UNIT-5 ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY (18BT32A/42A)
RESOURCE RECOVERY SYSTEM
The potential of organic waste for the circular economy The World Economic Forum has
estimated potential global revenues from the biomass value chain (production of agricultural
inputs, biomass trading and biorefinery outputs) as high as USD 295 billion by 2020. Cities,
as major concentrators of materials and nutrients, and the power of generating over 80% of
the global Gross Domestic Product (GDP), will play a major role on the ‘biocycle economy’.
Return of food waste: If 100% of consumption-related food waste and 50% of other food
waste generated today were returned to the soil, it could replenish 5 million tonnes of
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (N, P, K) reserves, substituting for 4% of current N, P, K
consumption.
Return of animal manure: If all the nutrients from the current stocks of
cattle, chicken, pig and sheep manure were captured, they would yield an
astounding 345 million tonnes of N, P, K annually − more than twice the
world’s current consumption. Using animal manure also improves soil
structure and organic content and reduces commercial fertilizer loss.
Return of human waste: Human waste also contains significant amounts
of N, P, K. If nutrients contained in the waste of the world’s population
were captured, they would amount to 41 million tonnes, representing 28%
of the current N, P, K consumption.
In theory, the organic sources of N, P, K fertilizer recovered from food, animal and human
waste streams could on a global scale contribute up to 2.7 times the nutrients contained
within the volumes of chemical fertilizer currently used.
Further analysis is needed to assess what share of organic fertilizers could be returned to the
Further analysis is needed to assess what share of organic fertilizers could be returned to the
soil in a cost-effective way. In OECD countries, for example, an estimated 177 million tonnes
of municipal organic waste are produced annually, of which 66 million tonnes are so far
valorized in composting or anaerobic digestion.
The market value of N, P, K in this fraction is estimated at USD 121 million per year, and
adds an estimated 5 million tonnes of stable carbon (and 10 million tonnes of carbon in total)
to OECD soils every year in the form of compost/digestate. ISWA (2015) estimate that
around 58 million tonnes additionally could feasibly be collected and valorised
PROCESSING TECHNIQUES
PURPOSE OF PROCESSING
The processing of wastes helps in achieving the best possible benefit from every functional
element of the solid waste management (SWM) system and, therefore, requires proper
selection of techniques and equipment for every element. Accordingly, the wastes that are
considered suitable for further use need to be paid special attention in terms of processing, in
order that we could derive maximum economical value from them. The purposes of
processing, essentially, are
(i) Improving efficiency of SWM system: Various processing techniques are available to
improve the efficiency of SWM system. For example, before waste papers are reused, they
are usually baled to reduce transporting and storage volume requirements. In some cases,
wastes are baled to reduce the haul costs at disposal site, where solid wastes are compacted to
use the available land effectively. If solid wastes are to be transported hydraulically and
pneumatically, some form of shredding is also required. Shredding is also used to improve
the efficiency of the disposal site.
(ii) Recovering material for reuse: Usually, materials having a market, when present in
wastes in sufficient quantity to justify their separation are most amenable to recovery and
recycling. Materials that can be recovered from solid wastes include paper, cardboard, plastic,
glass, ferrous metal, aluminium and other residual metals.
(iii) Recovering conversion products and energy: Combustible organic materials can be
converted to intermediate products and ultimately to usable energy. This can be done either
through incineration, pyrolysis, composting or bio-digestion. Initially, the combustible
organic matter is separated from the other solid waste components. Once separated, further
processing like shredding and drying is necessary before the waste material can be used for
power generation.
MECHANICAL VOLUME AND SIZE REDUCTION
Volume reduction or compaction Volume reduction or compaction refers to densifying
wastes in order to reduce their volume. Some of the benefits of compaction include: reduction
in the quantity of materials to be handled at the disposal site; improved efficiency of
collection and disposal of wastes; increased life of landfills;
Economically viable waste management system. However, note the following disadvantages
associated with compaction: poor quality of recyclable materials sorted out of compaction
vehicle; difficulty in segregation or sorting (since the various recyclable materials are mixed
and compressed in lumps);
Bio-degradable materials (e.g., leftover food, fruits and vegetables) destroy the value of paper
and plastic material. Equipment used for compaction Based on their mobility, we can
categorise the compaction equipment used in volume reduction under either of the following:
(i) Stationary equipment: This represents the equipment in which wastes are brought to, and
loaded into, either manually or mechanically. In fact, the compaction mechanism used to
compress waste in a collection vehicle, is a stationary compactor.
