= → so R = 27
an (3n + 3)(3n + 2)(3n + 1) 27

∞ 3n 3
2 (n! )
30) ∑ x
n

(3n)!
n=1

∞
n!
31) ∑ n
x
n

n
n=1

Answer
n
n! an+1 (n + 1)! n n 1
an =
n
so =
n+1
=(
n
) → so R = e
n an n! (n + 1) n+1 e

∞
(2n)!
32) ∑ 2n
x
n

n
n=1

∞
1
In the following exercises, given that = ∑ x
n
with convergence in (−1, 1) , find the power series for each
1−x
n=0

function with the given center a, and identify its interval of convergence.
1 1 1
33) f (x) = ;a =1 (Hint: = )
x x 1 − (1 − x)

Answer
∞

f (x) = ∑(1 − x )
n
on I = (0, 2)

n=0

1
34) f (x) = 2
;a =0
1 −x

x
35) f (x) = 2
;a =0
1 −x

Answer
∞

∑x
2n+1
on I = (−1, 1)

n=0

1
36) f (x) = 2
;a =0
1 +x

2
x
37) f (x) = 2
;a =0
1 +x

Answer

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∞

∑(−1 ) x
n 2n+2
on I = (−1, 1)

n=0

1
38) f (x) = ;a =1
2 −x

1
39) f (x) = ; a = 0.
1 − 2x

Answer
∞

∑2 x
n n
on (− 1

2
,
1

2
)

n=0

1
40) f (x) = 2
;a =0
1 − 4x

2
x
41) f (x) = ;a =0
1 − 4x2

Answer
∞

∑4 x
n 2n+2
on (− 1

2
,
1

2
)

n=0

2
x
42) f (x) = 2
;a =2
5 − 4x + x

Use the result of exercise 43 to find the radius of convergence of the given series in the subsequent exercises (44 - 47).

43) Explain why, if |a n|

1/n
→ r > 0, then |a n 1/n
nx | → |x|r < 1 whenever |x| < 1

r
and, therefore, the radius of convergence of
∞

∑ an x
n
is R = 1

r
.
n=1

Answer
∞

| an x |
n 1/n
= | an |
1/n
|x| → |x|r as n → ∞ and |x|r < 1 when |x| < 1

r
. Therefore, ∑ a nx
n
converges when |x| < 1

n=1

by the n th
root test.
∞ n
x
44) ∑ n
n
n=1

∞ k
k−1
45) ∑ ( ) x
k

2k + 3
k=1

Answer
k
k−1
ak = ( ) so (a k)
1/k
→
1

2
<1 so R = 2
2k + 3

∞ 2
2k −1
46) ∑( 2
) x
k k

k +3
k=1

47) ∑ a n = (n
1/n
− 1) x
n n

n=1

Answer
an = (n
1/n
− 1)
n
so (a n)
1/n
→ 0 so R = ∞

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∞

48) Suppose that p(x) = ∑ a nx

n
such that a n =0 if n is even. Explain why p(x) = p(−x).
n=0

49) Suppose that p(x) = ∑ a nx

n
such that a n =0 if n is odd. Explain why p(x) = −p(−x).
n=0

Answer
∞

We can rewrite p(x) = ∑ a 2n+1 x

2n+1
and p(x) = p(−x) since x 2n+1
= −(−x )
2n+1
.
n=0

50) Suppose that p(x) = ∑ a nx

n
converges on (−1, 1]. Find the interval of convergence of p(Ax).
n=0

51) Suppose that p(x) = ∑ a nx

n
converges on (−1, 1]. Find the interval of convergence of p(2x − 1).
n=0

Answer
∞

If x ∈ [0, 1], then y = 2x − 1 ∈ [−1, 1] so p(2x − 1) = p(y) = ∑ a ny

n
converges.
n=0

∞
an+1
In the following exercises, suppose that p(x) = ∑ an x
n
satisfies lim = 1 where an ≥ 0 for each n . State
n→∞ an
n=0

whether each series converges on the full interval (−1, 1), or if there is not enough information to draw a conclusion. Use
the comparison test when appropriate.
∞

52) ∑ a nx
2n

n=0

53) ∑ a 2n x
2n

n=0

Answer
Converges on (−1, 1) by the ratio test
∞
−−
54) ∑ a 2n x
n
(Hint:x = ±√x ) 2

n=0

∞
2

55) ∑ a n2
n
x (Hint: Let b
k = ak if k = n for some n , otherwise b
2
k =0 .)
n=0

Answer
Consider the series ∑ b x where b k
k
k = ak if k = n and b
2
k =0 otherwise. Then b k ≤ ak and so the series converges
on (−1, 1) by the comparison test.
∞

56) Suppose that p(x) is a polynomial of degree N . Find the radius and interval of convergence of ∑ p(n)x . n

n=1

N
1
57) [T] Plot the graphs of and of the partial sums S N = ∑x
n
for n = 10, 20, 30 on the interval [−0.99, 0.99]. Comment
1 −x
n=0

1
on the approximation of by S near x = −1 and near x = 1 as N increases.
N
1 −x

Answer

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1
The approximation is more accurate near x = −1 . The partial sums follow more closely as N increases but are
1 −x

never accurate near x = 1 since the series diverges there.

N n
x
58) [T] Plot the graphs of − ln(1 − x) and of the partial sums SN = ∑ for n = 10, 50, 100 on the interval .
[−0.99, 0.99]
n
n=1

Comment on the behavior of the sums near x = −1 and near x = 1 as N increases.

N n
x
59) [T] Plot the graphs of the partial sums Sn = ∑ for n = 10, 50, 100 on the interval [−0.99, 0.99] . Comment on the
n2
n=1

behavior of the sums near x = −1 and near x = 1 as N increases.

Answer
The approximation appears to stabilize quickly near both x = ±1 .

60) [T] Plot the graphs of the partial sums S N = ∑(sin n)x
n
for n = 10, 50, 100 on the interval [−0.99, 0.99]. Comment on the
n=1

behavior of the sums near x = −1 and near x = 1 as N increases.

N 2n+1
x
61) [T] Plot the graphs of the partial sums SN = ∑(−1 )
n
for n = 3, 5, 10 on the interval [−2π, 2π] . Comment on
(2n + 1)!
n=0

how these plots approximate sin x as N increases.

Answer
The polynomial curves have roots close to those of sin x up to their degree and then the polynomials diverge from sin x .

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N 2n
x
62) [T] Plot the graphs of the partial sums SN = ∑(−1 )
n
for n = 3, 5, 10 on the interval . Comment on how
[−2π, 2π]
(2n)!
n=0

these plots approximate cos x as N increases.

This page titled 10.1E: Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert Strang &
Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is
available upon request.
10.1E: Exercises for Section 10.1 by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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10.2: Properties of Power Series
 Learning Objectives
Combine power series by addition or subtraction.
Create a new power series by multiplication by a power of the variable or a constant, or by substitution.
Multiply two power series together.
Differentiate and integrate power series term-by-term.

In the preceding section on power series and functions we showed how to represent certain functions using power series. In this
section we discuss how power series can be combined, differentiated, or integrated to create new power series. This capability is
particularly useful for a couple of reasons. First, it allows us to find power series representations for certain elementary functions,
by writing those functions in terms of functions with known power series. For example, given the power series representation for
1 1
f (x) = , we can find a power series representation for f '(x) = 2
. Second, being able to create power series allows
1 −x (1 − x)

us to define new functions that cannot be written in terms of elementary functions. This capability is particularly useful for solving
differential equations for which there is no solution in terms of elementary functions.

Combining Power Series

If we have two power series with the same interval of convergence, we can add or subtract the two series to create a new power
series, also with the same interval of convergence. Similarly, we can multiply a power series by a power of x or evaluate a power
series at x for a positive integer m to create a new power series. Being able to do this allows us to find power series
m

representations for certain functions by using power series representations of other functions. For example, since we know the
power series representation for f (x) = , we can find power series representations for related functions, such as
1

1−x

3x
y =
2
1 −x

and
1
y = .
(x − 1)(x − 3)

In Note 10.2.1, we state results regarding addition or subtraction of power series, composition of a power series, and multiplication
of a power series by a power of the variable. For simplicity, we state the theorem for power series centered at x = 0 . Similar results
hold for power series centered at x = a .

 Note: 10.2.1: Combining Power Series

∞ ∞

Suppose that the two power series ∑ cn x

n
and ∑ dn x
n
converge to the functions f and g , respectively, on a common
n=0 n=0

interval I .
∞

i. The power series ∑(c nx

n n
± dn x ) converges to f ± g on I .
n=0
∞

ii. For any integer m ≥ 0 and any real number b , the power series ∑ bx m
n x
n
converges to bx m
f (x) on I .
n=0
∞

iii. For any integer m ≥ 0 and any real number b , the series ∑ c n (b x
m n
) converges to f (bx m
) for all x such that bx is in
m

n=0

I .

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 Proof
∞ ∞ ∞

We prove i. in the case of the series ∑(c nx

n
+ dn x )
n
. Suppose that ∑ c nx
n
and ∑ d n
nx converge to the functions f and
n=0 n=0 n=0

g , respectively, on the interval I . Let x be a point in I and let SN (x) and TN (x) denote the Nth partial sums of the series
∞ ∞

∑ cn x
n
and ∑ dn x
n
, respectively. Then the sequence SN (x) converges to f (x) and the sequence TN (x) converges to
n=0 n=0
∞

g(x) . Furthermore, the Nth partial sum of ∑(c nx

n
+ dn x )
n
is
n=0

N N N
n n n n
∑(cn x + dn x ) = ∑ cn x + ∑ dn x

n=0 n=0 n=0

= SN (x) + TN (x).

Because
lim (SN (x) + TN (x)) = lim SN (x) + lim TN (x)
N →∞ N →∞ N →∞

= f (x) + g(x),

we conclude that the series ∑(c nx

n
+ dn x )
n
converges to f (x) + g(x).
n=0

We examine products of power series in a later theorem. First, we show several applications of Note and how to find the interval of
convergence of a power series given the interval of convergence of a related power series.

 Example 10.2.1: Combining Power Series

∞ ∞

Suppose that ∑ a n
nx is a power series whose interval of convergence is (−1, 1), and suppose that ∑ b nx
n
is a power series
n=0 n=0

whose interval of convergence is (−2, 2).

∞

a. Find the interval of convergence of the series ∑(a nx

n
+ bn x ).
n

n=0
∞

b. Find the interval of convergence of the series ∑ a n3

n
x .
n

n=0

Solution
∞ ∞

a. Since the interval (−1, 1) is a common interval of convergence of the series ∑ a nx

n
and ∑ b nx
n
, the interval of
n=0 n=0
∞

convergence of the series ∑(a nx

n
+ bn x )
n
is (−1, 1).
n=0
∞

b. Since ∑ a nx
n
is a power series centered at zero with radius of convergence 1, it converges for all x in the interval
n=0

(−1, 1). By Note, the series

∞ ∞

n n n
∑ an 3 x = ∑ an (3x )

n=0 n=0

converges if 3x is in the interval (−1, 1). Therefore, the series converges for all x in the interval (− 1

3
,
1

3
).

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 Exercise 10.2.1
∞ ∞
x
Suppose that ∑ a nx
n
has an interval of convergence of (−1, 1). Find the interval of convergence of ∑ a n(
n
) .
2
n=0 n=0

Hint
x
Find the values of x such that is in the interval (−1, 1).
2

Answer
Interval of convergence is (−2, 2).

In the next example, we show how to use Note and the power series for a function f to construct power series for functions related
1
to f . Specifically, we consider functions related to the function f (x) = and we use the fact that
1 −x

∞
1 n 2 3
= ∑x = 1 +x +x +x +…
1 −x
n=0

for |x| < 1.

 Example 10.2.2: Constructing Power Series from Known Power Series

1
Use the power series representation for f (x) = combined with Note to construct a power series for each of the
1 −x

following functions. Find the interval of convergence of the power series.

3x
a. f (x) =
2
1 +x
1
b. f (x) =
(x − 1)(x − 3)

Solution
a. First write f (x) as
1
f (x) = 3x ( ).
2
1 − (−x )

1
Using the power series representation for f (x) = and parts ii. and iii. of Note, we find that a power series
1 −x

representation for f is given by

∞ ∞

2 n n 2n+1
∑ 3x(−x ) = ∑ 3(−1 ) x .

n=0 n=0

1
Since the interval of convergence of the series for is (−1, 1), the interval of convergence for this new series is the
1 −x
set of real numbers x such that ∣∣x 2
∣< 1 . Therefore, the interval of convergence is (−1, 1).
1
b. To find the power series representation, use partial fractions to write f (x) = as the sum of two fractions.
(x − 1)(x − 3)

We have

1 −1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/6

= + = − = − .
x
(x − 1)(x − 3) x −1 x −3 1 −x 3 −x 1 −x
1−
3

First, using part ii. of Note, we obtain

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∞
1/2 1 n
=∑ x for |x| < 1.
1 −x 2
n=0

Then, using parts ii. and iii. of Note, we have

∞
1/6 n
1 x
=∑ ( ) for |x| < 3.
1 − x/3 6 3
n=0

Since we are combining these two power series, the interval of convergence of the difference must be the smaller of
these two intervals. Using this fact and part i. of Note, we have
∞
1 1 1 n
= ∑( − )x
n
(x − 1)(x − 3) 2 6⋅3
n=0

where the interval of convergence is (−1, 1).

 Exercise 10.2.2
1 1
Use the series for f (x) = on |x| < 1 to construct a series for . Determine the interval of convergence.
1 −x (1 − x)(x − 2)

Hint
1
Use partial fractions to rewrite as the difference of two fractions.
(1 − x)(x − 2)

Answer
∞
1
∑ (−1 +
n+1
n
)x . The interval of convergence is (−1, 1).
n=0 2

In Example 10.2.2, we showed how to find power series for certain functions. In Example 10.2.3 we show how to do the opposite:
given a power series, determine which function it represents.

 Example 10.2.3: Finding the Function Represented by a Given Power Series

∞

Consider the power series ∑2 x .

n n
Find the function f represented by this series. Determine the interval of convergence of
n=0

the series.
Solution
Writing the given series as
∞ ∞

n n n
∑2 x = ∑(2x ) ,

n=0 n=0

we can recognize this series as the power series for

1
f (x) = .
1 − 2x

Since this is a geometric series, the series converges if and only if |2x| < 1. Therefore, the interval of convergence is
1 1
(− , ).
2 2

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 Exercise 10.2.3
∞
1
Find the function represented by the power series ∑ n
x
n
.
3
n=0

Determine its interval of convergence.

Hint
n
1 x
Write n
n
x =( ) .
3 3

Answer
3
f (x) = . The interval of convergence is (−3, 3).
3 −x

Recall the questions posed in the chapter opener about which is the better way of receiving payouts from lottery winnings. We now
revisit those questions and show how to use series to compare values of payments over time with a lump sum payment today. We
will compute how much future payments are worth in terms of today’s dollars, assuming we have the ability to invest winnings and
earn interest. The value of future payments in terms of today’s dollars is known as the present value of those payments.

 Example 10.2.4: Present Value of Future Winnings

Suppose you win the lottery and are given the following three options:
Receive 20 million dollars today;
Receive 1.5 million dollars per year over the next 20 years; or
Receive 1 million dollars per year indefinitely (being passed on to your heirs).
Which is the best deal, assuming that the annual interest rate is 5%? We answer this by working through the following
sequence of questions.
a. How much is the 1.5 million dollars received annually over the course of 20 years worth in terms of today’s dollars,
assuming an annual interest rate of 5%?
b. Use the answer to part a. to find a general formula for the present value of payments of C dollars received each year over
the next n years, assuming an average annual interest rate r.
c. Find a formula for the present value if annual payments of C dollars continue indefinitely, assuming an average annual
interest rate r.
d. Use the answer to part c. to determine the present value of 1 million dollars paid annually indefinitely.
e. Use your answers to parts a. and d. to determine which of the three options is best.

Figure 10.2.1 : (credit: modification of work by Robert Huffstutter, Flickr)

Solution
a. Consider the payment of 1.5 million dollars made at the end of the first year. If you were able to receive that payment today
instead of one year from now, you could invest that money and earn 5% interest. Therefore, the present value of that money P 1

satisfies P (1 + 0.05) = 1.5 million dollars. We conclude that

1.5
P1 = = $1.429 million dollars.
1.05

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Similarly, consider the payment of 1.5 million dollars made at the end of the second year. If you were able to receive that
payment today, you could invest that money for two years, earning 5% interest, compounded annually. Therefore, the
present value of that money P satisfies P (1 + 0.05) = 1.5 million dollars. We conclude that
2 2
2

P2 = 1.5(1.05 )
2
= $1.361 million dollars.
The value of the future payments today is the sum of the present values P1 , P2 , … , P20 of each of those annual
payments. The present value P satisfies
k

1.5
Pk =
k
.
(1.05)

Therefore,
1.5 1.5 1.5
P = +
2
+… +
20
= $18.693 million dollars.
1.05 (1.05) (1.05)

b. Using the result from part a. we see that the present value P of C dollars paid annually over the course of n years, assuming
an annual interest rate r, is given by
C C C
P = +
2
+… +
n
dollars.
1 +r (1 + r) (1 + r)

c. Using the result from part b. we see that the present value of an annuity that continues indefinitely is given by the infinite
series
∞
C
P =∑ .
n+1
(1 + r)
n=0

∣ 1 ∣
We can view the present value as a power series in r, which converges as long as ∣ ∣ <1 . Since r > 0 , this series
∣ 1 +r ∣

converges. Rewriting the series as

∞ n
C 1
P = ∑( ) ,
(1 + r) 1 +r
n=0

we recognize this series as the power series for

1 1 1 +r
f (r) = = = .
1 r r
1 −( ) ( )
1 +r 1 +r

We conclude that the present value of this annuity is

C 1 +r C
P = ⋅ = .
1 +r r r

d. From the result to part c. we conclude that the present value P of C =1 million dollars paid out every year indefinitely,
assuming an annual interest rate r = 0.05, is given by
1
P = = 20 million dollars.
0.05

e. From part a. we see that receiving $1.5 million dollars over the course of 20 years is worth $18.693 million dollars in today’s
dollars. From part d. we see that receiving $1 million dollars per year indefinitely is worth $20 million dollars in today’s
dollars. Therefore, either receiving a lump-sum payment of $20 million dollars today or receiving $1 million dollars
indefinitely have the same present value.

Multiplication of Power Series

We can also create new power series by multiplying power series. Being able to multiply two power series provides another way of
finding power series representations for functions. The way we multiply them is similar to how we multiply polynomials. For
example, suppose we want to multiply

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∞

n 2
∑ cn x = c0 + c1 x + c2 x +…

n=0

and
∞

n 2
∑ dn x = d0 + d + 1x + d2 x +… .

n=0

It appears that the product should satisfy

∞ ∞

n n 2 2 0 0 1
( ∑ cn x ) ( ∑ dn x ) = (c0 + c1 x + c2 x + …) ⋅ (d0 + d1 x + d2 x + …) = c0 d + (c1 d + c0 d )x

n=0 n=−0

0 1 2 2
+ (c2 d + c1 d + c0 d )x +… .

∞ ∞

In Note, we state the main result regarding multiplying power series, showing that if ∑ cn x
n
and ∑ dn x
n
converge on a
n=0 n=0

common interval I , then we can multiply the series in this way, and the resulting series also converges on the interval I .

 Multiplying Power Series

∞ ∞

Suppose that the power series ∑ c n

nx and ∑ d nx
n
converge to f and g , respectively, on a common interval I . Let
n=0 n=0

en = c0 dn + c1 dn−1 + c2 dn−2 + … + cn−1 d1 + cn d0 = ∑ ck dn−k .

k=0

Then
∞ ∞ ∞
n n n
( ∑ cn x ) ( ∑ dn x ) = ∑ en x

n=0 n=0 n=0

and
∞

n
∑ en x converges to f (x) ⋅ g(x) on I .

n=0

∞ ∞ ∞

The series ∑ e nx
n
is known as the Cauchy product of the series ∑ c nx
n
and ∑ d nx
n
.
n=0 n=0 n=0

We omit the proof of this theorem, as it is beyond the level of this text and is typically covered in a more advanced course. We now
provide an example of this theorem by finding the power series representation for
1
f (x) =
2
(1 − x)(1 − x )

using the power series representations for

1 1
y = and y =
2
1 −x 1 −x

 Example 10.2.5: Multiplying Power Series

Multiply the power series representation
∞
1 n 2 3
= ∑x = 1 +x +x +x +…
1 −x
n=0

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for |x| < 1 with the power series representation
∞
1 n
2 2 4 6
= ∑ (x ) = 1 +x +x +x +…
2
1 −x
n=0

1
for |x| < 1 to construct a power series for f (x) = 2
on the interval (−1, 1).
(1 − x)(1 − x )

Solution
We need to multiply
2 3 2 4 6
(1 + x + x +x + …)(1 + x +x +x + …).

Writing out the first several terms, we see that the product is given by
2 4 6 3 5 7 2 4 6 8 3 5 7 9
(1 + x +x +x + …) + (x + x +x +x + …) + (x +x +x +x + …) + (x +x +x +x + …)

2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
= 1 + x + (1 + 1)x + (1 + 1)x + (1 + 1 + 1)x + (1 + 1 + 1)x + … = 1 + x + 2x + 2x + 3x + 3x +… .

1 1
Since the series for y = and y =
2
both converge on the interval (−1, 1), the series for the product also
1 −x 1 −x

converges on the interval (−1, 1).

 Exercise 10.2.4
1 ∞ 1
Multiply the series = ∑n=0 x
n
by itself to construct a series for .
1 −x (1 − x)(1 − x)

Hint
Multiply the first few terms of (1 + x + x 2
+x
3
+ …)(1 + x + x
2
+x
3
+ …)

Answer
2 3
1 + 2x + 3 x + 4x +…

Differentiating and Integrating Power Series

∞

Consider a power series ∑ c nx

n
= c0 + c1 x + c2 x
2
+… that converges on some interval I , and let f be the function defined by
n=0

this series. Here we address two questions about f .

Is f differentiable, and if so, how do we determine the derivative f '?
How do we evaluate the indefinite integral ∫ f (x) dx?
We know that, for a polynomial with a finite number of terms, we can evaluate the derivative by differentiating each term
separately. Similarly, we can evaluate the indefinite integral by integrating each term separately. Here we show that we can do the
same thing for convergent power series. That is, if
n 2
f (x) = cn x = c0 + c1 x + c2 x +…

converges on some interval I, then

2
f '(x) = c1 + 2 c2 x + 3 c3 x +…

and
2 3
x x
∫ f (x) dx = C + c0 x + c1 + c2 +… .
2 3

Evaluating the derivative and indefinite integral in this way is called term-by-term differentiation of a power series and term-
by-term integration of a power series, respectively. The ability to differentiate and integrate power series term-by-term also

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allows us to use known power series representations to find power series representations for other functions. For example, given
1 1
the power series for f (x) = , we can differentiate term-by-term to find the power series for f '(x) = . Similarly,
1 −x (1 − x)2

1
using the power series for g(x) = , we can integrate term-by-term to find the power series for G(x) = ln(1 + x) , an
1 +x

antiderivative of g. We show how to do this in Example 10.2.6 and Example 10.2.7. First, we state Note, which provides the main
result regarding differentiation and integration of power series.

 Term-by-Term Differentiation and Integration for Power Series

∞

Suppose that the power series ∑ c n (x − a)

n
converges on the interval (a − R, a + R) for some R > 0 . Let f be the function
n=0

defined by the series

∞

n 2 3
f (x) = ∑ cn (x − a) = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a) + c3 (x − a) +…

n=0

for |x − a| < R . Then f is differentiable on the interval (a − R, a + R) and we can find f ' by differentiating the series term-
by-term:
∞

n 2
f '(x) = ∑ ncn (x − a) − 1 = c1 + 2 c2 (x − a) + 3 c3 (x − a) +…

n=1

for |x − a| < R. Also, to find ∫ f (x) dx , we can integrate the series term-by-term. The resulting series converges on
(a − R, a + R), and we have
∞ n+1 2 3
(x − a) (x − a) (x − a)
∫ f (x) dx = C + ∑ cn = C + c0 (x − a) + c1 + c2 +…
n+1 2 3
n=0

for |x − a| < R.

The proof of this result is beyond the scope of the text and is omitted. Note that although Note guarantees the same radius of
convergence when a power series is differentiated or integrated term-by-term, it says nothing about what happens at the endpoints.
It is possible that the differentiated and integrated power series have different behavior at the endpoints than does the original
series. We see this behavior in the next examples.

 Example 10.2.6: Differentiating Power Series

a. Use the power series representation
∞
1
n 2 3
f (x) = = ∑x = 1 +x +x +x +…
1 −x
n=0

for |x| < 1 to find a power series representation for

1
g(x) =
2
(1 − x)

on the interval (−1, 1). Determine whether the resulting series converges at the endpoints.
∞
n+1
b. Use the result of part a. to evaluate the sum of the series ∑ n
.
4
n=0

Solution
1 1
a. Since g(x) =
2
is the derivative of f (x) = , we can find a power series representation for g by
(1 − x) 1 −x

differentiating the power series for f term-by-term. The result is

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∞
1 d 1 d n
d 2 3 2 3
g(x) = = ( ) =∑ (x ) = (1 + x + x +x + …) = 0 + 1 + 2x + 3 x + 4x +… =
2
(1 − x) dx 1 −x dx dx
n=0

n
∑(n + 1)x

n=0

for |x| < 1.

Note 10.2.1 does not guarantee anything about the behavior of this series at the endpoints. Testing the endpoints by
using the divergence test, we find that the series diverges at both endpoints x = ±1 .Note that this is the same result
found in Example.
b. From part a. we know that
∞
1
n
∑(n + 1)x = .
2
(1 − x)
n=0

Therefore,
∞ ∞ n
n+1 1
∑ = ∑(n + 1)( )
n
4 4
n=0 n=0

1
=
2
1
(1 − )
4

1
=
2
3
( )
4

16
=
9

 Exercise 10.2.5
1 ∞ 2
Differentiate the series 2
=∑
n=0
(n + 1)x
n
term-by-term to find a power series representation for 3
on the
(1 − x) (1 − x)

interval (−1, 1).

Hint
Write out the first several terms and apply the power rule.

Answer
∞

n
∑(n + 2)(n + 1)x

n=0

 Example 10.2.7: Integrating Power Series

For each of the following functions f, find a power series representation for f by integrating the power series for f ' and find its
interval of convergence.
a. f (x) = ln(1 + x)
b. f (x) = tan x
−1

Solution:
1
a. For f (x) = ln(1 + x) ,the derivative is f '(x) = . We know that
1 +x

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∞
1 1 n 2 3
= = ∑(−x ) = 1 −x +x −x +…
1 +x 1 − (−x)
n=0

for |x| < 1. To find a power series for f (x) = ln(1 + x) , we integrate the series term-by-term.
2 3 4
x x x
2 3
∫ f '(x) dx = ∫ (1 − x + x −x + …) dx = C + x − + − +…
2 3 4

1
Since f (x) = ln(1 + x) is an antiderivative of , it remains to solve for the constant C . Since ln(1 + 0) = 0 , we
1 +x

have C =0 . Therefore, a power series representation for f (x) = ln(1 + x) is

2 3 4 ∞ n
x x x x
n+1
ln(1 + x) = x − + − + … = ∑(−1 ) for |x| < 1.
2 3 4 n
n=1

Note 10.2.1 does not guarantee anything about the behavior of this power series at the endpoints. However, checking the
endpoints, we find that at x = 1 the series is the alternating harmonic series, which converges. Also, at x = −1 , the
series is the harmonic series, which diverges. It is important to note that, even though this series converges at x = 1 ,
Note does not guarantee that the series actually converges to ln(2). In fact, the series does converge to ln(2), but
showing this fact requires more advanced techniques. (Abel’s theorem, covered in more advanced texts, deals with this
more technical point.) The interval of convergence is (−1, 1].
1
b. The derivative of f (x) = tan −1
x is f '(x) = 2
. We know that
1 +x

∞
1 1
2 n 2 4 6
= = ∑(−x ) = 1 −x +x −x +…
2 2
1 +x 1 − (−x )
n=0

for |x| < 1. To find a power series for f (x) = tan −1

x , we integrate this series term-by-term.
3 5 7
x x x
2 4 6
∫ f '(x) dx = ∫ (1 − x +x −x + …) dx = C + x − + − +…
3 5 7

Since tan −1
(0) = 0 , we have C =0 . Therefore, a power series representation for f (x) = tan −1
x is
3 5 7 ∞ 2n+1
x x x x
−1 n
tan x =x− + − + … = ∑(−1 )
3 5 7 2n + 1
n=0

for |x| < 1. Again, Note 10.2.1 does not guarantee anything about the convergence of this series at the endpoints.
However, checking the endpoints and using the alternating series test, we find that the series converges at x = 1 and
x = −1 . As discussed in part a., using Abel’s theorem, it can be shown that the series actually converges to tan
−1
(1)

and tan (−1) at x = 1 and x = −1 , respectively. Thus, the interval of convergence is [−1, 1].
−1

 Exercise 10.2.6
∞ n
x
Integrate the power series ln(1 + x) = ∑(−1) n+1
term-by-term to evaluate ∫ ln(1 + x) dx.
n
n=1

Hint
n+1 n
x x
Use the fact that is an antiderivative of .
(n + 1)n n

Answer
∞ n n
(−1) x
∑
n(n − 1)
n=2

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Up to this point, we have shown several techniques for finding power series representations for functions. However, how do we
know that these power series are unique? That is, given a function f and a power series for f at a , is it possible that there is a
different power series for f at a that we could have found if we had used a different technique? The answer to this question is no.
This fact should not seem surprising if we think of power series as polynomials with an infinite number of terms. Intuitively, if
2 2
c0 + c1 x + c2 x + … = d0 + d1 x + d2 x +…

for all values x in some open interval I about zero, then the coefficients cn should equal dn for n ≥0 . We now state this result
formally.

 Uniqueness of Power Series

∞ ∞

Let ∑ c n (x − a)
n
and ∑ d n (x − a)
n
be two convergent power series such that
n=0 n=0

∞ ∞

n n
∑ cn (x − a) = ∑ dn (x − a)

n=0 n=0

for all x in an open interval containing a . Then c n = dn for all n ≥ 0 .

 Proof

Let
2 3
f (x) = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a) + c3 (x − a) +…

2 3
= d0 + d1 (x − a) + d2 (x − a) + d3 (x − a) +… .

Then f (a) = c 0 = d0 . By Note, we can differentiate both series term-by-term. Therefore,

2
f '(x) = c1 + 2 c2 (x − a) + 3 c3 (x − a) +…

2
= d1 + 2 d2 (x − a) + 3 d3 (x − a) +… ,

and thus, f '(a) = c 1 = d1 . Similarly,

′′
f (x) = 2 c2 + 3 ⋅ 2 c3 (x − a) + …

= 2 d2 + 3 ⋅ 2 d3 (x − a) + …

implies that f (a) = 2c = 2d , and therefore, c

′′
2 2 2 = d2 . More generally, for any integer n ≥ 0, f (n)
(a) = n! cn = n! dn , and
consequently, c = d for all n ≥ 0.
n n

In this section we have shown how to find power series representations for certain functions using various algebraic operations,
differentiation, or integration. At this point, however, we are still limited as to the functions for which we can find power series
representations. Next, we show how to find power series representations for many more functions by introducing Taylor series.

Key Concepts
∞ ∞

Given two power series ∑ c nx

n
and ∑ d nx
n
that converge to functions f and g on a common interval I , the sum and
n=0 n=0

difference of the two series converge to f ± g , respectively, on I . In addition, for any real number b and integer m ≥ 0 , the
∞ ∞

series ∑ bx m
cn x
n
converges to bx m
f (x) and the series ∑ c n (b x
m n
) converges to f (bx m
) whenever bx is in the interval
m

n=0 n=0

I .
Given two power series that converge on an interval (−R, R), the Cauchy product of the two power series converges on the
interval (−R, R) .
Given a power series that converges to a function f on an interval (−R, R) , the series can be differentiated term-by-term and
the resulting series converges to f ' on (−R, R) . The series can also be integrated term-by-term and the resulting series

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converges to ∫ f (x) dx on (−R, R) .

Glossary
term-by-term differentiation of a power series
∞

a technique for evaluating the derivative of a power series ∑ c n (x

n
− a) by evaluating the derivative of each term separately
n=0
∞

to create the new power series ∑ nc n (x − a)

n−1

n=1

term-by-term integration of a power series

∞

a technique for integrating a power series ∑ c n (x

n
− a) by integrating each term separately to create the new power series
n=0
∞ n+1
(x − a)
C + ∑ cn
n+1
n=0

This page titled 10.2: Properties of Power Series is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a
detailed edit history is available upon request.
10.2: Properties of Power Series by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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10.2E: Exercises
∞ n ∞ n
x x
1) If f (x) = ∑ and g(x) = ∑(−1) n
, find the power series of 1

2
(f (x) + g(x)) and of 1

2
(f (x) − g(x)) .
n! n!
n=0 n=0

Answer
∞ 2n ∞ 2n+1
1 x 1 x
(f (x) + g(x)) = ∑ and (f (x) − g(x)) = ∑ .
2 (2n)! 2 (2n + 1)!
n=0 n=0

∞ 2n ∞ 2n+1
x x
2) If C (x) = ∑ and S(x) = ∑ , find the power series of C (x) + S(x) and of C (x) − S(x) .
(2n)! (2n + 1)!
n=0 n=0

In exercises 3 - 6, use partial fractions to find the power series of each function.
4
3)
(x − 3)(x + 1)

Answer
∞ ∞ ∞
4 1 1 1 1 1 x n 1
n n n+1 n
= − =− − =− ∑( ) − ∑(−1 ) x = ∑ ((−1 ) − )x
x
(x − 3)(x + 1) x −3 x +1 3(1 − ) 1 − (−x) 3 3 3n + 1
3 n=0 n=0 n=0

3
4)
(x + 2)(x − 1)

5
5) 2 2
(x + 4)(x − 1)

Answer
∞ ∞ ∞
n
5 1 1 1 2n
1 n
x n+1
1 2n
= − = −∑x − ∑(−1 ) ( ) = ∑ ((−1) + (−1 ) )x
2 2 2 2 n+2
(x + 4)(x − 1) x −1 4 x 4 2 2
1 +( ) n=0 n=0 n=0
2

30
6)
(x2 + 1)(x2 − 9)

In exercises 7 - 10, express each series as a rational function.

∞
1
7) ∑ n
x
n=1

Answer
∞
1 1 1 1 1
∑ = ⋅ =
n 1
x x x 1− x −1
n=0 x

∞
1
8) ∑ 2n
x
n=1

∞
1
9) ∑
(x − 3)2n−1
n=1

Answer
1 1 x −3
⋅ =
1 2
x −3 1− (x − 3 ) −1
2
(x−3)

∞
1 1
10) ∑ ( 2n−1
−
2n−1
)
(x − 3) (x − 2)
n=1

Exercises 11 - 16 explore applications of annuities.

11) Calculate the present values P of an annuity in which $10,000 is to be paid out annually for a period of 20 years, assuming interest rates of
r = 0.03, r = 0.05, and r = 0.07 .

Answer

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20 −20
1 1 1 − (1 + r)
P = P1 + ⋯ + P20 where P k = 10, 000
k
. Then P = 10, 000 ∑
k
= 10, 000 . When
(1 + r) (1 + r) r
k=1

r = 0.03, P ≈ 10, 000 × 14.8775 = 148, 775. When r = 0.05, P ≈ 10, 000 × 12.4622 = 124, 622. When r = 0.07, .
P ≈ 105, 940

12) Calculate the present values P of annuities in which $9,000 is to be paid out annually perpetually, assuming interest rates of
r = 0.03, r = 0.05 and r = 0.07 .

13) Calculate the annual payouts C to be given for 20 years on annuities having present value $100,000 assuming respective interest rates of
r = 0.03, r = 0.05, and r = 0.07.

Answer
−N
C (1 − (1 + r) ) Pr
In general, P = for N years of payouts, or C = . For N = 20 and P = 100, 000 , one has
r −N
1 − (1 + r)

C = 6721.57 when r = 0.03; C = 8024.26 when r = 0.05; and C ≈ 9439.29 when r = 0.07.

14) Calculate the annual payouts C to be given perpetually on annuities having present value $100,000 assuming respective interest rates of
r = 0.03, r = 0.05, and r = 0.07 .

15) Suppose that an annuity has a present value P =1 million dollars. What interest rate r would allow for perpetual annual payouts of $50,000?

Answer
C C 4

In general, P = . Thus, r = =5×

6
= 0.05.
r P 10

16) Suppose that an annuity has a present value P = 10 million dollars. What interest rate r would allow for perpetual annual payouts of
$100,000?
In exercises 17 - 20, express the sum of each power series in terms of geometric series, and then express the sum as a rational function.
17) x + x 2
−x
3
+x
4
+x
5
−x
6
+⋯ (Hint: Group powers x 3k 3k−1
, x , and x 3k−2
.)

Answer
2 3
x +x −x
2 3 3 6
(x + x − x )(1 + x +x + ⋯) =
3
1 −x

18) x + x 2
−x
3
−x
4
+x
5
+x
6
−x
7
−x
8
+⋯ (Hint: Group powers x 4k 4k−1
, x , etc.)
19) x − x 2
−x
3
+x
4
−x
5
−x
6
+x
7
−⋯ (Hint: Group powers x 3k
, x
3k−1
, and x 3k−2
.)

Answer
2 3
x −x −x
2 3 3 6
(x − x − x )(1 + x +x + ⋯) =
3
1 −x

2 3 4 5 6 3k 3k−1 3k−2
x x x x x x x x x
20) + − + + − +⋯ (Hint: Group powers ( ) , ( ) , and ( ) .)
2 4 8 16 32 64 2 2 2

In exercises 21 - 24, find the power series of f (x)g(x) given f and g as defined.
∞ ∞

21) f (x) = 2 ∑ x n
, g(x) = ∑ nx
n

n=0 n=0

Answer
n n ∞

an = 2, bn = n so c n = ∑ bk an−k = 2 ∑ k = (n)(n + 1) and f (x)g(x) = ∑ n(n + 1)x n

k=0 k=0 n=1

∞ ∞ n
1 1
22) f (x) = ∑ x n
, g(x) = ∑ x
n
. Express the coefficients of f (x)g(x) in terms of H n =∑ .
n k
n=1 n=1 k=1

∞
n
x
23) f (x) = g(x) = ∑ ( )
2
n=1

Answer
n n ∞
n
n x
an = bn = 2
−n
so c n = ∑ bk an−k = 2
−n
∑1 =
n
and f (x)g(x) = ∑ n( )
2 2
k=1 k=1 n=1

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∞

24) f (x) = g(x) = ∑ nx n

n=1

In exercises 25 - 26, differentiate the given series expansion of f term-by-term to obtain the corresponding series expansion for the
derivative of f .
∞
1
25) f (x) = = ∑(−1 ) x
n n

1 +x
n=0

Answer
∞
1
The derivative of f is − 2
= − ∑(−1 ) (n + 1)x
n n
.
(1 + x)
n=0

∞
1
26) f (x) = 2
= ∑x
2n

1 −x
n=0

In exercises 27 - 28, integrate the given series expansion of f term-by-term from zero to x to obtain the corresponding series expansion for
the indefinite integral of f .
∞
2x
27) f (x) = 2 2
= ∑(−1 ) (2n)x
n 2n−1

(1 + x )
n=1

Answer
∞
1
The indefinite integral of f is = ∑(−1 ) x
n 2n
.
2
1 +x
n=0

∞
2x
28) f (x) = = 2 ∑(−1 ) x
n 2n+1

1 + x2
n=0

In exercises 29 - 32, evaluate each infinite series by identifying it as the value of a derivative or integral of geometric series.
∞ ∞
n
29) Evaluate ∑ n
as f ' ( 1

2
) where f (x) = ∑ x . n

2
n=1 n=0

Answer
∞ ∞ ∞
1 1 n d 1 n
f (x) = ∑ x
n
= ; f '( ) =∑
n−1
= (1 − x )
−1 ∣
∣
=
2
∣
∣
=4 so ∑ n
= 2.
1 −x 2 2 dx x=1/2 (1 − x) x=1/2 2
n=0 n=1 n=1

∞ ∞
n
30) Evaluate ∑ n
as f ' ( 1

3
) where f (x) = ∑ x . 6n

3
n=1 n=0

∞ ∞
n(n − 1)
31) Evaluate ∑ n
as f ′′
(
1

2
) where f (x) = ∑ x . n

2
n=2 n=0

Answer
∞ ∞ 2 ∞
1 1 n(n − 1) d 2 (n − 1)
f (x) = ∑ x
n
= ; f
′′
( ) =∑ = (1 − x )
−1 ∣

∣x=1/2
=
∣
∣x=1/2
= 16 so ∑ n n
= 4.
n−2 2 3
1 −x 2 2 dx (1 − x) 2
n=0 n=2 n=2

∞ n 1 ∞
(−1) 1
32) Evaluate ∑ as ∫ f (t) dt where f (x) = ∑(−1) n
x
2n
= .
n+1 0
1 + x2
n=0 n=0

∞
1
In exercises 33 - 39, given that = ∑x
n
, use term-by-term differentiation or integration to find power series for each function
1 −x
n=0

centered at the given point.

33) f (x) = ln x centered at x = 1 (Hint: x = 1 − (1 − x) )

Answer
n n+1
(−1 ) (x − 1 )
n n n
∫ ∑(1 − x ) dx = ∫ ∑(−1 ) (x − 1 ) dx = ∑
n+1

34) ln(1 − x) at x = 0

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35) ln(1 − x 2
) at x = 0

Answer
2 2
x ∞ x ∞ 2(n+1) ∞ 2n
1 x x
n
−∫ dt = − ∑ ∫ t dx − ∑ = −∑
t=0 1 −t 0 n+1 n
n=0 n=0 n=1

2x
36) f (x) = 2 2
at x = 0
(1 − x )

37) f (x) = tan −1

(x )
2
at x = 0

Answer
2 2
x ∞ x ∞ 2n+1 ∞ 4n+2
dt n 2n n
t 2
n
x
x
∫ = ∑(−1 ) ∫ t dt = ∑(−1 ) ∣ = ∑(−1 )
2 t=0
0 1 +t 0 2n + 1 2n + 1
n=0 n=0 n=0

38) f (x) = ln(1 + x 2

) at x = 0
x ∞ n
(x − 1)
39) f (x) = ∫ ln t dt where ln(x) = ∑(−1) n−1

0
n
n=1

Answer
Term-by-term integration gives
x ∞ n+1 ∞ ∞ n
(x − 1) 1 1 (x − 1)
n−1 n−1 n+1 n
∫ ln t dt = ∑(−1 ) = ∑(−1 ) ( − ) (x − 1 ) = (x − 1) ln x + ∑(−1 ) = x ln x − x.
0 n(n + 1) n n+1 n
n=1 n=1 n=2

∞ n
x
40) [T] Evaluate the power series expansion ln(1 + x) = ∑(−1 )
n−1
at x =1 to show that ln(2) is the sum of the alternating harmonic
n
n=1

series. Use the alternating series test to determine how many terms of the sum are needed to estimate ln(2) accurate to within 0.001, and find such
an approximation.
1 +x
41) [T] Subtract the infinite series of ln(1 − x) from ln(1 + x) to get a power series for ln( ). Evaluate at x = 1

3
. What is the smallest N
1 −x

such that the N th

partial sum of this series approximates ln(2) with an error less than 0.001?

Answer
∞ n ∞ n ∞ n ∞ 2n−1
x x 1 +x x x
We have ln(1 − x) = − ∑ so ln(1 + x) = ∑(−1) n−1
. Thus, ln( ) = ∑ (1 + (−1 )
n−1
) =2∑ .
n n 1 −x n 2n − 1
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1

∞ 3
1 1
When x = 1

3
we obtain ln(2) = 2 ∑ 2n−1
. We have 2 ∑ 2n−1
= 0.69300 … , while
n=1
3 (2n − 1) n=1
3 (2n − 1)

4
1
2∑ = 0.69313 … and ln(2) = 0.69314 … ;therefore, N =4 .
2n−1
n=1
3 (2n − 1)

In exercises 42 - 45, using a substitution if indicated, express each series in terms of elementary functions and find the radius of
convergence of the sum.
∞

42) ∑(x k
−x
2k+1
)

k=0

∞ 3k
x
43) ∑
6k
k=1

Answer
∞ k ∞ 3k
x x 1
∑ = − ln(1 − x) so ∑ =− ln(1 − x )
3
. The radius of convergence is equal to 1 by the ratio test.
k 6k 6
k=1 k=1

∞
1
44) ∑(1 + x 2
)
−k
using y = 2
1 +x
k=1

45) ∑ 2 −kx
using y = 2 −x

k=1

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Answer
∞ −x
y 2 1 ak+1
If y = 2 −x
, then ∑ y k
= =
−x
=
x
. If a k =2
−kx
, then =2
−x
<1 when x > 0 . So the series converges
1 −y 1 −2 2 −1 ak
k=1

for all x > 0 .

∞ n
x
46) Show that, up to powers x and y , E(x) = ∑
3 3
satisfies E(x + y) = E(x)E(y) .
n!
n=0

∞ n
x
47) Differentiate the series E(x) = ∑ term-by-term to show that E(x) is equal to its derivative.
n!
n=0

Answer
Answers will vary.
∞ x

48) Show that if f (x) = ∑ a nx

n
is a sum of even powers, that is, a n =0 if n is odd, then F =∫ f (t) dt is a sum of odd powers, while if I is
n=0 0

a sum of odd powers, then F is a sum of even powers.

∞
an−1 an−2
49) [T] Suppose that the coefficients an of the series ∑ an x
n
are defined by the recurrence relation an = + . For a
0 =0 and
n n(n − 1)
n=0

a1 = 1 , compute and plot the sums S N = ∑ an x

n
for N = 2, 3, 4, 5 on [−1, 1].
n=0

Answer
The solid curve is S . The dashed curve is S , dotted is S , and dash-dotted is S
5 2 3 4

∞
an−1 an−2
50) [T] Suppose that the coefficients an of the series ∑ a nx
n
are defined by the recurrence relation a n = − − −−−−− −− . For a 0 =1 and
√n √n(n − 1)
n=0

a1 = 0 , compute and plot the sums S N = ∑ an x

n
for N = 2, 3, 4, 5 on [−1, 1].
n=0

∞ n
x
51) [T] Given the power series expansion ln(1 + x) = ∑(−1 )
n−1
, determine how many terms N of the sum evaluated at x = −1/2 are
n
n=1

N n
x
needed to approximate ln(2) accurate to within 1/1000. Evaluate the corresponding partial sum ∑(−1) n−1
.
n
n=1

Answer
∞ ∞ ∞ 10
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
When x = − , − ln(2) = ln( ) = −∑
n
. Since ∑
n
< ∑
n
=
10
, one has ∑ n
= 0.69306 … whereas
2 2 n2 n2 2 2 n2
n=1 n=11 n=11 n=1

ln(2) = 0.69314 … ; therefore, N = 10.

∞ 2k+1
x
52) [T] Given the power series expansion tan
−1
(x) = ∑(−1 )
k
, use the alternating series test to determine how many terms N of the
2k + 1
k=0

sum evaluated at x =1 are needed to approximate tan

−1
(1) =
π

4
accurate to within 1/1000. Evaluate the corresponding partial sum
N 2k+1
x
∑(−1 )
k
.
2k + 1
k=0

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53) [T] Recall that −1
tan (
1

√3
) =
π

6
. Assuming an exact value of 1

√3
) , estimate π

6
by evaluating partial sums SN (
1

√3
) of the power series
∞ 2k+1
x
expansion tan −1
(x) = ∑(−1 )
k
at x = 1

√3
. What is the smallest number N such that 6 SN (
1

√3
) approximates π accurately to within
2k + 1
k=0

0.001 ? How many terms are needed for accuracy to within 0.00001?

Answer
N
1 – 1
6 SN (
–
) = 2 √3 ∑(−1 )
n

n
One has π − 6S 4 (
1
) = 0.00101 … and π − 6S 5 (
1
) = 0.00028 … so N =5 is
√3 √3
√3 3 (2n + 1).
n=0

the smallest partial sum with accuracy to within 0.001.Also, π − 6S 7 (

1
) = 0.00002 … while π − 6S 8 (
1
) = −0.000007 … so
√3 √3

N =8 is the smallest N to give accuracy to within 0.00001.

Contributors
Gilbert Strang (MIT) and Edwin “Jed” Herman (Harvey Mudd) with many contributing authors. This content by OpenStax is licensed with a CC-
BY-SA-NC 4.0 license. Download for free at http://cnx.org.

This page titled 10.2E: Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman
(OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request.
10.2E: Exercises for Section 10.2 by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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10.3: Taylor and Maclaurin Series
 Learning Objectives
Describe the procedure for finding a Taylor polynomial of a given order for a function.
Explain the meaning and significance of Taylor’s theorem with remainder.
Estimate the remainder for a Taylor series approximation of a given function.

In the previous two sections we discussed how to find power series representations for certain types of functions––specifically, functions related to
geometric series. Here we discuss power series representations for other types of functions. In particular, we address the following questions: Which
functions can be represented by power series and how do we find such representations? If we can find a power series representation for a particular
function f and the series converges on some interval, how do we prove that the series actually converges to f ?

Overview of Taylor/Maclaurin Series

Consider a function f that has a power series representation at x = a . Then the series has the form
∞

n 2
∑ cn (x − a) = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a) +… . (10.3.1)

n=0

What should the coefficients be? For now, we ignore issues of convergence, but instead focus on what the series should be, if one exists. We return to
discuss convergence later in this section. If the series Equation 10.3.1 is a representation for f at x = a , we certainly want the series to equal f (a) at
x = a . Evaluating the series at x = a , we see that

n 2
∑ cn (x − a) = c0 + c1 (a − a) + c2 (a − a) + ⋯ = c0 . (10.3.2)

n=0

Thus, the series equals f (a) if the coefficient c = f (a) . In addition, we would like the first derivative of the power series to equal f '(a) at x = a .
0

Differentiating Equation 10.3.2 term-by-term, we see that

∞
d
n 2
( ∑ cn (x − a) ) = c1 + 2 c2 (x − a) + 3 c3 (x − a) +… . (10.3.3)
dx
n=0

Therefore, at x = a, the derivative is

∞
d n 2
( ∑ cn (x − a) ) = c1 + 2 c2 (a − a) + 3 c3 (a − a) + ⋯ = c1 . (10.3.4)
dx
n=0

Therefore, the derivative of the series equals f '(a) if the coefficient c = f '(a). Continuing in this way, we look for coefficients c such that all the
1 n

derivatives of the power series Equation 10.3.4 will agree with all the corresponding derivatives of f at x = a . The second and third derivatives of
Equation 10.3.3 are given by
2 ∞
d n 2
( ∑ cn (x − a) ) = 2 c2 + 3 ⋅ 2 c3 (x − a) + 4 ⋅ 3 c4 (x − a) +… (10.3.5)
2
dx
n=0

and
3 ∞
d n 2
( ∑ cn (x − a) ) = 3 ⋅ 2 c3 + 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 c4 (x − a) + 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 c5 (x − a) +⋯ . (10.3.6)
3
dx
n=0

Therefore, at x = a , the second and third derivatives

2 ∞
d n 2
( ∑ cn (x − a) ) = 2 c2 + 3 ⋅ 2 c3 (a − a) + 4 ⋅ 3 c4 (a − a) + ⋯ = 2 c2 (10.3.7)
2
dx
n=0

and
3 ∞
d n 2
( ∑ cn (x − a) ) = 3 ⋅ 2 c3 + 4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 c4 (a − a) + 5 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 3 c5 (a − a) + ⋯ = 3 ⋅ 2 c3 (10.3.8)
dx3
n=0

′′ ′′′
f (a) f (a)
equal f ′′
(a) and f ′′′
(a) , respectively, if c 2 = and c 3 = . More generally, we see that if f has a power series representation at x = a ,
2 3⋅2
(n)
f (a)
then the coefficients should be given by c n = . That is, the series should be
n!

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∞ (n) ′′ ′′′
f (a) f (a) f (a)
n 2 3
∑ (x − a) = f (a) + f '(a)(x − a) + (x − a) + (x − a) +⋯
n! 2! 3!
n=0

This power series for f is known as the Taylor series for f at a. If x = 0 , then this series is known as the Maclaurin series for f .

 Definition 10.3.1: Maclaurin and Taylor series

If f has derivatives of all orders at x = a , then the Taylor series for the function f at a is
∞ (n) ′′ (n)
f (a) f (a) f (a)
n 2 n
∑ (x − a) = f (a) + f '(a)(x − a) + (x − a) +⋯ + (x − a) +⋯
n! 2! n!
n=0

The Taylor series for f at 0 is known as the Maclaurin series for f .

Later in this section, we will show examples of finding Taylor series and discuss conditions under which the Taylor series for a function will
converge to that function. Here, we state an important result. Recall that power series representations are unique. Therefore, if a function f has a
power series at a , then it must be the Taylor series for f at a .

 Uniqueness of Taylor Series

If a function f has a power series at a that converges to f on some open interval containing a , then that power series is the Taylor series for f at
a.

The proof follows directly from that discussed previously.

To determine if a Taylor series converges, we need to look at its sequence of partial sums. These partial sums are finite polynomials, known as
Taylor polynomials.

Taylor Polynomials
The n partial sum of the Taylor series for a function
th
f at a is known as the n
th
-degree Taylor polynomial. For example, the 0th, 1st, 2nd, and 3rd
partial sums of the Taylor series are given by

p0 (x) = f (a)

p1 (x) = f (a) + f '(a)(x − a)

′′
f (a)
2
p2 (x) = f (a) + f '(a)(x − a) + (x − a)
2!

′′ ′′′
f (a) f (a)
2 3
p3 (x) = f (a) + f '(a)(x − a) + (x − a) + (x − a)
2! 3!

respectively. These partial sums are known as the 0th, 1st, 2nd, and 3rd degree Taylor polynomials of f at a , respectively. If x = a , then these
polynomials are known as Maclaurin polynomials for f . We now provide a formal definition of Taylor and Maclaurin polynomials for a function f .

 Definition 10.3.2: Maclaurin polynomial

If f has n derivatives at x = a , then the n -degree Taylor polynomial of f at a is

′′ ′′′ (n)
f (a) f (a) f (a)
2 3 n
pn (x) = f (a) + f '(a)(x − a) + (x − a) + (x − a) +⋯ + (x − a) .
2! 3! n!

The n -degree Taylor polynomial for f at 0 is known as the n -degree Maclaurin polynomial for f .
th th

We now show how to use this definition to find several Taylor polynomials for f (x) = ln x at x = 1 .

 Example 10.3.1: Finding Taylor Polynomials

Find the Taylor polynomials p0 , p1 , p2 and p for 3 f (x) = ln x at x =1 . Use a graphing utility to compare the graph of f with the graphs of
p , p , p and p .
0 1 2 3

Solution
To find these Taylor polynomials, we need to evaluate f and its first three derivatives at x = 1 .

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f (x) = ln x f (1) = 0

1
f '(x) = f '(1) = 1
x

1
′′ ′′
f (x) = − f (1) = −1
2
x

2
′′′ ′′′
f (x) = f (1) = 2
3
x

Therefore,
p0 (x) = f (1) = 0,

p1 (x) = f (1) + f '(1)(x − 1) = x − 1,

′′
f (1) 1
2 2
p2 (x) = f (1) + f '(1)(x − 1) + (x − 1 ) = (x − 1) − (x − 1 )
2 2

′′ ′′′
f (1) f (1) 1 1
2 3 2 3
p3 (x) = f (1) + f '(1)(x − 1) + (x − 1 ) + (x − 1 ) = (x − 1) − (x − 1 ) + (x − 1 )
2 3! 2 3

The graphs of y = f (x) and the first three Taylor polynomials are shown in Figure 10.3.1.

Figure 10.3.1 : The function y = ln x and the Taylor polynomials p 0, p1 , p2 and p at x = 1 are plotted on this graph.
3

 Exercise 10.3.1
1
Find the Taylor polynomials p 0, p1 , p2 and p for f (x) =
3 at x = 1 .
x2

Hint
Find the first three derivatives of f and evaluate them at x = 1.
Answer
p0 (x) = 1

p1 (x) = 1 − 2(x − 1)

2
p2 (x) = 1 − 2(x − 1) + 3(x − 1)

2 3
p3 (x) = 1 − 2(x − 1) + 3(x − 1 ) − 4(x − 1 )

We now show how to find Maclaurin polynomials for e x

, sin x, and cos x. As stated above, Maclaurin polynomials are Taylor polynomials centered
at zero.

 Example 10.3.2: Finding Maclaurin Polynomials

For each of the following functions, find formulas for the Maclaurin polynomials p , p , p and p . Find a formula for the n -degree Maclaurin
0 1 2 3
th

polynomial and write it using sigma notation. Use a graphing utility to compare the graphs of p , p , p and p with f . 0 1 2 3

a. f (x) = ex

b. f (x) = sin x
c. f (x) = cos x
Solution

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Since f (x) = e ,we know that f (x) = f '(x) = f
x ′′
(x) = ⋯ = f
(n)
(x) = e
x
for all positive integers n . Therefore,
′′ (n)
f (0) = f '(0) = f (0) = ⋯ = f (0) = 1

for all positive integers n . Therefore, we have

p0 (x) = f (0) = 1,

p1 (x) = f (0) + f '(0)x = 1 + x,

′′
f (0) 1
2 2
p2 (x) = f (0) + f '(0)x + x = 1 +x + x ,
2! 2

′′ ′′′
f (0) f (0) 1 1
2 3 2 3
p3 (x) = f (0) + f '(0)x + x + x = 1 +x + x + x ,
2 3! 2 3!

′′ ′′′ (n)
f (0) f (0) f (0)
2 3 n
pn (x) = f (0) + f '(0)x + x + x +⋯ + x
2 3! n!

2 3 n
x x x
= 1 +x + + +⋯ + .
2! 3! n!

n k
x
=∑
k!
k=0

The function and the first three Maclaurin polynomials are shown in Figure 10.3.2.

Figure 10.3.2 : The graph shows the function y = e and the Maclaurin polynomials p x
0, p1 , p2 and p .
3

b. For f (x) = sin x , the values of the function and its first four derivatives at x = 0 are given as follows:
f (x) = sin x f (0) = 0

f '(x) = cos x f '(0) = 1

′′ ′′
f (x) = − sin x f (0) = 0

′′′ ′′′
f (x) = − cos x f (0) = −1

(4) (4)
f (x) = sin x f (0) = 0.

Since the fourth derivative is sin x, the pattern repeats. That is, f (2m)
(0) = 0 and f (2m+1) m
(0) = (−1 ) for m ≥ 0. Thus, we have
p0 (x) = 0,

p1 (x) = 0 + x = x,

p2 (x) = 0 + x + 0 = x,

3
1 3
x
p3 (x) = 0 + x + 0 − x =x− ,
3! 3!

3
1 x
3
p4 (x) = 0 + x + 0 − x +0 = x − ,
3! 3!

3 5
1 1 x x
3 5
p5 (x) = 0 + x + 0 − x +0 + x =x− + ,
3! 5! 3! 5!

and for m ≥ 0 ,

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3 5 2m+1
x x m
x
p2m+1 (x) = p2m+2 (x) =x− + − ⋯ + (−1 )
3! 5! (2m + 1)!

m 2k+1
x
k
= ∑(−1 ) .
(2k + 1)!
k=0

Graphs of the function and its Maclaurin polynomials are shown in Figure 10.3.3.

Figure 10.3.3 : The graph shows the function y = sin x and the Maclaurin polynomials p 1, p3 and p .
5

c. For f (x) = cos x, the values of the function and its first four derivatives at x = 0 are given as follows:
f (x) = cos x f (0) = 1

f '(x) = − sin x f '(0) = 0

′′ ′′
f (x) = − cos x f (0) = −1

′′′ ′′′
f (x) = sin x f (0) = 0

(4) (4)
f (x) = cos x f (0) = 1.

Since the fourth derivative is sin x, the pattern repeats. In other words, f (2m)
(0) = (−1 )
m
and f (2m+1)
=0 for m ≥ 0 . Therefore,
p0 (x) = 1,

p1 (x) = 1 + 0 = 1,

2
1 2
x
p2 (x) = 1 + 0 − x =1− ,
2! 2!

2
1 2
x
p3 (x) = 1 + 0 − x +0 = 1 − ,
2! 2!

2 4
1 2
1 4
x x
p4 (x) = 1 + 0 − x +0 + x =1− + ,
2! 4! 2! 4!

2 4
1 1 x x
2 4
p5 (x) = 1 + 0 − x +0 + x +0 = 1 − + ,
2! 4! 2! 4!

and for n ≥ 0 ,

p2m (x) = p2m+1 (x)

2 4 2m
x x m
x
=1− + − ⋯ + (−1 )
2! 4! (2m)!

m 2k
x
k
= ∑(−1 ) .
(2k)!
k=0

Graphs of the function and the Maclaurin polynomials appear in Figure 10.3.4.

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Figure 10.3.4 : The function y = cos x and the Maclaurin polynomials p 0, p2 and p are plotted on this graph.
4

 Exercise 10.3.2
1
Find formulas for the Maclaurin polynomials p 0, p1 , p2 and p for f (x) =
3 .
1 +x

Find a formula for the n -degree Maclaurin polynomial. Write your answer using sigma notation.
th

Hint
Evaluate the first four derivatives of f and look for a pattern.
Answer
n

2 2 3 2 3 n n k k
p0 (x) = 1; p1 (x) = 1 − x; p2 (x) = 1 − x + x ; p3 (x) = 1 − x + x − x ; pn (x) = 1 − x + x −x + ⋯ + (−1 ) x = ∑(−1 ) x

k=0

Taylor’s Theorem with Remainder

Recall that the n -degree Taylor polynomial for a function f at a is the n partial sum of the Taylor series for f at a . Therefore, to determine if the
th th

Taylor series converges, we need to determine whether the sequence of Taylor polynomials p converges. However, not only do we want to know if
n

the sequence of Taylor polynomials converges, we want to know if it converges to f . To answer this question, we define the remainder R (x) as n

Rn (x) = f (x) − pn (x).

For the sequence of Taylor polynomials to converge to f , we need the remainder R to converge to zero. To determine if R converges to zero, we
n n

introduce Taylor’s theorem with remainder. Not only is this theorem useful in proving that a Taylor series converges to its related function, but it
will also allow us to quantify how well the n -degree Taylor polynomial approximates the function.
th

Here we look for a bound on |R n |. Consider the simplest case: n = 0 . Let p be the 0th Taylor polynomial at a for a function f . The remainder
0 R0

satisfies
R0 (x) = f (x) − p0 (x) = f (x) − f (a).

If f is differentiable on an interval I containing a and x, then by the Mean Value Theorem there exists a real number c between a and x such that
f (x) − f (a) = f '(c)(x − a) . Therefore,

R0 (x) = f '(c)(x − a).

Using the Mean Value Theorem in a similar argument, we can show that if f is n times differentiable on an interval I containing a and x, then the
n
th
remainder R satisfies
n

(n+1)
f (c)
n+1
Rn (x) = (x − a)
(n + 1)!

for some real number c between a and x. It is important to note that the value c in the numerator above is not the center a , but rather an unknown
value c between a and x. This formula allows us to get a bound on the remainder R . If we happen to know that ∣∣f
n (x)∣ ∣ is bounded by some
(n+1)

real number M on this interval I , then

M n+1
| Rn (x)| ≤ |x − a|
(n + 1)!

for all x in the interval I .

We now state Taylor’s theorem, which provides the formal relationship between a function f and its n -degree Taylor polynomial p (x). This th
n

theorem allows us to bound the error when using a Taylor polynomial to approximate a function value, and will be important in proving that a Taylor
series for f converges to f .

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 Taylor’s Theorem with Remainder

Let f be a function that can be differentiated n+1 times on an interval I containing the real number a . Let pn be the th
n -degree Taylor
polynomial of f at a and let

Rn (x) = f (x) − pn (x)

be the n th
remainder. Then for each x in the interval I , there exists a real number c between a and x such that
(n+1)
f (c)
n+1
Rn (x) = (x − a)
(n + 1)!

.
If there exists a real number M such that ∣∣f (n+1)
(x) ∣≤ M for all x ∈ I , then
M n+1
| Rn (x)| ≤ |x − a|
(n + 1)!

for all x in I .

Proof
Fix a point x ∈ I and introduce the function g such that
′′ (n) n+1
f (t) f (t) (x − t)
2 n
g(t) = f (x) − f (t) − f '(t)(x − t) − (x − t) −⋯ − (x − t) − Rn (x) .
n+1
2! n! (x − a)

We claim that g satisfies the criteria of Rolle’s theorem. Since g is a polynomial function (in t ), it is a differentiable function. Also, g is zero at
t = a and t = x because

′′ (n)
f (a) f (a)
2 n
g(a) = f (x) − f (a) − f '(a)(x − a) − (x − a) +⋯ + (x − a) − Rn (x)
2! n!

= f (x) − pn (x) − Rn (x)

= 0,

g(x) = f (x) − f (x) − 0 − ⋯ − 0

= 0.

Therefore, g satisfies Rolle’s theorem, and consequently, there exists c between a and x such that g'(c) = 0. We now calculate g' . Using the
product rule, we note that
(n) (n) (n+1)
d f (t) f (t) f (t)
n n−1 n
[ (x − t) ] = − (x − t) + (x − t) .
dt n! (n − 1)! n!

Consequently,
′′′
f (t)
′′ ′′ 2
g'(t) = −f '(t) + [f '(t) − f (t)(x − t)] + [f (t)(x − t) − (x − t) ] + ⋯
2!

(n) (n+1) n
f (t) f (t) (x − t)
n−1 n
+[ (x − t) − (x − t) ] + (n + 1)Rn (x) (10.3.9)
n+1
(n − 1)! n! (x − a)

.
Notice that there is a telescoping effect. Therefore,
(n+1) n
f (t) (x − t)
′ n
g (t) = − (x − t) + (n + 1)Rn (x)
n+1
n! (x − a)

.
By Rolle’s theorem, we conclude that there exists a number c between a and x such that g'(c) = 0. Since
(n+1 n
f )(c) (x − c)
n
g'(c) = − (x − c ) + (n + 1)Rn (x)
n+1
n! (x − a)

we conclude that

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(n+1) n
f (c) (x − c)
n
− (x − c ) + (n + 1)Rn (x) = 0.
n+1
n! (x − a)

Adding the first term on the left-hand side to both sides of the equation and dividing both sides of the equation by n + 1, we conclude that
(n+1)
f (c)
n+1
Rn (x) = (x − a)
(n + 1)!

as desired. From this fact, it follows that if there exists M such that ∣∣f (n+1)
(x) ∣≤ M for all x in I , then
M n+1
| Rn (x)| ≤ |x − a|
(n + 1)!

.
□

Not only does Taylor’s theorem allow us to prove that a Taylor series converges to a function, but it also allows us to estimate the accuracy of Taylor
polynomials in approximating function values. We begin by looking at linear and quadratic approximations of f (x) = √− x at x = 8 and determine
3

−−
how accurate these approximations are at estimating √11 . 3

 Example 10.3.3: Using Linear and Quadratic Approximations to Estimate Function Values

Consider the function f (x) = √−

x.
3

a. Find the first and second Taylor polynomials for f at x = 8 . Use a graphing utility to compare these polynomials with f near x = 8.
−−
b. Use these two polynomials to estimate √11 . 3

c. Use Taylor’s theorem to bound the error.

Solution:
a. For f (x) = √−
x , the values of the function and its first two derivatives at x = 8 are as follows:
3

3 −
f (x) = √x , f (8) = 2

1 1
f '(x) = , f '(8) =
2/3 12
3x

−2 1
′′ ′′
f (x) = , f (8) = −
5/3 144.
9x

Thus, the first and second Taylor polynomials at x = 8 are given by

p1 (x) = f (8) + f '(8)(x − 8)

1
=2+ (x − 8)
12
′′
f (8)
2
p2 (x) = f (8) + f '(8)(x − 8) + (x − 8 )
2!

1 1 2
=2+ (x − 8) − (x − 8 ) .
12 288

The function and the Taylor polynomials are shown in Figure 10.3.5.

Figure 10.3.5 : The graphs of f (x) = √−

x and the linear and quadratic approximations p
3
1 (x) and p
2 (x)

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b. Using the first Taylor polynomial at x = 8 , we can estimate

3
−− 1
√11 ≈ p1 (11) = 2 + (11 − 8) = 2.25.
12

Using the second Taylor polynomial at x = 8 , we obtain

3 −− 1 1 2
√11 ≈ p2 (11) = 2 + (11 − 8) − (11 − 8 ) = 2.21875.
12 288

−−
c. By Note, there exists a c in the interval (8, 11) such that the remainder when approximating √11 by the first Taylor polynomial satisfies 3

′′
f (c)
2
R1 (11) = (11 − 8 ) .
2!

We do not know the exact value of c, so we find an upper bound on R 1 (11) by determining the maximum value of f
′′
on the interval (8, 11).
2 1
Since f ′′
(x) = − , the largest value for |f ′′
(x)| on that interval occurs at x = 8 . Using the fact that f ′′
(8) = − , we obtain
5/3 144
9x

1
2
| R1 (11)| ≤ (11 − 8 ) = 0.03125.
144 ⋅ 2!

Similarly, to estimate R , we use the fact that

2 (11)

′′′
f (c)
R2 (11) = (11 − 8 )
3
.
3!

10
Since f ′′′
(x) = , the maximum value of f ′′′
on the interval (8, 11) is f ′′′
(8) ≈ 0.0014468 . Therefore, we have
8/3
27x

0.0011468
3
| R2 (11)| ≤ (11 − 8 ) ≈ 0.0065104.
3!

 Exercise 10.3.3:
− –
Find the first and second Taylor polynomials for f (x) = √x at x = 4 . Use these polynomials to estimate √6 . Use Taylor’s theorem to bound
the error.

Hint
Evaluate f (4), f '(4), and f ′′
(4).

Answer
1 1 1
2
p1 (x) = 2 + (x − 4); p2 (x) = 2 + (x − 4) − (x − 4 ) ; p1 (6) = 2.5; p2 (6) = 2.4375;
4 4 64

| R1 (6)| ≤ 0.0625; | R2 (6)| ≤ 0.015625

 Example 10.3.4: Approximating sin x Using Maclaurin Polynomials

From Example 10.3.2b, the Maclaurin polynomials for sin x are given by
3 5 7 2m+1
x x x m
x
p2m+1 (x) = p2m+2 (x) = x − + − + ⋯ + (−1 )
3! 5! 7! (2m + 1)!

for m = 0, 1, 2, … .
π
a. Use the fifth Maclaurin polynomial for sin x to approximate sin( ) and bound the error.
18
b. For what values of x does the fifth Maclaurin polynomial approximate sin x to within 0.0001?
Solution
a.
The fifth Maclaurin polynomial is
3 5
x x
p5 (x) = x − +
3! 5!

.
Using this polynomial, we can estimate as follows:
3 5
π π π 1 π 1 π
sin( ) ≈ p5 ( ) = − ( ) + ( ) ≈ 0.173648.
18 18 18 3! 18 5! 18

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π
To estimate the error, use the fact that the sixth Maclaurin polynomial is p6 (x) = p5 (x) and calculate a bound on R6 ( ) . By Note, the
18
remainder is
(7)
f (c) 7
π π
R6 ( ) = ( )
18 7! 18

π
for some c between 0 and . Using the fact that ∣∣f (7)
(x) ∣≤ 1 for all x, we find that the magnitude of the error is at most
18

1 π 7
−10
⋅( ) ≤ 9.8 × 10 .
7! 18

b.
We need to find the values of x such that
1 7
|x | ≤ 0.0001.
7!

Solving this inequality for x, we have that the fifth Maclaurin polynomial gives an estimate to within 0.0001 as long as |x| < 0.907.

 Exercise 10.3.4
π
Use the fourth Maclaurin polynomial for cos x to approximate cos( ).
12

Hint
2 4
x x
The fourth Maclaurin polynomial is p 4 (x) =1− + .
2! 4!

Answer
0.96593

Now that we are able to bound the remainder R n (x), we can use this bound to prove that a Taylor series for f at a converges to f .

Representing Functions with Taylor and Maclaurin Series

We now discuss issues of convergence for Taylor series. We begin by showing how to find a Taylor series for a function, and how to find its interval
of convergence.

 Example 10.3.5: Finding a Taylor Series

1
Find the Taylor series for f (x) = at x = 1 . Determine the interval of convergence.
x

Solution
1
For f (x) = , the values of the function and its first four derivatives at x = 1 are
x

1
f (x) = f (1) = 1
x

1
f '(x) = − f '(1) = −1
2
x

2
′′ ′′
f (x) = f (1) = 2!
3
x

3⋅2
′′′ ′′′
f (x) = − f (1) = −3!
x4

4⋅3⋅2
(4) (4)
f (x) = f (1) = 4!.
5
x

That is, we have f (n) n

(1) = (−1 ) n! for all n ≥ 0 . Therefore, the Taylor series for f at x = 1 is given by
∞ (n) ∞
f (1)
∑ (x − 1 )
n
= ∑(−1 ) (x − 1 )
n n
.
n!
n=0 n=0

To find the interval of convergence, we use the ratio test. We find that

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n+1 +1
| an+1 | ∣
∣(−1 ) (x − 1)n ∣
∣
=
n n
= |x − 1| .
| an | |(−1 ) (x − 1 ) |

Thus, the series converges if |x − 1| < 1. That is, the series converges for 0 < x < 2 . Next, we need to check the endpoints. At x = 2 , we see
that
∞ ∞

n n n
∑(−1 ) (2 − 1 ) = ∑(−1 )

n=0 n=0

diverges by the divergence test. Similarly, at x = 0,

∞ ∞ ∞

n n 2n
∑(−1 ) (0 − 1 ) = ∑(−1 ) = ∑1

n=0 n=0 n=0

diverges. Therefore, the interval of convergence is (0, 2).

 Exercise 10.3.5
1
Find the Taylor series for f (x) = at x = 2 and determine its interval of convergence.
2

Hint
n
(−1 ) n!
(n)
f (2) =
n+1
2

Answer
∞ n
1 2 −x
∑( ) . The interval of convergence is (0, 4).
2 2
n=0

We know that the Taylor series found in this example converges on the interval (0, 2), but how do we know it actually converges to f ? We consider
this question in more generality in a moment, but for this example, we can answer this question by writing
1 1
f (x) = = .
x 1 − (1 − x)

∞
1
That is, f can be represented by the geometric series ∑(1 − x )
n
. Since this is a geometric series, it converges to as long as |1 − x| < 1.
x
n=0

1
Therefore, the Taylor series found in Example does converge to f (x) = on (0, 2).
x

We now consider the more general question: if a Taylor series for a function f converges on some interval, how can we determine if it actually
converges to f ? To answer this question, recall that a series converges to a particular value if and only if its sequence of partial sums converges to
that value. Given a Taylor series for f at a , the n partial sum is given by the n -degree Taylor polynomial p . Therefore, to determine if the
th th
n

Taylor series converges to f , we need to determine whether

lim pn (x) = f (x) .
n→∞

Since the remainder R n (x) = f (x) − pn (x) , the Taylor series converges to f if and only if
lim Rn (x) = 0.
n→∞

We now state this theorem formally.

 Convergence of Taylor Series

Suppose that f has derivatives of all orders on an interval I containing a . Then the Taylor series
∞ (n)
f (a)
n
∑ (x − a)
n!
n=0

converges to f (x) for all x in I if and only if

lim Rn (x) = 0
n→∞

for all x in I .

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With this theorem, we can prove that a Taylor series for f at a converges to f if we can prove that the remainder Rn (x) → 0 . To prove that
R (x) → 0 , we typically use the bound
n

M n+1
| Rn (x)| ≤ |x − a|
(n + 1)!

from Taylor’s theorem with remainder.

In the next example, we find the Maclaurin series for e and sin x and show that these series converge to the corresponding functions for all real
x

numbers by proving that the remainders R (x) → 0 for all real numbers x.
n

 Example 10.3.6: Finding Maclaurin Series

For each of the following functions, find the Maclaurin series and its interval of convergence. Use Note to prove that the Maclaurin series for f
converges to f on that interval.
a. e
x

b. sin x
Solution
a. Using the n -degree Maclaurin polynomial for e found in Example a., we find that the Maclaurin series for e is given by
th x x

∞ n
x
∑ .
n!
n=0

To determine the interval of convergence, we use the ratio test. Since

n+1
| an+1 | |x| n! |x|
= ⋅
n
= ,
| an | (n + 1)! |x| n+1

we have
| an+1 | |x|
lim = lim =0
n→∞ | an | n→∞ n+1

for all x. Therefore, the series converges absolutely for all x, and thus, the interval of convergence is (−∞, ∞). To show that the series
converges to e for all x, we use the fact that f (x) = e for all n ≥ 0 and e is an increasing function on (−∞, ∞). Therefore, for any
x (n) x x

real number b , the maximum value of e for all |x| ≤ b is e . Thus,

x b

b
e
| Rn (x)| ≤ |x |
n+1
.
(n + 1)!

Since we just showed that

∞ n
|x|
∑
n!
n=0

converges for all x, by the divergence test, we know that

n+1
|x|
lim =0
n→∞ (n + 1)!

for any real number x. By combining this fact with the squeeze theorem, the result is lim Rn (x) = 0.
n→∞

b. Using the n -degree Maclaurin polynomial for sin x found in Example b., we find that the Maclaurin series for sin x is given by
th

∞ 2n+1
x
∑(−1 )
n
.
(2n + 1)!
n=0

In order to apply the ratio test, consider

2n+3
| an+1 | |x| (2n + 1)!
= ⋅
2n+1
| an | (2n + 3)! |x|
.
2
|x|
=
(2n + 3)(2n + 2)

Since
2
|x|
lim =0
n→∞ (2n + 3)(2n + 2)

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for all x, we obtain the interval of convergence as (−∞, ∞). To show that the Maclaurin series converges to sin x , look at . For each
Rn (x) x

there exists a real number c between 0 and x such that

(n+1)
f (c)
Rn (x) = x
n+1
.
(n + 1)!

Since ∣∣f (n+1)

for all real numbers x. Using the same idea as in part a., the result is lim Rn (x) = 0 for all x, and therefore, the Maclaurin series for sin x
n→∞

converges to sin x for all real x.

 Exercise 10.3.6

Find the Maclaurin series for f (x) = cos x. Use the ratio test to show that the interval of convergence is (−∞, ∞) . Show that the Maclaurin
series converges to cos x for all real numbers x.

Hint
Use the Maclaurin polynomials for cos x.
Answer
∞ n 2n
(−1) x
∑
(2n)!
n=0

n+1
|x|
By the ratio test, the interval of convergence is (−∞, ∞). Since |R n (x)| ≤ , the series converges to cos x for all real x .
(n + 1)!

 Proving that e is Irrational

In this project, we use the Maclaurin polynomials for e to prove that e is irrational. The proof relies on supposing that e is rational and arriving
x

at a contradiction. Therefore, in the following steps, we suppose e = r/s for some integers r and s where s ≠ 0.
1. Write the Maclaurin polynomials p (x), p (x), p (x), p (x), p (x)for e . Evaluate p (1), p (1), p (1), p (1), p (1) to estimate e .
0 1 2 3 4
x
0 1 2 3 4

2. Let R (x) denote the remainder when using p (x) to estimate e . Therefore, R (x) = e − p (x) , and R (1) = e − p (1) . Assuming that
n n
x
n
x
n n n

r
e = for integers r and s , evaluate R 0 (1), R1 (1), R2 (1), R3 (1), R4 (1).
s
3. Using the results from part 2, show that for each remainder R (1), R (1), R (1), R (1), R (1), we can find an integer k such that kR
0 1 2 3 4 n (1)

is an integer for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
4. Write down the formula for the n -degree Maclaurin polynomial p (x) for e and the corresponding remainder R (x). Show that
th
n
x
n

sn! R (1) is an integer.

5. Use Taylor’s theorem to write down an explicit formula for R (1). Conclude that R (1) ≠ 0 , and therefore, sn!R (1) ≠ 0 .
n n n

6. Use Taylor’s theorem to find an estimate on R (1). Use this estimate combined with the result from part 5 to show that
n
se
|sn! Rn (1)| < . Conclude that if n is large enough, then |sn!R n (1)| <1 . Therefore, sn!R n (1) is an integer with magnitude less than
n+1
1. Thus, sn!R (1) = 0 . But from part 5, we know that sn!R
n n (1) ≠ 0 . We have arrived at a contradiction, and consequently, the original
supposition that e is rational must be false.

Key Concepts
Taylor polynomials are used to approximate functions near a value x = a . Maclaurin polynomials are Taylor polynomials at x = 0 .
The n -degree Taylor polynomials for a function f are the partial sums of the Taylor series for f .
th

If a function f has a power series representation at x = a , then it is given by its Taylor series at x = a .
A Taylor series for f converges to f if and only if lim R (x) = 0 where R (x) = f (x) − p (x) .
n n n
n→∞

The Taylor series for e x

, and cos x converge to the respective functions for all real x.
, sin x

Key Equations
Taylor series for the function f at the point x = a
∞ (n) ′′ (n)
f (a) f (a) f (a)
n 2 n
∑ (x − a) = f (a) + f '(a)(x − a) + (x − a) +⋯ + (x − a) +⋯
n! 2! n!
n=0

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Glossary
Maclaurin polynomial
a Taylor polynomial centered at 0; the n -degree Taylor polynomial for f at 0 is the n -degree Maclaurin polynomial for f
th th

Maclaurin series
a Taylor series for a function f at x = 0 is known as a Maclaurin series for f

Taylor polynomials
′′ (n)
f (a) f (a)
the n -degree Taylor polynomial for f at x = a is p
th
n (x) = f (a) + f '(a)(x − a) +
2
(x − a) +⋯ +
n
(x − a)
2! n!

Taylor series
a power series at a that converges to a function f on some open interval containing a .

Taylor’s theorem with remainder

for a function f and the n
th
-degree Taylor polynomial for f at x =a , the remainder Rn (x) = f (x) − pn (x) satisfies
(n+1)
f (c)
n+1
Rn (x) = (x − a)
(n + 1)!

for somec between x and a ; if there exists an interval I containing a and a real number M such that ∣∣f (n+1)
(x) ∣≤ M for all x in I , then
M n+1
| Rn (x)| ≤ |x − a|
(n + 1)!