According to their application, stationary compactors can be described as light duty (e.g.,
those used for residential areas), commercial or light industrial, heavy industrial and transfer
station compactors. Usually, large stationary compactors are necessary, when wastes are to be
compressed into: steel containers that can be subsequently moved manually or mechanically;
Size reduction or shredding
This is required to convert large sized wastes (as they are collected) into smaller pieces. Size
reduction helps in obtaining the final product in a reasonably uniform and considerably
reduced size in comparison to the original form. But note that size reduction does not
necessarily imply volume reduction,
Waste Processing Techniques 205 factored into the design and operation of SWM systems as
well as in the recovery of materials for reuse and conversion to energy. In the overall process
of waste treatment and disposal, size reduction is implemented ahead of: land filling to
provide a more homogeneous product.
This may require less cover material and less frequent covering than that without shredding.
This can be of economic importance, where cover material is scarce or needs to be brought to
the landfill site from some distance. recovering materials from the waste stream for recycling.
baling the wastes – a process sometimes used ahead of long distance transport of solid wastes
– to achieve a greater density. making the waste a better fuel for incineration waste energy
recovery facilities.
(The size reduction techniques, coupled with separation techniques such as screening, result
in a more homogeneous mixture of relatively uniform size, moisture content and heating
value, and thereby improving the steps of incineration and energy recovery.
COMPONENT SEPARATION
Component separation is a necessary operation in which the waste components are identified
and sorted either manually or mechanically to aid further processing. This is required for the:
recovery of valuable materials for recycling; preparation of solid wastes by removing certain
components prior to incineration, energy recovery, composting and biogas production
The most effective way of separation is manual sorting in households prior to collection. In
many cities (e.g., Bangalore, Chennai, etc., in India), such systems are now routinely used.
The municipality generally provides separate, easily identifiable containers into which the
householder deposits segregated recyclable materials such as paper, glass, metals, etc.
Usually, separate collections are carried out for the recyclable material. At curbside, separate
areas are set aside for each of the recyclable materials for householders to deliver material –
when there is no municipal collection system. In case the separation is not done prior to
collection, it could be sorted out through mechanical techniques such as air separation,
magnetic separation, etc., to recover the wastes
Screening Screening
Screening is the most common form of separating solid wastes, depending on their size by
the use of one or more screening surfaces. Screening has a number of applications in solid
waste resource and energy recovery systems. Screens can be used before or after shredding
and after air separation of wastes in various applications dealing with both light and heavy
fraction materials. The most commonly used screens are rotary drum screens and various
forms of vibrating screens
DRYING AND DEWATERING
Drying and dewatering operations are used primarily for incineration systems, with or
without energy recovery systems. These are also used for drying of sludges in wastewater
treatment plants, prior to their incineration or transport to land disposal. The purpose of
drying and dewatering operation is to remove moisture from wastes and thereby make it a
better fuel. Sometimes, the light fraction is pelletised after drying to make the fuel easier to
transport and store, prior to use in an incinerator or energy recovery facility.
Recycling & Recovery:
Generally dry waste can be subjected to this process. Recycling is the process by which
materials that are otherwise destined for disposal are collected, processed and remanufactured
or reused. Recycling diverts a significant fraction of municipal, institutional and business
waste away from disposal and, thereby, saves scarce resources as well as reduces
environmental impacts and the burden of waste management on public authorities. If
appropriate market mechanisms are established, recycling can generate revenues,
contributing to the overall cost recovery for municipal solid waste service provision.
As per data received from CPCB, it is estimated that urban India generated 1, 27,486 metric
tons of municipal solid waste per day in 2011-12. Of this waste 40-60% is organic and 10-
20% is recyclables (paper, plastic, metal, and glass). This indicates a clear waste
minimization potential of 12,750 metric tons – 25,500 metric tons per day through recycling
and recovery.
Mechanized material recovery process employ following process.
Pre-Sorting: Bulky waste is removed by manual sorters as the waste passes along a conveyor
belt, which carries the pre-sorted waste to the mechanized sorting unit.
Mechanical Sorting: Mechanical processes based on principles of electro-magnetics, fluid
mechanics, pneumatics, etc. are used to segregate the different waste streams in the pre-sorted
waste. Mechanical processes require specialized equipment for segregation of co-mingled
municipal waste. Mechanical sorting typically employs the following processes:
Ferrous Metal separation: electromagnets are used for separating heavy ferrous metals
from mixed waste.
Air Classification: The residual waste stream is passed through an air stream with sufficient
velocity to separate light materials from heavy material, specifically for separating out light
weight plastics and paper from the mixed stream.
Non-ferrous metal separation: The non-ferrous metal separator segregates zinc, aluminium,
copper, lead, nickel and other precious metal from commingled waste. An eddy current
separator removes non-ferrous items from the comingled waste based on their electrical
conductivity.
Detect and Route system: This system separates out various grades of paper, plastics and
glass, which are not sorted out in the air classifier. This system works in two stages. The first
stage employs programmed optical sensors to determine the nature of different materials. In
the second stage, based on information received from the sensor, sorted material is routed to
appropriate bins by directional air jets.
Size reduction: Sorted materials after segregation are usually too large for further use or
processing, they should be reduced to smaller sizes using ball mills & then compressed to
bails using hammer mills.
Recovered materials are then routed for recycling & the sorted waste for disposal.
Biological conversion:
Composting
The third preferred choice in the MSWM strategy, Composting is a process of
controlled decomposition of the organic waste, typically in aerobic conditions, resulting in
the production of stable humus like product, compost, so it may be recycled for other
purposes – plant nutrient, stabilization of soil in remediation process or soil amendment for
recovery of poor soils.
Organic matter + O2 + aerobic bacteria CO2 + NH3 + H2O + other end products +
energy
Organic waste contributes to environmental pollution in more ways than one. Composting
and other biological stabilization processes mitigate the impact of uncontrolled
decomposition of organic municipal solid waste and should be adopted by urban areas.
Composting is an environmentally beneficial waste recycling mechanism and not a waste
disposal mechanism. Considering the typical composition of wastes and the climate
conditions, composting is highly relevant in India and should be considered in all MSWM
concepts. Several biological, chemical and physical processes contribute to the success of the
aerobic composting as shown in the figure.
Fig: Process of aerobic composting.
MSW in India has an initial C/N ratio of around 30:1, ideal for decomposition.
Suitable moisture content, aeration particle size and absence of toxic materials matter for the
overall composting efficiency.
Technologies for composting can be classified into the following general categories.
a) Windrow Composting: Windrow composting process consists of placing the pre-
sorted feed stock in long narrow piles called windrows that are turned on a regular
basis for boosting passive aeration. The turning operation mixes the composting
materials and enhances passive aeration.
b) Aerated Static Pile Composting: Aerated static pile composting is a technology that
requires the composting mixture (of pre-processed material) to be placed in piles that
are mechanically aerated. The piles are placed over a network of pipes connected to a
blower, which supplies the air for composting.
c) In Vessel Composting: In-vessel composting systems enclose the feedstock in a
chamber or vessel that provides adequate mixing, aeration, and moisture.
d) Decentralized Composting: Transportation of municipal solid waste through cities is
a big issue. Decentralized composting is one of the options to reduce the burden of
transportation of MSW on the ULB. Decentralized composting is the composting of
source separated organic waste in limited quantities from households, apartments,
neighborhoods, markets, gardens or from the entire ward. The decentralized
composting approach reduces transportation costs, makes use of low-cost
technologies based mainly on manual labor.
e) Vermi Composting: Vermi-compost is the castings of earthworms. Vermicompoting
is the process of composting the biodegradable fraction of municipal solid waste with
the help of earth worms, resulting in the production of vermicompost which can be
used in agricultural fields as a soil conditioner and nutrient supply. Vermicompoting
is typically suited for managing smaller waste quantities. It is an ideal technology for
towns which generate upto 50 tonnes of mixed municipal solid waste per day. The
worm species that are commonly considered are Pheretimasp., Eiseniasp. &Perionyx
excavates sp.