This page titled 10.3: Taylor and Maclaurin Series is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert Strang & Edwin
“Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request.
10.3: Taylor and Maclaurin Series by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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10.3E: Exercises
Taylor Polynomials
In exercises 1 - 8, find the Taylor polynomials of degree two approximating the given function centered at the given point.
1) f (x) = 1 + x + x 2
at a = 1
2) f (x) = 1 + x + x 2
at a = −1

Answer
′′ 2
f (−1) = 1; f '(−1) = −1; f (−1) = 2; p2 (x) = 1 − (x + 1) + (x + 1 )

3) f (x) = cos(2x) at a = π
4) f (x) = sin(2x) at a = π

Answer
′′ π
f '(x) = 2 cos(2x); f (x) = −4 sin(2x); p2 (x) = −2(x − )
2

5) f (x) = √−
x at a = 4

6) f (x) = ln x at a = 1

Answer
1 1 1
′′ 2
f '(x) = ; f (x) = − ; p2 (x) = 0 + (x − 1) − (x − 1 )
2 2
x x

1
7) f (x) = at a = 1
x

8) f (x) = e at a = 1
x

Answer
e
2
p2 (x) = e + e(x − 1) + (x − 1 )
2

Taylor Remainder Theorem

M
In exercises 9 - 14, verify that the given choice of n in the remainder estimate |R n| ≤ (x − a)
n+1
, where M is the
(n + 1)!

maximum value of ∣∣f (z)∣∣ on the interval between

(n+1)
a and the indicated point, yields | Rn | ≤
1

1000
. Find the value of the
Taylor polynomial p of f at the indicated point.
n

−−
9) [T] √10; a = 9, n = 3

10) [T] (28) 1/3

; a = 27, n = 1

Answer
2
d 2

2
x
1/3
=− ≥ −0.00092 … when x ≥ 28 so the remainder estimate applies to the linear approximation
5/3
dx 9x
x − 27
x
1/3
≈ p1 (27) = 3 + , which gives (28) 1/3
≈3+
1

27
¯
= 3. 037 , while (28) 1/3
≈ 3.03658.
27

11) [T] sin(6); a = 2π, n = 5

12) [T] e 2
; a = 0, n = 9

Answer
10
2
Using the estimate < 0.000283 we can use the Taylor expansion of order 9 to estimate e at x = 2 . asx

10!
2 3 9

e
2
≈ p9 (2) = 1 + 2 +
2

2
+
2

6
+⋯ +
2

9!
= 7.3887 … whereas e 2
≈ 7.3891.

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13) [T] cos( π

5
); a = 0, n = 4

14) [T] ln(2); a = 1, n = 1000

Answer
n 1000 n−1
d (n − 1)! (−1)
Since n
(ln x) = (−1 )
n−1

n
, R1000 ≈
1

1001
. One has p 1000(1) =∑ ≈ 0.6936 whereas
dx x n
n=1

ln(2) ≈ 0.6931 ⋯ .

Approximating Definite Integrals Using Taylor Series

3 5 7 1
t t t sin πt
15) Integrate the approximation sin t ≈ t − + − evaluated at πt to approximate ∫ dt .
6 120 5040 0
πt

2 6 1
x x 2

16) Integrate the approximation e x

≈ 1 +x + +⋯ + evaluated at −x to approximate ∫
2
e
−x
dx.
2 720 0

Answer
1 4 6 8 10 12 3 5 7 9 11 13
2
x x x x x 1 1 1 1 1 1
∫ (1 − x + − + − + ) dx = 1 − + − + − + ≈ 0.74683
0
2 6 24 120 720 3 10 42 9 ⋅ 24 120 ⋅ 11 720 ⋅ 13
1
2

whereas ∫ e
−x
dx ≈ 0.74682.
0

the maximum value of ∣

∣f
(n+1)
(z)∣
∣ on the interval between a and the indicated point, yields | Rn | ≤
1000
1
on the indicated
interval.
17) f (x) = sin x on [−π, π], a =0

18) f (x) = cos x on [− π

2
,
π

2
], a = 0

Answer
Since f (n+1)
(z) is sin z or cos z, we have M =1 . Since |x − 0| ≤ , we seek the smallest n such that
π

2
n+1
π

n+1
≤ 0.001 . The smallest such value is n = 7 . The remainder estimate is R 7 ≤ 0.00092.
2 (n + 1)!

19) f (x) = e −2x

on [−1, 1], a = 0
20) f (x) = e −x
on [−3, 3], a = 0

Answer
n+1 3
3 e
Since f (n+1)
(z) = ±e
−z
one has M =e
3
. Since |x − 0| ≤ 3 , one seeks the smallest n such that ≤ 0.001 . The
(n + 1)!

smallest such value is n = 14 . The remainder estimate is R 14 ≤ 0.000220.

′′
max| f (z)|
In exercises 21 - 24, the maximum of the right-hand side of the remainder estimate | R1 | ≤ R
2
on
2
′′
max| f (z)|
[a − R, a + R] occurs at a or a± R . Estimate the maximum value of R such that R
2
≤ 0.1 on
2
[a − R, a + R] by plotting this maximum as a function of R.
21) [T] e approximated by 1 + x,
x
a =0

22) [T] sin x approximated by x, a =0

Answer

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Since sin x is increasing for small x and since d

2
(sin x) = − sin x , the estimate applies whenever R
2
sin(R) ≤ 0.2 ,
dx

which applies up to R = 0.596.

23) [T] ln x approximated by x − 1, a =1

24) [T] cos x approximated by 1, a =0

Answer
Since the second derivative of cos x is − cos x and since cos x is decreasing away from x = 0 , the estimate applies when
R cos R ≤ 0.2 or R ≤ 0.447.
2

Taylor Series
In exercises 25 - 35, find the Taylor series of the given function centered at the indicated point.
25) f (x) = x at a = −1
4

26) f (x) = 1 + x + x 2
+x
3
at a = −1

Answer
3 2
(x + 1 ) − 2(x + 1 ) + 2(x + 1)

27) f (x) = sin x at a = π

28) f (x) = cos x at a = 2π

Answer
∞ 2n
(x − 2π)
Values of derivatives are the same as for x = 0 so cos x = ∑(−1) n

(2n)!
n=0

29) f (x) = sin x at x = π

30) f (x) = cos x at x = π

Answer

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π 2n+1
∞
(x − )
2
cos(
π

2
) = 0, − sin(
π

2
) = −1 so cos x = ∑(−1) n+1
, which is also − cos(x − π

2
) .
(2n + 1)!
n=0

31) f (x) = e at a = −1
x

32) f (x) = e at a = 1
x

Answer
∞ n
(x − 1)
The derivatives are f (n)
(1) = e, so e x
= e∑ .
n!
n=0

1 1
33) f (x) = 2
at a = 0 (Hint: Differentiate the Taylor Series for .)
(x − 1) 1 −x

1
34) f (x) = 3
at a = 0
(x − 1)

Answer
2 ∞ n
1 1 d 1 (n + 2)(n + 1)x
=− ( ) = −∑( )
3
(x − 1) 2 dx2 1 −x 2
n=0

x ∞ n
t
35) F (x) = ∫ cos(√t) dt; where f (t) = ∑(−1 )
n
at a=0 (Note: f is the Taylor series of cos(√t). )
0
(2n)!
n=0

In exercises 36 - 44, compute the Taylor series of each function around x = 1 .

36) f (x) = 2 − x

Answer
2 − x = 1 − (x − 1)

37) f (x) = x 3

38) f (x) = (x − 2) 2

Answer
2 2
((x − 1) − 1 ) = (x − 1 ) − 2(x − 1) + 1

39) f (x) = ln x
1
40) f (x) =
x

Answer
∞
1 n n
= ∑(−1 ) (x − 1 )
1 − (1 − x)
n=0

1
41) f (x) = 2
2x − x

x
42) f (x) = 2
4x − 2 x −1

Answer
∞ ∞ ∞

n 2n n 2n+1 n 2n
x ∑ 2 (1 − x ) = ∑ 2 (x − 1 ) + ∑ 2 (x − 1 )

n=0 n=0 n=0

43) f (x) = e −x

44) f (x) = e 2x

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Answer
∞ n n
2 (x − 1 )
2x 2(x−1)+2 2
e =e =e ∑
n!
n=0

Maclaurin Series
∞

[T] In exercises 45 - 48, identify the value of x such that the given series ∑ a is the value of the Maclaurin series of f (x) at
n

n=0

x . Approximate the value of f (x) using S 10 = ∑ an .

n=0

∞
1
45) ∑
n!
n=0

∞ n
2
46) ∑
n!
n=0

Answer
34, 913
2
x =e ; S10 = ≈ 7.3889947
4725

∞ n 2n
(−1 ) (2π )
47) ∑
(2n)!
n=0

∞ n 2n+1
(−1 ) (2π )
48) ∑
(2n + 1)!
n=0

Answer
−5
sin(2π) = 0; S10 = 8.27 × 10

3 5 2 4
x x x x
In exercises 49 - 52 use the functions S 5 (x) = x− + and C 4 (x) = 1− + on [−π, π].
6 120 2 24

49) [T] Plot sin

2
x − (S5 (x))
2
on [−π, π] . Compare the maximum difference with the square of the Taylor remainder estimate for
sin x.

50) [T] Plot cos

2
x − (C4 (x))
2
on [−π, π]. Compare the maximum difference with the square of the Taylor remainder estimate for
cos x.

Answer
The difference is small on the interior of the interval but approaches 1 near the endpoints. The remainder estimate is
5
π
| R4 | = ≈ 2.552.
120

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51) [T] Plot |2S 5 (x)C4 (x) − sin(2x)| on [−π, π].
S5 (x)
52) [T] Compare on [−1, 1] to tan x . Compare this with the Taylor remainder estimate for the approximation of tan x by
C4 (x)
3 5
x 2x
x+ + .
3 15

Answer
The difference is on the order of 10 −4
on [−1, 1] while the Taylor approximation error is around 0.1 near ±1 . The top curve
2 2
S5 (x) S5
is a plot of tan 2
x −( ) and the lower dashed plot shows t 2
−( ) .
C4 (x) C4

2 3 4
x x x
53) [T] Plot e
x
− e4 (x) where e 4 (x) = 1 +x + + + on [0, 2] . Compare the maximum error with the Taylor remainder
2 6 24
estimate.
f (xn )
54) (Taylor approximations and root finding.) Recall that Newton’s method xn+1 = xn −
′
approximates solutions of
f (xn )

f (x) = 0 near the input x . 0

a. If f and g are inverse functions, explain why a solution of g(x) = a is the value f (a) of f .
b. Let pN (x) be the N degree Maclaurin polynomial of
th
e
x
. Use Newton’s method to approximate solutions of
pN (x) − 2 = 0 for N = 4, 5, 6.
c. Explain why the approximate roots of p N (x) − 2 = 0 are approximate values of ln(2).

Answer
a. Answers will vary.
b. The following are the x values after 10 iterations of Newton’s method to approximation a root of p
n N (x) − 2 = 0 : for

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N = 4, x = 0.6939...; for N = 5, x = 0.6932...; for N (Note: ln(2) = 0.69314...)
= 6, x = 0.69315...; .

c. Answers will vary.

Evaluating Limits using Taylor Series

∞

In exercises 55 - 58, use the fact that if q(x) = ∑ a n (x − c)

n
converges in an interval containing c, then lim q(x) = a to0
x→c
n=1

evaluate each limit using Taylor series.

cos x − 1
55) lim 2
x→0 x

2
ln(1 − x )
56) lim 2
x→0 x

Answer
2
ln(1 − x )
→ −1
2
x

2
x 2
e −x −1
57) lim 4
x→0 x
−
cos(√x ) − 1
58) lim
+
x→0 2x

Answer
2
− x x
cos(√x ) − 1 (1 − + − ⋯) − 1
2 4! 1
≈ → −
2x 2x 4

This page titled 10.3E: Exercises is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert Strang & Edwin
“Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available
upon request.

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10.4: Working with Taylor Series
 Learning Objectives
Write the terms of the binomial series.
Recognize the Taylor series expansions of common functions.
Recognize and apply techniques to find the Taylor series for a function.
Use Taylor series to solve differential equations.
Use Taylor series to evaluate non-elementary integrals.

In the preceding section, we defined Taylor series and showed how to find the Taylor series for several common functions by
explicitly calculating the coefficients of the Taylor polynomials. In this section we show how to use those Taylor series to derive
Taylor series for other functions. We then present two common applications of power series. First, we show how power series can
be used to solve differential equations. Second, we show how power series can be used to evaluate integrals when the antiderivative
2

of the integrand cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions. In one example, we consider ∫ e
−x
dx, an integral that
arises frequently in probability theory.

The Binomial Series

Our first goal in this section is to determine the Maclaurin series for the function f (x) = (1 + x) for all real numbers r. The r

Maclaurin series for this function is known as the binomial series. We begin by considering the simplest case: r is a nonnegative
integer. We recall that, for r = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, f (x) = (1 + x) can be written as
r

0
f (x) = (1 + x ) = 1,

1
f (x) = (1 + x ) = 1 + x,

2 2
f (x) = (1 + x ) = 1 + 2x + x ,

3 2 3
f (x) = (1 + x ) = 1 + 3x + 3 x +x

4 2 3 4
f (x) = (1 + x ) = 1 + 4x + 6 x + 4x +x .

The expressions on the right-hand side are known as binomial expansions and the coefficients are known as binomial coefficients.
More generally, for any nonnegative integer r, the binomial coefficient of x in the binomial expansion of (1 + x) is given by
n r

r r!
( ) = (10.4.1)
n n!(r − n)!

and
r
f (x) = (1 + x)

r r r r r r
2 3 r−1 r
=( ) + ( )x + ( ) x + ( ) x + ⋯ + ( )x + ( )x
0 1 2 3 r−1 r

r
r
n
= ∑( )x . (10.4.2)
n
n=0

For example, using this formula for r = 5 , we see that

5
f (x) = (1 + x)

5 5 5 2
5 3
5 4
5 5
=( )1 + ( )x + ( ) x + ( ) x + ( ) x + ( ) x
0 1 2 3 4 5

5! 5! 5! 5! 5! 5!
2 3 4 5
= 1+ x+ x + x + x + x
0!5! 1!4! 2!3! 3!2! 4!1! 5!0!

2 3 4 5
= 1 + 5x + 10 x + 10 x + 5x +x .

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We now consider the case when the exponent r.
is any real number, not necessarily a nonnegative integer. If r is not a nonnegative integer, then f (x) = (1 + x) cannot be written r

as a finite polynomial. However, we can find a power series for f . Specifically, we look for the Maclaurin series for f . To do this,
we find the derivatives of f and evaluate them at x = 0 .
r
f (x) = (1 + x) f (0) = 1

r−1 ′
f '(x) = r(1 + x) f (0) = r

′′ r−2 ′′
f (x) = r(r − 1)(1 + x) f (0) = r(r − 1)

′′′ r−3 ′′′

f (x) = r(r − 1)(r − 2)(1 + x) f (0) = r(r − 1)(r − 2)

(n) r−n (n)

f (x) = r(r − 1)(r − 2) ⋯ (r − n + 1)(1 + x) f (0) = r(r − 1)(r − 2) ⋯ (r − n + 1)

We conclude that the coefficients in the binomial series are given by

(n)
f (0) r(r − 1)(r − 2) ⋯ (r − n + 1)
= . (10.4.3)
n! n!

We note that if r is a nonnegative integer, then the (r + 1) derivative f is the zero function, and the series terminates. In
st (r+1)

addition, if r is a nonnegative integer, then Equation 10.4.3 for the coefficients agrees with Equation 10.4.1 for the coefficients, and
the formula for the binomial series agrees with Equation 10.4.2 for the finite binomial expansion. More generally, to denote the
binomial coefficients for any real number r, we define
r (r − 1)(r − 2) ⋯ (r − n + 1)
( ) = .
n n!

With this notation, we can write the binomial series for (1 + x) as r

∞
r r(r − 1) r(r − 1) ⋯ (r − n + 1)
n 2 n
∑( ) x = 1 + rx + x +⋯ + x +⋯ . (10.4.4)
n 2! n!
n=0

We now need to determine the interval of convergence for the binomial series Equation 10.4.4. We apply the ratio test.
Consequently, we consider
n+1
| an+1 | |r(r − 1)(r − 2) ⋯ (r − n)|x|| n
= ⋅
n
| an | (n + 1)! |r(r − 1)(r − 2) ⋯ (r − n + 1)||x|

|r − n||x|
=
|n + 1|

.
Since
| an+1 |
lim = |x| < 1
n→∞ | an |

if and only if |x| < 1, we conclude that the interval of convergence for the binomial series is (−1, 1). The behavior at the endpoints
depends on r. It can be shown that for r ≥ 0 the series converges at both endpoints; for −1 < r < 0 , the series converges at x = 1
and diverges at x = −1 ; and for r < −1 , the series diverges at both endpoints. The binomial series does converge to (1 + x) in r

(−1, 1) for all real numbers r , but proving this fact by showing that the remainder R (x) → 0 is difficult. n

 Definition: binomial series

For any real number r, the Maclaurin series for f (x) = (1 + x) is the binomial series. It converges to r
f for |x| < 1, and we
write
∞
r r(r − 1) (r − 1) ⋯ (r − n + 1)
r n 2 n
(1 + x ) = ∑( ) x = 1 + rx + x +⋯ +r x +⋯
n 2! n!
n=0

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for |x| < 1.

−−−−− −
−−
We can use this definition to find the binomial series for f (x) = √1 + x and use the series to approximate √1.5.

 Example 10.4.1: Finding Binomial Series

−−−−−
a. Find the binomial series for f (x) = √1 + x .
−
−−
b. Use the third-order Maclaurin polynomial p (x) to estimate √1.5. Use Taylor’s theorem to bound the error. Use a graphing
3

utility to compare the graphs of f and p . 3

Solution
1
a. Here r = . Using the definition for the binomial series, we obtain
2

−−−−− 1 (1/2)(−1/2) (1/2)(−1/2)(−3/2)

2 3
√1 + x = 1 + x+ x + x +⋯
2 2! 3!

n+1
1 1 1 1 1⋅3 (−1) 1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 ⋯ (2n − 3)
2 3 n
=1+ x− x + x −⋯ + x +⋯
2 3 n
2 2! 2 3! 2 n! 2

∞ n+1
(−1) 1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 ⋯ (2n − 3)
n
= 1 +∑ x .
n
n! 2
n=1

b. From the result in part a. the third-order Maclaurin polynomial is

1 1 1
p3 (x) = 1 + x− x
2
+
3
x .
2 8 16

Therefore,
−
−− −−−− −− 1 1 1
2 3
√1.5 = √1 + 0.5 ≈ 1 + (0.5) − (0.5 ) + (0.5 ) ≈ 1.2266.
2 8 16

From Taylor’s theorem, the error satisfies

(4)
f (c)
4
R3 (0.5) = (0.5 )
4!

15
for some c between 0 and 0.5. Since f (4)
(x) = −
4
, and the maximum value of ∣f (4) (x)∣
∣ ∣ on the interval (0, 0.5)
7/2
2 (1 + x )

occurs at x = 0 , we have
15
4
| R3 (0.5)| ≤ (0.5 ) ≈ 0.00244.
4
4!2

The function and the Maclaurin polynomial p are graphed in Figure 10.4.1.
3

−−−−−
Figure 10.4.1 : The third-order Maclaurin polynomial p3 (x) provides a good approximation for f (x) = √1 + x for x near
zero.

 Exercise 10.4.1
1
Find the binomial series for f (x) = 2
.
(1 + x)

Hint

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Use the definition of binomial series for r = −2 .

Answer
∞
n n
∑(−1 ) (n + 1)x

n=0

Common Functions Expressed as Taylor Series

At this point, we have derived Maclaurin series for exponential, trigonometric, and logarithmic functions, as well as functions of the
form f (x) = (1 + x) . In Table 10.4.1, we summarize the results of these series. We remark that the convergence of the Maclaurin
r

series for f (x) = ln(1 + x) at the endpoint x = 1 and the Maclaurin series for f (x) = tan x at the endpoints x = 1 and −1

x = −1 relies on a more advanced theorem than we present here. (Refer to Abel’s theorem for a discussion of this more technical

point.)
Table 10.4.1 : Maclaurin Series for Common Functions
Function Maclaurin Series Interval of Convergence
∞
1 n
f (x) = ∑x −1 < x < 1
1 −x
n=0

∞ n
x
x
f (x) = e ∑ −∞ < x < ∞
n!
n=0

∞ 2n+1
x
n
f (x) = sin x ∑(−1 ) −∞ < x < ∞
(2n + 1)!
n=0

∞ 2n
x
n
f (x) = cosx ∑(−1 ) −∞ < x < ∞
(2n)!
n=0

∞ n
x
n+1
f (x) = ln(1 + x) ∑(−1 ) −1 < x < 1
n
n=0

∞ 2n+1
x
−1 n
f (x) = tan x ∑(−1 ) −1 < x < 1
2n + 1
n=0

∞
r
r n
f (x) = (1 + x) ∑ ( )x −1 < x < 1
n
n=0

Earlier in the chapter, we showed how you could combine power series to create new power series. Here we use these properties,
combined with the Maclaurin series in Table 10.4.1, to create Maclaurin series for other functions.

 Example 10.4.2: Deriving Maclaurin Series from Known Series

Find the Maclaurin series of each of the following functions by using one of the series listed in Table 10.4.1.
a. f (x) = cos √−x

b. f (x) = sinh x
Solution
a. Using the Maclaurin series for cos x we find that the Maclaurin series for cos √−
x is given by

∞ n − 2n ∞ n n 2 3 4
(−1 ) (√x ) (−1) x x x x x
∑ =∑ =1− + − + −⋯ .
(2n)! (2n)! 2! 4! 6! 8!
n=0 n=0

This series converges to cos √− −

x for all x in the domain of cos √x; that is, for all x ≥ 0 .

b. To find the Maclaurin series for sinh x, we use the fact that
x −x
e −e
sinh x = .
2

Using the Maclaurin series for e , we see that the n

x th
term in the Maclaurin series for sinh x is given by

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n n
x (−x)
− .
n! n!
n
2x
For n even, this term is zero. For n odd, this term is . Therefore, the Maclaurin series for sinh x has only odd-order terms
n!
and is given by
∞ 2n+1 3 5
x x x
∑ =x+ + +⋯ .
(2n + 1)! 3! 5!
n=0

 Exercise 10.4.2

Find the Maclaurin series for sin(x 2

Hint
Use the Maclaurin series for sin x.

Answer
∞ n 4n+2
(−1) x
∑
(2n + 1)!
n=0

We also showed previously in this chapter how power series can be differentiated term by term to create a new power series. In
−−−−− 1
Example 10.4.3, we differentiate the binomial series for √1 + x term by term to find the binomial series for −−−−−
. Note that
√1 + x
1 −−−−−
we could construct the binomial series for −−−−− directly from the definition, but differentiating the binomial series for √1 + x
√1 + x

is an easier calculation.

 Example 10.4.3: Differentiating a Series to Find a New Series

−−−−− 1
Use the binomial series for √1 + x to find the binomial series for −−−−− .
√1 + x

Solution
The two functions are related by
d −−−−− 1
√1 + x = −−−−− ,
dx 2 √1 + x

1
so the binomial series for −−−−− is given by
√1 + x

∞ n
1 d −−−−− (−1) 1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 ⋯ (2n − 1)
n
−−−−− =2 √1 + x = 1 + ∑ n
x .
√1 + x dx n! 2
n=1

 Exercise 10.4.3
1
Find the binomial series for f (x) = 3/2
(1 + x)

Hint
1
Differentiate the series for −−−−−
√1 + x

Answer

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∞ n
(−1) 1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 ⋯ (2n − 1)
n
∑ x
n
n! 2
n=1

In this example, we differentiated a known Taylor series to construct a Taylor series for another function. The ability to differentiate
power series term by term makes them a powerful tool for solving differential equations. We now show how this is accomplished.

Solving Differential Equations with Power Series

Consider the differential equation

y'(x) = y.

Recall that this is a first-order separable equation and its solution is y = C e . This equation is easily solved using techniques
x

discussed earlier in the text. For most differential equations, however, we do not yet have analytical tools to solve them. Power
series are an extremely useful tool for solving many types of differential equations. In this technique, we look for a solution of the
∞

form y = ∑ cn x
n
and determine what the coefficients would need to be. In the next example, we consider an initial-value
n=0

problem involving y' = y to illustrate the technique.

 Example 10.4.4: Power Series Solution of a Differential Equation

Use power series to solve the initial-value problem y' = y, y(0) = 3.

Solution
Suppose that there exists a power series solution
∞

n 2 3 4
y(x) = ∑ cn x = c0 + c1 x + c2 x + c3 x + c4 x +⋯ .

n=0

Differentiating this series term by term, we obtain

2 3
y' = c1 + 2 c2 x + 3 c3 x + 4 c4 x +⋯ .

If y satisfies the differential equation, then

2 3 2 3
c0 + c1 x + c2 x + c3 x + ⋯ = c1 + 2 c2 x + 3 c3 x + 4 c3 x +⋯ .

Using the uniqueness of power series representations, we know that these series can only be equal if their coefficients are equal.
Therefore,
c0 = c1 ,

c1 = 2 c2 ,

c2 = 3 c3 ,

c3 = 4 c4 ,

⋮
Using the initial condition y(0) = 3 combined with the power series representation
y(x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x
2
+ c3 x
3
+⋯ ,
we find that c 0 =3 . We are now ready to solve for the rest of the coefficients. Using the fact that c 0 =3 , we have

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3
c1 = c0 = 3 = ,
1!

c1 3 3
c2 = = = ,
2 2 2!

c2 3 3
c3 = = = ,
3 3⋅2 3!

c3 3 3
c4 = = = .
4 4⋅3⋅2 4!

Therefore,
∞ n
1 1 2
1 3
1 4
x
y = 3 [1 + x+ x + x x + ⋯] = 3 ∑ .
1! 2! 3! 4! n!
n=0

You might recognize

∞ n
x
∑
n!
n=0

as the Taylor series for e . Therefore, the solution is y = 3e .

x x

 Exercise 10.4.4

Use power series to solve y' = 2y, y(0) = 5.

Hint
The equations for the first several coefficients c will satisfy c n 0 = 2 c1 , c1 = 2 ⋅ 2 c2 , c2 = 2 ⋅ 3 c3 , … . In general, for all
n ≥ 0, c = 2(n + 1)C
n .
n+1

Answer
2x
y = 5e

We now consider an example involving a differential equation that we cannot solve using previously discussed methods. This
differential equation

y' − xy = 0

is known as Airy’s equation. It has many applications in mathematical physics, such as modeling the diffraction of light. Here we
show how to solve it using power series.

 Example 10.4.5: Power Series Solution of Airy’s Equation

Use power series to solve y ′′

− xy = 0 with the initial conditions y(0) = a and y ′
(0) = b.

Solution
We look for a solution of the form
∞

n 2 3 4
y = ∑ cn x = c0 + c1 x + c2 x + c3 x + c4 x +⋯

n=0

Differentiating this function term by term, we obtain

2 3
y' = c1 + 2 c2 x + 3 c3 x + 4 c4 x +⋯ ,

′′ 2
y = 2 ⋅ 1 c2 + 3 ⋅ 2 c3 x + 4 ⋅ 3 c4 x +⋯ .

If y satisfies the equation y ′′

= xy , then

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2 2 3
2 ⋅ 1 c2 + 3 ⋅ 2 c3 x + 4 ⋅ 3 c4 x + ⋯ = x(c0 + c1 x + c2 x + c3 x + ⋯).

Using [link] on the uniqueness of power series representations, we know that coefficients of the same degree must be equal.
Therefore,
2 ⋅ 1 c2 = 0,

3 ⋅ 2 c3 = c0 ,

4 ⋅ 3 c4 = c1 ,

5 ⋅ 4 c5 = c2 ,

⋮
More generally, for n ≥ 3 , we have n ⋅ (n − 1)c n = cn−3 . In fact, all coefficients can be written in terms of c and c . To see 0 1

this, first note that c = 0 . Then

c0
c3 = ,
3⋅2

c1
c4 = .
4⋅3

For c 5, c6 , c7 , we see that

c2
c5 = = 0,
5⋅4

c3 c0
c6 = = ,
6⋅5 6⋅5⋅3⋅2

c4 c1
c7 = = .
7⋅6 7⋅6⋅4⋅3

Therefore, the series solution of the differential equation is given by

c0 c1 c0 c1
2 3 4 5 6 7
y = c0 + c1 x + 0 ⋅ x + x + x +0 ⋅ x + x + x +⋯ .
3⋅2 4⋅3 6⋅5⋅3⋅2 7⋅6⋅4⋅3

The initial condition y(0) = a implies c0 = a . Differentiating this series term by term and using the fact that y'(0) = b , we
conclude that c = b . 1

Therefore, the solution of this initial-value problem is

3 4 7
x x x x
y = a (1 + + + ⋯) + b (x + + + ⋯) .
3⋅2 6⋅5⋅3⋅2 4⋅3 7⋅6⋅4⋅3

 Exercise 10.4.5

Use power series to solve y ′′ 2

+x y = 0 with the initial condition y(0) = a and y'(0) = b .

Hint
The coefficients satisfy c 0 = a, c1 = b, c2 = 0, c3 = 0, and for n ≥ 4, n(n − 1)cn = −cn−4 .

Answer
4 8 5 9
x x x x
y = a (1 − + − ⋯) + b (x − + − ⋯)
3⋅4 3⋅4⋅7⋅8 4⋅5 4⋅5⋅8⋅9

Evaluating Non-elementary Integrals

Solving differential equations is one common application of power series. We now turn to a second application. We show how
power series can be used to evaluate integrals involving functions whose antiderivatives cannot be expressed using elementary
functions.

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One integral that arises often in applications in probability theory is ∫ e

−x
dx. Unfortunately, the antiderivative of the integrand
is not an elementary function. By elementary function, we mean a function that can be written using a finite number of
2
−x
e

algebraic combinations or compositions of exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric, or power functions. We remark that the term
“elementary function” is not synonymous with noncomplicated function. For example, the function
− −−−− −
is an elementary function, although not a particularly simple-looking function. Any
3
2 x
f (x) = √x − 3x + e − sin(5x + 4)

integral of the form ∫ f (x) dx where the antiderivative of f cannot be written as an elementary function is considered a non-
elementary integral.
non-elementary integrals cannot be evaluated using the basic integration techniques discussed earlier. One way to evaluate such
integrals is by expressing the integrand as a power series and integrating term by term. We demonstrate this technique by
2

considering ∫ e
−x
dx.

 Example 10.4.6: Using Taylor Series to Evaluate a Definite Integral

a. Express ∫ e
−x
dx as an infinite series.
1
2

b. Evaluate ∫ e
−x
dx to within an error of 0.01.
0

Solution
a. The Maclaurin series for e is given by
2
−x

∞ 2 n
2 (−x )
−x
e =∑
n!
n=0

4 6 2n
x x x
2 n
= 1 −x + − + ⋯ + (−1 ) +⋯
2! 3! n!

∞ 2n
x
n
= ∑(−1 ) .
n!
n=0

Therefore,
4 6 2n
−x
2
2
x x n
x
∫ e dx =∫ (1 − x + − + ⋯ + (−1 ) + ⋯) dx
2! 3! n!

3 5 7 2n+1
x x x x
n
= C +x − + − + ⋯ + (−1 ) +⋯ .
3 5.2! 7.3! (2n + 1)n!

b. Using the result from part a. we have

1
2 1 1 1 1
−x
∫ e dx = 1 − + − + −⋯ .
0 3 10 42 216

The sum of the first four terms is approximately 0.74. By the alternating series test, this estimate is accurate to within an
1
error of less than ≈ 0.0046296 < 0.01.
216

 Exercise 10.4.6
1

Express ∫ −
cos √x dx as an infinite series. Evaluate ∫ −
cos √x dx to within an error of 0.01.
0

Hint
Use the series found in Example 10.4.6.

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Answer
∞ n
x
C + ∑(−1 )
n+1
The definite integral is approximately 0.514 to within an error of 0.01.
n(2n − 2)!
n=1

As mentioned above, the integral ∫ e

−x
dx arises often in probability theory. Specifically, it is used when studying data sets that
are normally distributed, meaning the data values lie under a bell-shaped curve. For example, if a set of data values is normally
distributed with mean μ and standard deviation σ, then the probability that a randomly chosen value lies between x = a and x = b
is given by
b
1 2
−(x−μ ) /(2 σ )
2

−− ∫ e dx. (10.4.5)
σ √2π a

(See Figure 10.4.2.)

Figure 10.4.2 : If data values are normally distributed with mean μ and standard deviation σ , the probability that a randomly
1 2

selected data value is between a and b is the area under the curve y = between x = a and x = b .
2
−(x−μ) /(2σ )
e
−−
σ√2π

x −μ
To simplify this integral, we typically let z = . This quantity z is known as the z score of a data value. With this
σ
simplification, integral Equation 10.4.5 becomes
(b−μ)/σ
1 −z
2
/2
−− ∫ e dz.
√2π (a−μ)/σ

In Example 10.4.7, we show how we can use this integral in calculating probabilities.

 Example 10.4.7: Using Maclaurin Series to Approximate a Probability

Suppose a set of standardized test scores are normally distributed with mean μ = 100 and standard deviation σ = 50. Use
Equation 10.4.5 and the first six terms in the Maclaurin series for e to approximate the probability that a randomly
2
−x /2

selected test score is between x = 100 and x = 200. Use the alternating series test to determine how accurate your
approximation is.
Solution
Since μ = 100, σ = 50, and we are trying to determine the area under the curve from a = 100 to b = 200 , integral Equation
10.4.5 becomes

2
1 2
−z /2
∫ e dz.
−−
√2π 0

The Maclaurin series for e is given by

2
−x /2

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n
2
x
(− )
∞
2 2
−x /2
e =∑
n!
n=0

2 4 6 2n
x x x x
n
=1− + − + ⋯ + (−1 ) ! +⋯
1 2 3 n
2 ⋅ 1! 2 ⋅ 2! 2 ⋅ 3! 2 ⋅n

∞ 2n
x
n
= ∑(−1 ) .
n
2 ⋅ n!
n=0

Therefore,
2 4 6 2n
1 −z
2
/2
1 z z z n
z
−− ∫ e dz = −− ∫ (1 −
1
+
2
−
3
+ ⋯ + (−1 )
n
+ ⋯) dz
√2π √2π 2 ⋅ 1! 2 ⋅ 2! 2 ⋅ 3! 2 ⋅ n!

3 5 7 2n+1
1 z z z n
z
= −− (C + z − + − + ⋯ + (−1 ) + ⋯)
1 2 3 n
√2π 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1! 5 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2! 7 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 3! (2n + 1)2 ⋅ n!

2 11
1 −z
2
/2
1 8 32 128 512 2
−− ∫ e dz = −− (2 − + − + −
5
+ ⋯)
√2π 0 √2π 6 40 336 3456 11 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 5!

Using the first five terms, we estimate that the probability is approximately 0.4922. By the alternating series test, we see
that this estimate is accurate to within
13
1 2
−− ≈ 0.00546.
6
√2π 13 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 6!

Analysis
If you are familiar with probability theory, you may know that the probability that a data value is within two standard
deviations of the mean is approximately 95%. Here we calculated the probability that a data value is between the mean and two
standard deviations above the mean, so the estimate should be around 47.5%. The estimate, combined with the bound on the
accuracy, falls within this range.

 Exercise 10.4.7
2

Use the first five terms of the Maclaurin series for e to estimate the probability that a randomly selected test score is
−x /2

between 100 and 150. Use the alternating series test to determine the accuracy of this estimate.

Hint
1
2

Evaluate ∫ using the first five terms of the Maclaurin series for e .
2
−z /2 −z /2
e dz
0

Answer
The estimate is approximately 0.3414.This estimate is accurate to within 0.0000094.

Another application in which a non-elementary integral arises involves the period of a pendulum. The integral is
π/2
dθ
∫ − −−−− −− −−−
0 √ 1 − k2 sin2 θ

.
An integral of this form is known as an elliptic integral of the first kind. Elliptic integrals originally arose when trying to calculate
the arc length of an ellipse. We now show how to use power series to approximate this integral.

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 Example 10.4.8: Period of a Pendulum

The period of a pendulum is the time it takes for a pendulum to make one complete back-and-forth swing. For a pendulum with
length L that makes a maximum angle θ with the vertical, its period T is given by
max

−−
π/2
L dθ
T = 4√ ∫ − −−−− −− −−−
g 0 √ 1 − k2 sin2 θ

θmax
where g is the acceleration due to gravity and k = sin( ) (see Figure 10.4.3 ). (We note that this formula for the period
2

arises from a non-linearized model of a pendulum. In some cases, for simplification, a linearized model is used and sin θ is
approximated by θ .)

Figure 10.4.3 : This pendulum has length L and makes a maximum angle θ max with the vertical.
Use the binomial series
∞ n
1 (−1) 1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 ⋯ (2n − 1)
n
−−−−− = 1 +∑ n
x
√1 + x n! 2
n=1

to estimate the period of this pendulum. Specifically, approximate the period of the pendulum if
a. you use only the first term in the binomial series, and
b. you use the first two terms in the binomial series.
Solution
We use the binomial series, replacing x with −k 2
sin
2
θ. Then we can write the period as
−−
π/2
L 1 2 2
1⋅3 4 4
T = 4√ ∫ (1 + k sin θ+ k sin θ + ⋯) dθ.
2
g 0
2 2!2

a. Using just the first term in the integrand, the first-order estimate is
−− −−
π/2
L L
T ≈ 4√ ∫ dθ = 2π √ .
g 0
g

θmax
If θmax is small, then k = sin( ) is small. We claim that when k is small, this is a good estimate. To justify
2

this claim, consider

π/2
1 2 2
1⋅3 4 4
∫ (1 + k sin θ+ k sin θ + ⋯) dθ.
2
0
2 2!2

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Since | sin x| ≤ 1 , this integral is bounded by
π/2
1 1.3 π 1 1⋅3
2 4 2 4
∫ ( k + k + ⋯) dθ < ( k + k + ⋯) .
2 2
0
2 2!2 2 2 2!2

Furthermore, it can be shown that each coefficient on the right-hand side is less than 1 and, therefore, that this
expression is bounded by
2 2
πk πk 1
(1 + k
2
+k
4
+ ⋯) = ⋅
2
,
2 2 1 −k

which is small for k small.

b. For larger values of θ max , we can approximate T by using more terms in the integrand. By using the first two terms in
the integral, we arrive at the estimate
−− −−
π/2 2
L 1 2 2
L k
T ≈ 4√ ∫ (1 + k sin θ) dθ = 2π √ (1 + ).
g 0
2 g 4

The applications of Taylor series in this section are intended to highlight their importance. In general, Taylor series are useful
because they allow us to represent known functions using polynomials, thus providing us a tool for approximating function values
and estimating complicated integrals. In addition, they allow us to define new functions as power series, thus providing us with a
powerful tool for solving differential equations.

Key Concepts
The binomial series is the Maclaurin series for f (x) = (1 + x) . It converges for |x| < 1. r

Taylor series for functions can often be derived by algebraic operations with a known Taylor series or by differentiating or
integrating a known Taylor series.
Power series can be used to solve differential equations.
Taylor series can be used to help approximate integrals that cannot be evaluated by other means.

Glossary
binomial series
the Maclaurin series for f (x) = (1 + x) ; it is given by
r

∞
r r(r − 1) r(r − 1) ⋯ (r − n + 1)
(1 + x )
r
= ∑(
n
)x = 1 + rx + x
2
+⋯ + x
n
+⋯ for |x| < 1
n 2! n!
n=0

non-elementary integral
an integral for which the antiderivative of the integrand cannot be expressed as an elementary function

This page titled 10.4: Working with Taylor Series is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a
detailed edit history is available upon request.
10.4: Working with Taylor Series by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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10.4E: Exercises
In exercises 1 - 4, use appropriate substitutions to write down the Maclaurin series for the given binomial.
1) (1 − x) 1/3

2) (1 + x 2
)
−1/3

Answer
∞
1
2 −1/3 − 2n
(1 + x ) = ∑ (n 3 )x

n=0

3) (1 − x) 1.01

4) (1 − 2x) 2/3

Answer
∞
2
2/3 n n n
(1 − 2x ) = ∑(−1 ) 2 (n 3
)x

n=0

r
x−a
In exercises 5 - 12, use the substitution (b + x) r
= (b + a) (1 +
r
) in the binomial expansion to find the Taylor series of each function
b+a

with the given center.

−−−−−
5) √x + 2 at a = 0
−−−−−
6) √x 2
+2 at a = 0

Answer
∞
−−−− − 1
2 (1/2)−n 2n 2
√2 + x = ∑2 (n 2
)x ; (| x | < 2)

n=0

−−−−−
7) √x + 2 at a = 1
−−−−−−
8) √2x − x at a = 1 (Hint: 2x − x
2 2
= 1 − (x − 1 )
2
)

Answer
∞
−−−−− − −−−− −−−− −− −−−−−− 1

√2x − x2 = √1 − (x − 1)2 so √2x − x 2

= ∑(−1 )
n
(n 2
) (x − 1 )
2n

n=0

9) (x − 8) 1/3
at a = 9
−
10) √x at a = 4

Answer
∞
−−−−− − 1
−
√x = 2 √1 +
x−4

4
so √−
x = ∑2
1−2n
(n 2 ) (x − 4 )
n

n=0

11) x 1/3
at a = 27
12) √−
x at x = 9

Answer
∞
1
− 1−3n n
√x = ∑ 3 (n 2
) (x − 9 )

n=0

In exercises 13 - 14, use the binomial theorem to estimate each number, computing enough terms to obtain an estimate accurate to an error of at
most 1/1000.
13) [T] (15) 1/4
using (16 − x) 1/4

14) [T] (1001) 1/3

using (1000 + x) 1/3

Answer
∞ 1
x
10(1 + )
1/3
= ∑ 10
1−3n 3
(n )x
n
. Using, for example, a fourth-degree estimate at x = 1 gives
1000
n=0
1 1 1 1
1/3 −3 −6 −9 −12 1 1 5 10
(1001 ) ≈ 10 (1 + (1 3
) 10 + (2 3
) 10 + (3 3
) 10 + (3 3
) 10 ) = 10 (1 + − + − ) = 10.00333222...
3 6 9 12
3.10 9.10 81.10 243.10

whereas (1001) 1/3

= 10.00332222839093.... Two terms would suffice for three-digit accuracy.