Anaerobic digestion is a process which breaks down organic matter in simpler
chemicals components without oxygen. This process can be very useful to treat arising
organic waste such as:
- sewage sludge
- organic farm wastes
- municipal solid wastes
- green/botanical wastes
- organic industrial and commercial wastes
Before being digested, the feedstock has to und ergo pre-treatment. There are
various types of pre-treatment depending on the feedstock. The purpose of such treatment
is to mix different feedstock, to add water or to remove undesirable materials such as large
items and inert materials (e.g. plastic, glass) to allow a better digestate quality, a more
efficient digestion and it will avoid failure in the process.
The digestion process itself takes place in a digester, which can be classified in
relation to the temperature, the water content of the feedstock and the number of stage
(single or multi-stage). Each digester has its characteristics and properties and thus can be
more suitable for a specific feedstock. There are at the present more mesophilic (35 oC)
than thermophilic digesters (55oC) but the difference tends to decrease. There used to be
more wet digesters than dry digesters but there is no clear trend anymore. Multi-stage
processes aim at optimizing digestion and improving control of the process by separating
stages of digestion. Only a few of these digesters are used at the present time. Finally, the
batch processes are less expensive and less complex but there are also less efficient.
The by-products of anaerobic digestion, biogas and digestate, can be used in order
to create a source of incomes. Biogas can be upgraded, most of the time by removing the
carbon dioxide and the water vapour, and then, used in a CHP unit to produce electricity
and heat. The digestate can be used as a fertilizer or further processed into compost to
increase its quality.
Anaerobic digestion is helped but also limited by legislation. The main UK policies
in favour of anaerobic digestion are the Climate Change levy and the new Renewable
Obligation. Every premises aiming at treating waste should apply for a waste management
license. There are also regulations concerning specific waste such as animal by-products
and sewage sludge.
The financial aspect of anaerobic digestion includes the capital and the operating
costs. Capital costs are quite high but the source of incomes coming from the sale of
electricity, heat and digestate allows important benefits.
Illustrated step-by-step guide to anaerobic digestion
a closer look at what actually happens inside one of these machines.
The process of using anaerobic digestion (AD) to produce renewable energy as we know it is
a fairly modern phenomenon, with the first recognised unit being built in England in 1895.
However, there is anecdotal evidence that biogas produced by anaerobic digestion was used
to heat public baths in the 10th and 16th centuries across the Assyrian and Persian empires of
the time, according to a publication by Pennsylvania State University.
Fast forward to modern times and AD is mainly used by farmers in the UK,. It’s also being
innovatively utilised by large-scale power stations that convert wood pellets into power.
Here’s exactly what it is and how it works.
What is anaerobic digestion?
In simple terms, anaerobic digestion is the breakdown of organic materials into gases –
methane and carbon dioxide –with some water as a by-product. Methane is a flammable gas
which can be used to produce heat and electricity.
The organic matter is broken down by microorganisms which are intolerant to oxygen; as a
result, the process takes place in airtight containers. (The term aerobic indicates the need for
oxygen, while processes which do not require oxygen are anaerobic).
These gases are then used as fuel, either for grid resources such as heat and electricity
generation, or as biofuels for transport. Before we get there, however, there are several steps
in the anaerobic digestion process.
Step one: Removing contaminants
Firstly, the organic fuel needs to be screened for contaminants. The fuel used in anaerobic
digestion can be any sort of biodegradable materials; food and plant waste, as well as crops,
slurries and sewage are all used.
Step two: Treating the fuel
Once screened, the fuel needs to be treated to ensure a smooth consistency; this is because
many AD units are fed by continuous flow for cost effectiveness.
Once screened and treated as necessary, the fuel is fed into a digestion unit for breakdown by
microorganisms.
Step three: Into the plant
Digestion units are either Mesophilic or Thermophilic; these terms refer to the temperature
range within which the microorganisms work best.
Mesophilic units operate at between 20-45°C, with an optimal temperature of 37°C. These
are more common, as they are cheaper to build and maintain because of their lower
operational temperature.