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−−−−− 2 3 4 5

In exercises 15 - 18, use the binomial approximation √1 − x ≈ 1−

2
−
x

8
−
x

16
−
5x

128
−
7x

256
for |x| < 1 to approximate each number.
Compare this value to the value given by a scientific calculator.
15) [T] 1

√2
using x = 1

2
in (1 − x) 1/2

–
16) [T] √5 = 5 × 1

√5
using x = 4

5
in (1 − x) 1/2

Answer
The approximation is 2.3152; the CAS value is 2.23 … .
–
17) [T] √3 = 3

√3
using x = 2

3
in (1 − x) 1/2

–
18) [T] √6 using x = 5

6
in (1 − x) 1/2

Answer
The approximation is 2.583 …; the CAS value is 2.449 … .
x
−−−−− −−−−
19) Integrate the binomial approximation of √1 − x to find an approximation of ∫ √1 − t dt .
0

−−−−− −−−−−
20) [T] Recall that the graph of √1 − x is an upper semicircle of radius 1. Integrate the binomial approximation of √1 − x up to order 8 from x = −1 to
2 2

x = 1 to estimate . π

Answer
−−−− − 2 4 6 8

√1 − x2 = 1 −
x

2
−
x

8
−
x

16
−
5x

128
+⋯ . Thus
1 3 5 7 9
−−−− − x x x 5x 1 1 1 1 10
∫
2
√1 − x dx = [x − − − − + ⋯]
∣
∣
≈2− − − − + error = 1.590... whereas
−1
6 40 7 ⋅ 16 9 ⋅ 128 −1 3 20 56 9 ⋅ 128
π
= 1.570...
2

In exercises 21 - 24, use the expansion (1 + x )

1/3
= 1+
1

3
x−
1

9
x
2
+
5

81
x
3
−
10

243
x
4
+⋯ to write the first five terms (not necessarily a
quartic polynomial) of each expression.
21) (1 + 4x ) 1/3
; a =0

22) (1 + 4x ) 4/3
; a =0

Answer
2 3 4
4/3 1 1 2 5 3 10 4 4x 2x 4x 5x
(1 + x ) = (1 + x)(1 + x− x + x − x + ⋯) = 1 + + − + +⋯
3 9 81 243 3 9 81 243

23) (3 + 2x ) 1/3
; a = −1

24) (x2
+ 6x + 10 )
1/3
; a = −3

Answer
2 1/3 1 2 1 4 5 6 10 8
(1 + (x + 3 ) ) =1+ (x + 3 ) − (x + 3 ) + (x + 3 ) − (x + 3 ) +⋯
3 9 81 243

25) Use (1 + x ) 1/3

=1+
1

3
x−
1

9
x
2
+
5

81
x
3
−
243
10
x
4
+⋯ with x = 1 to approximate 2 1/3
.
2 3 4 5

26) Use the approximation (1 − x ) 2/3

=1−
2x

3
−
x

9
−
4x

81
−
7x

243
−
14x

729
+⋯ for |x| < 1 to approximate 2 1/3 −2/3
= 2.2 .

Answer
Twice the approximation is 1.260 … whereas 2 1/3
= 1.2599....

27) Find the 25 th

derivative of f (x) = (1 + x 2 13
) at x = 0 .
28) Find the 99 th
derivative of f (x) = (1 + x 4 25
) .

Answer
(99)
f (0) = 0

In exercises 29 - 36, find the Maclaurin series of each function.

29) f (x) = xe 2x

30) f (x) = 2 x

Answer
∞ n
(ln(2)x)
∑
n!
n=0

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sin x
31) f (x) =
x
−
sin(√x )
32) f (x) = − , (x > 0),
√x

Answer
∞ (2n+1)/2 ∞ n
x x
For x > 0, −
sin(√x ) = ∑(−1 )
n
−
= ∑(−1 )
n
.
n=0
√x (2n + 1)! n=0
(2n + 1)!

33) f (x) = sin(x 2

)

34) f (x) = e
3
x

Answer
∞ 3n
3 x
x
e =∑
n!
n=0

35) f (x) = cos 2

x using the identity cos 2
x =
1

2
+
1

2
cos(2x)

36) f (x) = sin 2

x using the identity sin 2
x =
1

2
−
1

2
cos(2x)

Answer
∞ k 2k−1 2k
(−1) 2 x
2
sin x = −∑
(2k)!
k=1

In exercises 37 - 44, find the Maclaurin series of F (x) = ∫ f (t) dt by integrating the Maclaurin series of f term by term. If f is not strictly
0

defined at zero, you may substitute the value of the Maclaurin series at zero.
x ∞ 2n
2 2 t
37) F (x) = ∫ e
−t
dt; f (t) = e
−t
= ∑(−1 )
n

0
n!
n=0

∞
1
38) F (x) = tan −1
x; f (t) = = ∑(−1 ) t
n 2n

1 + t2
n=0

Answer
∞ k 2k+1
(−1) x
−1
tan x =∑
2k + 1
k=0

∞
1
39) F (x) = tanh −1
x; f (t) =
2
= ∑t
2n

1 −t
n=0

∞ 2k
1 1 t
40) F (x) = sin −1
x; f (t) = −−−− − = ∑ (k
2
)
√1 − t2 k!
k=0

Answer
∞ 2n+1
1
x
−1
sin x = ∑ (n 2 )
(2n + 1)n!
n=0

x ∞ 2n
sin t sin t t
41) F (x) = ∫ dt; f (t) = = ∑(−1 )
n

0
t t (2n + 1)!
n=0

x ∞ n
x
42) F (x) = ∫ cos(√t) dt; f (t) = ∑(−1 )
n

0 (2n)!
n=0

Answer
∞ n+1
n
x
F (x) = ∑(−1 )
(n + 1)(2n)!
n=0

x ∞ 2n
1 − cos t 1 − cos t t
43) F (x) = ∫ 2
dt; f (t) =
2
= ∑(−1 )
n

0 t t (2n + 2)!
n=0

x ∞ n
ln(1 + t) t
44) F (x) = ∫ dt; f (t) = ∑(−1 )
n

0
t n+1
n=0

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Answer
∞ n
n+1
x
F (x) = ∑(−1 )
2
n
n=1

In exercises 45 - 52, compute at least the first three nonzero terms (not necessarily a quadratic polynomial) of the Maclaurin series of f .
45) f (x) = sin(x + π

4
) = sin x cos(
π

4
) + cos x sin(
π

4
)

46) f (x) = tan x

Answer
3 5
x 2x
x+ + +⋯
3 15

47) f (x) = ln(cos x)

48) f (x) = e x
cos x

Answer
3 4
x x
1 +x − − +⋯
3 6

49) f (x) = e sin x

50) f (x) = sec 2

Answer
4 6
2x 17x
2
1 +x + + +⋯
3 45

51) f (x) = tanh x

−
tan √x
52) f (x) = −
(see expansion for tan x)
√x

Answer
2
x 2x
Using the expansion for tan x gives 1 + + .
3 15

In exercises 53 - 56, find the radius of convergence of the Maclaurin series of each function.
53) ln(1 + x)
1
54)
1 + x2

Answer
∞
1

2
= ∑(−1 ) x
n 2n
so R = 1 by the ratio test.
1 +x
n=0

55) tan −1
x

56) ln(1 + x 2
)

Answer
∞ n−1
(−1)
ln(1 + x ) = ∑
2
x
2n
so R = 1 by the ratio test.
n
n=1

x −x
e −e
57) Find the Maclaurin series of sinh x = .
2
x −x
e +e
58) Find the Maclaurin series of cosh x = .
2

Answer
∞ 2n
x
Add series of e and e x −x
term by term. Odd terms cancel and cosh x = ∑ .
(2n)!
n=0

59) Differentiate term by term the Maclaurin series of sinh x and compare the result with the Maclaurin series of cosh x.

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n 2k+1 n 2k
x x
60) [T] Let Sn (x) = ∑(−1 )
k
and Cn (x) = ∑(−1 )
k
denote the respective Maclaurin polynomials of degree 2n + 1 of sin x and
(2k + 1)! (2k)!
k=0 n=0

3 5 7
Sn (x) x 2x 17x
degree 2n of cos x. Plot the errors − tan x for n = 1, . . , 5 and compare them to x + + + − tan x on (− π

4
,
π

4
.
)
Cn (x) 3 15 315

Answer
3 5 7
Sn (x) x 2x 17x Sn
The ratio approximates tan x better than does p7 (x) = x + + + for N ≥3 . The dashed curves are − tan x for
Cn (x) 3 15 315 Cn

n = 1, 2 . The dotted curve corresponds to n = 3 , and the dash-dotted curve corresponds to n = 4 . The solid curve is p 7 − tan x .

61) Use the identity 2 sin x cos x = sin(2x) to find the power series expansion of sin 2
x at x = 0 . (Hint: Integrate the Maclaurin series of sin(2x) term by
term.)
∞

62) If y = ∑ a nx
n
, find the power series expansions of xy' and x 2
y
′′
.
n=0

Answer
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

By the term-by-term differentiation theorem, y' = ∑ na nx

n−1
so y' = ∑ na nx
n−1
xy' = ∑ nan x
n
, whereas y' = ∑ n(n − 1)a nx
n−2
so
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=2
∞

xy
′′
= ∑ n(n − 1)an x
n
.
n=2

∞
−a2k
63) [T] Suppose that y = ∑ a k k
x satisfies y' = −2xy and y(0) = 0 . Show that a 2k+1 =0 for all k and that a 2k+2 = . Plot the partial sum S 20 of y
k+1
k=0

on the interval [−4, 4].

64) [T] Suppose that a set of standardized test scores is normally distributed with mean μ = 100 and standard deviation σ = 10. Set up an integral that
represents the probability that a test score will be between 90 and 110 and use the integral of the degree 10 Maclaurin polynomial of to estimate
2
1 −x /2
e
√2π

this probability.

Answer
(b−μ)/σ
1 2

The probability is p = −−
∫ e
−x /2
dx where a = 90 and b = 100, that is,
√2π (a−μ)/σ

1 1 5 2n 5
1 2 1 x 2 1
−x /2 n n
p = ∫ e dx = ∫ ∑(−1 ) dx = ∑(−1 ) ≈ 0.6827.
−− −− n −− n
√2π −1 √2π −1 2 n! √2π (2n + 1)2 n!
n=0 n=0

65) [T] Suppose that a set of standardized test scores is normally distributed with mean μ = 100 and standard deviation σ = 10. Set up an integral that
represents the probability that a test score will be between 70 and 130 and use the integral of the degree 50 Maclaurin polynomial of to estimate
2
1 −x /2
e
√2π

this probability.
∞

66) [T] Suppose that ∑ a nx

n
converges to a function f (x) such that f (0) = 1, f '(0) = 0 , and f ′′
(x) = −f (x) . Find a formula for a and plot the partial
n

n=0

sum S for N
N = 20 on [−5, 5].

Answer

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n
(−1)
As in the previous problem one obtains a n =0 if n is odd and a n = −(n + 2)(n + 1)an+2 if n is even, so a 0 =1 leads to a 2n = .
(2n)!

67) [T] Suppose that ∑ a nx

n
converges to a function f (x) such that f (0) = 0, f '(0) = 1 , and f ′′
(x) = −f (x) . Find a formula for an and plot the partial
n=0

sum S for N
N = 10 on [−5, 5].
∞

68) Suppose that ∑ an x

n
converges to a function y such that y
′′
− y' + y = 0 where y(0) = 1 and ′
y (0) = 0. Find a formula that relates an+2 , an+1 ,

n=0

and an and compute a 0, . . . , a5 .

Answer
∞ ∞

y
′′
= ∑(n + 2)(n + 1)an+2 x
n
and y' = ∑(n + 1)a n+1 x
n
so y ′′
− y' + y = 0 implies that (n + 2)(n + 1)a n+2 − (n + 1)an+1 + an = 0

n=0 n=0
an−1 an−2
or a n = − for all n ⋅ y(0) = a 0 =1 and y'(0) = a 1 = 0, so a 2 =
1

2
, a3 =
1

6
, a4 = 0 , and a 5 =−
120
1
.
n n(n − 1)

69) Suppose that ∑ a nx

n
converges to a function y such that y ′′
− y' + y = 0 where y(0) = 0 and y'(0) = 1. Find a formula that relates a n+2 , an+1 , and
n=0

an and compute a 1, . . . , a5 .
b b b

The error in approximating the integral ∫ f (t) dt by that of a Taylor approximation ∫ P n(t) dt is at most ∫ Rn (t) dt . In exercises 70 - 71,
a a a

the Taylor remainder estimate R n ≤

(n+1)!
|x − a|
n+1
guarantees that the integral of the Taylor polynomial of the given order approximates the
integral of f with an error less than 10
1
.
a. Evaluate the integral of the appropriate Taylor polynomial and verify that it approximates the CAS value with an error less than 100
1
.
b. Compare the accuracy of the polynomial integral estimate with the remainder estimate.
π 2 4 6 8
sin t x x x x
70) [T] ∫ dt; Ps = 1 − + − + (You may assume that the absolute value of the ninth derivative of sin t

t
is bounded by 0.1.)
0
t 3! 5! 7! 9!

Answer
a. (Proof)
π 2 4 6 8 3 5 7 9
x x x x π π π π
b. We have R s ≤
0.1

(9)!
π
9
≈ 0.0082 < 0.01. We have ∫ (1 − + − + ) dx = π − + − + = 1.852...,
0 3! 5! 7! 9! 3 ⋅ 3! 5 ⋅ 5! 7 ⋅ 7! 9 ⋅ 9!
π
sin t
whereas ∫ dt = 1.85194... , so the actual error is approximately 0.00006.
0
t

2 4 6 22
2 x x x
71) [T] (You may assume that the absolute value of the derivative of is less than
2
−x 2 rd −x
∫ e dx; p11 = 1 − x + − +⋯ − 23 e
0 2 3! 11!

2 × 10
14
.)
The following exercises (72-73) deal with Fresnel integrals.
x x

72) The Fresnel integrals are defined by C (x) = ∫ cos(t ) dt

2
and S(x) = ∫ 2
sin(t ) dt . Compute the power series of C (x) and S(x) and plot the sums
0 0

CN (x) and S N (x) of the first N = 50 nonzero terms on [0, 2π].

Answer
∞ 4n ∞ 4n+2 ∞ 4n+3
t t x
Since 2
cos(t ) = ∑(−1 )
n
and 2
sin(t ) = ∑(−1 )
n
, one has S(x) = ∑(−1 )
n
and
(2n)! (2n + 1)! (4n + 3)(2n + 1)!
n=0 n=0 n=0
∞ 4n+1
x
C (x) = ∑(−1 )
n
. The sums of the first 50 nonzero terms are plotted below with C 50 (x) the solid curve and S 50 (x) the dashed
(4n + 1)(2n)!
n=0

curve.

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73) [T] The Fresnel integrals are used in design applications for roadways and railways and other applications because of the curvature properties of the
curve with coordinates (C (t), S(t)). Plot the curve (C , S ) for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π , the coordinates of which were computed in the previous exercise.
50 50

1/4 2 3 4 5
−−−− − −−−−− x x x 5x 7x
74) Estimate ∫ 2
√x − x dx by approximating √1 − x using the binomial approximation 1 − − − − − .
0 2 8 16 2128 256

Answer
1/4 2 3 4 5
− x x x 5x 7x 2 −3
1 2 −5
1 2 −7
1 2 −9
5 2 −11
7 2 −13
∫ √x (1 − − − − − ) dx = 2 − 2 − 2 − 2 − 2 − 2 = 0.0767732...
0
2 8 16 128 256 3 2 5 8 7 16 9 128 11 256 13
1/4
−−−− −
whereas ∫ 2
√x − x dx = 0.076773.

−−−−−
75) [T] Use Newton’s approximation of the binomial √1 − x to approximate π as follows. The circle centered at (
2 1

2
, 0) with radius 1

2
has upper semicircle
− − −−−− √3
y = √x √1 − x . The sector of this circle bounded by the x-axis between x = 0 and x = 1

2
and by the line joining ( 1

4
,
4
) corresponds to 1

6
of the circle
√3
and has area . This sector is the union of a right triangle with height
π

24
and base and the region below the graph between x = 0 and x = . To find
4
1

4
1

4
−−− −− −− −−−
the area of this region you can write y = √− −
x √1 − x = √x × (binomial expansion of√1 − x ) and integrate term by term. Use this approach with the

binomial approximation from the previous exercise to estimate π.

−
− 2

76) Use the approximation T ≈ 2π √

g
(1 +
k

4
) to approximate the period of a pendulum having length 10 meters and maximum angle θ max =
π

6
where
−
−
θma x
k = sin(
2
) . Compare this with the small angle estimate T ≈ 2π √
L

g
.

Answer
−
−− 2 −−−−−−−−−
sin (θ/12)
T ≈ 2π √
10

9.8
(1 +
4
) ≈ 6.453 seconds. The small angle estimate is T ≈ 2π √
10

9.8
≈ 6.347 . The relative error is around 2 percent.

−−
2
L k
77) Suppose that a pendulum is to have a period of 2 seconds and a maximum angle of θ max =
π

6
. Use T ≈ 2π √ (1 + ) to approximate the desired
g 4
−
−
length of the pendulum. What length is predicted by the small angle estimate T ≈ 2π √
L

g
?
−−
π/2 π/2
L 1 3
78) Evaluate ∫ sin
4
θ dθ in the approximation T = 4√ ∫ (1 +
2
k sin
2
θ+ k
4
sin
4
θ + ⋯) dθ to obtain an improved estimate for T .
0
g 0
2 8

Answer
π/2
3π −
− 2

∫ sin
4
θ dθ = . Hence T ≈ 2π √
L

g
(1 +
k

4
+
9

256
4
k ).
0
16

−−
– θma x
79) [T] An equivalent formula for the period of a pendulum with amplitude θmax is T (θ max ) = 2 √2√
L
∫
g 0
dθ

√cos θ−cos( θma x)

where L is the pendulum
1 – 2 4 6

length and g is the gravitational acceleration constant. When θmax =

3
we get −−−− −− −−− ≈
√2 (1 +
t

2
+
t

3
+
181t

720
) . Integrate this approximation
√cos t − 1/2

to estimate T ( π

3
) in terms of L and g . Assuming g = 9.806 meters per second squared, find an approximate length L such that T ( π

3
) =2 seconds.

Contributors
Gilbert Strang (MIT) and Edwin “Jed” Herman (Harvey Mudd) with many contributing authors. This content by OpenStax is licensed with a CC-BY-SA-
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10.5: Chapter 10 Review Exercises
True or False? In exercises 1 - 4, justify your answer with a proof or a counterexample.
∞ ∞

1) If the radius of convergence for a power series ∑ a nx

n
is 5, then the radius of convergence for the series ∑ na nx
n−1
is also
n=0 n=1

5 .

Answer
True
∞
1
2) Power series can be used to show that the derivative of e is e . (Hint: Recall that e
x x x
=∑
n
x . )
n!
n=0

3) For small values of x, sin x ≈ x.

Answer
True

4) The radius of convergence for the Maclaurin series of f (x) = 3 is 3. x

In exercises 5 - 8, find the radius of convergence and the interval of convergence for the given series.
∞

5) ∑ n 2
(x − 1 )
n

n=0

Answer
ROC: 1; IOC: (0, 2)
∞ n
x
6) ∑ n
n
n=0

∞ n
3nx
7) ∑ n
12
n=0

Answer
ROC: 12; IOC: (−16, 8)
∞ n
2
8) ∑ n
(x − e)
n

e
n=0

In exercises 9 - 10, find the power series representation for the given function. Determine the radius of convergence and the
interval of convergence for that series.
2
x
9) f (x) =
x +3

Answer
∞ n
(−1)
∑
n
x ; ROC: 3; IOC: (−3, 3)
n+1
n=0
3

8x + 2
10) f (x) = 2
2x − 3x + 1

In exercises 11 - 12, find the power series for the given function using term-by-term differentiation or integration.
11) f (x) = tan −1
(2x)

Answer

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∞ n
(−1)
integration: ∑ 2n+1
(2x )
2n + 1
n=0

x
12) f (x) = 2 2
(2 + x )

In exercises 13 - 14, evaluate the Taylor series expansion of degree four for the given function at the specified point. What is
the error in the approximation?
13) f (x) = x 3
− 2x
2
+ 4, a = −3

Answer
p4 (x) = (x + 3 )
3
− 11(x + 3 )
2
+ 39(x + 3) − 41; exact

14) f (x) = e 1/(4x)

, a =4

In exercises 15 - 16, find the Maclaurin series for the given function.
15) f (x) = cos(3x)

Answer
∞ n 2n
(−1 ) (3x )
∑
2n!
n=0

16) f (x) = ln(x + 1)

In exercises 17 - 18, find the Taylor series at the given value.
17) f (x) = sin x, a =
π

Answer
∞ n
(−1) 2n
π
∑ (x − )
(2n)! 2
n=0

3
18) f (x) = , a =1
x

In exercises 19 - 20, find the Maclaurin series for the given function.
19) f (x) = e
2
−x
−1

Answer
∞ n
(−1)
2n
∑ x
n!
n=1

20) f (x) = cos x − x sin x

x
In exercises 21 - 23, find the Maclaurin series for F (x) = ∫ 0
f (t)dt by integrating the Maclaurin series of f (x) term by
term.
sin x
21) f (x) =
x

Answer
∞ n
(−1)
2n+1
F (x) = ∑ x
(2n + 1)(2n + 1)!
n=0

22) f (x) = 1 − e x

23) Use power series to prove Euler’s formula: e ix

= cosx + isinx

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Answer
Answers may vary.

Exercises 24 - 26 consider problems of annuity payments.

24) For annuities with a present value of $1 million, calculate the annual payouts given over 25 years assuming interest rates of
1%, 5%, and 10%.

25) A lottery winner has an annuity that has a present value of $10 million. What interest rate would they need to live on perpetual
annual payments of $250, 000?

Answer
2.5%

26) Calculate the necessary present value of an annuity in order to support annual payouts of $15, 000 given over 25 years
assuming interest rates of 1%, 5%,and 10%.

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detailed edit history is available upon request.
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CHAPTER OVERVIEW

11: Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates

Parametric equations define a group of quantities as functions of one or more independent variables called parameters. Parametric
equations are commonly used to express the coordinates of the points that make up a geometric object such as a curve or surface, in
which case the equations are collectively called a parametric representation or parameterization. The polar coordinate system is a
two-dimensional coordinate system in which each point on a plane is determined by a distance from a reference point and an angle
from a reference direction. The reference point (analogous to the origin of a Cartesian system) is called the pole, and the ray from
the pole in the reference direction is the polar axis. The distance from the pole is called the radial coordinate or radius, and the
angle is called the angular coordinate, polar angle, or azimuth
11.0: Prelude to Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates
11.1: Conic Sections
11.1E: Exercises
11.2: Parametric Equations
11.2E: Exercises
11.3: Calculus of Parametric Curves
11.3E: Exercises
11.4: Polar Coordinates
11.4E: Exercises
11.5: Area and Arc Length in Polar Coordinates
11.5E: Exercises
11.6: Chapter 11 Review Exercises

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curated by Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts
platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request.

1
11.0: Prelude to Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates
The chambered nautilus is a fascinating creature. This animal feeds on hermit crabs, fish, and other crustaceans. It has a hard
outer shell with many chambers connected in a spiral fashion, and it can retract into its shell to avoid predators. When part of the
shell is cut away, a perfect spiral is revealed, with chambers inside that are somewhat similar to growth rings in a tree.

Figure 11.0.1 : The chambered nautilus is a marine animal that lives in the tropical Pacific Ocean. Scientists think they have existed
mostly unchanged for about 500 million years.(credit: modification of work by Jitze Couperus, Flickr)
The mathematical function that describes a spiral can be expressed using rectangular (or Cartesian) coordinates. However, if we
change our coordinate system to something that works a bit better with circular patterns, the function becomes much simpler to
describe. The polar coordinate system is well suited for describing curves of this type. How can we use this coordinate system to
describe spirals and other radial figures?
In this chapter we also study parametric equations, which give us a convenient way to describe curves, or to study the position of a
particle or object in two dimensions as a function of time. We will use parametric equations and polar coordinates for describing
many topics later in this text.

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remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the
LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request.
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11.1: Conic Sections
 Learning Objectives
Identify the equation of a parabola in standard form with given focus and directrix.
Identify the equation of an ellipse in standard form with given foci.
Identify the equation of a hyperbola in standard form with given foci.
Recognize a parabola, ellipse, or hyperbola from its eccentricity value.
Write the polar equation of a conic section with eccentricity e .
Identify when a general equation of degree two is a parabola, ellipse, or hyperbola.

Conic sections have been studied since the time of the ancient Greeks, and were considered to be an important mathematical
concept. As early as 320 BCE, such Greek mathematicians as Menaechmus, Appollonius, and Archimedes were fascinated by these
curves. Appollonius wrote an entire eight-volume treatise on conic sections in which he was, for example, able to derive a specific
method for identifying a conic section through the use of geometry. Since then, important applications of conic sections have arisen
(for example, in astronomy), and the properties of conic sections are used in radio telescopes, satellite dish receivers, and even
architecture. In this section we discuss the three basic conic sections, some of their properties, and their equations.
Conic sections get their name because they can be generated by intersecting a plane with a cone. A cone has two identically shaped
parts called nappes. One nappe is what most people mean by “cone,” having the shape of a party hat. A right circular cone can be
generated by revolving a line passing through the origin around the y-axis as shown in Figure 11.1.1.

Figure 11.1.1 : A cone generated by revolving the line y = 3x around the y -axis.
Conic sections are generated by the intersection of a plane with a cone (Figure 11.1.2). If the plane is parallel to the axis of
revolution (the y-axis), then the conic section is a hyperbola. If the plane is parallel to the generating line, the conic section is a
parabola. If the plane is perpendicular to the axis of revolution, the conic section is a circle. If the plane intersects one nappe at an
angle to the axis (other than 90°), then the conic section is an ellipse.

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Figure 11.1.2 : The four conic sections. Each conic is determined by the angle the plane makes with the axis of the cone.

Parabolas
A parabola is generated when a plane intersects a cone parallel to the generating line. In this case, the plane intersects only one of
the nappes. A parabola can also be defined in terms of distances.

 Definitions: The Focus, Directrix and Vertex

A parabola is the set of all points whose distance from a fixed point, called the focus, is equal to the distance from a fixed line,
called the directrix. The point halfway between the focus and the directrix is called the vertex of the parabola.

Figure 11.1.3 : A typical parabola in which the distance from the focus to the vertex is represented by the variable p.
A graph of a typical parabola appears in Figure 11.1.3. Using this diagram in conjunction with the distance formula, we can derive
an equation for a parabola. Recall the distance formula: Given point P with coordinates (x , y ) and point Q with coordinates
1 1

(x , y ), the distance between them is given by the formula

2 2

−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
d(P , Q) = √ (x2 − x1 ) + (y2 − y1 ) .

Then from the definition of a parabola and Figure 11.1.3, we get

d(F , P ) = d(P , Q)

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−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2 2 2
√ (0 − x ) + (p − y ) = √ (x − x ) + (−p − y ) .

Squaring both sides and simplifying yields

2 2 2 2
x + (p − y ) =0 + (−p − y ) (11.1.1)

2 2 2 2 2
x +p − 2py + y =p + 2py + y (11.1.2)

2
x − 2py = 2py (11.1.3)

2
x = 4py. (11.1.4)

Now suppose we want to relocate the vertex. We use the variables (h, k) to denote the coordinates of the vertex. Then if the focus
is directly above the vertex, it has coordinates (h, k + p) and the directrix has the equation y = k − p . Going through the same
derivation yields the formula (x − h) = 4p(y − k) . Solving this equation for y leads to the following theorem.
2

 Equations for Parabolas: standard form

Given a parabola opening upward with vertex located at (h, k) and focus located at (h, k + p) , where p is a constant, the
equation for the parabola is given by
1 2
y = (x − h ) + k.
4p

This is the standard form of a parabola.

We can also study the cases when the parabola opens down or to the left or the right. The equation for each of these cases can also
be written in standard form as shown in the following graphs.

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Figure 11.1.4 : Four parabolas, opening in various directions, along with their equations in standard form.
In addition, the equation of a parabola can be written in the general form, though in this form the values of h , k , and p are not
immediately recognizable. The general form of a parabola is written as
2
ax + bx + cy + d = 0 (11.1.5)

or
2
ay + bx + cy + d = 0. (11.1.6)

Equation 11.1.5 represents a parabola that opens either up or down. Equation 11.1.6 represents a parabola that opens either to the
left or to the right. To put the equation into standard form, use the method of completing the square.

 Example 11.1.1: Converting the Equation of a Parabola from General into Standard Form

Put the equation

2
x − 4x − 8y + 12 = 0

into standard form and graph the resulting parabola.

Solution
Since y is not squared in this equation, we know that the parabola opens either upward or downward. Therefore we need to
solve this equation for y, which will put the equation into standard form. To do that, first add 8y to both sides of the equation:

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2
8y = x − 4x + 12.

The next step is to complete the square on the right-hand side. Start by grouping the first two terms on the right-hand side using
parentheses:
2
8y = (x − 4x) + 12.

Next determine the constant that, when added inside the parentheses, makes the quantity inside the parentheses a perfect square
−4
trinomial. To do this, take half the coefficient of x and square it. This gives (
2
) = 4. Add 4 inside the parentheses and
2
subtract 4 outside the parentheses, so the value of the equation is not changed:
2
8y = (x − 4x + 4) + 12 − 4.

Now combine like terms and factor the quantity inside the parentheses:
2
8y = (x − 2 ) + 8.

Finally, divide by 8:
1 2
y = (x − 2 ) + 1.
8

This equation is now in standard form. Comparing this to Equation gives h = 2, k = 1 , and p = 2 . The parabola opens up,
with vertex at (2, 1), focus at (2, 3), and directrix y = −1 . The graph of this parabola appears as follows.

Figure 11.1.5 : The parabola in Example 11.1.1 .

 Exercise 11.1.1
Put the equation 2y 2
− x + 12y + 16 = 0 into standard form and graph the resulting parabola.

Hint
Solve for x . Check which direction the parabola opens.

Answer
2
x = 2(y + 3 ) −2

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The axis of symmetry of a vertical (opening up or down) parabola is a vertical line passing through the vertex. The parabola has an
interesting reflective property. Suppose we have a satellite dish with a parabolic cross section. If a beam of electromagnetic waves,
such as light or radio waves, comes into the dish in a straight line from a satellite (parallel to the axis of symmetry), then the waves
reflect off the dish and collect at the focus of the parabola as shown.

Consider a parabolic dish designed to collect signals from a satellite in space. The dish is aimed directly at the satellite, and a
receiver is located at the focus of the parabola. Radio waves coming in from the satellite are reflected off the surface of the
parabola to the receiver, which collects and decodes the digital signals. This allows a small receiver to gather signals from a wide
angle of sky. Flashlights and headlights in a car work on the same principle, but in reverse: the source of the light (that is, the light
bulb) is located at the focus and the reflecting surface on the parabolic mirror focuses the beam straight ahead. This allows a small
light bulb to illuminate a wide angle of space in front of the flashlight or car.

Ellipses
An ellipse can also be defined in terms of distances. In the case of an ellipse, there are two foci (plural of focus), and two
directrices (plural of directrix). We look at the directrices in more detail later in this section.

 Definition: Ellipse

An ellipse is the set of all points for which the sum of their distances from two fixed points (the foci) is constant.

A graph of a typical ellipse is shown in Figure 11.1.6. In this figure the foci are labeled as F and F '. Both are the same fixed
distance from the origin, and this distance is represented by the variable c . Therefore the coordinates of F are (c, 0) and the
coordinates of F ' are (−c, 0). The points P and P ' are located at the ends of the major axis of the ellipse, and have coordinates
(a, 0) and (−a, 0), respectively. The major axis is always the longest distance across the ellipse, and can be horizontal or vertical.

Thus, the length of the major axis in this ellipse is 2a. Furthermore, P and P ' are called the vertices of the ellipse. The points Q
and Q' are located at the ends of the minor axis of the ellipse, and have coordinates (0, b) and (0, −b), respectively. The minor
axis is the shortest distance across the ellipse. The minor axis is perpendicular to the major axis.

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Figure 11.1.6 : A typical ellipse in which the sum of the distances from any point on the ellipse to the foci is constant.
According to the definition of the ellipse, we can choose any point on the ellipse and the sum of the distances from this point to the
two foci is constant. Suppose we choose the point P . Since the coordinates of point P are (a, 0), the sum of the distances is

d(P , F ) + d(P , F ') = (a − c) + (a + c) = 2a.

Therefore the sum of the distances from an arbitrary point A with coordinates (x, y) is also equal to 2a. Using the distance formula,
we get

d(A, F ) + d(A, F ') = 2a.

−−−−−−−−−− −−−−−−−−−−
2 2 2 2
√ (x − c ) +y + √ (x + c ) +y = 2a

Subtract the second radical from both sides and square both sides:
−−−−−−−−−− −−−−−−−−−−
2 2 2 2
√ (x − c ) +y = 2a − √ (x + c ) +y

−−−−−−−−−−
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(x − c ) +y = 4a − 4a√ (x + c ) +y + (x + c ) +y

−−−−−−−−−−
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x − 2cx + c +y = 4a − 4a√ (x + c ) +y +x + 2cx + c +y

−−−−−−−−−−
2 2 2
−2cx = 4 a − 4a√ (x + c ) +y + 2cx.

Now isolate the radical on the right-hand side and square again:
−−−−−−−−−−
2 2 2
−2cx = 4 a − 4a√ (x + c ) +y + 2cx

−−−−−−−−−−
2 2 2
4a√ (x + c ) +y = 4a + 4cx

−−−−−−−−−− cx
2 2
√ (x + c ) +y = a+
a

2 2
c x
2 2 2
(x + c ) +y =a + 2cx +
2
a

2 2
c x
2 2 2 2
x + 2cx + c +y =a + 2cx +
2
a

2 2
2 2 2 2
c x
x +c +y =a + .
2
a

Isolate the variables on the left-hand side of the equation and the constants on the right-hand side:

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2 2
2
c x 2 2 2
x − +y =a −c
2
a

2 2 2
(a − c )x
2 2 2
+y =a −c .
2
a

Divide both sides by a 2 2

−c . This gives the equation
2 2
x y
+ = 1.
2 2 2
a a −c

If we refer back to Figure 11.1.6, then the length of each of the two green line segments is equal to a . This is true because the sum
of the distances from the point Q to the foci F and F ' is equal to 2a, and the lengths of these two line segments are equal. This line
segment forms a right triangle with hypotenuse length a and leg lengths b and c . From the Pythagorean theorem, b + c = a and 2 2 2

b = a − c . Therefore the equation of the ellipse becomes

2 2 2

2 2
x y
+ = 1.
2 2
a b

Finally, if the center of the ellipse is moved from the origin to a point (h, k), we have the following standard form of an ellipse.

 Equation of an Ellipse in Standard Form

Consider the ellipse with center (h, k), a horizontal major axis with length 2a, and a vertical minor axis with length 2b. Then
the equation of this ellipse in standard form is
2 2
(x − h) (y − k)
+ =1 (11.1.7)
2 2
a b

2
a
and the foci are located at (h ± c, k) , where c 2
=a
2
−b
2
. The equations of the directrices are x = h ± .
c

If the major axis is vertical, then the equation of the ellipse becomes
2 2
(x − h) (y − k)
+ =1 (11.1.8)
b2 a2

2
a
and the foci are located at (h, k ± c) , where c 2
=a
2
−b
2
. The equations of the directrices in this case are y = k ± .
c

If the major axis is horizontal, then the ellipse is called horizontal, and if the major axis is vertical, then the ellipse is called vertical.
The equation of an ellipse is in general form if it is in the form
2 2
Ax + By + C x + Dy + E = 0,

where A and B are either both positive or both negative. To convert the equation from general to standard form, use the method of
completing the square.

 Example 11.1.2: Finding the Standard Form of an Ellipse

Put the equation

2 2
9x + 4y − 36x + 24y + 36 = 0

into standard form and graph the resulting ellipse.

Solution
First subtract 36 from both sides of the equation:
2 2
9x + 4y − 36x + 24y = −36.

Next group the x terms together and the y terms together, and factor out the common factor:

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2 2
(9 x − 36x) + (4 y + 24y) = −36

2 2
9(x − 4x) + 4(y + 6y) = −36.

We need to determine the constant that, when added inside each set of parentheses, results in a perfect square. In the first set of
−4
parentheses, take half the coefficient of x and square it. This gives ( )
2
= 4. In the second set of parentheses, take half the
2
6
coefficient of y and square it. This gives ( )
2
= 9. Add these inside each pair of parentheses. Since the first set of parentheses
2
has a 9 in front, we are actually adding 36 to the left-hand side. Similarly, we are adding 36 to the second set as well. Therefore
the equation becomes
2 2
9(x − 4x + 4) + 4(y + 6y + 9) = −36 + 36 + 36

2 2
9(x − 4x + 4) + 4(y + 6y + 9) = 36.

Now factor both sets of parentheses and divide by 36:

2 2
9(x − 2 ) + 4(y + 3 ) = 36

2 2
9(x − 2) 4(y + 3)
+ =1
36 36

2 2
(x − 2) (y + 3)
+ = 1.
4 9

The equation is now in standard form. Comparing this to Equation 11.1.8 gives h = 2, k = −3, a = 3, and b = 2 . This is a
vertical ellipse with center at (2, −3), major axis 6, and minor axis 4. The graph of this ellipse appears as follows.

Figure 11.1.7 : The ellipse in Example 11.1.2 .

 Exercise 11.1.2

Put the equation

2 2
9x + 16 y + 18x − 64y − 71 = 0

into standard form and graph the resulting ellipse.

Hint
Move the constant over and complete the square.

Answer
2 2
(x + 1) (y − 2)
+ =1
16 9

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According to Kepler’s first law of planetary motion, the orbit of a planet around the Sun is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the foci
as shown in Figure 11.1.8A. Because Earth’s orbit is an ellipse, the distance from the Sun varies throughout the year. A commonly
held misconception is that Earth is closer to the Sun in the summer. In fact, in summer for the northern hemisphere, Earth is farther
from the Sun than during winter. The difference in season is caused by the tilt of Earth’s axis in the orbital plane. Comets that orbit
the Sun, such as Halley’s Comet, also have elliptical orbits, as do moons orbiting the planets and satellites orbiting Earth.
Ellipses also have interesting reflective properties: A light ray emanating from one focus passes through the other focus after mirror
reflection in the ellipse. The same thing occurs with a sound wave as well. The National Statuary Hall in the U.S. Capitol in
Washington, DC, is a famous room in an elliptical shape as shown in Figure 11.1.8B. This hall served as the meeting place for the
U.S. House of Representatives for almost fifty years. The location of the two foci of this semi-elliptical room are clearly identified
by marks on the floor, and even if the room is full of visitors, when two people stand on these spots and speak to each other, they
can hear each other much more clearly than they can hear someone standing close by. Legend has it that John Quincy Adams had
his desk located on one of the foci and was able to eavesdrop on everyone else in the House without ever needing to stand.
Although this makes a good story, it is unlikely to be true, because the original ceiling produced so many echoes that the entire
room had to be hung with carpets to dampen the noise. The ceiling was rebuilt in 1902 and only then did the now-famous
whispering effect emerge. Another famous whispering gallery—the site of many marriage proposals—is in Grand Central Station
in New York City.

Figure 11.1.8 : (a) Earth’s orbit around the Sun is an ellipse with the Sun at one focus. (b) Statuary Hall in the U.S. Capitol is a
whispering gallery with an elliptical cross section.

Hyperbolas
A hyperbola can also be defined in terms of distances. In the case of a hyperbola, there are two foci and two directrices. Hyperbolas
also have two asymptotes.

 Definition: hyperbola
A hyperbola is the set of all points where the difference between their distances from two fixed points (the foci) is constant.

A graph of a typical hyperbola appears as follows.

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Figure 11.1.9 : A typical hyperbola in which the difference of the distances from any point on the hyperbola to the foci is constant.
The transverse axis is also called the major axis, and the conjugate axis is also called the minor axis.
The derivation of the equation of a hyperbola in standard form is virtually identical to that of an ellipse. One slight hitch lies in the
definition: The difference between two numbers is always positive. Let P be a point on the hyperbola with coordinates (x, y). Then
the definition of the hyperbola gives |d(P , F ) − d(P , F )| = constant . To simplify the derivation, assume that P is on the right
1 2

branch of the hyperbola, so the absolute value bars drop. If it is on the left branch, then the subtraction is reversed. The vertex of
the right branch has coordinates (a, 0), so

d(P , F1 ) − d(P , F2 ) = (c + a) − (c − a) = 2a.

This equation is therefore true for any point on the hyperbola. Returning to the coordinates (x, y) for P :

d(P , F1 ) − d(P , F2 ) = 2a

−−−−−−−−−− −−−−−−−−−−
2 2 2 2
√ (x + c ) +y − √ (x − c ) +y = 2a.

Isolate the second radical and square both sides:

−−−−−−−−−− −−−−−−−−−−
2 2 2 2
√ (x − c ) +y = −2a + √ (x + c ) +y

−−−−−−−−−−
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(x − c ) +y = 4a − 4a√ (x + c ) +y + (x + c ) +y

−−−−−−−−−−
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x − 2cx + c +y = 4a − 4a√ (x + c ) +y +x + 2cx + c +y

−−−−−−−−−−
2 2 2
−2cx = 4 a − 4a√ (x + c ) +y + 2cx.

Now isolate the radical on the right-hand side and square again:
2
−−−−−−−−− −
2 2
−2cx = 4 a − 4a√(x + c ) + y + 2cx

−−−−−−−−− − 2
2 2
−4a√(x + c ) + y = −4 a − 4cx

−−−−−−−−− − cx
2 2
−√(x + c ) + y = −a −
a

2 2
c x
2 2 2
(x + c ) +y =a + 2cx +
2
a

2 2
c x
2 2 2 2
x + 2cx + c +y =a + 2cx +
2
a

2 2
c x
x
2
+c
2
+y
2
=a
2
+
2
.
a

Isolate the variables on the left-hand side of the equation and the constants on the right-hand side:

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2 2
2
c x 2 2 2
x − +y =a −c
2
a

2 2 2
(a − c )x
2 2 2
+y =a −c .
2
a

Finally, divide both sides by a 2

−c
2
. This gives the equation
2 2
x y
+ = 1.
2 2 2
a a −c

We now define b so that b 2

=c
2
−a
2
. This is possible because c > a . Therefore the equation of the hyperbola becomes
2 2
x y
− = 1.
2 2
a b

Finally, if the center of the hyperbola is moved from the origin to the point (h, k), we have the following standard form of a
hyperbola.

 Equation of a Hyperbola in Standard Form

Consider the hyperbola with center (h, k) , a horizontal major axis, and a vertical minor axis. Then the equation of this
hyperbola is
2 2
(x − h) (y − k)
− =1 (11.1.9)
2 2
a b

b
and the foci are located at (h ± c, k), where c 2
=a
2
+b
2
. The equations of the asymptotes are given by y = k ± (x − h).
a
The equations of the directrices are
2 2
a a
x =h± − −−−−− =h±
√ a2 + b2 c

If the major axis is vertical, then the equation of the hyperbola becomes
2 2
(y − k) (x − h)
− =1
2 2
a b

a
and the foci are located at (h, k ± c), where c 2
=a
2
+b
2
. The equations of the asymptotes are given by y = k ± (x − h) .
b
The equations of the directrices are
2 2
a a
y =k± − −−−−− =k± .
√ a2 + b2 c

If the major axis (transverse axis) is horizontal, then the hyperbola is called horizontal, and if the major axis is vertical then the
hyperbola is called vertical. The equation of a hyperbola is in general form if it is in the form
2 2
Ax + By + C x + Dy + E = 0,

where A and B have opposite signs. In order to convert the equation from general to standard form, use the method of completing
the square.

 Example 11.1.3: Finding the Standard Form of a Hyperbola

Put the equation 9x − 16y

2 2
+ 36x + 32y − 124 = 0 into standard form and graph the resulting hyperbola. What are the
equations of the asymptotes?
Solution
First add 124 to both sides of the equation:
2 2
9x − 16 y + 36x + 32y = 124.

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Next group the x terms together and the y terms together, then factor out the common factors:
2 2
(9 x + 36x) − (16 y − 32y) = 124

9(x
2
+ 4x) − 16(y
2
− 2y) = 124 .
We need to determine the constant that, when added inside each set of parentheses, results in a perfect square. In the first set of
4
parentheses, take half the coefficient of x and square it. This gives (
2
) =4 . In the second set of parentheses, take half the
2
−2
coefficient of y and square it. This gives ( )
2
= 1. Add these inside each pair of parentheses. Since the first set of
2
parentheses has a 9 in front, we are actually adding 36 to the left-hand side. Similarly, we are subtracting 16 from the second
set of parentheses. Therefore the equation becomes
2 2
9(x + 4x + 4) − 16(y − 2y + 1) = 124 + 36 − 16

2 2
9(x + 4x + 4) − 16(y − 2y + 1) = 144.

Next factor both sets of parentheses and divide by 144:

2 2
9(x + 2 ) − 16(y − 1 ) = 144

2 2
9(x + 2) 16(y − 1)
− =1
144 144

2 2
(x + 2) (y − 1)
− = 1.
16 9

The equation is now in standard form. Comparing this to Equation 11.1.9 gives h = −2, k = 1, a = 4, and b =3 . This is a
3
horizontal hyperbola with center at (−2, 1) and asymptotes given by the equations y =1± (x + 2) . The graph of this
4
hyperbola appears in Figure 11.1.10.

Figure 11.1.10: Graph of the hyperbola in Example 11.1.3 .

 Exercise 11.1.3
Put the equation 4y − 9x + 16y + 18x − 29 = 0 into standard form and graph the resulting hyperbola. What are the
2 2

equations of the asymptotes?

Hint
Move the constant over and complete the square. Check which direction the hyperbola opens

Answer
2 2
(y + 2) (x − 1) 3
− = 1. This is a vertical hyperbola. Asymptotes y = −2 ± (x − 1).
9 4 2

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Hyperbolas also have interesting reflective properties. A ray directed toward one focus of a hyperbola is reflected by a hyperbolic
mirror toward the other focus. This concept is illustrated in Figure 11.1.11.

Figure 11.1.11: A hyperbolic mirror used to collect light from distant stars.
This property of the hyperbola has important applications. It is used in radio direction finding (since the difference in signals from
two towers is constant along hyperbolas), and in the construction of mirrors inside telescopes (to reflect light coming from the
parabolic mirror to the eyepiece). Another interesting fact about hyperbolas is that for a comet entering the solar system, if the
speed is great enough to escape the Sun’s gravitational pull, then the path that the comet takes as it passes through the solar system
is hyperbolic.

Eccentricity and Directrix

An alternative way to describe a conic section involves the directrices, the foci, and a new property called eccentricity. We will see
that the value of the eccentricity of a conic section can uniquely define that conic.

 Definition: Eccentricity and Directrices

The eccentricity e of a conic section is defined to be the distance from any point on the conic section to its focus, divided by
the perpendicular distance from that point to the nearest directrix. This value is constant for any conic section, and can define
the conic section as well:

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1. If e = 1 , the conic is a parabola.
2. If e < 1 , it is an ellipse.
3. If e > 1, it is a hyperbola.
The eccentricity of a circle is zero. The directrix of a conic section is the line that, together with the point known as the focus,
serves to define a conic section. Hyperbolas and noncircular ellipses have two foci and two associated directrices. Parabolas
have one focus and one directrix.

The three conic sections with their directrices appear in Figure 11.1.12.

Figure 11.1.12: The three conic sections with their foci and directrices.
Recall from the definition of a parabola that the distance from any point on the parabola to the focus is equal to the distance from
that same point to the directrix. Therefore, by definition, the eccentricity of a parabola must be 1. The equations of the directrices of
2
a
a horizontal ellipse are x =± . The right vertex of the ellipse is located at (a, 0) and the right focus is (c, 0) . Therefore the
c
2
a
distance from the vertex to the focus is a−c and the distance from the vertex to the right directrix is − c. This gives the
c
eccentricity as
a−c c(a − c) c(a − c) c
e = = = = .
2 2
a a − ac a(a − c) a
−a
c

Since c <a , this step proves that the eccentricity of an ellipse is less than 1. The directrices of a horizontal hyperbola are also
2
a c
located at x = ± , and a similar calculation shows that the eccentricity of a hyperbola is also e = . However in this case we
c a
have c > a , so the eccentricity of a hyperbola is greater than 1.

 Example 11.1.4: Determining Eccentricity of a Conic Section

Determine the eccentricity of the ellipse described by the equation

2 2
(x − 3) (y + 2)
+ = 1.
16 25

Solution
From the equation we see that a = 5 and b = 4 . The value of c can be calculated using the equation a = b + c for an 2 2 2

ellipse. Substituting the values of a and b and solving for c gives c = 3 . Therefore the eccentricity of the ellipse is
c 3
e = = = 0.6.
a 5

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 Exercise 11.1.4
Determine the eccentricity of the hyperbola described by the equation
2 2
(y − 3) (x + 2)
− = 1.
49 25

Hint
First find the values of a and b, then determine c using the equation c 2
=a
2
+b
2
.

Answer
−−
c √74
e = = ≈ 1.229
a 7

Polar Equations of Conic Sections

Sometimes it is useful to write or identify the equation of a conic section in polar form. To do this, we need the concept of the focal
parameter. The focal parameter of a conic section p is defined as the distance from a focus to the nearest directrix. The following
table gives the focal parameters for the different types of conics, where a is the length of the semi-major axis (i.e., half the length of
the major axis), c is the distance from the origin to the focus, and e is the eccentricity. In the case of a parabola, a represents the
distance from the vertex to the focus.
Table 11.1.1 : Eccentricities and Focal Parameters of the Conic Sections
Conic e p

2 2 2
a −c a(1 − e )
Ellipse 0 < e < 1 =
c c

Parabola e = 1 2a

2 2 2
c −a a(e − 1)
Hyperbola e > 1 =
c c

Using the definitions of the focal parameter and eccentricity of the conic section, we can derive an equation for any conic section in
polar coordinates. In particular, we assume that one of the foci of a given conic section lies at the pole. Then using the definition of
the various conic sections in terms of distances, it is possible to prove the following theorem.

 Polar Equation of Conic Sections

The polar equation of a conic section with focal parameter p is given by
ep ep
r = or r = .
1 ± e cos θ 1 ± e sin θ

In the equation on the left, the major axis of the conic section is horizontal, and in the equation on the right, the major axis is
vertical. To work with a conic section written in polar form, first make the constant term in the denominator equal to 1. This can be
done by dividing both the numerator and the denominator of the fraction by the constant that appears in front of the plus or minus
in the denominator. Then the coefficient of the sine or cosine in the denominator is the eccentricity. This value identifies the conic.
If cosine appears in the denominator, then the conic is horizontal. If sine appears, then the conic is vertical. If both appear then the
axes are rotated. The center of the conic is not necessarily at the origin. The center is at the origin only if the conic is a circle (i.e.,
e = 0 ).

 Example 11.1.5: Graphing a Conic Section in Polar Coordinates

Identify and create a graph of the conic section described by the equation
3
r = .
1 + 2 cos θ

Solution

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The constant term in the denominator is 1, so the eccentricity of the conic is 2. This is a hyperbola. The focal parameter p can
3
be calculated by using the equation ep = 3. Since e = 2 , this gives p = . The cosine function appears in the denominator, so
2
the hyperbola is horizontal. Pick a few values for θ and create a table of values. Then we can graph the hyperbola (Figure
11.1.13).

θ r θ r

0 1 π −3
π 3 5π 3
≈ 1.2426 ≈ −7.2426
– –
4 1 + √2 4 1 − √2

π 3π
3 3
2 2

3π 3 7π 3
≈ −7.2426 ≈ 1.2426
– –
4 1 − √2 4 1 + √2

Figure 11.1.13: Graph of the hyperbola described in Example 11.1.5 .

 Exercise 11.1.5
Identify and create a graph of the conic section described by the equation
4
r = .
1 − 0.8 sin θ

Hint
First find the values of e and p, and then create a table of values.

Answer
Here e = 0.8 and p = 5 . This conic section is an ellipse.

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General Equations of Degree Two
A general equation of degree two can be written in the form
2 2
Ax + Bxy + C y + Dx + Ey + F = 0.

The graph of an equation of this form is a conic section. If B ≠ 0 then the coordinate axes are rotated. To identify the conic
section, we use the discriminant of the conic section 4AC − B . 2

 Identifying the Conic Section

One of the following cases must be true:
1. 4AC − B 2
>0 . If so, the graph is an ellipse.
2. 4AC − B 2
= 0 . If so, the graph is a parabola.

3. 4AC − B 2
< 0 . If so, the graph is a hyperbola.

The simplest example of a second-degree equation involving a cross term is xy = 1 . This equation can be solved for y to obtain
1
y = . The graph of this function is called a rectangular hyperbola as shown.
x

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Figure 11.1.14: Graph of the equation xy = 1 ; The red lines indicate the rotated axes.
The asymptotes of this hyperbola are the x and y coordinate axes. To determine the angle θ of rotation of the conic section, we use
the formula cot 2θ = A−C

B
. In this case A = C = 0 and B = 1 , so cot 2θ = (0 − 0)/1 = 0 and θ = 45° . The method for
graphing a conic section with rotated axes involves determining the coefficients of the conic in the rotated coordinate system. The
new coefficients are labeled A', B', C ', D', E', and F ', and are given by the formulas
2 2
A' = A cos θ + B cos θ sin θ + C sin θ (11.1.10)

B' = 0 (11.1.11)

2 2
C ' = A sin θ − B sin θ cos θ + C cos θ (11.1.12)

D' = D cos θ + E sin θ (11.1.13)

E' = −D sin θ + E cos θ (11.1.14)

F' = F. (11.1.15)

 Procedure: graphing a rotated conic

The procedure for graphing a rotated conic is the following:

1. Identify the conic section using the discriminant 4AC − B . 2

2. Determine θ using the formula

A−C
cot 2θ = . (11.1.16)
B

3. Calculate A', B', C ', D', E',and F '.

4. Rewrite the original equation using A', B', C ', D', E',and F '.
5. Draw a graph using the rotated equation.

 Example 11.1.6: Identifying a Rotated Conic

Identify the conic and calculate the angle of rotation of axes for the curve described by the equation
2 – 2
13 x − 6 √3xy + 7 y − 256 = 0.

Solution
–
In this equation, A = 13, B = −6√3, C = 7, D = 0, E = 0, and F = −256 . The discriminant of this equation is
2 – 2
4AC − B = 4(13)(7) − (−6 √3) = 364 − 108 = 256.

Therefore this conic is an ellipse.

To calculate the angle of rotation of the axes, use Equation 11.1.16

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A−C
cot 2θ = .
B

This gives
–
A−C 13 − 7 √3
cot 2θ = =
–
=− .
B −6 √3 3

Therefore 2θ = 120 and θ = 60 , which is the angle of the rotation of the axes.
o o

To determine the rotated coefficients, use the formulas given above:

2 2
A' = A cos θ + B cos θ sin θ + C sin θ

2 – 2
= 13 cos 60 + (−6 √3) cos 60 sin 60 + 7 sin 60

– –
1 – 1 √3 √3
2 2
= 13( ) − 6 √3( )( ) + 7( )
2 2 2 2

= 4,

B' = 0

2 2
C ' = A sin θ − B sin θ cos θ + C cos θ

2 – 2
= 13 sin 60 + (6 √3) sin 60 cos 60 + 7 cos 60

– –
√3 – √3 1 1
2 2
= 13( ) + 6 √3( )( ) + 7( )
2 2 2 2

= 16,

D' = D cos θ + E sin θ

= (0) cos 60 + (0) sin 60

= 0,

E' = −D sin θ + E cos θ

= −(0) sin 60 + (0) cos 60

F' = F

= −256.

The equation of the conic in the rotated coordinate system becomes

2 2
4(x' ) + 16(y' ) = 256

2 2
(x') (y')
+ =1 .
64 16

A graph of this conic section appears as follows.

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–
Figure 11.1.15: Graph of the ellipse described by the equation 13x
2 2
− 6√3xy + 7y − 256 = 0 . The axes are rotated .
60°

The red dashed lines indicate the rotated axes.

 Exercise 11.1.6
Identify the conic and calculate the angle of rotation of axes for the curve described by the equation
2 2
3x + 5xy − 2 y − 125 = 0.

Hint
Follow steps 1 and 2 of the five-step method outlined above

Answer
The conic is a hyperbola and the angle of rotation of the axes is θ = 22.5°.

Key Concepts
1
The equation of a vertical parabola in standard form with given focus and directrix is y = (x − h )
2
+k where p is the
4p

distance from the vertex to the focus and (h, k) are the coordinates of the vertex.
2 2
(x − h) (y − k)
The equation of a horizontal ellipse in standard form is 2
+
2
=1 where the center has coordinates (h, k), the
a b
major axis has length 2a, the minor axis has length 2b, and the coordinates of the foci are (h ± c, k) , where c 2 2
=a −b
2
.
2 2
(x − h) (y − k)
The equation of a horizontal hyperbola in standard form is 2
−
2
=1 where the center has coordinates (h, k),
a b
the vertices are located at (h ± a, k) , and the coordinates of the foci are (h ± c, k), where c = a + b . 2 2 2

The eccentricity of an ellipse is less than 1, the eccentricity of a parabola is equal to 1, and the eccentricity of a hyperbola is
greater than 1. The eccentricity of a circle is 0.
ep ep
The polar equation of a conic section with eccentricity e is r = or r = , where p represents the focal
1 ± ecosθ 1 ± esinθ
parameter.
To identify a conic generated by the equation Ax + Bxy + C y + Dx + Ey + F = 0 ,first calculate the discriminant
2 2

D = 4AC − B . If D > 0 then the conic is an ellipse, if D = 0 then the conic is a parabola, and if D < 0 then the conic is a
2

hyperbola.

Glossary
conic section
a conic section is any curve formed by the intersection of a plane with a cone of two nappes

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directrix
a directrix (plural: directrices) is a line used to construct and define a conic section; a parabola has one directrix; ellipses and
hyperbolas have two

discriminant
the value 4AC − B , which is used to identify a conic when the equation contains a term involving xy, is called a discriminant
2

focus
a focus (plural: foci) is a point used to construct and define a conic section; a parabola has one focus; an ellipse and a hyperbola
have two

eccentricity
the eccentricity is defined as the distance from any point on the conic section to its focus divided by the perpendicular distance
from that point to the nearest directrix

focal parameter
the focal parameter is the distance from a focus of a conic section to the nearest directrix

general form
an equation of a conic section written as a general second-degree equation

major axis
the major axis of a conic section passes through the vertex in the case of a parabola or through the two vertices in the case of an
ellipse or hyperbola; it is also an axis of symmetry of the conic; also called the transverse axis

minor axis
the minor axis is perpendicular to the major axis and intersects the major axis at the center of the conic, or at the vertex in the
case of the parabola; also called the conjugate axis

nappe
a nappe is one half of a double cone

standard form
an equation of a conic section showing its properties, such as location of the vertex or lengths of major and minor axes

vertex
a vertex is an extreme point on a conic section; a parabola has one vertex at its turning point. An ellipse has two vertices, one at
each end of the major axis; a hyperbola has two vertices, one at the turning point of each branch

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available upon request.
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11.1E: Exercises
In exercises 1 - 8, determine the equation of the parabola using the information given.
1) Focus (4, 0) and directrix x = −4

Answer
2
y = 16x

2) Focus (0, −3) and directrix y = 3

3) Focus (0, 0.5) and directrix y = −0.5

Answer
2
x = 2y

4) Focus (2, 3) and directrix x = −2

5) Focus (0, 2) and directrix y = 4

Answer
2
x = −4(y − 3)

6) Focus (−1, 4) and directrix x = 5

7) Focus (−3, 5) and directrix y = 1

Answer
2
(x + 3 ) = 8(y − 3)

8) Focus ( 5

2
, −4) and directrix x = 7

In exercises 9 - 16, determine the equation of the ellipse using the information given.
9) Endpoints of major axis at (4, 0), (−4, 0) and foci located at (2, 0), (−2, 0)

Answer
2 2
x y
+ =1
16 12

10) Endpoints of major axis at (0, 5), (0, −5) and foci located at (0, 3), (0, −3)

11) Endpoints of major axis at (0, 2), (0, −2) and foci located at (3, 0), (−3, 0)

Answer
2 2
x y
+ =1
13 4

12) Endpoints of major axis at (−3, 3), (7, 3) and foci located at (−2, 3), (6, 3)

13) Endpoints of major axis at (−3, 5), (−3, −3) and foci located at (−3, 3), (−3, −1)

Answer
2 2
(y − 1) (x + 3)
+ =1
16 12

14) Endpoints of major axis at (0, 0), (0, 4) and foci located at (5, 2), (−5, 2)

15) Foci located at (2, 0), (−2, 0) and eccentricity of 1

Answer

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2 2
x y
+ =1
16 12

16) Foci located at (0, −3), (0, 3) and eccentricity of 3

In exercises 17 - 24, determine the equation of the hyperbola using the information given.
17) Vertices located at (5, 0), (−5, 0) and foci located at (6, 0), (−6, 0)

Answer
2 2
x y
− =1
25 11

18) Vertices located at (0, 2), (0, −2) and foci located at (0, 3), (0, −3)

19) Endpoints of the conjugate axis located at (0, 3), (0, −3) and foci located (4, 0), (−4, 0)

Answer
2 2
x y
− =1
7 9

20) Vertices located at (0, 1), (6, 1) and focus located at (8, 1)
21) Vertices located at (−2, 0), (−2, −4) and focus located at (−2, −8)

Answer
2 2
(y + 2) (x + 2)
− =1
4 32

22) Endpoints of the conjugate axis located at (3, 2), (3, 4) and focus located at (3, 7)
23) Foci located at (6, −0), (6, 0) and eccentricity of 3

Answer
2 2
x y
− =1
4 32

24) (0, 10), (0, −10) and eccentricity of 2.5

In exercises 25 - 30, consider the following polar equations of conics. Determine the eccentricity and identify the conic.
−1
25) r =
1 + cos θ

Answer
e = 1, parabola

8
26) r =
2 − sin θ

5
27) r =
2 + sin θ

Answer
e =
1

2
, ellipse

5
28) r =
−1 + 2 sin θ

3
29) r =
2 − 6 sin θ

Answer

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e =3 , hyperbola

3
30) r =
−4 + 3 sin θ

In exercises 31 - 34, find a polar equation of the conic with focus at the origin and eccentricity and directrix as given.
31) Directrix: x = 4; e =
1

Answer
4
r =
5 + cos θ

32) Directrix: x = −4; e =5

33) Directrix: y = 2; e =2

Answer
4
r =
1 + 2 sin θ

34) Directrix: y = −2; e =

In exercises 35 - 51, sketch the graph of each conic.

1
35) r =
1 + sin θ

Answer

1
36) r =
1 − cos θ

4
37) r =
1 + cos θ

Answer

10
38) r =
5 + 4 sin θ

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15
39) r =
3 − 2 cos θ

Answer

32
40) r =
3 + 5 sin θ

41) r(2 + sin θ) = 4

Answer

3
42) r =
2 + 6 sin θ

3
43) r =
−4 + 2 sin θ

Answer

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2 2
x y
44) + =1
9 4

2 2
x y
45) + =1
4 16

Answer

46) 4x 2
+ 9y
2
= 36

47) 25x 2
− 4y
2
= 100

Answer

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2 2
x y
48) − =1
16 9

49) x 2
= 12y

Answer

50) y 2
= 20x

51) 12x = 5y 2

Answer

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For the equations in exercises 52 - 57, determine which of the conic sections is described.
52) xy = 4
53) x2
+ 4xy − 2 y
2
−6 = 0

Answer
Hyperbola
–
54) x2 2
+ 2 √3xy + 3 y − 6 = 0

55) x2
− xy + y
2
−2 = 0

Answer
Ellipse

56) 34x 2
− 24xy + 41 y
2
− 25 = 0

57) 52x 2
− 72xy + 73 y
2
+ 40x + 30y − 75 = 0

Answer
Ellipse

58) The mirror in an automobile headlight has a parabolic cross section, with the lightbulb at the focus. On a schematic, the
equation of the parabola is given as x = 4y . At what coordinates should you place the lightbulb?
2

59) A satellite dish is shaped like a paraboloid of revolution. The receiver is to be located at the focus. If the dish is 12 feet across
at its opening and 4 feet deep at its center, where should the receiver be placed?

Answer
At the point 2.25 feet above the vertex.

60) Consider the satellite dish of the preceding problem. If the dish is 8 feet across at the opening and 2 feet deep, where should we
place the receiver?
61) A searchlight is shaped like a paraboloid of revolution. A light source is located 1 foot from the base along the axis of
symmetry. If the opening of the searchlight is 3 feet across, find the depth.

Answer
0.5625feet

62) Whispering galleries are rooms designed with elliptical ceilings. A person standing at one focus can whisper and be heard by a
person standing at the other focus because all the sound waves that reach the ceiling are reflected to the other person. If a
whispering gallery has a length of 120 feet and the foci are located 30 feet from the center, find the height of the ceiling at the
center.

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63) A person is standing 8 feet from the nearest wall in a whispering gallery. If that person is at one focus and the other focus is 80
feet away, what is the length and the height at the center of the gallery?

Answer
Length is 96 feet and height is approximately 26.53 feet.

In exercises 64 - 67, determine the polar equation form of the orbit given the length of the major axis and eccentricity for
the orbits of the comets or planets. Distance is given in astronomical units (AU).
64) Halley’s Comet: length of major axis = 35.88, eccentricity = 0.967
65) Hale-Bopp Comet: length of major axis = 525.91, eccentricity = 0.995

Answer
2.616
r =
1 + 0.995 cos θ

66) Mars: length of major axis = 3.049, eccentricity = 0.0934

67) Jupiter: length of major axis = 10.408, eccentricity = 0.0484

Answer
5.192
r =
1 + 0.0484 cos θ

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Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is
available upon request.
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11.2: Parametric Equations
 Learning Objectives
Plot a curve described by parametric equations.
Convert the parametric equations of a curve into the form y = f (x).
Recognize the parametric equations of basic curves, such as a line and a circle.
Recognize the parametric equations of a cycloid.

In this section we examine parametric equations and their graphs. In the two-dimensional coordinate system, parametric equations
are useful for describing curves that are not necessarily functions. The parameter is an independent variable that both x and y
depend on, and as the parameter increases, the values of x and y trace out a path along a plane curve. For example, if the parameter
is t (a common choice), then t might represent time. Then x and y are defined as functions of time, and (x(t), y(t)) can describe
the position in the plane of a given object as it moves along a curved path.

Parametric Equations and Their Graphs

Consider the orbit of Earth around the Sun. Our year lasts approximately 365.25 days, but for this discussion we will use 365 days.
On January 1 of each year, the physical location of Earth with respect to the Sun is nearly the same, except for leap years, when the
lag introduced by the extra 1

4
day of orbiting time is built into the calendar. We call January 1 “day 1” of the year. Then, for
example, day 31 is January 31, day 59 is February 28, and so on.
The number of the day in a year can be considered a variable that determines Earth’s position in its orbit. As Earth revolves around
the Sun, its physical location changes relative to the Sun. After one full year, we are back where we started, and a new year begins.
According to Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, the shape of the orbit is elliptical, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. We
study this idea in more detail in Conic Sections.

Figure 11.2.1 : Earth’s orbit around the Sun in one year.

Figure 11.2.1 depicts Earth’s orbit around the Sun during one year. The point labeled F is one of the foci of the ellipse; the other
2

focus is occupied by the Sun. If we superimpose coordinate axes over this graph, then we can assign ordered pairs to each point on
the ellipse (Figure 11.2.2). Then each x value on the graph is a value of position as a function of time, and each y value is also a
value of position as a function of time. Therefore, each point on the graph corresponds to a value of Earth’s position as a function
of time.

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Figure 11.2.2 : Coordinate axes superimposed on the orbit of Earth.
We can determine the functions for x(t) and y(t), thereby parameterizing the orbit of Earth around the Sun. The variable t is called
an independent parameter and, in this context, represents time relative to the beginning of each year.
A curve in the (x, y) plane can be represented parametrically. The equations that are used to define the curve are called parametric
equations.

 Definition: Parametric Equations

If x and y are continuous functions of t on an interval I , then the equations

x = x(t)

and

y = y(t)

are called parametric equations and t is called the parameter. The set of points (x, y) obtained as t varies over the interval I is
called the graph of the parametric equations. The graph of parametric equations is called a parametric curve or plane curve,
and is denoted by C .

Notice in this definition that x and y are used in two ways. The first is as functions of the independent variable t . As t varies over
the interval I , the functions x(t) and y(t) generate a set of ordered pairs (x, y). This set of ordered pairs generates the graph of the
parametric equations. In this second usage, to designate the ordered pairs, x and y are variables. It is important to distinguish the
variables x and y from the functions x(t) and y(t).

 Example 11.2.1: Graphing a Parametrically Defined Curve

Sketch the curves described by the following parametric equations:
a. x(t) = t − 1, y(t) = 2t + 4, for − 3 ≤ t ≤ 2

b. x(t) = t − 3,
2
y(t) = 2t + 1, for − 2 ≤ t ≤ 3

c. x(t) = 4 cos t, y(t) = 4 sin t, for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π

Solution
a. To create a graph of this curve, first set up a table of values. Since the independent variable in both x(t) and y(t) is t , let t
appear in the first column. Then x(t) and y(t) will appear in the second and third columns of the table.

t x(t) y(t)

−3 −4 −2

−2 −3 0

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t x(t) y(t)

−1 −2 2

0 −1 4

1 0 6

2 1 8

The second and third columns in this table provide a set of points to be plotted. The graph of these points appears in Figure
11.2.3. The arrows on the graph indicate the orientation of the graph, that is, the direction that a point moves on the graph as t

varies from −3 to 2.

Figure 11.2.3 : Graph of the plane curve described by the parametric equations in part a.
b. To create a graph of this curve, again set up a table of values.

t x(t) y(t)

−2 1 −3

−1 −2 −1

0 −3 1

1 −2 3

2 1 5

3 6 7

The second and third columns in this table give a set of points to be plotted (Figure 11.2.4). The first point on the graph
(corresponding to t = −2 ) has coordinates (1, −3), and the last point (corresponding to t = 3 ) has coordinates (6, 7). As t
progresses from −2 to 3, the point on the curve travels along a parabola. The direction the point moves is again called the
orientation and is indicated on the graph.

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Figure 11.2.4 : Graph of the plane curve described by the parametric equations in part b.
c. In this case, use multiples of π/6 for t and create another table of values:

t x(t) y(t) t x(t) y(t)

–
0 4 0 7π

6
−2 √3 ≈ −3.5 -2
– –
π

6
2 √3 ≈ 3.5 2 4π

3
−2 −2 √3 ≈ −3.5

–
π

3
2 2 √3 ≈ 3.5
3π

2
0 −4
–
π

2
0 4 5π

3
2 −2 √3 ≈ −3.5

– –
2π

3
−2 2 √3 ≈ 3.5
11π

6
2 √3 ≈ 3.5 -2
–
5π

6
−2 √3 ≈ −3.5 2 2π 4 0

π −4 0

The graph of this plane curve appears in the following graph.

Figure 11.2.5 : Graph of the plane curve described by the parametric equations in part c.
This is the graph of a circle with radius 4 centered at the origin, with a counterclockwise orientation. The starting point and
ending points of the curve both have coordinates (4, 0).

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 Exercise 11.2.1

Sketch the curve described by the parametric equations

2
x(t) = 3t + 2, y(t) = t − 1, for − 3 ≤ t ≤ 2.

Hint
Make a table of values for x(t) and y(t) using t values from −3 to 2.

Answer

Eliminating the Parameter

To better understand the graph of a curve represented parametrically, it is useful to rewrite the two equations as a single equation
relating the variables x and y . Then we can apply any previous knowledge of equations of curves in the plane to identify the curve.
For example, the equations describing the plane curve in Example 11.2.1b are
2
x(t) = t −3 (11.2.1)

y(t) = 2t + 1 (11.2.2)

over the region −2 ≤ t ≤ 3.

Solving Equation 11.2.2 for t gives
y −1
t = .
2

This can be substituted into Equation 11.2.1:

2
y −1
x =( ) −3 (11.2.3)
2

2
y − 2y + 1
= −3 (11.2.4)
4

2
y − 2y − 11
= . (11.2.5)
4

Equation 11.2.5 describes x as a function of y . These steps give an example of eliminating the parameter. The graph of this
function is a parabola opening to the right (Figure 11.2.4). Recall that the plane curve started at (1, −3) and ended at (6, 7). These
terminations were due to the restriction on the parameter t .

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 Example 11.2.2: Eliminating the Parameter

Eliminate the parameter for each of the plane curves described by the following parametric equations and describe the resulting
graph.
−−−−−
a. x(t) = √2t + 4 , y(t) = 2t + 1, for − 2 ≤ t ≤ 6

b. x(t) = 4 cos t, y(t) = 3 sin t, for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π

Solution
a. To eliminate the parameter, we can solve either of the equations for t . For example, solving the first equation for t gives
− −−−−
x = √ 2t + 4

2
x = 2t + 4

2
x − 4 = 2t

2
x −4
t = .
2

2
x −4
Note that when we square both sides it is important to observe that x ≥ 0 . Substituting t = into y(t) yields
2

y(t) = 2t + 1

2
x −4
y =2( ) +1
2

2
y =x −4 +1

2
y =x − 3.

This is the equation of a parabola opening upward. There is, however, a domain restriction because of the limits on the
−−−−−−− − −− −− −−−
parameter t . When t = −2 , x = √2(−2) + 4 = 0 , and when t = 6 , x = √2(6) + 4 = 4 . The graph of this plane
curve follows.

Figure 11.2.6 : Graph of the plane curve described by the parametric equations in part a.
b. Sometimes it is necessary to be a bit creative in eliminating the parameter. The parametric equations for this example
are

x(t) = 4 cos t

and

y(t) = 3 sin t

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Solving either equation for t directly is not advisable because sine and cosine are not one-to-one functions. However,
dividing the first equation by 4 and the second equation by 3 (and suppressing the t ) gives us
x
cos t =
4

and
y
sin t = .
3

Now use the Pythagorean identity cos t + sin

2 2
t =1 and replace the expressions for sin t and cos t with the equivalent
expressions in terms of x and y . This gives
2 2
x y
( ) +( ) =1
4 3

2 2
x y
+ = 1.
16 9

This is the equation of a horizontal ellipse centered at the origin, with semi-major axis 4 and semi-minor axis 3 as shown
in the following graph.

Figure 11.2.7 : Graph of the plane curve described by the parametric equations in part b.
As t progresses from 0 to 2π, a point on the curve traverses the ellipse once, in a counterclockwise direction. Recall from
the section opener that the orbit of Earth around the Sun is also elliptical. This is a perfect example of using
parameterized curves to model a real-world phenomenon.

 Exercise 11.2.2
Eliminate the parameter for the plane curve defined by the following parametric equations and describe the resulting graph.
3
x(t) = 2 + , y(t) = t − 1, for 2 ≤ t ≤ 6
t

Hint
Solve one of the equations for t and substitute into the other equation.

Answer
x =2+
3

y+1
, or y = −1 + 3

x−2
. This equation describes a portion of a rectangular hyperbola centered at (2, −1).

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So far we have seen the method of eliminating the parameter, assuming we know a set of parametric equations that describe a plane
curve. What if we would like to start with the equation of a curve and determine a pair of parametric equations for that curve? This
is certainly possible, and in fact it is possible to do so in many different ways for a given curve. The process is known as
parameterization of a curve.

 Example 11.2.3: Parameterizing a Curve

Find two different pairs of parametric equations to represent the graph of y = 2x 2

−3 .
Solution
First, it is always possible to parameterize a curve by defining x(t) = t , then replacing x with t in the equation for y(t). This
gives the parameterization
2
x(t) = t, y(t) = 2 t − 3.

Since there is no restriction on the domain in the original graph, there is no restriction on the values of t .
We have complete freedom in the choice for the second parameterization. For example, we can choose x(t) = 3t − 2 . The
only thing we need to check is that there are no restrictions imposed on x; that is, the range of x(t) is all real numbers. This is
the case for x(t) = 3t − 2 . Now since y = 2x − 3 , we can substitute x(t) = 3t − 2 for x. This gives
2

2 2 2 2
y(t) = 2(3t − 2 ) − 2 = 2(9 t − 12t + 4) − 2 = 18 t − 24t + 8 − 2 = 18 t − 24t + 6.

Therefore, a second parameterization of the curve can be written as

x(t) = 3t − 2 and y(t) = 18t 2
− 24t + 6.

 Exercise 11.2.3
Find two different sets of parametric equations to represent the graph of y = x 2
+ 2x .

Hint
Follow the steps in Example 11.2.3. Remember we have freedom in choosing the parameterization for x(t).

Answer
One possibility is x(t) = t,
2
y(t) = t + 2t. Another possibility is
x(t) = 2t − 3, y(t) = (2t − 3 )
2
+ 2(2t − 3) = 4 t
2
− 8t + 3. There are, in fact, an infinite number of possibilities.

Cycloids and Other Parametric Curves

Imagine going on a bicycle ride through the country. The tires stay in contact with the road and rotate in a predictable pattern. Now
suppose a very determined ant is tired after a long day and wants to get home. So he hangs onto the side of the tire and gets a free
ride. The path that this ant travels down a straight road is called a cycloid (Figure 11.2.8). A cycloid generated by a circle (or
bicycle wheel) of radius a is given by the parametric equations

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x(t) = a(t − sin t), y(t) = a(1 − cos t).

To see why this is true, consider the path that the center of the wheel takes. The center moves along the x-axis at a constant height
equal to the radius of the wheel. If the radius is a , then the coordinates of the center can be given by the equations

x(t) = at, y(t) = a

for any value of t . Next, consider the ant, which rotates around the center along a circular path. If the bicycle is moving from left to
right then the wheels are rotating in a clockwise direction. A possible parameterization of the circular motion of the ant (relative to
the center of the wheel) is given by
x(t) = −a sin t

y(t) = −a cos t.

(The negative sign is needed to reverse the orientation of the curve. If the negative sign were not there, we would have to imagine
the wheel rotating counterclockwise.) Adding these equations together gives the equations for the cycloid.

x(t) = a(t − sin t)

y(t) = a(1 − cos t)

Figure 11.2.8 : A wheel traveling along a road without slipping; the point on the edge of the wheel traces out a cycloid.
Now suppose that the bicycle wheel doesn’t travel along a straight road but instead moves along the inside of a larger wheel, as in
Figure 11.2.9. In this graph, the green circle is traveling around the blue circle in a counterclockwise direction. A point on the edge
of the green circle traces out the red graph, which is called a hypocycloid.

Figure 11.2.9 : Graph of the hypocycloid described by the parametric equations shown.
The general parametric equations for a hypocycloid are
a−b
x(t) = (a − b) cos t + b cos( )t
b

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a−b
y(t) = (a − b) sin t − b sin( )t.
b

These equations are a bit more complicated, but the derivation is somewhat similar to the equations for the cycloid. In this case we
assume the radius of the larger circle is a and the radius of the smaller circle is b . Then the center of the wheel travels along a circle
of radius a − b. This fact explains the first term in each equation above. The period of the second trigonometric function in both
2πb
x(t) and y(t) is equal to .
a−b

a
The ratio is related to the number of cusps on the graph (cusps are the corners or pointed ends of the graph), as illustrated in
b
Figure 11.2.10. This ratio can lead to some very interesting graphs, depending on whether or not the ratio is rational. Figure 11.2.9
corresponds to a = 4 and b = 1 . The result is a hypocycloid with four cusps. Figure 11.2.10 shows some other possibilities. The
a
last two hypocycloids have irrational values for . In these cases the hypocycloids have an infinite number of cusps, so they never
b
return to their starting point. These are examples of what are known as space-filling curves.

Figure 11.2.10: Graph of various hypocycloids corresponding to different values of a/b.

 The Witch of Agnesi

Many plane curves in mathematics are named after the people who first investigated them, like the folium of Descartes or the
spiral of Archimedes. However, perhaps the strangest name for a curve is the witch of Agnesi. Why a witch?
Maria Gaetana Agnesi (1718–1799) was one of the few recognized women mathematicians of eighteenth-century Italy. She
wrote a popular book on analytic geometry, published in 1748, which included an interesting curve that had been studied by
Fermat in 1630. The mathematician Guido Grandi showed in 1703 how to construct this curve, which he later called the
“versoria,” a Latin term for a rope used in sailing. Agnesi used the Italian term for this rope, “versiera,” but in Latin, this same
word means a “female goblin.” When Agnesi’s book was translated into English in 1801, the translator used the term “witch”
for the curve, instead of rope. The name “witch of Agnesi” has stuck ever since.
The witch of Agnesi is a curve defined as follows: Start with a circle of radius a so that the points (0, 0) and (0, 2a) are points
on the circle (Figure 11.2.11). Let O denote the origin. Choose any other point A on the circle, and draw the secant line OA.
Let B denote the point at which the line OA intersects the horizontal line through (0, 2a). The vertical line through B intersects
the horizontal line through A at the point P. As the point A varies, the path that the point P travels is the witch of Agnesi curve
for the given circle.

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Witch of Agnesi curves have applications in physics, including modeling water waves and distributions of spectral lines. In
probability theory, the curve describes the probability density function of the Cauchy distribution. In this project you will
parameterize these curves.