Thermophilic units operate at a higher temperature, typically 50-60°C, but sometimes
higher.
Step four: The different stages of breakdown
The breakdown of the organic material begins here, and involves four stages of chemical
processes which convert the matter into useable biogases:
1. Hydrolysis
The first stage sees the breakdown of complex matter, such as carbohydrates and proteins,
broken down into sugars and amino acids. These are normally long-chain chemical
compounds, but Hydrolysis breaks them down into single molecules.
2. Acidogenesis
In the second stage, microorganisms break down the single molecules of sugar and amino
acids even further into ethanol and fatty acids, as well as producing carbon dioxide and
hydrogen sulphide as by-products.
3. Acetogenesis
In the third stage, the ethanol and fatty acids are converted into hydrogen, carbon dioxide and
acetic acid.
4. Methanogenesis
In the fourth and final stage, microorganisms convert the remaining hydrogen and acetic acid
into methane and more carbon dioxide.
At the end of the process, we have our methane biogas. As well as producing biogas which
can be supplied to the grid or converted into biofuel, anaerobic digestion also provides
digestate, a nutrient-rich fertiliser, as a by-product of the process.
THERMAL CONVERSION
Combustion
Combustion is actually a scientific term for burning. We are all aware of burning, but did you
know that burning is actually a chemical reaction? Combustion is a chemical process where
any fuel has a reaction with air (oxidant) to produce heat energy.
And when this heat energy release it will also produce light in the form of a flame. This is the
visible part of the reaction, the flames. The general exothermic reaction of combustion can be
expressed as:
Hydrocarbon + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + Heat Energy
Examples of Combustion
● Burning of Wood or Coal to heat your home
● Burning of Petrol or Diesel to run your Car
● Combustion of Natural Gas or LPG to cook for on your stovetop
● For the production of energy in thermal power plants
● Fireworks
Types of Combustion
1] Complete Combustion
One of the types of combustion is Complete Combustion. Complete combustion occurs in an
unlimited supply of air, oxygen in particular. Also, complete combustion is also known as
clean combustion. Here the hydrocarbon will burn out completely with the oxygen and leave
only two byproducts, water, and carbon dioxide.
An example of this is when a candle burns. The heat from the wick will vaporize the wax
which reacts with the oxygen in the air. The two products of the reaction are water and
carbon dioxide. In an ideal situation all the wax burns up and complete combustion takes
place
2] Incomplete Combustion
Incomplete combustion takes place when the air is in limited supply. And as opposed to
complete combustion it is otherwise known as dirty combustion. Due to lack of oxygen, the
fuel will not react completely. This, in turn, produces carbon monoxide and soot instead of
carbon dioxide.
An example is burning of paper. It leaves behind ash (a form of soot) as a byproduct. In a
complete combustion, the only products are water and carbon dioxide. Also, incomplete
combustion produces less energy than complete combustion.
3] Rapid Combustion
Another type of combustion is Rapid Combustion. Rapid energy needs external heat energy
for the reaction to occur. The combustion produces a large amount of heat and light energy
and does so rapidly. The combustion will carry on as long as the fuel is available.
An example is when you light a candle. The heat energy is provided when we light the candle
with a matchstick. And it will carry on till the wax burns out. Hence it is a rapid combustion
4] Spontaneous Combustion
As the name suggests the combustion occurs spontaneously. This means that it requires no
external energy for the combustion to start. It happens due to self-heating. A substance with
low-ignition temperatures gets heated and this heat is unable to escape.
The temperature rises above ignition point and in the presence of sufficient oxygen
combustion will happen. The reaction of alkali metals with water is an example.
5] Explosive Combustion
Explosive Combustion happens when the reaction occurs very rapidly. The reaction occurs
when something ignites to produce heat, light and sound energy, The simple way to describe
is it to call it an explosion. Some classic examples are firecrackers or blowing up of
dynamite.
Incineration
Incineration is a waste
treatment process that involves
combustion of dry combustible waste
at very high temperatures (@11000C),
in the presence of oxygen and results
in the production of ash, flue gas and
heat. Incineration is feasible for dry
combustible waste which is devoid of
hazardous material (which may
release carcinogenic dioxins in to the
atmosphere during combustion.