Figure 11.2.11: As the point A moves around the circle, the point P traces out the witch of Agnesi curve for the given circle.
1. On the figure, label the following points, lengths, and angle:
a. C is the point on the x-axis with the same x-coordinate as A .
b. x is the x-coordinate of P , and y is the y -coordinate of P .
c. E is the point (0, a).
d. F is the point on the line segment OA such that the line segment EF is perpendicular to the line segment OA.
e. b is the distance from O to F .
f. c is the distance from F to A .
g. d is the distance from O to C .
h. θ is the measure of angle ∠C OA.
The goal of this project is to parameterize the witch using θ as a parameter. To do this, write equations for x and y in terms of
only θ .
2a
2. Show that d = .
sin θ

3. Note that x = d cos θ . Show that x = 2a cot θ . When you do this, you will have parameterized the x-coordinate of the
curve with respect to θ . If you can get a similar equation for y , you will have parameterized the curve.
4. In terms of θ , what is the angle ∠EOA?
5. Show that b + c = 2a cos( π

2
− θ) .
6. Show that y = 2a cos( π

2
− θ) sin θ .
7. Show that y = 2a sin 2
θ . You have now parameterized the y -coordinate of the curve with respect to θ .
8. Conclude that a parameterization of the given witch curve is
2
x = 2a cot θ, y = 2a sin θ, for − ∞ < θ < ∞.

3
8a
9. Use your parameterization to show that the given witch curve is the graph of the function f (x) = 2 2
.
x + 4a

 Travels with My Ant: The Curtate and Prolate Cycloids

Earlier in this section, we looked at the parametric equations for a cycloid, which is the path a point on the edge of a wheel
traces as the wheel rolls along a straight path. In this project we look at two different variations of the cycloid, called the
curtate and prolate cycloids.
First, let’s revisit the derivation of the parametric equations for a cycloid. Recall that we considered a tenacious ant trying to
get home by hanging onto the edge of a bicycle tire. We have assumed the ant climbed onto the tire at the very edge, where the

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tire touches the ground. As the wheel rolls, the ant moves with the edge of the tire (Figure 11.2.12).
As we have discussed, we have a lot of flexibility when parameterizing a curve. In this case we let our parameter t represent
the angle the tire has rotated through. Looking at Figure 11.2.12, we see that after the tire has rotated through an angle of t , the
position of the center of the wheel, C = (x , y ) , is given by
C C

xC = at and y C =a .
Furthermore, letting A = (x A, yA ) denote the position of the ant, we note that
xC − xA = a sin t and y
C − yA = a cos t

Then

xA = xC − a sin t = at − a sin t = a(t − sin t)

yA = yC − a cos t = a − a cos t = a(1 − cos t).

Figure 11.2.12: (a) The ant clings to the edge of the bicycle tire as the tire rolls along the ground. (b) Using geometry to
determine the position of the ant after the tire has rotated through an angle of t .
Note that these are the same parametric representations we had before, but we have now assigned a physical meaning to the
parametric variable t .
After a while the ant is getting dizzy from going round and round on the edge of the tire. So he climbs up one of the spokes
toward the center of the wheel. By climbing toward the center of the wheel, the ant has changed his path of motion. The new
path has less up-and-down motion and is called a curtate cycloid (Figure 11.2.13). As shown in the figure, we let b denote the
distance along the spoke from the center of the wheel to the ant. As before, we let t represent the angle the tire has rotated
through. Additionally, we let C = (x , y ) represent the position of the center of the wheel and A = (x , y ) represent the
C C A A

position of the ant.

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Figure 11.2.13: (a) The ant climbs up one of the spokes toward the center of the wheel. (b) The ant’s path of motion after he
climbs closer to the center of the wheel. This is called a curtate cycloid. (c) The new setup, now that the ant has moved closer
to the center of the wheel.
1. What is the position of the center of the wheel after the tire has rotated through an angle of t ?
2. Use geometry to find expressions for x C − xA and for yC − yA .
3. On the basis of your answers to parts 1 and 2, what are the parametric equations representing the curtate cycloid?
Once the ant’s head clears, he realizes that the bicyclist has made a turn, and is now traveling away from his home. So he
drops off the bicycle tire and looks around. Fortunately, there is a set of train tracks nearby, headed back in the right
direction. So the ant heads over to the train tracks to wait. After a while, a train goes by, heading in the right direction,
and he manages to jump up and just catch the edge of the train wheel (without getting squished!).
The ant is still worried about getting dizzy, but the train wheel is slippery and has no spokes to climb, so he decides to
just hang on to the edge of the wheel and hope for the best. Now, train wheels have a flange to keep the wheel running
on the tracks. So, in this case, since the ant is hanging on to the very edge of the flange, the distance from the center of
the wheel to the ant is actually greater than the radius of the wheel (Figure 11.2.14).
The setup here is essentially the same as when the ant climbed up the spoke on the bicycle wheel. We let b denote the
distance from the center of the wheel to the ant, and we let t represent the angle the tire has rotated through. Additionally,
we let C = (x , y ) represent the position of the center of the wheel and A = (x , y ) represent the position of the ant
C C A A

(Figure 11.2.14).
When the distance from the center of the wheel to the ant is greater than the radius of the wheel, his path of motion is
called a prolate cycloid. A graph of a prolate cycloid is shown in the figure.

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Figure 11.2.14: (a) The ant is hanging onto the flange of the train wheel. (b) The new setup, now that the ant has jumped onto
the train wheel. (c) The ant travels along a prolate cycloid.
4. Using the same approach you used in parts 1– 3, find the parametric equations for the path of motion of the ant.
5. What do you notice about your answer to part 3 and your answer to part 4?
Notice that the ant is actually traveling backward at times (the “loops” in the graph), even though the train
continues to move forward. He is probably going to be really dizzy by the time he gets home!

Key Concepts
Parametric equations provide a convenient way to describe a curve. A parameter can represent time or some other meaningful
quantity.
It is often possible to eliminate the parameter in a parameterized curve to obtain a function or relation describing that curve.
There is always more than one way to parameterize a curve.
Parametric equations can describe complicated curves that are difficult or perhaps impossible to describe using rectangular
coordinates.

Glossary
cycloid
the curve traced by a point on the rim of a circular wheel as the wheel rolls along a straight line without slippage

cusp
a pointed end or part where two curves meet

orientation
the direction that a point moves on a graph as the parameter increases

parameter
an independent variable that both x and y depend on in a parametric curve; usually represented by the variable t

parametric curve
the graph of the parametric equations x(t) and y(t) over an interval a ≤ t ≤ b combined with the equations

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parametric equations
the equations x = x(t) and y = y(t) that define a parametric curve

parameterization of a curve
rewriting the equation of a curve defined by a function y = f (x) as parametric equations

This page titled 11.2: Parametric Equations is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert
Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit
history is available upon request.
11.1: Parametric Equations by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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11.2E: EXERCISES
In exercises 1 - 4, sketch the curves below by eliminating the parameter t . Give the orientation of the curve.
1) x = t2
+ 2t, y = t+1

Answer
Orientation: bottom to top

2) x = cos(t), y = sin(t), for (0, 2π]

3) x = 2t + 4, y = t−1

Answer
Orientation: left to right

4) x = 3 − t, y = 2t − 3, for 1.5 ≤ t ≤ 3

In exercise 5, eliminate the parameter and sketch the graph.

5) x = 2t 2
, y = t
4
+1

Answer
2
x
y = +1
4

In exercises 6 - 9, use technology (CAS or calculator) to sketch the parametric equations.

6) [T] x = t 2
+ t, y = t
2
−1

7) [T] x = e −t
, y = e
2t
−1

Answer

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8) [T] x = 3 cos t, y = 4 sin t

9) [T] x = sec t, y = cos t

Answer

In exercises 10 - 20, sketch the parametric equations by eliminating the parameter. Indicate any asymptotes of the graph.
10) x = e t
,
2t
y = e +1

11) x = 6 sin(2θ), y = −4 cos(2θ)

Answer

12) x = cos θ, y = 2 sin(2θ)

13) x = 3 − 2 cos θ, y = −5 + 3 sin θ

Answer

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14) x = 4 + 2 cos θ, y = −1 + sin θ

15) x = sec t, y = tan t

Answer
Asymptotes are y = x and y = −x

16) x = ln(2t), y = t
2

17) x = e t
, y = e
2t

Answer

18) x = e −2t
, y = e
3t

19) x = t3
, y = 3 ln t

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Answer

20) x = 4 sec θ, y = 3 tan θ

In exercises 21 - 38, convert the parametric equations of a curve into rectangular form. No sketch is necessary. State the domain of
the rectangular form.
t
21) x = t 2
− 1, y =
2

Answer
x = 4y
2
− 1; domain: x ∈ [1, ∞) .

1 t
22) x = −− −−, y = , for t > −1
√t + 1 1+ t

23) x = 4 cos θ, y = 3 sin θ, for t ∈ (0, 2π]

Answer
2 2
x y
+ = 1; domain x ∈ [−4, 4].
16 9

24) x = cosh t, y = sinh t

25) x = 2t − 3, y = 6t − 7

Answer
y = 3x + 2; domain: all real numbers.

26) x = t 2
, y = t
3

27) x = 1 + cos t, y = 3 − sin t

Answer
(x − 1)
2
+ (y − 3)
2
= 1 ; domain: x ∈ [0, 2] .

28) x = √t, y = 2t + 4

29) x = sec t, y = tan t, for π ≤ t <

3π

Answer
−−−−−
2
y = √x − 1 ; domain: x ∈ (−∞, −1] .

30) x = 2 cosh t, y = 4 sinh t

31) x = cos(2t), y = sin t

Answer
1− x
y
2
= ; domain: x ∈ [−1, 1].
2

32) x = 4t + 3, y = 16t
2
−9

33) x = t 2
, y = 2 ln t, for t ≥ 1

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Answer
y = ln x; domain: x ∈ [1, ∞).

34) x = t3
, y = 3 ln t, for t ≥ 1

35) x = tn
, y = n ln t, for t ≥ 1, where n is a natural number

Answer
y = ln x; domain: x ∈ (0, ∞).

36) x = ln(5t), y = ln(t )

2
where 1 ≤ t ≤ e
37) x = 2 sin(8t), y = 2 cos(8t)

Answer
x
2
+y
2
= 4; domain: x ∈ [−2, 2].

38) x = tan t, y = sec

2
t−1

In exercises 39 - 48, the pairs of parametric equations represent lines, parabolas, circles, ellipses, or hyperbolas. Name the type of
basic curve that each pair of equations represents.
39) x = 3t + 4, y = 5t − 2

Answer
line

40) x − 4 = 5t, y+2 = t

41) x = 2t + 1, y = t
2
−3

Answer
parabola

42) x = 3 cos t, y = 3 sin t

43) x = 2 cos(3t), y = 2 sin(3t)

Answer
circle

44) x = cosh t, y = sinh t

45) x = 3 cos t, y = 4 sin t

Answer
ellipse

46) x = 2 cos(3t), y = 5 sin(3t)

47) x = 3 cosh(4t) y = 4 sinh(4t)

Answer
the right branch of a horizontally opening hyperbola

48) x = 2 cosh t, y = 2 sinh t

49) Show that x = h + r cos θ, y = k + r sin θ represents the equation of a circle.

50) Use the equations in the preceding problem to find a set of parametric equations for a circle whose radius is 5 and whose center is
(−2, 3).

In exercises 51 - 53, use a graphing utility to graph the curve represented by the parametric equations and identify the curve from
its equation.
51) [T] x = θ + sin θ, y = 1 − cos θ

Answer

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The equations represent a cycloid.

52) [T] x = 2t − 2 sin t, y = 2 − 2 cos t

53) [T] x = t − 0.5 sin t, y = 1 − 1.5 cos t

Answer

54) An airplane traveling horizontally at 100 m/s over flat ground at an elevation of 4000 meters must drop an emergency package on a
target on the ground. The trajectory of the package is given by x = 100t, y = −4.9t + 4000, where t ≥ 0 where the origin is the
2

point on the ground directly beneath the plane at the moment of release. How many horizontal meters before the target should the package
be released in order to hit the target?
55) The trajectory of a bullet is given by x = v (cos α)t, y = v (sin α)t − gt where v = 500 m/s,
0 0
1

2
2
0 g = 9.8 = 9.8 m/s
2
, and
α = 30 degrees. When will the bullet hit the ground? How far from the gun will the bullet hit the ground?

Answer
22,092 meters at approximately 51 seconds.

56) [T] Use technology to sketch the curve represented by x = sin(4t), y = sin(3t), for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π .
57) [T] Use technology to sketch x = 2 tan(t), y = 3 sec(t), for − π < t < π.

Answer

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58) Sketch the curve known as an epitrochoid, which gives the path of a point on a circle of radius b as it rolls on the outside of a circle of
radius a . The equations are
(a+b)t (a+b)t
x = (a + b) cos t − c ⋅ cos[
b
], y = (a + b) sin t − c ⋅ sin[
b
] .
Let a = 1, b = 2, c = 1.

59) [T] Use technology to sketch the spiral curve given by x = t cos(t), y = t sin(t) for −2π ≤ t ≤ 2π.

Answer

60) [T] Use technology to graph the curve given by the parametric equations x = 2 cot(t), y = 1 − cos(2t), for − π/2 ≤ t ≤ π/2.

This curve is known as the witch of Agnesi.

61) [T] Sketch the curve given by parametric equations x = cosh(t), y = sinh(t), for −2 ≤ t ≤ 2.

Answer

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11.2E: Exercises is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
11.1E: Exercises for Section 11.1 has no license indicated.

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11.3: Calculus of Parametric Curves
 Learning Objectives
Determine derivatives and equations of tangents for parametric curves.
Find the area under a parametric curve.
Use the equation for arc length of a parametric curve.
Apply the formula for surface area to a volume generated by a parametric curve.

Now that we have introduced the concept of a parameterized curve, our next step is to learn how to work with this concept in the context
of calculus. For example, if we know a parameterization of a given curve, is it possible to calculate the slope of a tangent line to the
curve? How about the arc length of the curve? Or the area under the curve?
Another scenario: Suppose we would like to represent the location of a baseball after the ball leaves a pitcher’s hand. If the position of
the baseball is represented by the plane curve (x(t), y(t)) then we should be able to use calculus to find the speed of the ball at any given
time. Furthermore, we should be able to calculate just how far that ball has traveled as a function of time.

Derivatives of Parametric Equations

We start by asking how to calculate the slope of a line tangent to a parametric curve at a point. Consider the plane curve defined by the
parametric equations
x(t) = 2t + 3 (11.3.1)

y(t) = 3t − 4 (11.3.2)

within −2 ≤ t ≤ 3 .
The graph of this curve appears in Figure 11.3.1. It is a line segment starting at (−1, −10) and ending at (9, 5).

Figure 11.3.1 : Graph of the line segment described by the given parametric equations.
We can eliminate the parameter by first solving Equation 11.3.1 for t :
x(t) = 2t + 3

x − 3 = 2t

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x −3
t = .
2

Substituting this into y(t) (Equation 11.3.2), we obtain

y(t) = 3t − 4

x −3
y =3( ) −4
2

3x 9
y = − −4
2 2

3x 17
y = − .
2 2

dy 3
The slope of this line is given by = . Next we calculate x'(t) and y'(t). This gives x'(t) = 2 and y'(t) = 3 . Notice that
dx 2

dy dy/dt 3
= = .
dx dx/dt 2

This is no coincidence, as outlined in the following theorem.

 Derivative of Parametric Equations

Consider the plane curve defined by the parametric equations x = x(t) and y = y(t) . Suppose that x'(t) and y'(t) exist, and assume
dy
that x'(t) ≠ 0 . Then the derivative is given by
dx

dy dy/dt y'(t)
= = . (11.3.3)
dx dx/dt x'(t)

 Proof

This theorem can be proven using the Chain Rule. In particular, assume that the parameter t can be eliminated, yielding a
differentiable function y = F (x). Then y(t) = F (x(t)). Differentiating both sides of this equation using the Chain Rule yields

y'(t) = F '(x(t))x'(t),

so
y'(t)
F '(x(t)) = .
x'(t)

dy
But F '(x(t)) = , which proves the theorem.
dx

Equation 11.3.3 can be used to calculate derivatives of plane curves, as well as critical points. Recall that a critical point of a
differentiable function y = f (x) is any point x = x such that either f '(x ) = 0 or f '(x ) does not exist. Equation 11.3.3 gives a
0 0 0

formula for the slope of a tangent line to a curve defined parametrically regardless of whether the curve can be described by a function
y = f (x) or not.

 Example 11.3.1: Finding the Derivative of a Parametric Curve

dy
Calculate the derivative for each of the following parametrically defined plane curves, and locate any critical points on their
dx
respective graphs.
a. x(t) = t − 3,
2
y(t) = 2t − 1, for − 3 ≤ t ≤ 4

b. x(t) = 2t + 1, y(t) = t
3
− 3t + 4, for − 2 ≤ t ≤ 2

c. x(t) = 5 cos t, y(t) = 5 sin t, for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π

Solution

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a. To apply Equation 11.3.3, first calculate x'(t) and y'(t):
x'(t) = 2t

y'(t) = 2 .
Next substitute these into the equation:
dy dy/dt
=
dx dx/dt

dy 2
=
dx 2t

dy 1
= .
dx t

This derivative is undefined when t = 0 . Calculating x(0) and y(0) gives x(0) = (0) − 3 = −3 and 2

y(0) = 2(0) − 1 = −1 , which corresponds to the point (−3, −1) on the graph. The graph of this curve is a parabola opening

to the right, and the point (−3, −1) is its vertex as shown.

Figure 11.3.2 : Graph of the parabola described by parametric equations in part a.

b. To apply Equation 11.3.3, first calculate x'(t) and y'(t):
x'(t) = 2

y'(t) = 3 t
2
−3 .
Next substitute these into the equation:
dy dy/dt
=
dx dx/dt

2
dy 3t −3
= .
dx 2

This derivative is zero when t = ±1 . When t = −1 we have

x(−1) = 2(−1) + 1 = −1 and y(−1) = (−1) 3
− 3(−1) + 4 = −1 + 3 + 4 = 6 ,
which corresponds to the point (−1, 6) on the graph. When t = 1 we have
x(1) = 2(1) + 1 = 3 and y(1) = (1) 3
− 3(1) + 4 = 1 − 3 + 4 = 2,

which corresponds to the point (3, 2) on the graph. The point (3, 2) is a relative minimum and the point (−1, 6) is a relative
maximum, as seen in the following graph.

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Figure 11.3.3 : Graph of the curve described by parametric equations in part b.
c. To apply Equation 11.3.3, first calculate x'(t) and y'(t):
x'(t) = −5 sin t

y'(t) = 5 cos t.

Next substitute these into the equation:

dy dy/dt
=
dx dx/dt

dy 5 cos t
=
dx −5 sin t

dy
= − cot t.
dx

π 3π
This derivative is zero when cos t = 0 and is undefined when sin t = 0. This gives t = 0, , π, , and 2π as critical points
2 2
for t. Substituting each of these into x(t) and y(t), we obtain

t x(t) y(t)

0 5 0
π
0 5
2

π −5 0
3π
0 −5
2

2π 5 0

These points correspond to the sides, top, and bottom of the circle that is represented by the parametric equations (Figure
11.3.4). On the left and right edges of the circle, the derivative is undefined, and on the top and bottom, the derivative equals

zero.

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Figure 11.3.4 : Graph of the curve described by parametric equations in part c.

 Exercise 11.3.1

Calculate the derivative dy/dx for the plane curve defined by the equations
2 3
x(t) = t − 4t, y(t) = 2 t − 6t, for − 2 ≤ t ≤ 3

and locate any critical points on its graph.

Hint
Calculate x'(t) and y'(t) and use Equation 11.3.3.

Answer
2 2
dy 6t −6 3t −3
x'(t) = 2t − 4 and y'(t) = 6t 2
−6 , so = = .
dx 2t − 4 t −2

This expression is undefined when t = 2 and equal to zero when t = ±1 .

 Example 11.3.2: Finding a Tangent Line

Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve defined by the equations
2
x(t) = t − 3, y(t) = 2t − 1, for − 3 ≤ t ≤ 4

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when t = 2 .
Solution
First find the slope of the tangent line using Equation 11.3.3, which means calculating x'(t) and y'(t):
x'(t) = 2t

y'(t) = 2 .
Next substitute these into the equation:
dy dy/dt
=
dx dx/dt

dy 2
=
dx 2t

dy 1
= .
dx t

dy 1
When t = 2, = , so this is the slope of the tangent line. Calculating x(2) and y(2) gives
dx 2

x(2) = (2 )
2
−3 = 1 and y(2) = 2(2) − 1 = 3 ,
which corresponds to the point (1, 3) on the graph (Figure 11.3.5). Now use the point-slope form of the equation of a line to find the
equation of the tangent line:
y − y0 = m(x − x0 )

1
y −3 = (x − 1)
2

1 1
y −3 = x−
2 2

1 5
y = x+ .
2 2

Figure 11.3.5 : Tangent line to the parabola described by the given parametric equations when t = 2 .

 Exercise 11.3.2

Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve defined by the equations
x(t) = t
2
− 4t, y(t) = 2 t
3
− 6t, for − 2 ≤ t ≤ 6 when t = 5 .

Hint
Calculate x'(t) and y'(t) and use Equation 11.3.3.

Answer
The equation of the tangent line is y = 24x + 100.

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Second-Order Derivatives
Our next goal is to see how to take the second derivative of a function defined parametrically. The second derivative of a function
y = f (x) is defined to be the derivative of the first derivative; that is,

2
d y d dy
= [ ]. (11.3.4)
2
dx dx dx

Since

dy dy/dt
= ,
dx dx/dt

dy
we can replace the y on both sides of Equation 11.3.4 with . This gives us
dx

2
d y d dy (d/dt)(dy/dx)
= ( ) = . (11.3.5)
2
dx dx dx dx/dt

If we know dy/dx as a function of t , then this formula is straightforward to apply

 Example 11.3.3: Finding a Second Derivative

Calculate the second derivative 2

d y/dx
2
for the plane curve defined by the parametric equations
2
x(t) = t − 3, y(t) = 2t − 1, for − 3 ≤ t ≤ 4.

Solution
dy 2 1
From Example 11.3.1 we know that = = . Using Equation 11.3.5, we obtain
dx 2t t

2 −2
d y (d/dt)(dy/dx) (d/dt)(1/t) −t 1

2
= = = =−
3
.
dx dx/dt 2t 2t 2t

 Exercise 11.3.3

Calculate the second derivative d 2

y/dx
2
for the plane curve defined by the equations
2 3
x(t) = t − 4t, y(t) = 2 t − 6t, for − 2 ≤ t ≤ 3

and locate any critical points on its graph.

Hint
Start with the solution from the previous exercise, and use Equation 11.3.5.

Answer
2 2
d y 3t − 12t + 3
= . Critical points (5, 4), (−3, −4) ,and (−4, 6).
2 3
dx 2(t − 2)

Integrals Involving Parametric Equations

Now that we have seen how to calculate the derivative of a plane curve, the next question is this: How do we find the area under a curve
defined parametrically? Recall the cycloid defined by these parametric equations

x(t) = t − sin t

y(t) = 1 − cos t.

Suppose we want to find the area of the shaded region in the following graph.

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Figure 11.3.6 : Graph of a cycloid with the arch over [0, 2π] highlighted.
To derive a formula for the area under the curve defined by the functions
x = x(t)

y = y(t)

where a ≤ t ≤ b .
We assume that x(t) is differentiable and start with an equal partition of the interval a ≤t ≤b . Suppose
t0 = a < t1 < t2 < ⋯ < tn = b and consider the following graph.

Figure 11.3.7 : Approximating the area under a parametrically defined curve.

We use rectangles to approximate the area under the curve. The height of a typical rectangle in this parametrization is y(x(t¯ )) for some i

value t¯ in the i subinterval, and the width can be calculated as x(t ) − x(t ) . Thus the area of the i rectangle is given by
i
th
i i−1
th

¯ ))(x(t ) − x(t
Ai = y(x(ti i i−1 )).

Then a Riemann sum for the area is

¯ ))(x(t ) − x(t
An = ∑ y(x(ti i i−1 )).

i=1

Multiplying and dividing each area by t i − ti−1 gives

n
x(ti ) − x(ti−1 )
¯ )) (
An = ∑ y(x(t ) (ti − ti−1 )
i
ti − ti−1
i=1

n
x(ti ) − x(ti−1 )
¯ )) (
= ∑ y(x(t ) Δt.
i
Δt
i=1

Taking the limit as n approaches infinity gives

A = lim An = ∫ y(t)x'(t) dt.

n→∞
a

This leads to the following theorem.

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 Area under a Parametric Curve

Consider the non-self-intersecting plane curve defined by the parametric equations

x = x(t), y = y(t), for a ≤ t ≤ b

and assume that x(t) is differentiable. The area under this curve is given by
b

A =∫ y(t)x'(t) dt. (11.3.6)

 Example 11.3.4: Finding the Area under a Parametric Curve

Find the area under the curve of the cycloid defined by the equations

x(t) = t − sin t, y(t) = 1 − cos t, for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.

Solution
Using Equation 11.3.6, we have
b

A =∫ y(t)x'(t) dt
a

2π

=∫ (1 − cos t)(1 − cos t) dt

2π
2
=∫ (1 − 2 cos t + cos t) dt
0

2π
1 + cos(2t)
=∫ (1 − 2 cos t + ) dt
0
2

2π
3 cos(2t)
=∫ ( − 2 cos t + ) dt
0
2 2

2π
3t sin(2t) ∣
= − 2 sin t + ∣
2 4 ∣
0

= 3π

 Exercise 11.3.4

Find the area under the curve of the hypocycloid defined by the equations

x(t) = 3 cos t + cos(3t), y(t) = 3 sin t − sin(3t), for 0 ≤ t ≤ π.

Hint
1 1 − cos(2t)
Use Equation 11.3.6, along with the identities sin α sin β = [cos(α − β) − cos(α + β)] and sin2
t = .
2 2

Answer
A = 3π (Note that the integral formula actually yields a negative answer. This is due to the fact that x(t) is a decreasing function
over the interval [0, π]; that is, the curve is traced from right to left.)

Arc Length of a Parametric Curve

In addition to finding the area under a parametric curve, we sometimes need to find the arc length of a parametric curve. In the case of a
line segment, arc length is the same as the distance between the endpoints. If a particle travels from point A to point B along a curve,
then the distance that particle travels is the arc length. To develop a formula for arc length, we start with an approximation by line
segments as shown in the following graph.

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Figure 11.3.7 : Approximation of a curve by line segments.
Given a plane curve defined by the functions x = x(t), y = y(t), for a ≤ t ≤ b , we start by partitioning the interval [a, b] into n
equal subintervals: t = a < t < t < ⋯ < t = b . The width of each subinterval is given by Δt = (b − a)/n . We can calculate the
0 1 2 n

length of each line segment:

−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
d1 = √ (x(t1 ) − x(t0 )) + (y(t1 ) − y(t0 ))

−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
d2 = √ (x(t2 ) − x(t1 )) + (y(t2 ) − y(t1 ))

etc.
Then add these up. We let s denote the exact arc length and s denote the approximation by n line segments:
n

n n −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
s ≈ ∑ sk = ∑ √ (x(tk ) − x(tk−1 )) + (y(tk ) − y(tk−1 )) . (11.3.7)

k=1 k=1

If we assume that x(t) and y(t) are differentiable functions of t , then the Mean Value Theorem applies, so in each subinterval [t k−1 , tk ]
~
there exist t^ and t such that
k k

x(tk ) − x(tk−1 ) = x'(t^ ^

k )(tk − tk−1 ) = x'(tk ) Δt

~ ~
y(tk ) − y(tk−1 ) = y'(tk )(tk − tk−1 ) = y'(tk ) Δt.

Therefore Equation 11.3.7 becomes

n n − −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− −
2 ~ 2
s ≈ ∑ sk = ∑ √ (x'(t^
k )Δt ) + (y'(tk )Δt)

k=1 k=1

n
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− −
2 2 ~ 2 2
= ∑ √ (x'(t^
k )) (Δt ) + (y'(tk )) (Δt)

k=1

n
−−−−−−−−−−−−−− −
2 ~ 2
= ∑ √ (x'(t^
k )) + (y'(tk )) Δt.

k=1

This is a Riemann sum that approximates the arc length over a partition of the interval [a, b]. If we further assume that the derivatives are
continuous and let the number of points in the partition increase without bound, the approximation approaches the exact arc length. This
gives
n

s = lim ∑ sk
n→∞
k=1

n
−−−−−−−−−−−−−− −
2 ~ 2
= lim ∑ √ (x'(t^
k )) + (y'(tk )) Δt
n→∞
k=1

b −−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
=∫ √ (x'(t)) + (y'(t)) dt.
a

~
When taking the limit, the values of t^
k and tk are both contained within the same ever-shrinking interval of width Δt , so they must
converge to the same value.
We can summarize this method in the following theorem.

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 Arc Length of a Parametric Curve
Consider the plane curve defined by the parametric equations

x = x(t), y = y(t), for t1 ≤ t ≤ t2

and assume that x(t) and y(t) are differentiable functions of t . Then the arc length of this curve is given by
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
t2 2 2
dx dy
s =∫ √( ) +( ) dt. (11.3.8)
t1 dt dt

At this point a side derivation leads to a previous formula for arc length. In particular, suppose the parameter can be eliminated, leading
to a function y = F (x). Then y(t) = F (x(t)) and the Chain Rule gives

y'(t) = F '(x(t))x'(t).

Substituting this into Equation 11.3.8 gives

−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
t2 2 2
dx dx
s =∫ √( ) + (F '(x) ) dt
t1
dt dt

−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
t2 2
dx 2
=∫ √( ) (1 + (F '(x)) ) dt
t1 dt

−−−−−−−−−
t2 2
dy
=∫ x'(t)√ 1 + ( ) dt.
t1
dx

Here we have assumed that x'(t) > 0 , which is a reasonable assumption. The Chain Rule gives dx = x'(t) dt, and letting a = x(t 1) and
b = x(t ) we obtain the formula
2

−−−−−−−−−
b 2
dy
s =∫ √1 + ( ) dx,
a
dx

which is the formula for arc length obtained in the Introduction to the Applications of Integration.

 Example 11.3.5: Finding the Arc Length of a Parametric Curve

Find the arc length of the semicircle defined by the equations

x(t) = 3 cos t, y(t) = 3 sin t, for 0 ≤ t ≤ π.

Solution
The values t = 0 to t = π trace out the blue curve in Figure 11.3.8. To determine its length, use Equation 11.3.8:
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
t2 2 2
dx dy
s =∫ √( ) +( ) dt
t1
dt dt

π −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
=∫ √ (−3 sin t) + (3 cos t) dt
0

π
− −−−−−−−−−−− −
2 2
=∫ √ 9 sin t + 9 cos t dt
0

π −−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
=∫ √ 9(sin t + cos t) dt
0

π
π
∣
=∫ 3 dt = 3t
∣0
0

= 3π units.

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Note that the formula for the arc length of a semicircle is πr and the radius of this circle is 3. This is a great example of using
calculus to derive a known formula of a geometric quantity.

Figure 11.3.8 : The arc length of the semicircle is equal to its radius times π.

 Exercise 11.3.5

Find the arc length of the curve defined by the equations

2 3
x(t) = 3 t , y(t) = 2 t , for 1 ≤ t ≤ 3.

Hint
Use Equation 11.3.8.

Answer
s = 2(10
3/2
−2
3/2
) ≈ 57.589 units

We now return to the problem posed at the beginning of the section about a baseball leaving a pitcher’s hand. Ignoring the effect of air
resistance (unless it is a curve ball!), the ball travels a parabolic path. Assuming the pitcher’s hand is at the origin and the ball travels left
to right in the direction of the positive x-axis, the parametric equations for this curve can be written as
2
x(t) = 140t, y(t) = −16 t + 2t

where t represents time. We first calculate the distance the ball travels as a function of time. This distance is represented by the arc
length. We can modify the arc length formula slightly. First rewrite the functions x(t) and y(t) using v as an independent variable, so as
to eliminate any confusion with the parameter t :
2
x(v) = 140v, y(v) = −16 v + 2v.

Then we write the arc length formula as follows:

t −−−−−−−−−−− −
dx dy
2 2
s(t) = ∫ √( ) +( ) dv
0 dv dv

t −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
=∫ √ 140 + (−32v + 2 ) dv
0

The variable v acts as a dummy variable that disappears after integration, leaving the arc length as a function of time t . To integrate this
expression we can use a formula from Appendix A,
2
− −−−−− u −−−−−− a − −−−−−
2 2 2 2 2 2
∫ √ a + u du = √a + u + ln ∣ u + √ a + u ∣ +C .
2 2

1
We set a = 140 and u = −32v + 2. This gives du = −32 dv, so dv = − du. Therefore
32

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−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− − −−−−−
2 2
1 2 2
∫ √ 140 + (−32v + 2 ) dv = − ∫ √ a + u du
32

−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− 2 −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
1 (−32v + 2) 140
2 2 2 2
=− [ √ 140 + (−32v + 2 ) + ln ∣ (−32v + 2) + √ 140 + (−32v + 2 ) | + C]
32 2 2

and
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− 2 − −−−−−−−−−−−−− −
1 (−32t + 2) 140
2 2 ∣ 2 2 ∣
s(t) =− [ √ 140 + (−32t + 2 ) + ln (−32t + 2) + √ 140 + (−32t + 2 ) ]
32 2 2 ∣ ∣

2
1 − −−−−−−− 140 − −−−−−−−
2 2 2 2
+ [√ 140 + 2 + ln∣
∣2 +
√ 140 + 2 ∣]
∣
32 2

−−−−−
t 1 − −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− − 1225 − −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− − √19604 1225
2 2
=( − ) √ 1024 t − 128t + 19604 − ln∣
∣(−32t + 2) +
√ 1024 t − 128t + 19604∣ +
∣ + ln
2 32 4 32 4
−−−−−
(2 + √19604)
.

This function represents the distance traveled by the ball as a function of time. To calculate the speed, take the derivative of this function
with respect to t . While this may seem like a daunting task, it is possible to obtain the answer directly from the Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus:
x
d
∫ f (u) du = f (x).
dx a

Therefore
d
s'(t) = [s(t)]
dt

t −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
d
2 2
= [∫ √ 140 + (−32v + 2 ) dv]
dt 0

−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
= √ 140 + (−32t + 2 )

− −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− −
2
= √ 1024 t − 128t + 19604

− −−−−−−−−−−−−− −
2
= 2 √ 256 t − 32t + 4901.

One third of a second after the ball leaves the pitcher’s hand, the distance it travels is equal to
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2
1 1/3 1 1 1
s( ) =( − ) √ 1024 ( ) − 128 ( ) + 19604
3 2 32 3 3

−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2
1225 ∣ 1 1 1 ∣
− ln ∣ (−32 ( ) + 2) + √ 1024 ( ) − 128 ( ) + 19604∣
4 ∣ 3 3 3 ∣

−−−−−
√19604 1225 −−−−−
+ + ln(2 + √19604)
32 4

≈ 46.69 feet.

This value is just over three quarters of the way to home plate. The speed of the ball is
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2
s' (
1

3
) = 2 √256 (
1

3
) − 32 (
1

3
) + 4901 ≈ 140.27 ft/s.

This speed translates to approximately 95 mph—a major-league fastball.

Surface Area Generated by a Parametric Curve

Recall the problem of finding the surface area of a volume of revolution. In Curve Length and Surface Area, we derived a formula for
finding the surface area of a volume generated by a function y = f (x) from x = a to x = b, revolved around the x-axis:
b −−−−−−−−−−
2
S = 2π ∫ f (x)√ 1 + (f '(x)) dx.
a

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We now consider a volume of revolution generated by revolving a parametrically defined curve x = x(t), y = y(t), for a ≤ t ≤ b

around the x-axis as shown in Figure 11.3.9.

Figure 11.3.9 : A surface of revolution generated by a parametrically defined curve.

The analogous formula for a parametrically defined curve is
b −−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
S = 2π ∫ y(t)√ (x'(t)) + (y'(t)) dt (11.3.9)
a

provided that y(t) is not negative on [a, b].

 Example 11.3.6: Finding Surface Area

Find the surface area of a sphere of radius r centered at the origin.
Solution
We start with the curve defined by the equations

x(t) = r cos t, y(t) = r sin t, for 0 ≤ t ≤ π.

This generates an upper semicircle of radius r centered at the origin as shown in the following graph.

Figure 11.3.10: A semicircle generated by parametric equations.

When this curve is revolved around the x-axis, it generates a sphere of radius r. To calculate the surface area of the sphere, we use
Equation 11.3.9:

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b −−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
S = 2π ∫ y(t)√ (x'(t)) + (y'(t)) dt
a

π −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
= 2π ∫ r sin t√ (−r sin t) + (r cos t) dt
0

π
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2 2 2
= 2π ∫ r sin t√ r sin t +r cos t dt
0

π −−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2 2
= 2π ∫ r sin t√ r (sin t + cos t) dt
0

π
2
= 2π ∫ r sin t dt
0

π
2 ∣
= 2π r (− cos t )
∣0

2
= 2π r (− cos π + cos 0)

2 2
= 4π r units .

This is, in fact, the formula for the surface area of a sphere.

 Exercise 11.3.6

Find the surface area generated when the plane curve defined by the equations
3 2
x(t) = t , y(t) = t , for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1

is revolved around the x-axis.

Hint
Use Equation 11.3.9. When evaluating the integral, use a u -substitution.

Answer
−−
π(494 √13 + 128)
2
A = units
1215

Key Concepts
dy y'(t)
The derivative of the parametrically defined curve x = x(t) and y = y(t) can be calculated using the formula = . Using
dx x'(t)

the derivative, we can find the equation of a tangent line to a parametric curve.
t2

The area between a parametric curve and the x-axis can be determined by using the formula A = ∫ y(t)x'(t) dt.
t1

The arc length of a parametric curve can be calculated by using the formula
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
t2 2 2
dx dy
s =∫ √( ) +( ) dt.
t1
dt dt

The surface area of a volume of revolution revolved around the x-axis is given by
b −−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
S = 2π ∫ y(t)√ (x'(t)) + (y'(t)) dt.
a

If the curve is revolved around the y -axis, then the formula is

b −−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
S = 2π ∫ x(t)√ (x'(t)) + (y'(t)) dt.
a

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Key Equations
Derivative of parametric equations
dy dy/dt y'(t)
= =
dx dx/dt x'(t)

Second-order derivative of parametric equations

2
d y d dy (d/dt)(dy/dx)
= ( ) =
dx2 dx dx dx/dt

Area under a parametric curve

A =∫ y(t)x'(t) dt
a

Arc length of a parametric curve

−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
t2 2 2
dx dy
s =∫ √( ) +( ) dt
t1
dt dt

Surface area generated by a parametric curve

b −−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
S = 2π ∫ y(t)√ (x'(t)) + (y'(t)) dt
a

This page titled 11.3: Calculus of Parametric Curves is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert
Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit
history is available upon request.
11.2: Calculus of Parametric Curves by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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11.3E: EXERCISES
In exercises 1 - 4, each set of parametric equations represents a line. Without eliminating the parameter, find the slope of each line.
1) x = 3 + t, y = 1− t

2) x = 8 + 2t, y = 1

Answer
m = 0

3) x = 4 − 3t, y = −2 + 6t

4) x = −5t + 7, y = 3t − 1

Answer
3
m = −
5

In exercises 5 - 9, determine the slope of the tangent line, then find the equation of the tangent line at the given value of the
parameter.
5) x = 3 sin t, y = 3 cos t, for t =
π

6) x = cos t, y = 8 sin t, for t =

Answer
Slope= 0; y = 8.

7) x = 2t, y = t ,
3
for t = −1

1 1
8) x = t + , y = t− , for t = 1
t t

Answer
Slope is undefined; x = 2 .

9) x = √t, y = 2t, for t = 4

In exercises 10 - 13, find all points on the curve that have the given slope.
10) x = 4 cos t, y = 4 sin t, slope = 0.5

Solution
dy dy/dt 4 cos t
= = = − cot t.
dx dx/dt −4 sin t

Setting this derivative equal to 0.5, we obtain the equation, tan t = −2.
y
tan t = −2 ⟹ = −2 ⟹ y = −2x.
x

Note also that this pair of parametric equations represents the circle x + y 2 2
= 16.

By substitution, we find that this curve has a slope of 0.5 at the points:
4√5 −8√5 −4√5 8√5
(
5
,
5
) and ( 5
,
5
).

11) x = 2 cos t, y = 8 sin t, slope= −1

1 1
12) x = t + , y = t− , slope= 1
t t

Answer
No points possible; undefined expression.

13) x = 2 + √t, y = 2 − 4t, slope= 0

In exercises 14 - 16, write the equation of the tangent line in Cartesian coordinates for the given parameter t .
14) x = e √t
, y = 1 − ln t ,
2
for t = 1

Answer

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4
y = −( )x+5
e

15) x = t ln t, y = sin
2
t, for t =
π

16) x = e t
, y = (t − 1) ,
2
at (1, 1)

Answer
y = −2x + 3

17) For x = sin(2t), y = 2 sin t where 0 ≤ t < 2π. Find all values of t at which a horizontal tangent line exists.
18) For x = sin(2t), y = 2 sin t where 0 ≤ t < 2π . Find all values of t at which a vertical tangent line exists.

Answer
A vertical tangent line exists at t = π

4
,
5π

4
,
3π

4
,
7π

19) Find all points on the curve x = 4 cos(t), y = 4 sin(t) that have the slope of 1

2
.
dy
20) Find for x = sin(t), y = cos(t) .
dx

Answer
dy
= − tan(t)
dx

21) Find the equation of the tangent line to x = sin(t), y = cos(t) at t = .π

22) For the curve x = 4t, y = 3t − 2, find the slope and concavity of the curve at t = 3.