The potential for energy
generation depends on the
composition, density, moisture content and presence of inert in the waste. In practice, about
65 to 80 % of the energy content of the organic matter can be recovered as heat energy,
which can be utilized either for direct thermal applications, or for producing power via steam
turbine generators.
Besides the potential for energy use, incineration of municipal waste helps to reduce
landfill volumes. Incineration is an option especially where other better options of processing
of waste are not feasible and land for landfilling and other waste processing methods is
scarce.
An 8 MW power plant is in the process of being set up in Bangalore. This initiative is
carried out under a PPP framework between M/s SrinivasaGayithri Resources Recovery Ltd
and Bruhat Bangalore MahanagarPalike (BBMP).
Biomethanation / Bio gasification
Production of biogas under controlled condition is often termed as Bio gasification /
biomethanation, also known as Anaerobic Digestion (AD). In the absence of oxygen,
anaerobic bacteria decompose wet waste organic matter (90% moisture is desirable) to
produce biogas as follows:
Organic matter + anaerobic bacteria CH4 + CO2 + H2S + NH3 + other end products +
energy
Biogas is a mixture of gases composed of methane (CH4) 40 – 70 vol.%, carbon
dioxide (CO2) 30 – 60 vol.%, other gases 1 – 5 vol.% including, hydrogen (H2) 0 – 1 vol.%
and hydrogen sulphide (H2S) 0 – 3 vol.%. Pure methane has an upper calorific value of 39.8
MJ/m3.
Anaerobic processing of organic material is a three-stage process, where large organic
polymers (starch, cellulose, etc.) are microbially hydrolyzed to simpler molecules (like
sugars). These monomers are then fermented into short-chain volatile fatty acids. These acids
are then converted into methane and carbon dioxide. It takes 14 – 30 days to efficiently
complete the conversion & complete conversion is not possible as carbon will fixed in
microbial body mass.
Biogasification of Organic Waste: Metabolic Stages
The process is carried out in an airtight reactor, which can as shown below.
Deenbandhubiodigester:
Action for Food Production (AFPRO), a voluntary organization based in New Delhi
developed this model in 1984.
Merits Of Biomethanation Process
● Ecofriendly energy generation
● Reduction in land requirement for MSW disposal
● Reduction of environmental impacts from land filling by avoiding contamination of
land and water sources from Leachate
● Biomethanation of biodegradable organic material would ultimately result in
stabilized sludge which can be used as a soil conditioner.
Equivalent quantity of fuel for 1 m3 of biogas
Fire- Cow
Name of Kerose Charco Soft Butan Furnac Coal Electricit
woo dung
the fuel ne al coke e e Oil gas y
d cakes
Equivale
nt
quantitie 3.47 12.296 1.458 1.60 0.433 1.177 4.698
0.620 0.4171
s to 4 kg kg kg 5 kg kg m3 kWh
1 m3 of
Bio-gas
To process wet waste, 5 ton capacity Bio–methanization plants are being established
at 16 locations, out of which 4 have been made functional. The biogas generated from these
plants is being utilized to light the street lights in that locality. Few of them are BBMP
Biomethanization plant, at S.K.R. Market, BBMP, Nagapura near Mahalakshmi layout,
Biomethanization plant, Domlur east zone, etc. (Municipal Solid Waste Annual Report 2013-
14 of KSPCB)
Gasification
Gasification is a partial combustion of organic or fossil based carbonaceous materials,
plastics etc. into carbon monoxide, hydrogen, carbon dioxide and methane. This is achieved
at high emperatures (650°C and above), with a controlled amount of air/oxygen and/ or
steam. The process is largely exothermic but some heat may be required to initialize and
sustain the gasification process. The main product is syngas, which contains carbon
monoxide, hydrogen and methane (producer gas). Typically, the gas generated from
gasification will have a net calorific value of 4 - 10 MJ/[Link] other main product
produced by gasification is a solid residue of non-combustible materials (ash) which contains
a relatively low level of carbon.
Pyrolysis:
Pyrolysis involves an irreversible chemical change brought about by the action of heat in an
atmosphere devoid of oxygen. Synonymous terms are thermal decomposition, destructive
distillation and carbonisation. Pyrolysis, unlike incineration is an endothermic reaction and
heat must be applied to the waste to distil volatile components. Process of converting plastic
to fuels through pyrolysis is possible, but yet to be proven to be a commercially viable
venture.
Pyrolysis is carried out at temperature between 500 and 1000°C and produces three
component streams.
Mechanism of pyrolysis
i) Gas: A mixture of combustible gases such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, carbon
dioxide and some hydrocarbons (Sungas - 2800-4800 kcal/Nm3(10 and 20MJ/Nm3)..
ii) Liquid: Consisting of tar, pitch, light oil and low boiling organic chemicals like acetic
acid, acetone, methanol, etc.
iii) Char/Charcoal: Consisting of elemental carbon along with the inert materials in the
waste feed. It is having better calorific value that that of coal.
The char, liquids and gas are useful because of their high calorific value. Part of the
heat obtained by combustion of either char or gas is often used as process heat for the
endothermic pyrolysis reaction. It has been observed that even after supplying the heat
necessary for pyrolysis, certain amount of excess heat still remains which can be
commercially exploited.
Many plastics, particularly the poly-olefins, which have high calorific values and
simple chemical constitutions of primarily carbon and hydrogen, are usually used as a
feedstock in pyrolysis process. More recently, pyrolysis plants are being tested to degrade
carbon rich organic materials such as municipal solid waste. Pyrolysis is also used for
biomass.
Design & Construction of a sanitary landfill
The size, type and number of buildings required at a landfill depend on factors such as the
level of waste input, the expected life of the site and environmental factors.
Design Life: Life of a sanitary landfill comprises the Active period of 20–25 years & the
Closure and post-closure period of 15 years more after active period, for which a sanitary
landfill will be monitored and maintained.
Capacity and Area: An in-depth capacity calculation will be the first step in the design
process, taking into account the municipal solid waste management (MSWM) plan,
infrastructure requirement and computed waste amounts for the active period of the sanitary
landfill.
Layout: For each sanitary landfill site, a layout has to be designed incorporating the essential
landfill components like -
Base Sealing/liner: It is placed at the bottom & at
the sides of the landfill to prevent migration of the
leachate into the surrounding soil & water. It consists
of multiple barriers & drainage layers. It may consist
of compacted mineral sealing liner (clay or
equivalentamended soil of 90 cm), durable synthetic
plastic of 1.5 mm (polyethylene, high-density
polyethylene (HDPE), or polyvinyl chloride).
geosynthetic clay liner (bentonite sandwiched between geotextiles),to guard against tearing of
plastic liner & leachate drainage layer (of 30 cmof filter gravel).
Cells/phases: Waste is stored in a series of “cells” within the
landfill. Each cell contains one day’s trash, which has been
compacted and covered in soil.
Leachate collection Monitoring System: The bottom of each
landfill is typically designed so that the bottom surface of the
landfill is sloped to a low point, called a sump. This is where any liquids that are trapped
inside the landfill — known in the waste industry as Leachate (which may contain dissolved
heavy metals, pathogenic microbes, etc. and is highly dangerous to the human &
environment). — are collected and removed from the landfill. The Leachate collection system
typically consists of a series of perforated pipes, gravel packs and a layer of sand or gravel
placed in the bottom of the landfill. Once the Leachate is removed from the sump, it is
typically pumped or gravity-flowed to a holding tank or pond, where it is either treated on
site or hauled off site to a public or private wastewater treatment facility.
Leachate collection Leachate pond
Advantages of Landfilling:
⮚ In addition to provide an option for waste management, it also serves to improve/
reclaim poor quality land.
⮚ It raises the ground elevation/surface grade of the site.
⮚ Completed landfills have been converted to municipal parks, playgrounds, golf
courses, community land use projects.
⮚ It is the most economical alternative for SW disposal which accounts for its frequent
application.
⮚ Other disposal methods are not entirely safe and efficient throughout the year.
⮚ Thus landfilling is the most convenient option - Incineration is a costly process,
residue requires ultimate disposal on land. Composting is a seasonal option. It is not
possible to reclaim and recycle all SW material.