Answer
2
dy 3 d y
= and 2
= 0 , so the curve is neither concave up nor concave down at t = 3. Therefore the graph is linear and has a
dx 4 dx

constant slope but no concavity.

23) For the parametric curve whose equation is x = 4 cos θ, y = 4 sin θ , find the slope and concavity of the curve at θ = .
π

24) Find the slope and concavity for the curve whose equation is x = 2 + sec θ, y = 1 + 2 tan θ at θ = .
π

Answer
2
dy d y –
= 4, = −4√3; the curve is concave down at θ = . π

6
dx dx2

25) Find all points on the curve x = t + 4, y = t

3
− 3t at which there are vertical and horizontal tangents.
26) Find all points on the curve x = sec θ, y = tan θ at which horizontal and vertical tangents exist.

Answer
No horizontal tangents. Vertical tangents at (1, 0) and (−1, 0) .

In exercises 27 - 29, find d 2

y/dx
2
.
27) x = t 4
− 1, y = t−t
2

28) x = sin(πt), y = cos(πt)

Answer
2 2 3
d y/dx = − sec (πt)

29) x = e −t
, y = te
2t

In exercises 30 - 31, find points on the curve at which tangent line is horizontal or vertical.
30) x = t(t 2
− 3), y = 3(t
2
− 3)

Answer
Horizontal (0, −9) ;
Vertical (±2, −6).

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2
3t 3t
31) x = 3
, y =
3
1+ t 1+ t

In exercises 32 - 34, find dy/dx at the value of the parameter.

32) x = cos t, y = sin t, for t =
3π

Answer
dy/dx = 1

33) x = √t, y = 2t + 4, t = 9

34) x = 4 cos(2πs), y = 3 sin(2πs), for s = −

Answer
dy/dx = 0

In exercises 35 - 36, find d 2

y/dx
2
at the given point without eliminating the parameter.
35) x = 1

2
2
t , y =
1

3
3
t , for t = 2

36) x = √t, y = 2t + 4, for t = 1

Answer
2 2
d y/dx = 4

37) Find intervals for t on which the curve x = 3t 2

, y = t
3
−t is concave up as well as concave down.
38) Determine the concavity of the curve x = 2t + ln t, y = 2t − ln t .

Answer
Concave up on t > 0.

39) Sketch and find the area under one arch of the cycloid x = r(θ − sin θ), y = r(1 − cos θ) .
40) Find the area bounded by the curve x = cos t, y = e ,
t
for 0 ≤ t ≤
π

2
and the lines y = 1 and x = 0.

Answer
2
1 unit

41) Find the area enclosed by the ellipse x = a cos θ, y = b sin θ, for 0 ≤ θ < 2π.

42) Find the area of the region bounded by x = 2 sin 2

θ, y = 2 sin
2
θ tan θ , for 0 ≤ θ ≤ .
π

Answer
3π 2
units
2

In exercises 43 - 46, find the area of the regions bounded by the parametric curves and the indicated values of the parameter.
43) x = 2 cot θ, y = 2 sin
2
θ, for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π

44) [T] x = 2a cos t − a cos(2t), y = 2a sin t − a sin(2t), for 0 ≤ t < 2π

Answer
2 2
6πa units

45) [T] x = a sin(2t), y = b sin(t), for 0 ≤ t < 2π (the “hourglass”)

46) [T] x = 2a cos t − a sin(2t), y = b sin t, for 0 ≤ t < 2π (the “teardrop”)

Answer
2
2πab units

In exercises 47 - 52, find the arc length of the curve on the indicated interval of the parameter.
47) x = 4t + 3, y = 3t − 2, for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2

48) x = 1

3
3
t , y =
1

2
2
t , for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1

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Answer
–
s =
1

3
(2√2 − 1) units

49) x = cos(2t), y = sin(2t), for 0 ≤ t ≤

50) x = 1 + t 2
, y = (1 + t ) ,
3
for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1

Answer
s = 7.075 units

51) x = e t
cos t, y = e sin t,
t
for 0 ≤ t ≤
π

2
(express answer as a decimal rounded to three places)
52) x = a cos 3
θ, y = a sin
3
θ on the interval [0, 2π) (the hypocycloid)

Answer
s = 6a units

53) Find the length of one arch of the cycloid x = 4(t − sin t), y = 4(1 − cos t).

54) Find the distance traveled by a particle with position (x, y) as t varies in the given time interval:
x = sin
2
t, y = cos
2
t, for 0 ≤ t ≤ 3π .

Answer
–
6√2 units

55) Find the length of one arch of the cycloid x = θ − sin θ, y = 1 − cos θ .
π/2
−−−− −−−− −
56) Show that the total length of the ellipse x = 4 sin θ, y = 3 cos θ is L = 16 ∫
2 2
√1 − e sin θ dθ , where e =
c

a
and
0
−−−−−−
2
c = √a − b
2
.
57) Find the length of the curve x = e t
− t, y = 4e
t/2
, for − 8 ≤ t ≤ 3.

In exercises 58 - 59, find the area of the surface obtained by rotating the given curve about the x-axis.
58) x = t 3
, y = t ,
2
for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1

Answer
−−
2π(247√13 + 64)
2
units
1215

59) x = a cos 3
θ, y = a sin
3
θ, for 0 ≤ θ ≤
π

60) [T] Use a CAS to find the area of the surface generated by rotating x = t+t ,
3
y = t−
t
1
2
, for 1 ≤ t ≤ 2 about the x -axis.
(Answer to three decimal places.)

Answer
2
59.101 units

61) Find the surface area obtained by rotating x = 3t 2

, y = 2t ,
3
for 0 ≤ t ≤ 5 about the y -axis.
62) Find the area of the surface generated by revolving x = t 2
, y = 2t, for 0 ≤ t ≤ 4 about the x-axis.

Answer
8π −− 2
(17√17 − 1) units
3

63) Find the surface area generated by revolving x = t 2

, y = 2t ,
2
for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 about the y -axis.

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11.2E: Exercises for Section 11.2 has no license indicated.

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11.4: Polar Coordinates
 Learning Objectives
Locate points in a plane by using polar coordinates.
Convert points between rectangular and polar coordinates.
Sketch polar curves from given equations.
Convert equations between rectangular and polar coordinates.
Identify symmetry in polar curves and equations.

The rectangular coordinate system (or Cartesian plane) provides a means of mapping points to ordered pairs and ordered pairs to
points. This is called a one-to-one mapping from points in the plane to ordered pairs. The polar coordinate system provides an
alternative method of mapping points to ordered pairs. In this section we see that in some circumstances, polar coordinates can be
more useful than rectangular coordinates.

Defining Polar Coordinates

To find the coordinates of a point in the polar coordinate system, consider Figure 11.4.1. The point P has Cartesian coordinates
(x, y). The line segment connecting the origin to the point P measures the distance from the origin to P and has length r . The

angle between the positive x-axis and the line segment has measure θ . This observation suggests a natural correspondence between
the coordinate pair (x, y) and the values r and θ . This correspondence is the basis of the polar coordinate system. Note that every
point in the Cartesian plane has two values (hence the term ordered pair) associated with it. In the polar coordinate system, each
point also has two values associated with it: r and θ .

Figure 11.4.1 : An arbitrary point in the Cartesian plane.

Using right-triangle trigonometry, the following equations are true for the point P :
x
cos θ = so x = r cos θ
r

y
sin θ = so y = r sin θ.
r

Furthermore,
2 2 2
r =x +y

and
y
tan θ = .
x

Each point (x, y) in the Cartesian coordinate system can therefore be represented as an ordered pair (r, θ) in the polar coordinate
system. The first coordinate is called the radial coordinate and the second coordinate is called the angular coordinate. Every
point in the plane can be represented in this form.
Note that the equation tan θ = y/x has an infinite number of solutions for any ordered pair (x, y). However, if we restrict the
solutions to values between 0 and 2π then we can assign a unique solution to the quadrant in which the original point (x, y) is

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located. Then the corresponding value of r is positive, so r 2
=x
2
+y
2
.

 Converting Points between Coordinate Systems

Given a point P in the plane with Cartesian coordinates (x, y) and polar coordinates (r, θ) , the following conversion formulas
hold true:
x = r cos θ (11.4.1)

y = r sin θ (11.4.2)

and
2 2 2
r =x +y (11.4.3)

y .
tan θ = (11.4.4)
x

These formulas can be used to convert from rectangular to polar or from polar to rectangular coordinates. Notice that Equation
11.4.3 is the Pythagorean theorem. (Figure 11.4.1).

 Example 11.4.1: Converting between Rectangular and Polar Coordinates

Convert each of the following points into polar coordinates.

a. (1, 1)
b. (−3, 4)
c. (0, 3)
–
d. (5√3, −5)
Convert each of the following points into rectangular coordinates.
e. (3, π/3)
f. (2, 3π/2)
g. (6, −5π/6)
Solution
a. Use x = 1 and y = 1 in Equation 11.4.3:
2 2 2
r =x +y

2 2
=1 +1
–
r = √2

and via Equation 11.4.4

y 1
tan θ = = =1
x 1

π
θ = .
4

– π
Therefore this point can be represented as (√2, ) in polar coordinates.
4

b. Use x = −3 and y = 4 in Equation 11.4.3:

2 2 2 2 2
r =x +y = (−3 ) + (4 )

r =5

and via Equation 11.4.4

y 4
tan θ = =−
x 3

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4
θ = arctan(− ) + π ≈ 2.21.
3

Therefore this point can be represented as (5, 2.21) in polar coordinates.

c. Use x = 0 and y = 3 in Equation 11.4.3:
2 2 2 2 2
r =x +y = (3 ) + (0 ) = 9 +0 r =3

and via Equation 11.4.4

y 3
tan θ = = .
x 0

Direct application of the second equation leads to division by zero. Graphing the point (0, 3) on the rectangular
coordinate system reveals that the point is located on the positive y-axis. The angle between the positive x-axis and the
π π
positive y-axis is . Therefore this point can be represented as (3, ) in polar coordinates.
2 2
–
d. Use x = 5√3 and y = −5 in Equation 11.4.3:
2 2 2 – 2 2
r =x +y = (5 √3) + (−5 ) = 75 + 25

r = 10

and via Equation 11.4.4

–
y −5 √3
tan θ = = =−
–
x 5 √3 3

π
θ =− .
6

π
Therefore this point can be represented as (10, − ) in polar coordinates.
6

π
e. Use r = 3 and θ = in Equation 11.4.1:
3

π 1 3
x = r cos θ = 3 cos( ) = 3( ) =
3 2 2

and
– –
π √3 3 √3
y = r sin θ = 3 sin( ) = 3( ) = .
3 2 2
–
3 3 √3
Therefore this point can be represented as ( , ) in rectangular coordinates.
2 2

3π
f. Use r = 2 and θ = in Equation 11.4.1:
2

3π
x = r cos θ = 2 cos( ) = 2(0) = 0
2

and
3π
y = r sin θ = 2 sin( ) = 2(−1) = −2.
2

Therefore this point can be represented as (0, −2) in rectangular coordinates.

5π
g. Use r = 6 and θ = − in Equation 11.4.1:
6
–
5π √3 –
x = r cos θ = 6 cos(− ) = 6(− ) = −3 √3
6 2

and
5π 1
y = r sin θ = 6 sin(− ) = 6(− ) = −3 .
6 2
–
Therefore this point can be represented as (−3√3, −3) in rectangular coordinates.

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 Exercise 11.4.1
2π
Convert (−8, −8) into polar coordinates and (4, ) into rectangular coordinates.
3

Hint
Use Equation 11.4.3and Equation 11.4.1. Make sure to check the quadrant when calculating θ .

Answer
– 5π –
(8 √2, ) and (−2, 2√3)
4

π 7π
The polar representation of a point is not unique. For example, the polar coordinates (2, ) and (2, ) both represent the point
3 3
– 4π
(1, √3) in the rectangular system. Also, the value of r can be negative. Therefore, the point with polar coordinates (−2, ) also
3
–
represents the point (1, √3) in the rectangular system, as we can see by using Equation 11.4.1:
4π 1
x = r cos θ = −2 cos( ) = −2(− ) =1
3 2

and
–
4π √3 –
y = r sin θ = −2 sin( ) = −2(− ) = √3.
3 2

Every point in the plane has an infinite number of representations in polar coordinates. However, each point in the plane has only
one representation in the rectangular coordinate system.
Note that the polar representation of a point in the plane also has a visual interpretation. In particular, r is the directed distance that
the point lies from the origin, and θ measures the angle that the line segment from the origin to the point makes with the positive x-
axis. Positive angles are measured in a counterclockwise direction and negative angles are measured in a clockwise direction. The
polar coordinate system appears in Figure 11.4.2.

Figure 11.4.2 : The polar coordinate system.

The line segment starting from the center of the graph going to the right (called the positive x-axis in the Cartesian system) is the
polar axis. The center point is the pole, or origin, of the coordinate system, and corresponds to r = 0 . The innermost circle shown
in Figure 11.4.2 contains all points a distance of 1 unit from the pole, and is represented by the equation r = 1 . Then r = 2 is the

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set of points 2 units from the pole, and so on. The line segments emanating from the pole correspond to fixed angles. To plot a
point in the polar coordinate system, start with the angle. If the angle is positive, then measure the angle from the polar axis in a
counterclockwise direction. If it is negative, then measure it clockwise. If the value of r is positive, move that distance along the
terminal ray of the angle. If it is negative, move along the ray that is opposite the terminal ray of the given angle.

 Example 11.4.2: Plotting Points in the Polar Plane

Plot each of the following points on the polar plane.

π
a. (2, )
4
2π
b. (−3, )
3
5π
c. (4, )
4

Solution
The three points are plotted in Figure 11.4.3.

Figure 11.4.3 : Three points plotted in the polar coordinate system.

 Exercise 11.4.2
5π 7π
Plot (4, ) and (−3, − ) on the polar plane.
3 2

Hint
Start with θ , then use r .

Answer

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Polar Curves
Now that we know how to plot points in the polar coordinate system, we can discuss how to plot curves. In the rectangular
coordinate system, we can graph a function y = f (x) and create a curve in the Cartesian plane. In a similar fashion, we can graph a
curve that is generated by a function r = f (θ) .
The general idea behind graphing a function in polar coordinates is the same as graphing a function in rectangular coordinates.
Start with a list of values for the independent variable (θ in this case) and calculate the corresponding values of the dependent
variable r. This process generates a list of ordered pairs, which can be plotted in the polar coordinate system. Finally, connect the
points, and take advantage of any patterns that may appear. The function may be periodic, for example, which indicates that only a
limited number of values for the independent variable are needed.

 Problem-Solving Strategy: Plotting a Curve in Polar Coordinates

1. Create a table with two columns. The first column is for θ , and the second column is for r.
2. Create a list of values for θ .
3. Calculate the corresponding r values for each θ .
4. Plot each ordered pair (r, θ) on the coordinate axes.
5. Connect the points and look for a pattern.

 Example 11.4.3: Graphing a Function in Polar Coordinates

Graph the curve defined by the function r = 4 sin θ . Identify the curve and rewrite the equation in rectangular coordinates.
Solution
Because the function is a multiple of a sine function, it is periodic with period 2π, so use values for θ between 0 and 2π. The
result of steps 1–3 appear in the following table. Figure 11.4.4 shows the graph based on this table.

θ r = 4 sin θ θ r = 4 sin θ

0 0 π 0
π 7π
2 −2
6 6

π – 5π –
2 √2 ≈ 2.8 −2 √2 ≈ −2.8
4 4

π 4π
– –
2 √3 ≈ 3.4 −2 √3 ≈ −3.4
3 3

π 3π
4 −4
2 2

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θ r = 4 sin θ θ r = 4 sin θ

2π – 5π –
2 √3 ≈ 3.4 −2 √3 ≈ −3.4
3 3

3π – 7π –
2 √2 ≈ 2.8 −2 √2 ≈ −2.8
4 4

5π 11π
2 −2
6 6

2π 0

Figure 11.4.4 : The graph of the function r = 4 sin θ is a circle.

This is the graph of a circle. The equation r = 4 sin θ can be converted into rectangular coordinates by first multiplying both
sides by r. This gives the equation r = 4r sin θ. Next use the facts that r = x + y and y = r sin θ . This gives
2 2 2 2

x + y = 4y . To put this equation into standard form, subtract 4y from both sides of the equation and complete the square:
2 2

2 2
x +y − 4y = 0

2 2
x + (y − 4y) = 0

2 2
x + (y − 4y + 4) = 0 +4

2 2
x + (y − 2 ) =4

This is the equation of a circle with radius 2 and center (0, 2) in the rectangular coordinate system.

 Exercise 11.4.3

Create a graph of the curve defined by the function r = 4 + 4 cos θ .

Hint
Follow the problem-solving strategy for creating a graph in polar coordinates.

Answer
The name of this shape is a cardioid, which we will study further later in this section.

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The graph in Example 11.4.3 was that of a circle. The equation of the circle can be transformed into rectangular coordinates using
the coordinate transformation formulas in Equation 11.4.1. Example 11.4.4 gives some more examples of functions for
transforming from polar to rectangular coordinates.

 Example 11.4.4: Transforming Polar Equations to Rectangular Coordinates

Rewrite each of the following equations in rectangular coordinates and identify the graph.
π
a. θ =
3
b. r = 3
c. r = 6 cos θ − 8 sin θ
Solution:
–
a. Take the tangent of both sides. This gives tan θ = tan(π/3) = √3 .Since tan θ = y/x we can replace the left-hand side of
– –
this equation by y/x. This gives y/x = √3, which can be rewritten as y = x √3 . This is the equation of a straight line passing
–
through the origin with slope √3. In general, any polar equation of the form θ = K represents a straight line through the pole
with slope equal to tan K .
b. First, square both sides of the equation. This gives r = 9. Next replace r with x + y . This gives the equation
2 2 2 2

x + y = 9 , which is the equation of a circle centered at the origin with radius 3. In general, any polar equation of the form
2 2

r = k where k is a positive constant represents a circle of radius k centered at the origin. (Note: when squaring both sides of an

equation it is possible to introduce new points unintentionally. This should always be taken into consideration. However, in this
π 4π
case we do not introduce new points. For example, (−3, ) is the same point as (3, .)
)
3 3

c. Multiply both sides of the equation by r. This leads to r 2

= 6r cos θ − 8r sin θ . Next use the formulas
2 2 2
r =x + y , x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ.

This gives
2
r = 6(r cos θ) − 8(r sin θ)

2 2
x +y = 6x − 8y.

To put this equation into standard form, first move the variables from the right-hand side of the equation to the left-hand side,
then complete the square.

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2 2
x +y = 6x − 8y

2 2
x − 6x + y + 8y = 0

2 2
(x − 6x) + (y + 8y) = 0

2 2
(x − 6x + 9) + (y + 8y + 16) = 9 + 16

2 2
(x − 3 ) + (y + 4 ) = 25.

This is the equation of a circle with center at (3, −4) and radius 5. Notice that the circle passes through the origin since the
center is 5 units away.

 Exercise 11.4.4

Rewrite the equation r = sec θ tan θ in rectangular coordinates and identify its graph.

Hint
Convert to sine and cosine, then multiply both sides by cosine.

Answer
y =x
2
, which is the equation of a parabola opening upward.

We have now seen several examples of drawing graphs of curves defined by polar equations. A summary of some common curves
is given in the tables below. In each equation, a and b are arbitrary constants.

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Figure 11.4.5

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Figure 11.4.6
A cardioid is a special case of a limaçon (pronounced “lee-mah-son”), in which a = b or a = −b . The rose is a very interesting
curve. Notice that the graph of r = 3 sin 2θ has four petals. However, the graph of r = 3 sin 3θ has three petals as shown.

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Figure 11.4.7 : Graph of r = 3 sin 3θ .
If the coefficient of θ is even, the graph has twice as many petals as the coefficient. If the coefficient of θ is odd, then the number
of petals equals the coefficient. You are encouraged to explore why this happens. Even more interesting graphs emerge when the
coefficient of θ is not an integer. For example, if it is rational, then the curve is closed; that is, it eventually ends where it started
(Figure 11.4.8a). However, if the coefficient is irrational, then the curve never closes (Figure 11.4.8b). Although it may appear that
the curve is closed, a closer examination reveals that the petals just above the positive x axis are slightly thicker. This is because the
petal does not quite match up with the starting point.

Figure 11.4.8 : Polar rose graphs of functions with (a) rational coefficient and (b) irrational coefficient. Note that the rose in part (b)
would actually fill the entire circle if plotted in full.
Since the curve defined by the graph of r = 3 sin(πθ) never closes, the curve depicted in Figure 11.4.8b is only a partial depiction.
In fact, this is an example of a space-filling curve. A space-filling curve is one that in fact occupies a two-dimensional subset of
the real plane. In this case the curve occupies the circle of radius 3 centered at the origin.

 Example 11.4.5: Describing a Spiral

Recall the chambered nautilus introduced in the chapter prelude. This creature displays a spiral when half the outer shell is
cut away. It is possible to describe a spiral using rectangular coordinates. Figure 11.4.9 shows a spiral in rectangular
coordinates. How can we describe this curve mathematically?

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Figure 11.4.9 : How can we describe a spiral graph mathematically?
Solution
As the point P travels around the spiral in a counterclockwise direction, its distance d from the origin increases. Assume that
the distance d is a constant multiple k of the angle θ that the line segment OP makes with the positive x-axis. Therefore
d(P , O) = kθ , where O is the origin. Now use the distance formula and some trigonometry:

d(P , O) = kθ

−−−−−−−−−−−−−− − y
2 2
√(x − 0 ) + (y − 0 ) = k arctan( )
x

−−−−− − y
√x2 + y 2 = k arctan( )
x
−−−−−−
2 2
y √x + y
arctan( ) =
x k
−−−−− −
√x2 + y 2
y = x tan( ) .
k

Although this equation describes the spiral, it is not possible to solve it directly for either x or y. However, if we use polar
coordinates, the equation becomes much simpler. In particular, d(P , O) = r , and θ is the second coordinate. Therefore the
equation for the spiral becomes r = kθ . Note that when θ = 0 we also have r = 0 , so the spiral emanates from the origin. We
can remove this restriction by adding a constant to the equation. Then the equation for the spiral becomes r = a + kθ for
arbitrary constants a and k . This is referred to as an Archimedean spiral, after the Greek mathematician Archimedes.
Another type of spiral is the logarithmic spiral, described by the function r = a ⋅ b . A graph of the function r = 1.2(1.25
θ θ
) is
given in Figure 11.4.10. This spiral describes the shell shape of the chambered nautilus.

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Figure 11.4.10: A logarithmic spiral is similar to the shape of the chambered nautilus shell. (credit: modification of work by
Jitze Couperus, Flickr)

Suppose a curve is described in the polar coordinate system via the function r = f (θ) . Since we have conversion formulas from
polar to rectangular coordinates given by

x = r cos θ

y = r sin θ

,
it is possible to rewrite these formulas using the function

x = f (θ) cos θ

y = f (θ) sin θ.

This step gives a parameterization of the curve in rectangular coordinates using θ as the parameter. For example, the spiral formula
r = a + bθ from Figure becomes

x = (a + bθ) cos θ

y = (a + bθ) sin θ.

Letting θ range from −∞ to ∞ generates the entire spiral.

Symmetry in Polar Coordinates

When studying symmetry of functions in rectangular coordinates (i.e., in the form y = f (x)), we talk about symmetry with respect
to the y-axis and symmetry with respect to the origin. In particular, if f (−x) = f (x) for all x in the domain of f , then f is an even
function and its graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. If f (−x) = −f (x) for all x in the domain of f , then f is an odd
function and its graph is symmetric with respect to the origin. By determining which types of symmetry a graph exhibits, we can
learn more about the shape and appearance of the graph. Symmetry can also reveal other properties of the function that generates
the graph. Symmetry in polar curves works in a similar fashion.

 Symmetry in Polar Curves and Equations

Consider a curve generated by the function r = f (θ) in polar coordinates.

i. The curve is symmetric about the polar axis if for every point (r, θ) on the graph, the point (r, −θ) is also on the graph.
Similarly, the equation r = f (θ) is unchanged by replacing θ with −θ .
ii. The curve is symmetric about the pole if for every point (r, θ) on the graph, the point (r, π + θ) is also on the graph.
Similarly, the equation r = f (θ) is unchanged when replacing r with −r, or θ with π + θ.

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π
iii. The curve is symmetric about the vertical line θ = if for every point (r, θ) on the graph, the point (r, π − θ) is also on
2
the graph. Similarly, the equation r = f (θ) is unchanged when θ is replaced by π − θ .

The following table shows examples of each type of symmetry.

 Example 11.4.6: Using Symmetry to Graph a Polar Equation

Find the symmetry of the rose defined by the equation r = 3 sin(2θ) and create a graph.
Solution
Suppose the point (r, θ) is on the graph of r = 3 sin(2θ).
i. To test for symmetry about the polar axis, first try replacing θ with −θ . This gives r = 3 sin(2(−θ)) = −3 sin(2θ) .
Since this changes the original equation, this test is not satisfied. However, returning to the original equation and
replacing r with −r and θ with π − θ yields

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−r = 3 sin(2(π − θ))

−r = 3 sin(2π − 2θ)

−r = 3 sin(−2θ)

−r = −3 sin 2θ.

Multiplying both sides of this equation by −1 gives r = 3 sin 2θ , which is the original equation. This demonstrates that
the graph is symmetric with respect to the polar axis.
ii. To test for symmetry with respect to the pole, first replace r with −r, which yields −r = 3 sin(2θ) . Multiplying both
sides by −1 gives r = −3 sin(2θ) , which does not agree with the original equation. Therefore the equation does not pass
the test for this symmetry. However, returning to the original equation and replacing θ with θ + π gives
r = 3 sin(2(θ + π))

= 3 sin(2θ + 2π)

= 3(sin 2θ cos 2π + cos 2θ sin 2π)

= 3 sin 2θ.

Since this agrees with the original equation, the graph is symmetric about the pole.
π
iii. To test for symmetry with respect to the vertical line θ = , first replace both r with −r and θ with −θ .
2

−r = 3 sin(2(−θ))

−r = 3 sin(−2θ)

−r = −3 sin 2θ.

Multiplying both sides of this equation by −1 gives r = 3 sin 2θ , which is the original equation. Therefore the graph is
π
symmetric about the vertical line θ = .
2

This graph has symmetry with respect to the polar axis, the origin, and the vertical line going through the pole. To graph the
function, tabulate values of θ between 0 and π/2 and then reflect the resulting graph.

0 0
–
π
3 √3
≈ 2.6
6 2

π
3
4

–
π
3 √3
≈ 2.6
3 2

π
0
2

This gives one petal of the rose, as shown in the following graph.

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Figure 11.4.11: The graph of the equation between θ = 0 and θ = π/2.
Reflecting this image into the other three quadrants gives the entire graph as shown.

Figure 11.4.12: The entire graph of the equation is called a four-petaled rose.

 Exercise 11.4.5Symmetry
Determine the symmetry of the graph determined by the equation r = 2 cos(3θ) and create a graph.

Hint
Use Note.

Answer
Symmetric with respect to the polar axis.

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Key Concepts
The polar coordinate system provides an alternative way to locate points in the plane.
Convert points between rectangular and polar coordinates using the formulas

x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ

and
−−−−−−
2 2
y
r = √x +y and tan θ = .
x

To sketch a polar curve from a given polar function, make a table of values and take advantage of periodic properties.
Use the conversion formulas to convert equations between rectangular and polar coordinates.
Identify symmetry in polar curves, which can occur through the pole, the horizontal axis, or the vertical axis.

Glossary
angular coordinate
θ the angle formed by a line segment connecting the origin to a point in the polar coordinate system with the positive radial (x)

axis, measured counterclockwise

cardioid
a plane curve traced by a point on the perimeter of a circle that is rolling around a fixed circle of the same radius; the equation
of a cardioid is r = a(1 + sin θ) or r = a(1 + cos θ)

limaçon
the graph of the equation r = a + b sin θ or r = a + b cos θ. If a = b then the graph is a cardioid

polar axis
the horizontal axis in the polar coordinate system corresponding to r ≥ 0

polar coordinate system

a system for locating points in the plane. The coordinates are r , the radial coordinate, and θ , the angular coordinate

polar equation
an equation or function relating the radial coordinate to the angular coordinate in the polar coordinate system

pole
the central point of the polar coordinate system, equivalent to the origin of a Cartesian system

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radial coordinate
r the coordinate in the polar coordinate system that measures the distance from a point in the plane to the pole

rose
graph of the polar equation r = a cos 2θ or r = a sin 2θ for a positive constant a

space-filling curve
a curve that completely occupies a two-dimensional subset of the real plane

This page titled 11.4: Polar Coordinates is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert Strang
& Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history
is available upon request.
11.3: Polar Coordinates by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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11.4E: Exercises
In exercises 1 - 7, plot the point whose polar coordinates are given by first constructing the angle θ and then marking off the
distance r along the ray.
1) (3, π

6
)

Answer

2) (−2, 5π

3
)

3) (0, 7π

6
)

Answer

4) (−4, 3π

4
)

5) (1, π

4
)

Answer

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6) (2, 5π

6
)

7) (1, π

2
)

Answer

In exercises 8 - 11, consider the polar graph below. Give two sets of polar coordinates for each point.

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8) Coordinates of point A.
9) Coordinates of point B.

Answer
−π 2π
B (3, ) B (−3, )
3 3

10) Coordinates of point C.

11) Coordinates of point D.

Answer
7π π
D (5, ) D (−5, )
6 6

In exercises 12 - 17, the rectangular coordinates of a point are given. Find two sets of polar coordinates for the point in
(0, 2π]. Round to three decimal places.

12) (2, 2)
13) (3, −4)

Answer
(5, −0.927), (−5, −0.927 + π)

14) (8, 15)

15) (−6, 8)

Answer
(10, −0.927), (−10, −0.927 + π)

16) (4, 3)
–
17) (3, −√3)

Answer
– –
(2 √3, −0.524), (−2 √3, −0.524 + π)

In exercises 18 - 24, find rectangular coordinates for the given point in polar coordinates.
18) (2, 5π

4
)

19) (−2, π

6
)

Answer
–
(−√3, −1)

20) (5, π

3
)

21) (1, 7π

6
)

Answer
√3 −1
(− , )
2 2

22) (−3, 3π

4
)

23) (0, π

2
)

Answer
(0, 0)

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24) (−4.5, 6.5)
In exercises 25 - 29, determine whether the graphs of the polar equation are symmetric with respect to the x -axis, the y -
axis, or the origin.
25) r = 3 sin(2θ)

Answer
Symmetry with respect to the x-axis, y-axis, and origin.

26) r2
= 9 cos θ

27) r = cos( θ

5
)

Answer
Symmetric with respect to x-axis only.

28) r = 2 sec θ
29) r = 1 + cos θ

Answer
Symmetry with respect to x-axis only.

In exercises 30 - 33, describe the graph of each polar equation. Confirm each description by converting into a rectangular
equation.
30) r = 3
31) θ = π

Answer
Line y = x

32) r = sec θ
33) r = csc θ

Answer
y =1

In exercises 34 - 36, convert the rectangular equation to polar form and sketch its graph.
34) x 2
+y
2
= 16

35) x 2
−y
2
= 16

Answer
Hyperbola; polar form r
2
cos(2θ) = 16 or r2
= 16 sec θ.

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36) x = 8
In exercises 37 - 38, convert the rectangular equation to polar form and sketch its graph.
37) 3x − y = 2

Answer
2
r =
3 cos θ−sin θ

38) y 2
= 4x

In exercises 39 - 43, convert the polar equation to rectangular form and sketch its graph.
39) r = 4 sin θ
40) x 2
+y
2
= 4y

Answer

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41) r = 6 cos θ
42) r = θ

Answer
−−−−−−
2 2
x tan √x + y =y

43) r = cot θ csc θ

In exercises 44 - 54, sketch a graph of the polar equation and identify any symmetry.
44) r = 1 + sin θ

Answer
y -axis symmetry

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45) r = 3 − 2 cos θ
46) r = 2 − 2 sin θ

Answer
y -axis symmetry

47) r = 5 − 4 sin θ
48) r = 3 cos(2θ)

Answer
x -and y-axis symmetry and symmetry about the pole

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49) r = 3 sin(2θ)
50) r = 2 cos(3θ)

Answer
x -axis symmetry

51) r = 3 cos( θ

2
)

52) r 2
= 4 cos(
2

θ
)

Answer
x -and y-axis symmetry and symmetry about the pole

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53) r2
= 4 sin θ

54) r = 2θ

Answer
no symmetry

55) [T] The graph of r = 2 cos(2θ) sec(θ). is called a strophoid. Use a graphing utility to sketch the graph, and, from the graph,
determine the asymptote.
6
56) [T] Use a graphing utility and sketch the graph of r = .
2 sin θ − 3 cos θ

Answer

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a line

57) [T] Use a graphing utility to graph r = 1

1−cos θ
.

58) [T] Use technology to graph r = e sin(θ)

− 2 cos(4θ) .

Answer

59) [T] Use technology to plot r = sin( 3θ

7
) (use the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ 14π ).
60) Without using technology, sketch the polar curve θ = 2π

3
.

Answer

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61) [T] Use a graphing utility to plot r = θ sin θ for −π ≤ θ ≤ π .
62) [T] Use technology to plot r = e −0.1θ
for −10 ≤ θ ≤ 10.

Answer

63) [T] There is a curve known as the “Black Hole.” Use technology to plot r = e −0.01θ
for −100 ≤ θ ≤ 100 .
64) [T] Use the results of the preceding two problems to explore the graphs of r = e −0.001θ
and r = e −0.0001θ
for |θ| > 100 .

Answer
Answers vary. One possibility is the spiral lines become closer together and the total number of spirals increases.

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Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is
available upon request.
11.3E: Exercises for Section 11.3 by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
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11.5: Area and Arc Length in Polar Coordinates
 Learning Objectives
Apply the formula for area of a region in polar coordinates.
Determine the arc length of a polar curve.

In the rectangular coordinate system, the definite integral provides a way to calculate the area under a curve. In particular, if we
have a function y = f (x) defined from x = a to x = b where f (x) > 0 on this interval, the area between the curve and the x-axis
is given by
b

A =∫ f (x)dx.
a

This fact, along with the formula for evaluating this integral, is summarized in the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. Similarly,
the arc length of this curve is given by
b
−−−−−−−−−−
2
L =∫ √ 1 + (f '(x)) dx.
a

In this section, we study analogous formulas for area and arc length in the polar coordinate system.

Areas of Regions Bounded by Polar Curves

We have studied the formulas for area under a curve defined in rectangular coordinates and parametrically defined curves. Now we
turn our attention to deriving a formula for the area of a region bounded by a polar curve. Recall that the proof of the Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus used the concept of a Riemann sum to approximate the area under a curve by using rectangles. For polar
curves we use the Riemann sum again, but the rectangles are replaced by sectors of a circle.
Consider a curve defined by the function r = f (θ), where α ≤ θ ≤ β. Our first step is to partition the interval [α, β] into n equal-
width subintervals. The width of each subinterval is given by the formula Δθ = (β − α)/n , and the ith partition point θ is given
i

by the formula θ = α + iΔθ . Each partition point θ = θ defines a line with slope tan θ passing through the pole as shown in the
i i i

following graph.

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Figure 11.5.1 : A partition of a typical curve in polar coordinates.
The line segments are connected by arcs of constant radius. This defines sectors whose areas can be calculated by using a
geometric formula. The area of each sector is then used to approximate the area between successive line segments. We then sum the
areas of the sectors to approximate the total area. This approach gives a Riemann sum approximation for the total area. The formula
for the area of a sector of a circle is illustrated in the following figure.

1
Figure 11.5.2 : The area of a sector of a circle is given by A = 2
θr .
2

Recall that the area of a circle is A = πr

2
. When measuring angles in radians, 360 degrees is equal to 2π radians. Therefore a
θ
fraction of a circle can be measured by the central angle θ . The fraction of the circle is given by , so the area of the sector is this
2π
fraction multiplied by the total area:
θ 1
2 2
A =( )π r = θr .
2π 2

Since the radius of a typical sector in Figure 11.5.1 is given by r i = f (θi ) , the area of the ith sector is given by
1 2
Ai = (Δθ)(f (θi )) .
2

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Therefore a Riemann sum that approximates the area is given by
n n
1
2
An = ∑ Ai ≈ ∑ (Δθ)(f (θi )) .
2
i=1 i=1

We take the limit as n → ∞ to get the exact area:

β
1 2
A = lim An = ∫ (f (θ)) dθ.
n→∞ 2 α

This gives the following theorem.

 Area of a Region Bounded by a Polar Curve

Suppose f is continuous and nonnegative on the interval α ≤ θ ≤ β with 0 < β − α ≤ 2π . The area of the region bounded by
the graph of r = f (θ) between the radial lines θ = α and θ = β is
β
1
2
A = ∫ [f (θ)] dθ (11.5.1)
2 α

β
1
2
= ∫ r dθ. (11.5.2)
2 α

 Example 11.5.1: Finding an Area of a Polar Region

Find the area of one petal of the rose defined by the equation r = 3 sin(2θ).
Solution
The graph of r = 3 sin(2θ) follows.

Figure 11.5.3 : The graph of r = 3 sin(2θ).

When θ = 0 we have r = 3 sin(2(0)) = 0 . The next value for which r = 0 is θ = π/2 . This can be seen by solving the
equation 3 sin(2θ) = 0 for θ . Therefore the values θ = 0 to θ = π/2 trace out the first petal of the rose. To find the area inside
this petal, use Equation 11.5.2 with f (θ) = 3 sin(2θ), α = 0, and β = π/2:
β
1 2
A = ∫ [f (θ)] dθ
2 α

π/2
1 2
= ∫ [3 sin(2θ)] dθ
2 0

π/2
1 2
= ∫ 9 sin (2θ)dθ.
2 0

To evaluate this integral, use the formula sin2

α = (1 − cos(2α))/2 with α = 2θ :

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π/2
1
2
A = ∫ 9 sin (2θ)dθ
2 0

π/2
9 (1 − cos(4θ))
= ∫ dθ
2 0
2

π/2
9
= (∫ 1 − cos(4θ)dθ)
4 0

π/2
9 sin(4θ) ∣
= (θ − ∣
4 4 ∣
0

9 π sin 2π 9 sin 4(0)

= ( − )− (0 − )
4 2 4 4 4

9π
=
8

 Exercise 11.5.1

Find the area inside the cardioid defined by the equation r = 1 − cos θ .

Hint
Use Equation 11.5.2. Be sure to determine the correct limits of integration before evaluating.

Answer
A = 3π/2

Example 11.5.1 involved finding the area inside one curve. We can also use Equation 11.5.2 to find the area between two polar
curves. However, we often need to find the points of intersection of the curves and determine which function defines the outer
curve or the inner curve between these two points.

 Example 11.5.2: Finding the Area between Two Polar Curves

Find the area outside the cardioid r = 2 + 2 sin θ and inside the circle r = 6 sin θ .
Solution
First draw a graph containing both curves as shown.

Figure 11.5.4 : The region between the curves r = 2 + 2 sin θ and r = 6 sin θ.
To determine the limits of integration, first find the points of intersection by setting the two functions equal to each other and
solving for θ :

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6 sin θ = 2 + 2 sin θ

4 sin θ = 2
.

1
sin θ =
2

π 5π
This gives the solutions θ = and θ = , which are the limits of integration. The circle r = 3 sin θ is the red graph, which
6 6
is the outer function, and the cardioid r = 2 + 2 sin θ is the blue graph, which is the inner function. To calculate the area
π 5π
between the curves, start with the area inside the circle between θ = and θ = , then subtract the area inside the cardioid
6 6
π 5π
between θ = and θ = :
6 6

A = circle − cardioid

1 5π/6 1 5π/6
2 2
= ∫ [6 sin θ] dθ − ∫ [2 + 2 sin θ] dθ
π/6 π/6
2 2

1 5π/6 1 5π/6
2 2
= ∫ 36 sin θ dθ − ∫ 4 + 8 sin θ + 4 sin θ dθ
π/6 π/6
2 2

5π/6
1 − cos(2θ) 5π/6
1 − cos(2θ)
= 18 ∫ dθ − 2 ∫ 1 + 2 sin θ + dθ
π/6 π/6
2 2

sin(2θ) 5π/6 3θ sin(2θ) 5π/6

= 9[θ − ] − 2[ − 2 cos θ − ]
π/6 π/6
2 2 4

5π sin(10π/6) π sin(2π/6) 5π 5π sin(10π/6)

= 9( − ) − 9( − ) − (3( ) − 4 cos − )
6 2 6 2 6 6 2

π π sin(2π/6)
+ (3( ) − 4 cos − )
6 6 2

= 4π .

 Exercise 11.5.2
Find the area inside the circle r = 4 cos θ and outside the circle r = 2 .

Hint
Use Equation 11.5.2and take advantage of symmetry.

Answer
4π –
A = + 2 √3
3

In Example 11.5.2 we found the area inside the circle and outside the cardioid by first finding their intersection points. Notice that
π 5π
solving the equation directly for θ yielded two solutions: θ = and θ = . However, in the graph there are three intersection
6 6
points. The third intersection point is the origin. The reason why this point did not show up as a solution is because the origin is on
both graphs but for different values of θ . For example, for the cardioid we get
2 + 2 sin θ = 0
.
sin θ = −1,

3π
so the values for θ that solve this equation are θ = + 2nπ , where n is any integer. For the circle we get
2

6 sin θ = 0.