Disadvantages of Landfilling:
⮚ Difficult to find suitable site within economically feasible distance.
⮚ It is not possible to build a completely safe and secure SW landfill.
⮚ Some of the pollutants may escape in the environment in the form of leachate.
⮚ Potential harm to public health due to air, soil, water and noise pollution
⮚ Damage to local ecosystem due to the construction, dumping, etc..
⮚ Public oppose due to fear of mishandling, pollution, odours issues, etc.
Control Measures:
⮚ It is important to minimize contamination from landfill to the surrounding
environment. Hydrology (GW flow) and geology (Rock type, soil permeability) of the
site has a direct influence on the possibility of water pollution (GW pollution).
⮚ Landfill should not be located in low lying wetland areas i.e. near marshes, swamps,
as the waste should not come in contact with surface/ GW.
⮚ It should not be located in flood plains of streams/ rivers. There should be minimum
distance of 60m from any lake/pond.
⮚ Vertical separation of 1.5 m between base of landfill and seasonally high GW table
elevation.
⮚ It should not be located in unstable areas or if it is present it must be designed to resist
forces caused by seismic activity.
Refuse derived fuels
Refuse derived fuels cover a wide range of waste materials which have been processed to
fulfil guideline, regulatory or industry specifications mainly to achieve a high calorific value.
Waste derived fuels include residues from municipal solid waste (MSW) recycling,
industrial/trade waste, sewage sludge, industrial hazardous waste, biomass waste,
Refuse is a general term for municipal solid and commercial wastes and the terms ‘Refuse
Derived Fuel (RDF)’ and ‘Solid Refuse Fuel (SRF)’ usually refer to the segregated high
calorific fraction of MSW, commercial or industrial process wastes. RDF and SRF are
produced during Mechanical Biological Treatment (MBT) of wastes. Other terms are also
used for MSW derived fuels such as Recovered Fuel (REF), Packaging Derived Fuels (PDF),
Paper and Plastic
Fraction (PPF) and Process Engineered Fuel (PEF). REF, PDF, PPF and PEF usually refer to
a source-separated, processed, dry combustible MSW fraction (e.g. plastics and/or paper)
which are too contaminated to be recycled. It has a higher calorific value, lower moisture
content and lower ash content (on combustion) than RDF derived from mixed waste
[Link] Value 11‒18 MJ/kg Particle size 10‒300 mm moisture 10‒30 % wt Bulk
density 120‒300 kg/m3 ash 10‒20 % wt Cl 1.0‒1.8 % wt S 0.3‒0.8 % wt
RDF and SRF produced from MSW through a number of different processes consisting in
general of
● Sorting or mechanical separation
● Size reduction (shredding, chipping and milling)
● Separation and screening
● Blending
● Drying and pelletizing
● Packaging and Storage
Typically, the waste material is processed to remove the recyclable fraction (e.g. metals), the
inert fractions (such as glass) and separate if it is possible the fine wet organic fraction (e.g.
food and garden waste) containing high moisture and high ash material before being
pulverised. The wet organic materials can then undergo further treatment such as composting
or anaerobic digestion, and can be used as a soil conditioner for landfill restoration work or
be landfilled.
In some cases, the putrescible fraction is kept in place to enable the mass of material to be
dried through biological treatment (the process of ‘dry stabilisation’) . The coarse fraction is
either rejected or returned to the pulveriser. The medium fraction, consisting of paper, card,
wood, plastic and textiles can either be burnt directly as coarse fuel or dried and pelletized
into dense RDF. The decision as to whether or not to pelletize is usually based upon the
location of the RDF manufacturing facility relative to the combustion facility. Figure 2
presents an indicative diagram for the production of RDF from source separated MSW .
There are two basic MSW methodologies which have been developed to
produce high calorific waste derived fuel, RDF or SRF depending on the quality Mechanical
Biological Treatment plant and Biological Drying Process.
In a mechanical biological treatment plant (MBT), metals and inerts are separated out and
organic fractions are screened out for further stabilisation using composting processes, either
with or without a digestion phase. It also produces a residual fraction which has a high-
calorific value as it is composed mainly of dry residues of paper, plastics and textiles.