The solutions to this equation are of the form θ = nπ for any integer value of n . These two solution sets have no points in
common. Regardless of this fact, the curves intersect at the origin. This case must always be taken into consideration.

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Arc Length in Polar Curves
Here we derive a formula for the arc length of a curve defined in polar coordinates. In rectangular coordinates, the arc length of a
parameterized curve (x(t), y(t)) for a ≤ t ≤ b is given by
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
b 2 2
dx dy
L =∫ √( ) +( ) dt.
a
dt dt

In polar coordinates we define the curve by the equation r = f (θ) , where α ≤ θ ≤ β. In order to adapt the arc length formula for a
polar curve, we use the equations

x = r cos θ = f (θ) cos θ

and

y = r sin θ = f (θ) sin θ,

and we replace the parameter t by θ . Then

dx
= f '(θ) cos θ − f (θ) sin θ
dθ

dy
= f '(θ) sin θ + f (θ) cos θ.
dθ

We replace dt by dθ , and the lower and upper limits of integration are α and β, respectively. Then the arc length formula becomes
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
b 2 2
dx dy
L =∫ √( ) +( ) dt
a
dt dt

−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
β 2 2
dx dy
=∫ √( ) +( ) dθ
α
dθ dθ

β −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
=∫ √ (f '(θ) cos θ − f (θ) sin θ) + (f '(θ) sin θ + f (θ) cos θ) dθ
α

β −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2 2 2 2 2
=∫ √ (f '(θ)) (cos θ + sin θ) + (f (θ)) (cos θ + sin θ) dθ
α

β −−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
=∫ √ (f '(θ)) + (f (θ)) dθ
α

−−−−−−−−−−
β 2
dr
2
=∫ √r +( ) dθ
α
dθ

This gives us the following theorem.

 Arc Length of a Curve Defined by a Polar Function

Let f be a function whose derivative is continuous on an interval α ≤θ ≤β . The arc length of the graph of r = f (θ) from
θ = α to θ = β is

β −−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
L =∫ √ [f (θ)] + [f '(θ)] dθ (11.5.3)
α

−−−−−−−−−−
β 2

2
dr
=∫ √r +( ) dθ. (11.5.4)
α
dθ

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 Example 11.5.3: Finding the Arc Length of a cardioid
Find the arc length of the cardioid r = 2 + 2 cos θ .
Solution
When θ = 0, r = 2 + 2 cos 0 = 4. Furthermore, as θ goes from 0 to 2π, the cardioid is traced out exactly once. Therefore
these are the limits of integration. Using f (θ) = 2 + 2 cos θ, α = 0, and β = 2π, Equation 11.5.3 becomes
β
−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
L =∫ √ [f (θ)] + [f '(θ)] dθ
α

2π −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
=∫ √ [2 + 2 cos θ] + [−2 sin θ] dθ
0

2π
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− −
2 2
=∫ √ 4 + 8 cos θ + 4 cos θ + 4 sin θ dθ
0

2π −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
=∫ √ 4 + 8 cos θ + 4(cos θ + sin θ) dθ
0

2π
− −−−−−− −
=∫ √ 8 + 8 cos θ dθ
0

2π
− −−−−−− −
=2∫ √ 2 + 2 cos θ dθ.
0

Next, using the identity cos(2α) = 2 cos α − 1, add 1 to both sides and multiply by 2. This gives 2 + 2 cos(2α) = 4 cos
2 2
α.

Substituting α = θ/2 gives 2 + 2 cos θ = 4 cos (θ/2) , so the integral becomes

2π
− −−−−−− −
L =2∫ √ 2 + 2 cos θ dθ
0

2π −−−−− −−−
θ
2
=2∫ √4 cos ( ) dθ
0 2

2π
θ
=4∫ ∣ cos( ) ∣ dθ.
0
2

The absolute value is necessary because the cosine is negative for some values in its domain. To resolve this issue, change the
π
limits from 0 to π and double the answer. This strategy works because cosine is positive between 0 and . Thus,
2

2π
θ
L =4∫ ∣ cos( ) ∣ dθ
0
2

π
θ
=8∫ cos( ) dθ
0
2

π
θ ∣
= 8(2 sin( )∣
2 ∣0

= 16

 Exercise 11.5.3

Find the total arc length of the graph of r = 3 sin θ .

Hint
Use Equation 11.5.3. To determine the correct limits, make a table of values.

Answer

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s = 3π

Key Concepts
The area of a region in polar coordinates defined by the equation r = f (θ) with α ≤ θ ≤ β is given by the integral
1 β
A = ∫
α
2
[f (θ)] dθ .
2
To find the area between two curves in the polar coordinate system, first find the points of intersection, then subtract the
corresponding areas.
The arc length of a polar curve defined by the equation r = f (θ) with α ≤ θ ≤ β is given by the integral
−−−−−−− −−
β −−−−−−−−−−−− − β dr
L =∫
α
√[f (θ)]2 + [f '(θ)]2 dθ = ∫
α
√r2 + ( 2
) dθ .
dθ

Key Equations
Area of a region bounded by a polar curve
β β
1 1
2 2
A = ∫ [f (θ)] dθ = ∫ r dθ
2 α
2 α

Arc length of a polar curve

β β −− −−−−−−−
−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2 2
dr 2
L =∫ √ [f (θ)] + [f '(θ)] dθ = ∫ √r +( ) dθ
α α
dθ

This page titled 11.5: Area and Arc Length in Polar Coordinates is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or
curated by Gilbert Strang & Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts
platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request.
11.4: Area and Arc Length in Polar Coordinates by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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11.5E: Exercises
In exercises 1 -13, determine a definite integral that represents the area.
1) Region enclosed by r = 4
2) Region enclosed by r = 3 sin θ

Answer
π
9 2
∫ sin θ dθ
2 0

3) Region in the first quadrant within the cardioid r = 1 + sin θ

4) Region enclosed by one petal of r = 8 sin(2θ)

Answer
π/2
3
2
∫ sin (2θ) dθ
2 0

5) Region enclosed by one petal of r = cos(3θ)

6) Region below the polar axis and enclosed by r = 1 − sin θ

Answer
2π
1
2
∫ (1 − sin θ) dθ
2 π

7) Region in the first quadrant enclosed by r = 2 − cos θ

8) Region enclosed by the inner loop of r = 2 − 3 sin θ

Answer
π/2
2
∫ (2 − 3 sin θ) dθ
−1
sin (2/3)

9) Region enclosed by the inner loop of r = 3 − 4 cos θ

10) Region enclosed by r = 1 − 2 cos θ and outside the inner loop

Answer
π π/3
2 2
∫ (1 − 2 cos θ) dθ − ∫ (1 − 2 cos θ) dθ
0 0

11) Region common to r = 3 sin θ and r = 2 − sin θ

12) Region common to r = 2 and r = 4 cos θ

Answer
π/3 π/2
2
4∫ dθ + 16 ∫ (cos θ) dθ
0 π/3

13) Region common to r = 3 cos θ and r = 3 sin θ

In exercises 14 -26, find the area of the described region.
14) Enclosed by r = 6 sin θ

Answer
2
9π units

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15) Above the polar axis enclosed by r = 2 + sin θ
16) Below the polar axis and enclosed by r = 2 − cos θ

Answer
9π 2
units
4

17) Enclosed by one petal of r = 4 cos(3θ)

18) Enclosed by one petal of r = 3 cos(2θ)

Answer
9π 2
units
8

19) Enclosed by r = 1 + sin θ

20) Enclosed by the inner loop of r = 3 + 6 cos θ

Answer
18π−27 √3
2
units
2

21) Enclosed by r = 2 + 4 cos θ and outside the inner loop

22) Common interior of r = 4 sin(2θ) and r = 2

Answer
4 – 2
(4π − 3 √3) units
3

23) Common interior of r = 3 − 2 sin θ and r = −3 + 2 sin θ

24) Common interior of r = 6 sin θ and r = 3

Answer
3 – 2
(4π − 3 √3) units
2

25) Inside r = 1 + cos θ and outside r = cos θ

26) Common interior of r = 2 + 2 cos θ and r = 2 sin θ

Answer
2
(2π − 4) units

In exercises 27 - 30, find a definite integral that represents the arc length.
27) r = 4 cos θ on the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ π

28) r = 1 + sin θ on the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π

Answer
2π −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
∫ √(1 + sin θ) + cos θ dθ
0

29) r = 2 sec θ on the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ π

30) r = e on the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ 1

Answer
1
– θ
√2 ∫ e dθ
0

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In exercises 31 - 35, find the length of the curve over the given interval.
31) r = 6 on the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ π

32) r = e 3θ
on the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2

Answer
√10

3
(e
6
− 1) units

33) r = 6 cos θ on the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ π

34) r = 8 + 8 cos θ on the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ π

Answer
32 units

35) r = 1 − sin θ on the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π

In exercises 36 - 40, use the integration capabilities of a calculator to approximate the length of the curve.
36) [T] r = 3θ on the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ π

Answer
6.238 units

2
37) [T] r = on the interval π ≤ θ ≤ 2π
θ

38) [T] r = sin 2

(
θ

2
) on the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ π

Answer
2 units

39) [T] r = 2θ on the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ π

40) [T] r = sin(3 cos θ) on the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ π

Answer
4.39 units

In exercises 41 - 43, use the familiar formula from geometry to find the area of the region described and then confirm by
using the definite integral.
41) r = 3 sin θ on the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
42) r = sin θ + cos θ on the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ π

Answer
π
2 π 1 π
√2
A = π(
2
) = units
2
and ∫ (1 + 2 sin θ cos θ) dθ = units
2

2 2 0
2

43) r = 6 sin θ + 8 cos θ on the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ π

In exercises 44 - 46, use the familiar formula from geometry to find the length of the curve and then confirm using the
definite integral.
44) r = 3 sin θ on the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ π

Answer
π

C = 2π (
3

2
) = 3π units and ∫ 3 dθ = 3π units
0

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45) r = sin θ + cos θ on the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
46) r = 6 sin θ + 8 cos θ on the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ π

Answer
π

C = 2π(5) = 10π units and ∫ 10 dθ = 10π units

dy
47) Verify that if y = r sin θ = f (θ) sin θ then ′
= f (θ) sin θ + f (θ) cos θ.
dθ

In exercises 48 - 56, find the slope of a tangent line to a polar curve r = f (θ) . Let x = r cos θ = f (θ) cos θ and
y = r sin θ = f (θ) sin θ , so the polar equation r = f (θ) is now written in parametric form.

dy dy/dθ
48) Use the definition of the derivative = and the product rule to derive the derivative of a polar equation.
dx dx/dθ

Answer
dy f '(θ) sin θ + f (θ) cos θ
=
dx f '(θ) cos θ − f (θ) sin θ

49) r = 1 − sin θ; (
1

2
,
π

6
)

50) r = 4 cos θ; (2,

3
)

Answer
The slope is 1
.
√3

51) r = 8 sin θ; (4,

5π

6
)

52) r = 4 + sin θ; (3,

3π

2
)

Answer
The slope is 0.

53) r = 6 + 3 cos θ; (3, π)

54) r = 4 cos(2θ); tips of the leaves

Answer
At (4, 0), the slope is undefined. At (−4, π

2
, the slope is 0.
)

55) r = 2 sin(3θ); tips of the leaves

56) r = 2θ; (
π

2
,
π

4
)

Answer
The slope is undefined at θ = . π

57) Find the points on the interval −π ≤ θ ≤ π at which the cardioid r = 1 − cos θ has a vertical or horizontal tangent line.
58) For the cardioid r = 1 + sin θ, find the slope of the tangent line when θ = . π

Answer
Slope = −1.

In exercises 59 - 62, find the slope of the tangent line to the given polar curve at the point given by the value of θ .
59) r = 3 cos θ, θ =
π

60) r = θ, θ =
π

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Answer
−2
Slope is π
.

61) r = ln θ, θ =e

62) [T] Use technology: r = 2 + 4 cos θ at θ = π

Answer
Calculator answer: −0.836.

In exercises 63 - 66, find the points at which the following polar curves have a horizontal or vertical tangent line.
63) r = 4 cos θ
64) r2
= 4 cos(2θ)

Answer
– –
Horizontal tangent at (±√2, π

6
) , (±√2, −
π

6
) .

65) r = 2 sin(2θ)
66) The cardioid r = 1 + sin θ

Answer
Horizontal tangents at π

2
,
7π

6
,
11π

6
.

Vertical tangents at π

6
,
5π

6
and also at the pole (0, 0).

67) Show that the curve r = sin θ tan θ (called a cissoid of Diocles) has the line x = 1 as a vertical asymptote.

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available upon request.
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11.6: Chapter 11 Review Exercises
True or False? Justify your answer with a proof or a counterexample.
–
1) The rectangular coordinates of the point (4, 5π

6
) are (2√3, −2) .
2) The equations x = cosh(3t), y = 2 sinh(3t) represent a hyperbola.

Answer
True

θ
3) The arc length of the spiral given by r = for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 3π is 9

4
π
3
units.
2

dx dy
4) Given x = f (t) and y = g(t) , if = , then f (t) = g(t) + C , where C is a constant.
dy dx

Answer
False. Imagine y = t + 1, x = −t + 1.

In exercises 5 -8, sketch the parametric curve and eliminate the parameter to find the Cartesian equation of the curve.
5) x = 1 + t, y =t
2
− 1, −1 ≤ t ≤ 1

6) x = e t
, y = 1 −e
3t
, 0 ≤t ≤1

Answer
3
y = 1 −x

7) x = sin θ, y = 1 − csc θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π

8) x = 4 cos ϕ, y = 1 − sin ϕ, 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 2π

Answer
2
x
2
+ (y − 1 ) =1
16

In exercises 9 - 10, sketch the polar curve and determine what type of symmetry exists, if any.
9) r = 4 sin( θ

3
)

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10) r = 5 cos(5θ)

Answer
Symmetric about polar axis

In exercises 11 - 12, find the polar equation for the curve given as a Cartesian equation.
11) x + y = 5
12) y 2
= 4 +x
2

Answer
4
2
r =
2
sin θ − cos2 θ

In exercises 13 - 14, find the equation of the tangent line to the given curve. Graph both the function and its tangent line.
13) x = ln(t), y =t
2
− 1, t = 1

14) r = 3 + cos(2θ), θ =
3π

Answer
3 √2 1 3 √2
y = + (x + )
2 5 2

2
dy dx d x
15) Find , , and 2
of y = (2 + e −t
), x = 1 − sin t
dx dy dy

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In exercises 16 -17, find the area of the region.
16) x = t 2
, y = ln(t), 0 ≤t ≤e

Answer
2
e
2
units
2

17) r = 1 − sin θ in the first quadrant

In exercises 18 - 19, find the arc length of the curve over the given interval.
18) x = 3t + 4, y = 9t − 2, 0 ≤t ≤3

Answer
−−
9 √10 units

19) r = 6 cos θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π. Check your answer by geometry.

In exercises 20 - 22, find the Cartesian equation describing the given shapes.
20) A parabola with focus (2, −5) and directrix x = 6

Answer
2
(y + 5 ) = −8x + 32

21) An ellipse with a major axis length of 10 and foci at (−7, 2) and (1, 2)
22) A hyperbola with vertices at (3, −2) and (−5, −2) and foci at (−2, −6) and (−2, 4)

Answer
2 2
(y + 1) (x + 2)
− =1
16 9

In exercises 23 - 25, determine the eccentricity and identify the conic. Sketch the conic.
6
23) r =
1 + 3 cos θ

4
24) r =
3 − 2 cos θ

Answer
e =
2

3
, ellipse

7
25) r =
5 − 5 cos θ

26) Determine the Cartesian equation describing the orbit of Pluto, the most eccentric orbit around the Sun. The length of the major
axis is 39.26 AU and minor axis is 38.07 AU. What is the eccentricity?

Answer

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2 2
y x
+ = 1, e = 0.2447
2 2
19.03 19.63

27) The C/1980 E1 comet was observed in 1980. Given an eccentricity of 1.057 and a perihelion (point of closest approach to the
Sun) of 3.364 AU, find the Cartesian equations describing the comet’s trajectory. Are we guaranteed to see this comet again? (Hint:
Consider the Sun at point (0, 0).)

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detailed edit history is available upon request.
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CHAPTER OVERVIEW

12: Appendices
12.A: Table of Derivatives
12.B: Table of Integrals

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available upon request.

1
12.A: Table of Derivatives
General Formulas
d
1. (c) = 0
dx

d
2. (f (x) + g(x)) = f '(x) + g'(x)
dx

d
3. (f (x)g(x)) = f '(x)g(x) + f (x)g'(x)
dx

d
4. n
(x ) = nx
n−1
, for real numbers n
dx

d
5. (cf (x)) = cf '(x)
dx

d
6. (f (x) − g(x)) = f '(x) − g'(x)
dx

d f (x) g(x)f '(x) − f (x)g'(x)

7. ( ) =
2
dx g(x) (g(x))

d
8. [f (g(x))] = f '(g(x)) ⋅ g'(x)
dx

Trigonometric Functions
d
9. (sin x) = cos x
dx

d
10. (tan x) = sec
2
x
dx

d
11. (sec x) = sec x tan x
dx

d
12. (cos x) = − sin x
dx

d
13. (cot x) = − csc
2
x
dx

d
14. (csc x) = − csc x cot x
dx

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

d 1
15. (sin
−1
x) = −−−− −
dx √1 − x2

d 1
16. (tan
−1
x) =
2
dx 1 +x

d 1
17. (sec
−1
x) = −−−−−
dx 2
|x| √x − 1

d −1
18. (cos
−1
x) = −−−− −
dx √1 − x2

d −1
19. (cot
−1
x) =
2
dx 1 +x

d −1
20. (csc
−1
x) = −−−−−
dx 2
|x| √x − 1

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Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
d
21. x
(e ) = e
x

d 1
22. (ln |x|) =
dx x

d
23. x
(b ) = b
x
ln b
dx

d 1
24. (log x) =
b
dx x ln b

Hyperbolic Functions
d
25. (sinh x) = cosh x
dx

d
26. (tanh x) = sech
2
x
dx

d
27. (sechx) = −sech x tanh x
dx

d
28. (cosh x) = sinh x
dx

d
29. (coth x) = −csch
2
x
dx

d
30. (csch x) = −cschx coth x
dx

Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

d 1
31. (sinh
−1
x) = −−−−−
dx √x2 + 1

d 1
32. (tanh
−1
x) =
2
(|x| < 1)
dx 1 −x

d −1
33. (sech
−1
x) =
−−−− −
(0 < x < 1)
dx x √1 − x
2

d 1
34. (cosh
−1
x) = −−−−− (x > 1)
dx √x2 − 1

d 1
35. (coth
−1
x) =
2
(|x| > 1)
dx 1 −x

d −1
36. (csch
−1
x) = −−−− − (x ≠ 0)
dx |x| √1 + x
2

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history is available upon request.
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12.B: Table of Integrals
Basic Integrals
n+1
u
1. ∫ u
n
du = + C, n ≠ −1
n+1

du
2. ∫ = ln |u| + C
u

3. ∫ e
u
du = e
u
+C

u
a
4. ∫ a
u
du = +C
ln a

5. ∫ sin u du = − cos u + C

6. ∫ cos u du = sin u + C

7. ∫ sec
2
u du = tan u + C

8. ∫ csc
2
u du = − cot u + C

9. ∫ sec u tan u du = sec u + C

10. ∫ csc u cot u du = − csc u + C

11. ∫ tan u du = ln | sec u| + C

12. ∫ cot u du = ln | sin u| + C

13. ∫ sec u du = ln | sec u + tan u| + C

14. ∫ csc u du = ln | csc u − cot u| + C

du u
15. ∫ −− −−−− = sin
−1
( )+C
2
√a − u 2 a

du 1 u
16. ∫
2 2
=
−1
tan ( )+C
a +u a a

du 1 |u|
17. ∫ −− −−−− = sec
−1
+C
u √ 2
u −a
2 a a

Trigonometric Integrals
1 1
18. ∫ sin
2
u du = u− sin 2u + C
2 4

1 1
19. ∫ cos
2
u du = u+ sin 2u + C
2 4

20. ∫ tan
2
u du = tan u − u + C

21. ∫ cot
2
u du = − cot u − u + C

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1
22. ∫ sin
3
u du = − (2 + sin
2
u) cos u + C
3

1
23. ∫ cos
3
u du = (2 + cos
2
u) sin u + C
3

1
24. ∫ tan
3
u du = tan
2
u + ln | cos u| + C
2

1
25. ∫ cot
3
u du = − cot
2
u − ln | sin u| + C
2

1 1
26. ∫ sec
3
u du = sec u tan u + ln | sec u + tan u| + C
2 2

1 1
27. ∫ csc
3
u du = − csc u cot u + ln | csc u − cot u| + C
2 2

−1 n−1
28. ∫ sin
n
u du = sin
n−1
u cos u + ∫ sin
n−2
u du
n n

1 n−1
29. ∫ cos
n
u du = cos
n−1
u sin u + ∫ cos
n−2
u du
n n

1
30. ∫ tan
n
u du = tan
n−1
u −∫ tan
n−2
u du
n−1

−1
31. ∫ cot
n
u du = cot
n−1
u −∫ cot
n−2
u du
n−1

1 n−2
32. ∫ sec
n
u du = tan u sec
n−2
u+ ∫ sec
n−2
u du
n−1 n−1

−1 n−2
33. ∫ csc
n
u du = cot u csc
n−2
u+ ∫ csc
n−2
u du
n−1 n−1

sin(a − b)u sin(a + b)u

34. ∫ sin au sin bu du = − +C
2(a − b) 2(a + b)

sin(a − b)u sin(a + b)u

35. ∫ cos au cos bu du = + +C
2(a − b) 2(a + b)

cos(a − b)u cos(a + b)u

36. ∫ sin au cos bu du = − − +C
2(a − b) 2(a + b)

37. ∫ u sin u du = sin u − u cos u + C

38. ∫ u cos u du = cos u + u sin u + C

39. ∫ u
n
sin u du = −u
n
cos u + n ∫ u
n−1
cos u du

40. ∫ u
n
cos u du = u
n
sin u − n ∫ u
n−1
sin u du

n−1 m+1
n m
sin u cos u n−1 n−2 m
∫ sin u cos u du = − + ∫ sin u cos u du
n+m n+m
41.
n+1 m−1
sin u cos u m −1 n m−2
= + ∫ sin u cos u du
n+m n+m

Exponential and Logarithmic Integrals

1
42. ∫ ue
au
du =
2
(au − 1)e
au
+C
a

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1 n
43. ∫ u e
n au
du =
n
u e
au
− ∫ u
n−1
e
au
du
a a

au
e
44. ∫ e
au
sin bu du =
2 2
(a sin bu − b cos bu) + C
a +b

au
e
45. ∫ e
au
cos bu du =
2 2
(a cos bu + b sin bu) + C
a +b

46. ∫ ln u du = u ln u − u + C

n+1
u
47. ∫ u
n
ln u du =
2
[(n + 1) ln u − 1] + C
(n + 1)

1
48. ∫ du = ln | ln u| + C
u ln u

Hyperbolic Integrals
49. ∫ sinh u du = cosh u + C

50. ∫ cosh u du = sinh u + C

51. ∫ tanh u du = ln cosh u + C

52. ∫ coth u du = ln | sinh u| + C

53. ∫ sech u du = tan

−1
| sinh u| + C

1
54. ∫ csch u du = ln ∣ tanh u ∣ +C
2

55. ∫
2
sech u du = tanh u + C

56. ∫
2
csch u du = − coth u + C

57. ∫ sech u tanh u du = −sech u + C

58. ∫ csch u coth u du = −csch u + C

Inverse Trigonometric Integrals

−−−− −
59. ∫ sin
−1
u du = u sin
−1 2
u + √1 − u + C

−−−−−
60. ∫ cos
−1
u du = u cos
−1
u − √1 − u
2
+C

1
61. ∫ tan
−1
u du = u tan
−1
u− ln(1 + u ) + C
2

−−−− −
2 2
2u −1 u √1 − u
62. ∫ u sin
−1
u du = sin
−1
u+ +C
4 4

−−−− −
2 2
2u −1 u √1 − u
63. ∫ u cos
−1
u du = cos
−1
u− +C
4 4

2
u +1 u
64. ∫ u tan
−1
u du = tan
−1
u− +C
2 2

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n+1
1 u du
65. ∫ u
n
sin
−1
u du = [u
n+1
sin
−1
u −∫ −−−− −], n ≠ −1
n+1 √1 − u2

n+1
1 u du
66. ∫ u
n
cos
−1
u du = [u
n+1
cos
−1
u +∫ −−−− −], n ≠ −1
n+1 √1 − u2

n+1
1 u du
67. ∫ u
n
tan
−1
u du = [u
n+1
tan
−1
u −∫
2
], n ≠ −1
n+1 1 +u

Integrals Involving a2 + u2, a > 0

2
−− −−−− u −− −−−− a −− −−−−
68. ∫
2
√a + u
2
du =
2 2
√a + u +
2 2
ln(u + √a + u ) + C
2 2

4
−− −−−− u −− −−−− a −− −−−−
69. ∫
2 2
u √a + u
2
du =
2 2 2 2
(a + 2 u )√a + u −
2 2
ln(u + √a + u ) + C
8 8

−−−− −− −−−− −−
√a2 + u2 −− −−−− ∣ a + √a2 + u2 ∣
70. ∫ du = √
2 2
a + u − a ln∣ ∣+C
u ∣ u ∣

−−−− −− −−−− −−
√a2 + u2 √a2 + u2 −−−−−−
71. ∫
2
du = − + ln(u + √a
2
+u
2
)+C
u u

du −−−−−−
72. ∫ −−−− −− = ln(u +
√a
2
+u
2
)+C
√a2 + u2

2 2
u u −− −−−− a −− −−−−
73. ∫ −− −−−− du =
2 2
(√a + u ) −
2 2
ln(u + √a + u ) + C
2
√a + u 2 2 2

−−−− −−
du −1 ∣ √a2 + u2 + a ∣
74. ∫ −− −−−− = ln∣ ∣+C
2
u √a + u
2 a ∣ u ∣

−−−− −−
du √a2 + u2
75. ∫ −− −−−− =− 2
+C
2 2 2 a u
u √a + u

du u
76. ∫ =
−−−− −−
+C
3/2
(a
2
+u )
2 a2 √a2 + u2

Integrals Involving u2 − a2, a > 0

2
−− −−−− u −− −−−− a −− −−−−
77. ∫
2
√u − a
2
du =
2
√u − a
2
− ln∣
∣u +
2 2
√u − a ∣ + C
∣
2 2

4
−− −−−− u −− −−−− a −− −−−−
78. ∫
2 2
u √u − a
2
du =
2 2 2
(2 u − a )√u − a
2
−
∣
2 2
ln∣u + √u − a ∣ + C
∣
8 8
−−−−− −
√u2 − a2 −− −−−− a
79. ∫
2
du = √u − a
2
− a cos
−1
+C
u |u|

−−−−− − −−−−− −
√u2 − a2 √u2 − a2 −− −−−−
80. ∫
2
du = −
∣
2 2
+ ln∣u + √u − a ∣ + C
∣
u u

du −− −−−−
81. ∫ −−−−−
∣
− = ln∣u +
2 2
√u − a ∣ + C
∣
√u2 − a2

2 2
u u −−−−− − a −−−−− −
82. ∫ −− −−−− du =
√u2 − a2 + ln∣
∣u +
√u2 − a2 ∣ + C
∣
2
√u − a 2 2 2

−−−−− −
du √u2 − a2
83. ∫ −− −−−− = 2
+C
2 2
u √u − a
2 a u

du u
84. ∫ =− −− −−−− +C
(u2 − a2 )3/2 a
2√ 2
u −a
2

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Integrals Involving a2 − u2, a > 0
2
−− −−−− u −− −−−− a u
85. ∫
2
√a − u
2
du =
2 2
√a − u + sin
−1
+C
2 2 a

4
−− −−−− u −− −−−− a u
86. ∫
2 2
u √a − u
2
du =
2 2 2 2
(2 u − a )√a − u + sin
−1
+C
8 8 a

−−−− −− −−−− −−
√a2 − u2 −− −−−− ∣ a + √a2 − u2 ∣
87. ∫
2 2
du = √a − u − a ln∣ ∣+C
u ∣ u ∣

−−−− −−
√a2 − u2 −1 −− −−−− u
88. ∫
2
du =
2 2
√a − u − sin
−1
+C
u u a

2
u 1 −− −−−− u
89. ∫ −−−− −− du =
2 2 2
(−u √a − u + a sin
−1
)+C
√a2 − u2 2 a

−−−− −−
du 1 ∣ a + √a2 − u2 ∣
90. ∫
−−−− −−
=− ln∣ ∣+C
u √a2 − u2 a ∣ u ∣

du 1 −− −−−−
91. ∫
−− −−−−
=−
2
2 2
√a − u + C
2 2 2 a u
u √a − u

4
3/2 u −− −−−− 3a u
92. ∫ (a
2
−u )
2
du = − (2 u
2 2 2 2
− 5 a ) √a − u + sin
−1
+C
8 8 a

du u
93. ∫ =− −− −−−− +C
2 2 3/2 2√ 2 2
(a −u ) a a −u

Integrals Involving 2au − u2, a > 0

2
−−−−−− − u −a −−−−−− − a a−u
94. ∫
2
√2au − u du =
2
√2au − u + cos
−1
( ) +C
2 2 a

du a−u
95. ∫ −−−−−− − = cos
−1
( ) +C
√2au − u2 a

2 2 3
−−−−−−− 2u − au − 3 a −−−−−− − a a−u
96. ∫ u √2au − u
2
du =
2
√2au − u + cos
−1
( ) +C
6 2 a

−−−−−− −
du √2au − u2
97. ∫ −−−−−− − =− +C
u √2au − u
2 au

Integrals Involving a + bu, a ≠ 0

u 1
98. ∫ du =
2
(a + bu − a ln |a + bu|) + C
a + bu b

2
u 1
99. ∫ du =
3
[(a + bu )
2
− 4a(a + bu) + 2 a
2
ln |a + bu|] + C
a + bu 2b

du 1 ∣ u ∣
100. ∫ = ln∣ ∣+C
u(a + bu) a ∣ a + bu ∣

du 1 b ∣ a + bu ∣
101. ∫
2
=− +
2
ln∣ ∣+C
u (a + bu) au a ∣ u ∣

u a 1
102. ∫
2
du =
2
+
2
ln |a + bu| + C
(a + bu) b (a + bu) b

u 1 1 ∣ a + bu ∣
103. ∫
2
du = −
2
ln∣ ∣+C
u(a + bu) a(a + bu) a ∣ u ∣

2 2
u 1 a
104. ∫
2
du =
3
(a + bu − − 2a ln |a + bu|) + C
(a + bu) b a + bu

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−−−− − 2
105. ∫ u √a + bu du =
2
(3bu − 2a)(a + bu )
3/2
+C
15b

u 2 −−−− −
106. ∫
−−−− −
du =
2
(bu − 2a)√a + bu + C
√a + bu 3b

2
u 2 −−−− −
107. ∫
−−−− −
du =
3
(8 a
2
+ 3b u
2 2
− 4abu)√a + bu + C
√a + bu 15b

∣ √a+bu −√a ∣
⎧
⎪
1
⎪ ln + C, if a > 0
du √a ∣ √a+bu +√a ∣
108. ∫
−−−− −
=⎨
−−−−
u √a + bu ⎪
⎩
√2 −1 a+bu
⎪ tan √ + C, if a < 0
√−a −a

−−−− −
√a + bu −−−− − du
109. ∫ du = 2 √a + bu + a ∫
−−−− −
u u √a + bu

−−−− − −−−− −
√a + bu √a + bu b du
110. ∫
2
du = − + ∫
−−−− −
u u 2 u √a + bu

−−−− − 2 −−−− −
111. ∫
n
u √a + bu du =
n
[u (a + bu )
3/2
− na ∫ u
n−1
√a + bu du]
b(2n + 3)

n n
−−−− − n−1
u 2u √a + bu 2na u
112. ∫ −−−− − du = − ∫ −−−− − du
√a + bu b(2n + 1) b(2n + 1) √a + bu

−−−− −
du √a + bu b(2n − 3) du
113. ∫
−−−− −
=−
n−1
− ∫
−−−− −
n n−1
u √a + bu a(n − 1)u 2a(n − 1) u √a + bu

This page titled 12.B: Table of Integrals is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Gilbert Strang
& Edwin “Jed” Herman (OpenStax) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history
is available upon request.
18.B: Table of Integrals by Edwin “Jed” Herman, Gilbert Strang is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
https://openstax.org/details/books/calculus-volume-1.

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Index
A computer algebra system focal parameter
absolute convergence 8.5: Other Strategies for Integration 11.1: Conic Sections
9.5: Alternating Series conditional convergence focus
absolute error 9.5: Alternating Series 11.1: Conic Sections
8.6: Numerical Integration CONIC SECTIONS frustum
air resistance 11.1: Conic Sections 7.4: Arc Length of a Curve and Surface Area
6.5: First-order Linear Equations convergence of a series fundamental theorem of calculus
Airy’s equation 9.2: Infinite Series 5.3: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
10.4: Working with Taylor Series convergent sequence fundamental theorem of calculus, part 1
Alternating Harmonic Series 9.1: Sequences 5.3: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
9.5: Alternating Series curtate cycloid fundamental theorem of calculus, part 2
alternating series 11.2: Parametric Equations 5.3: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
9.5: Alternating Series cusp
Alternating Series Test 11.2: Parametric Equations G
9.5: Alternating Series cusps general form
angular coordinate 11.2: Parametric Equations 11.1: Conic Sections
11.4: Polar Coordinates cycloid general solution
arc length 11.2: Parametric Equations 6.1: Basics of Differential Equations
7.4: Arc Length of a Curve and Surface Area Cycloids Geometric Sequences
Arc length of a parametric curve 11.2: Parametric Equations 9.1: Sequences
11.3: Calculus of Parametric Curves geometric series
Arc length of a polar curve D 9.2: Infinite Series
definite integral 9.5: Alternating Series
11.5: Area and Arc Length in Polar Coordinates
Archimedean spiral 5.2: The Definite Integral growth rate
density function 6.4: The Logistic Equation
11.4: Polar Coordinates
AREA BETWEEN TWO CURVES 7.5: Physical Applications of Integration
7.1: Areas between Curves Derivative of Hyperbolic Functions H
Area of a region bounded by a polar 5.8: Calculus of the Hyperbolic Functions harmonic series
curve Derivative of parametric equations 9.2: Infinite Series

11.5: Area and Arc Length in Polar Coordinates

11.3: Calculus of Parametric Curves Hooke’s law
Area under a parametric curve differential equation 7.5: Physical Applications of Integration

11.3: Calculus of Parametric Curves

6.1: Basics of Differential Equations hydrostatic pressure
Areas of Compound Regions directrix 7.5: Physical Applications of Integration

7.1: Areas between Curves

11.1: Conic Sections Hyperbolas
arithmetic sequence discriminant 11.1: Conic Sections

9.1: Sequences
11.1: Conic Sections hypocycloid
asymptotically stable solution disk method 11.2: Parametric Equations
7.2: Determining Volumes by Slicing
6.2: Direction Fields and Numerical Methods
asymptotically unstable solution divergence of a series I
6.2: Direction Fields and Numerical Methods
9.2: Infinite Series improper integral
autonomous differential equation Divergence Test 8.7: Improper Integrals
6.3: Separable Equations
9.3: The Divergence and Integral Tests index variable
average value of a function divergent sequence 9.1: Sequences
5.2: The Definite Integral
9.1: Sequences infinite series
9.2: Infinite Series
B E initial population
binomial series eccentricity 6.4: The Logistic Equation

10.4: Working with Taylor Series

11.1: Conic Sections initial value
Ellipses 6.1: Basics of Differential Equations

C 11.1: Conic Sections initial velocity

equilibrium solution 6.1: Basics of Differential Equations
cardioid integrable function
6.2: Direction Fields and Numerical Methods
11.4: Polar Coordinates
Euler’s Method 5.2: The Definite Integral
carrying capacity Integral Test
6.2: Direction Fields and Numerical Methods
6.4: The Logistic Equation
9.3: The Divergence and Integral Tests
catenary
5.8: Calculus of the Hyperbolic Functions
F Integrals of Exponential Functions
family of solutions 5.6: Integrals Involving Exponential and
center of mass Logarithmic Functions
6.1: Basics of Differential Equations
7.6: Moments and Centers of Mass Integrals That Produce Inverse
change of variables Fibonacci Numbers
9.1: Sequences Trigonometric Functions
5.5: Substitution
first moment 5.7: Integrals Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric
comparison test Functions
7.6: Moments and Centers of Mass
9.4: Comparison Tests integrand
5.2: The Definite Integral
integrating factor net signed area Remainder Estimate
6.5: First-order Linear Equations 5.2: The Definite Integral 9.3: The Divergence and Integral Tests
Integration by Parts Newton’s Law of Cooling repeated linear factors
8.1: Integration by Parts 6.3: Separable Equations 8.4: Partial Fractions
integration by substitution nonelementary integral Riemann Rearrangement Theorem
5.5: Substitution 10.4: Working with Taylor Series 9.5: Alternating Series
Integration Formulas Involving numerical integration Riemann sum
Logarithmic Functions 8.6: Numerical Integration 5.1: Approximating Areas
5.6: Integrals Involving Exponential and root test
Logarithmic Functions O 9.6: Ratio and Root Tests
integration table order of a differential equation rose
8.5: Other Strategies for Integration 6.1: Basics of Differential Equations 11.4: Polar Coordinates
interval of convergence orientation
10.1: Power Series and Functions 11.2: Parametric Equations S
Separation of Variables
L P 6.3: Separable Equations
limacon parabola sequence
11.4: Polar Coordinates 11.1: Conic Sections 9.1: Sequences
Limit Comparison Test parameter sequences
9.4: Comparison Tests 11.2: Parametric Equations 9.1: Sequences
limit of a sequence parameterization of a curve Sigma Notation
9.1: Sequences 11.2: Parametric Equations 5.1: Approximating Areas
linear parametric curve slicing method
6.5: First-order Linear Equations 11.2: Parametric Equations 7.2: Determining Volumes by Slicing
logistic differential equation Parametric equations slope field
6.4: The Logistic Equation 11.2: Parametric Equations 6.2: Direction Fields and Numerical Methods
lower sum partial fraction decomposition solid of revolution
5.1: Approximating Areas 8.4: Partial Fractions 7.2: Determining Volumes by Slicing
7.3: Volumes of Revolution - Cylindrical Shells
partial sum
M 9.2: Infinite Series
solution curve
6.2: Direction Fields and Numerical Methods
Maclaurin polynomial particular solution
10.3: Taylor and Maclaurin Series 6.1: Basics of Differential Equations
solution to a differential equation
6.1: Basics of Differential Equations
Maclaurin series partition
10.3: Taylor and Maclaurin Series 5.1: Approximating Areas
Squeeze Theorem for Sequences
9.1: Sequences
major axis phase line
11.1: Conic Sections 6.4: The Logistic Equation
standard form
11.1: Conic Sections
Mean Value Theorem for Integrals polar axis
5.3: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 11.4: Polar Coordinates
step size
6.2: Direction Fields and Numerical Methods
method of cylindrical shells polar coordinate system
7.3: Volumes of Revolution - Cylindrical Shells 11.4: Polar Coordinates
Summation Notation
5.1: Approximating Areas
method of equating coefficients polar equation
8.4: Partial Fractions 11.4: Polar Coordinates
surface area
7.4: Arc Length of a Curve and Surface Area
method of exhaustion pole
5.1: Approximating Areas 11.4: Polar Coordinates
Surface area generated by a parametric
method of strategic substitution power reduction formula curve
8.4: Partial Fractions 8.2: Trigonometric Integrals 11.3: Calculus of Parametric Curves
Midpoint Rule power series surface of revolution
8.6: Numerical Integration 10: Power Series 7.4: Arc Length of a Curve and Surface Area
minor axis 10.1: Power Series and Functions
11.1: Conic Sections T
Moments of Inertia R Taylor polynomials
7.6: Moments and Centers of Mass radial coordinate 10.3: Taylor and Maclaurin Series
Monotone Convergence Theorem 11.4: Polar Coordinates Taylor series
9.1: Sequences radial density 10.3: Taylor and Maclaurin Series
monotone sequence 7.5: Physical Applications of Integration Taylor’s theorem with remainder
9.1: Sequences radius of convergence 10.3: Taylor and Maclaurin Series
10.1: Power Series and Functions telescoping series
N ratio test 9.2: Infinite Series
nappe 9.6: Ratio and Root Tests term
11.1: Conic Sections recurrence relation 9.1: Sequences
nappes 9.1: Sequences The Logistic Equation
11.1: Conic Sections regular partition 6.4: The Logistic Equation
net change theorem 5.1: Approximating Areas Theorem of Pappus
5.4: Integration Formulas and the Net Change relative error 7.6: Moments and Centers of Mass
Theorem 8.6: Numerical Integration threshold population
6.4: The Logistic Equation
total area U Volume by Shells
5.2: The Definite Integral upper sum 7.3: Volumes of Revolution - Cylindrical Shells
trigonometric integral 5.1: Approximating Areas
8.2: Trigonometric Integrals W
trigonometric substitution V washer method
8.3: Trigonometric Substitution 7.2: Determining Volumes by Slicing
variable of integration
5.2: The Definite Integral Witch of Agnesi
vertex 11.2: Parametric Equations
11.1: Conic Sections work
7.5: Physical Applications of Integration
Glossary
Sample Word 1 | Sample Definition 1
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